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The paper discusses the political process of standardization of the Montenegrin language and its effect on the ethnic differentiation in post-Yugoslav Montenegro. The standardization of the Montenegrin language, which was started by a handful of linguists, eventually became a national project after the independence of Montenegro. This process did not lead to a drastic change of the language; however, it formed and expanded ethnic cleavages in Montenegro.

Finland's political, social and cultural conditions were transformed after its handover from Sweden to Russia in 1809. Emperor Alexander 1st strongly supported the majority language, Finnish, which had not previously enjoyed official status. The official language had long been Swedish, although some authorities did try from time to time to support the use of the vernacular, such as in elementary education and in the translation of some legislation. The 19th century was marked by increasing nationalism in Finland, with the country seeking to strengthen its autonomous status despite several clampdowns. As has often been observed, the Finnish nation, which can be characterised as an "imagined community" – a term coined by Benedict Anderson – emerged during that time. This emergence coincided with the development of the national literature, including the publication of the national epic, the Kalevala. As Anderson demonstrates, many incipient nations developed along with the growth of printed newspapers and literature, or as he designates it, "print-capitalism" (Anderson 1996: 30–32). ; peerReviewed

American Indian Languages: Cultural and Social Contexts. Shirley Silver and Wick R. Miller. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997. xix. 433 pp.American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Lyle Campbell. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. xiv. 512 pp.

The widest framework available for the treatment of language problems is offered by sociolinguistics. The author of the article begins by introducing sociolinguistics, & claims that one of its four basic thematic clusters, which he calls 'Sociolinguistics IV,' is fully devoted to language problems. Mainstream Sociolinguistics, a US-based social network that has made a fundamental contribution to sociolinguistics since the 1960s, developed a version of 'Sociolinguistics IV' that is known as Language Planning. It is in confrontation with Language Planning that the theory of Language Management grew in the 1980s & 1990s. This paper briefly discusses the contribution & problems characteristic of Language Planning & outlines the main features of the Language Management theory. Among these, special attention is paid to the process of language management, which develops out of deviations from norms, whereby some of the deviations are noted, some of the noted deviations are evaluated, & certain adjustment plans are considered & implemented. Finally, the paper suggests that the Language Management theory could perhaps make a valid contribution to other social science disciplines, such as sociology or political science.

In this article a general language for the characterization of ethnographic research is suggested. Drawing on interpretive philosophy, especially the work of Gadamer and Schutz, a core process of ethnography is described that emphasizes the resolution of problems in understanding across tradition boundaries. Concepts from recent work in knowledge representation are incorporated into the discussion to integrate it with current interdisciplinary work. [ethnography, hermeneutics, knowledge representation]

Language and Gender is an introduction to the study of the relation between gender and language use, written by two leading experts in the field. This new edition, thoroughly updated and restructured, brings out more strongly an emphasis on practice and change, while retaining the broad scope of its predecessor and its accessible introductions which explain the key concepts in a non-technical way. The authors integrate issues of sexuality more thoroughly into the discussion, exploring more diverse gendered and sexual identities and practices. The core emphasis is on change, both in linguistic resources and their use and in gender and sexual ideologies and personae. This book explores how change often involves conflict and competing norms, both social and linguistic. Drawing on their own extensive research, as well as other key literature, the authors argue that the connections between language and gender are deep yet fluid, and arise in social practice.

French language policy has historically centred on ways French can be considered a dominant and influential language. It has done this since the Middle Ages, by allowing the French language to serve as a political tool. On an international level, language was a way of subjugating conquered peoples (former colonies). It promoted France's international status (by the 18th century French was the diplomatic language of Europe). On a national level, the French language was one of the ways governments were able to centralise political power (suppression of regional languages).

One of the ways French language authorities have promoted the use of language has been through education policies and the way language is taught in schools. For example, the French language was imposed on the colonised territories of France through teaching in missionary schools. Within France, stringent laws were adopted, in particular during the nineteenth century, allowing the French language to replace local languages in schools. In France today, language policies continue to exist and to have an influence on the way we view language and society. One of the main priorities of French language policy is to protect the status of the national language in particular with respect to the increasing use of English as a global dominant language in areas such as science, technology, tourism, entertainment and the media (Nunan: 2007, 178). Consequently, France has adopted policies to respond to this linguistic climate. This has implications on the way the French language is taught both within France as well as outside of France.

This paper will examine some of the policies and agencies created over recent years that affect the French language. It will also identify some of the consequences these policies have on the teaching of language. Finally it will argue that a space has been created within the language classroom that attempts to find a compromise between the language policies of the French government and the realities of spoken French in society.

The history of the English Language in Malta is no older than the history of British rule in Malta. No one learned, or taught, the language before 1800, and for many years after many were doubtful about its value as a cultural language and were dead set against it as a language of the administration, in spite of the fact that the Maltese had welcomed the English in Malta with open arms when they wanted to throw out Napoleon's soldiers. Our ancestors for many years wanted English protection but not the English tongue. The reason was that Italian had been for several centuries the cultural and 'political language of the Maltese intelligentsia, and the people's native tongue was looked down upon, underrated and completely neglected for literary composition. No wonder that the English language had to fight very hard not only for its survival but also for its long-delayed official recognition. Both the people's own language and the English language had to prove their worth and fight their way up before they were accepted by the upper classes of these islands. ; N/A

Reconciling the genetic, linguistic and archaeological histories of humans will require linguists and geneticists to interact in the design and implementation of future research strategies. This paper discusses the issues involved in correlating these disciplines and highlights some of the problems involved. It is argued that correlation cannot be an a priori assumption, but must be proved prior to or as part of each investigation. An urgent need for hierarchical linguistic classifications is established and several possible methods are identified. Case studies include the Indo-European language family and Eurasian populations; the Nostratic hypothesis; and the history of Austronesia. General and specific factors responsible for correlations, or their absence, are considered in relation to autosomal, mitochondrial and Y-chromosome-specific data and human demography.