Suchergebnisse

The aim of this research is a reconstruction and study of the genesis of the complex creative process of G.E. Gerini's literary and academic multilingual writings about Siām and the Orient (1881-1913). The writing process of his multilingual prose and poetry in English, Italian, French, Siāmese and other Oriental languages is preserved in various kinds of archives which include his personal multilingual glossary for specific purposes and multilingual dictionary of dialects, multilingual notebooks that contain material he incorporated into the texts of his writings as well as his original handwritten draft, preliminary studies and revised manuscripts. This genetic evidence is an active agent of the formation of multilingual works and thus the genesis of the literary multilingualism. To trace all the used items in the final text and in the relevant draft and locate the sources the author was obtaining information from, the research aims also to show how genetic approach can contribute to the interpretation of his multilingual prose and poetic works and explain the genesis as well as the development of the literary multilingualism in his works. The genetic study of Gerini's works also includes the critical study of the influence and relevance of religious, social and political memory in Siām and the Orient in his works ; Le but de cette recherche est une reconstruction et une étude de la genèse du processus créatif complexe des écrits multilingues littéraires et académiques de G.E. Gerini sur le Siām et l'Orient (1881-1913). Le processus d'écriture de sa prose et de sa poésie multilingues en anglais, italien, français, siamois et autres langues orientales est préservé dans divers types d'archives, qui comprennent son glossaire multilingue personnel à des fins spécifiques et son dictionnaire multilingue de dialectes, des cahiers multilingues contenant des documents qu'il a incorporé dans les textes de ses écrits ainsi que ses brouillons manuscrits originaux, ses études préliminaires et ses manuscrits révisés. Cette ...

The aim of this research is a reconstruction and study of the genesis of the complex creative process of G.E. Gerini's literary and academic multilingual writings about Siām and the Orient (1881-1913). The writing process of his multilingual prose and poetry in English, Italian, French, Siāmese and other Oriental languages is preserved in various kinds of archives which include his personal multilingual glossary for specific purposes and multilingual dictionary of dialects, multilingual notebooks that contain material he incorporated into the texts of his writings as well as his original handwritten draft, preliminary studies and revised manuscripts. This genetic evidence is an active agent of the formation of multilingual works and thus the genesis of the literary multilingualism. To trace all the used items in the final text and in the relevant draft and locate the sources the author was obtaining information from, the research aims also to show how genetic approach can contribute to the interpretation of his multilingual prose and poetic works and explain the genesis as well as the development of the literary multilingualism in his works. The genetic study of Gerini's works also includes the critical study of the influence and relevance of religious, social and political memory in Siām and the Orient in his works ; Le but de cette recherche est une reconstruction et une étude de la genèse du processus créatif complexe des écrits multilingues littéraires et académiques de G.E. Gerini sur le Siām et l'Orient (1881-1913). Le processus d'écriture de sa prose et de sa poésie multilingues en anglais, italien, français, siamois et autres langues orientales est préservé dans divers types d'archives, qui comprennent son glossaire multilingue personnel à des fins spécifiques et son dictionnaire multilingue de dialectes, des cahiers multilingues contenant des documents qu'il a incorporé dans les textes de ses écrits ainsi que ses brouillons manuscrits originaux, ses études préliminaires et ses manuscrits révisés. Cette ...

The aim of this research is a reconstruction and study of the genesis of the complex creative process of G.E. Gerini's literary and academic multilingual writings about Siām and the Orient (1881-1913). The writing process of his multilingual prose and poetry in English, Italian, French, Siāmese and other Oriental languages is preserved in various kinds of archives which include his personal multilingual glossary for specific purposes and multilingual dictionary of dialects, multilingual notebooks that contain material he incorporated into the texts of his writings as well as his original handwritten draft, preliminary studies and revised manuscripts. This genetic evidence is an active agent of the formation of multilingual works and thus the genesis of the literary multilingualism. To trace all the used items in the final text and in the relevant draft and locate the sources the author was obtaining information from, the research aims also to show how genetic approach can contribute to the interpretation of his multilingual prose and poetic works and explain the genesis as well as the development of the literary multilingualism in his works. The genetic study of Gerini's works also includes the critical study of the influence and relevance of religious, social and political memory in Siām and the Orient in his works ; Le but de cette recherche est une reconstruction et une étude de la genèse du processus créatif complexe des écrits multilingues littéraires et académiques de G.E. Gerini sur le Siām et l'Orient (1881-1913). Le processus d'écriture de sa prose et de sa poésie multilingues en anglais, italien, français, siamois et autres langues orientales est préservé dans divers types d'archives, qui comprennent son glossaire multilingue personnel à des fins spécifiques et son dictionnaire multilingue de dialectes, des cahiers multilingues contenant des documents qu'il a incorporé dans les textes de ses écrits ainsi que ses brouillons manuscrits originaux, ses études préliminaires et ses manuscrits révisés. Cette ...

In the wake of the intellectual revolutions of the early modern period, Sir Kenelm Digby, an English Catholic, endeavoured to increase the knowledge of the world, both physical and spiritual, against a backdrop of political turmoil. From London as from Paris, where he was in exile, the well-travelled Sir Kenelm sent books, communicated, and discussesd ideas tirelessly with the main thinkers of the time such as Descartes, Hobbes and Mersenne. His prominent place within the dense network of the incipient Republic of Letters allowed him to produce a seminal synthesis of the ideas then in circulation.Digby partook in the baroque sensitivity that we can define as the expression of a crisis linked to instability and contradiction, as well as the attempt to overcome it. Delving into alchemy, atomism, logic, and metaphysics, he strove to account for the secret workings of the world and of man in order to enable their mastery and government. In Two Treatises, he adopted and adapted the atomist hypothesis that allowed him to depict a deeply chaotic world, ridden with permanent change and fraught with innumerable and invisible clashes that explained all physical phenomena such as gravity, magnetism, generation, and sympathy. He aimed to proceed in a demonstrative manner so as to stave off the rampant crisis of scepticism, and he hammered through the idea that certainty was achievable by mere human means. In a proselyte effort, he tackled burning issues in the wake of the Reformation, promoting the oral quality of the Catholic tradition and the resurrection of bodies, while bringing forward the thinking individual and his perceptions, as well as the concept of metamorphosis, as key explanatory principles. ; Dans le sillage des révolutions intellectuelles qui marquent l'avènement de l'époque moderne, Sir Kenelm Digby, catholique anglais, poursuit avec ardeur la connaissance du monde matériel et spirituel au gré des événements politiques qui ponctuent son époque tourmentée. À Londres comme à Paris où il est exilé, mais aussi ...

Целью данной статьи является анализ роли женщины в литературе XX столетия (в основном на материале женской литературы Италии). Актуальность исследования обусловлена тем, что феминизм с точки зрения истории и социологии изучен очень глубоко, а с литературоведческих позиций в недостаточной степени. В статье анализируются предпосылки и процесс становления «творческого феминизма» в Европе, а также различные его формы в литературе и искусстве. Особо выделяется женская проза Италии как наименее изученная и сформировавшаяся позднее по сравнению, к примеру, с французской и английской. Рассматриваются основные темы и жанры итальянской женской прозы, почерпнувшей многое у «творческого феминизма» других европейских стран. Исследуется творчество Г. Деледды, С. Алерамо, А. Гульельминетти и др. Женщины-писательницы боролись за признание своей идентичности самим актом творчества. Именно в культуре (а не в политике или социальной сфере) женщине труднее всего было отстоять свои права, т. к. «женское» во многом воспринималось как «второсортное». Среди первых«творческих феминисток» можно назвать В. Вулф и С. де Бовуар, а в русской культуре М. Цветаеву и А. Ахматову; к представительницам «творческого феминизма» также относятся писательницы-футуристки. Ярче всего этот тип феминизма проявил себя в Европе в 60-70-е годы XX века, когда творческая свобода оказалась недостижимой. Стоит отметить, что на современном этапе задачи «творческого феминизма» еще не полностью решены. ; This article aims to analyse the role of women in twentieth-century literature (mainly focusing on Italian women's literature). This study is relevant due to the fact that feminism has been studied very widely from the point of view of history and sociology, but rather insufficiently from the literary standpoint. The paper analyses the background and the process of formation of "creative feminism" in Europe, as well as its various forms in literature and art. Particular attention is given to Italian women's prose, which formed later compared to both French and English prose and is therefore least studied. Further, the paper considers key themes and genres of Italian women's prose, which have derived much from the "creative feminism" of other European countries. The works by G. Deledda, S. Aleramo, A. Guglieminetti, and others are studied here. Female writers fought for the recognition of their identity using the act of creativity itself. It is in culture (and not in politics or the social sphere) that women found it hardest to defend their rights, because "female" in many ways was perceived as second-rate. Among the first "creative feminists" we can name V. Woolf and S. de Beauvoir; in Russian culture, M. Tsvetaeva and A. Akhmatova as well as female literary futurists. To a greater extent this type of feminism manifested itself in Europe in the 1960s-1970s, when creative freedom turned out to be unattainable. It should be noted that at present the objectives of "creative feminism" have not yet been fully achieved.

Environment and trade -- Theoretical frameworks for analyzing the development of institutions in interaction with their environment -- Universal building blocks : itinerant traders, family firms, ships, and basic contracts -- Varying organizational building blocks : three institutions, three paths of migration (sea loan, funduq/caravanserai, and commenda) -- The commenda (features, origins, migration, modifications) -- Family firms in three regions -- Merchant networks -- Trade by rulers and states -- The origins of the business corporation -- The Dutch East India Company -- The English East India Company -- Why did the corporation only evolve in Europe?

The Poetry of Ennodius offers the first translation into English verse of the entire eclectic corpus of sacred and secular poetry by Magnus Felix Ennodius (c. 473/4–521 CE), amply supplemented by detailed notes that elucidate the literary and cultural references essential for understanding this poet.
Ennodius' poetry offers the reader a remarkable window into how Roman literary culture continued to thrive in the aftermath of the traditional ""fall"" of Rome in 476 CE. A prolific writer of prose and poetry, Ennodius played an active role in the political and ecclesiastical disputes of Ostrogothic Italy, and he stands as an important exemplar of late antique literary culture. Readers of this volume will encounter esteemed bishops, delicate objects, pets, stately churches, fools, villains, and more in vivid panegyrics, travelogues, hymns, epistles, and epigrams found in the sweeping poetic archive assembled after Ennodius' death. From the grandiose ""Declamation for the anniversary of the holy and most blessed Bishop Epiphanius in his 30th year as bishop of Pavia"" to self-depricating descriptions of silverware that bears the poet's image, Ennodius' poetry sports with the expectations of his audience, composing verse that modulates from the beautiful to the conventional to the stunningly unusual, while always displaying an intimate knowledge of the literary traditions in which he writes and a deep engagement with previous authors, both from the distant classical past and the contemporary world of late antique prose and poetry. Through these poems, the reader can gain an appreciation of the intellectual and aesthetic world of an important bishop (and future saint) in the early sixth-century CE.
Featuring a lucid line-by-line verse translation from the Latin and extensive notes—both firsts in English—richly introduced by a scholarly introduction to Ennodius, his works, and era, and complemented by a comprehensive bibliography, The Poetry of Ennodius makes these works accessible for the first time to readers unfamiliar with Latin as well as those seeking a guide into the labyrinthine literary world of this challenging but rewarding poet. Students of the classics, late antique and medieval history, comparative literature, and early Christianity, as well as any independent reader interested in the enduring presence of classical Latin verse, will benefit from this book.

In the face of the invasion of the Allied troops into the territory of France, Napoleon highly relied on the popular resistance of the French to the enemy. The author considers the history of a partisan detachment operating in the South of France under the command of Florian, a "half-hero" or "half-robber". What was the real contribution of partisans to the course of military operations? What was the motivation of their leaders? What was the relationship between the military command and the commanders of the partisan detachments? How did the civil authorities and the local civilian population treat the partisans? The paucity of official documents is compensated by sources of personal origin, which make it possible to reveal the human dimension of this "small war". In 1814, "Captain" Florian, who led a detachment of twenty volunteers, behaved like a free corsair, whose actions at times situationally coincided with the interests of the military command. Lacking an official partisan patent, he attacked the allies' supply trains, robbed army stores, intercepted English couriers, and did not disdain the capture of officers' personal luggage. Having had a reputation as a marauder in Spain since 1813, Florian in 1814 allowed himself all sorts of "excesses" in relation to the local population. The civil authorities in the person of the prefect tried to reason with him and certain individuals disinterestedly worked for him as "pointers". Only in March did Marshal Soult try to intensify the creation of partisan detachments and subordinate them to a single command. Florian claimed to have unlimited powers from Soult. However, the negotiations between Soult's representative Major Bory de Saint-Vincent and Florian ended in nothing: the complaints of the civil authorities and the reputation of the partisan commander caused discontent on the part of the marshal. The last action of Florian's partisans was an attack on April 12 on an English courier, from whom a watch and a large amount of money were confiscated according the "laws of war". Mythologized in popular scholarship and educational literature of the 1870s, the partisan movement in France in 1814 was distinguished by a very modest scale and limited actions, and the line between ordinary robbery and a patriotic action was sometimes difficult to discern.

Learning a language can be a daunting task especially if a learner has acquired his/her first language. In second or foreign language learning (L2 or FL), an effective learning strategy can contribute very much to one's success. Hence, computer assisted language learning (CALL) materials could be used in teaching to facilitate the language learning process. CALL encompasses broad range of information and communication technology applications and approaches. CALL materials are useful for two reasons; they are focused on learning rather than instruction or teaching and student-centered which enables a learner to learn at his/her pace. The four skills covered by CALL are listening, speaking, reading and writing. There are evidences in the literature that CALL has performed well in promoting three skills; listening, speaking and reading while substantial gains have not been made in writing skill. CALL, like other educational software has the potential to facilitate, accelerate, motivate and deepen skills in language learning. This study therefore examined the level of adoption of CALL among secondary school students in Nigeria. The study covered two geopolitical zones (North-central and South-west) in Nigeria. Four states were randomly selected; two from each zone. The states are Kogi and Kwara from North-central, and Lagos and Ogun from South west. Eight secondary schools from each of the state participated in this study. Twenty students were selected from each of the thirty-two schools (371 girls (58%), 269 boys (42%)). The ages of the participants range from 12-18years with mean age of 14.63years and standard deviation of 2.08. All the participants had English language as one of their subjects while 23% had French language in addition. CALL Adoption Questionnaire (CAQ) was designed and used to measure adoption. Four research questions were raised and answered. The findings revealed that only 147 students representing 23% adopt CALL applications in their language learning activities. The factors that promote the adoption of CALL include; educational qualification of fathers, type of school, peer influence and class of students. The study concluded that the adoption of CALL is low among secondary school students and recommended that parents, government and proprietors of private schools should procure and enforce the use of CALL in our secondary schools to reduce abysmal failure rate in English and French languages.

This thesis investigates the understanding and practices of contemporary Mongolian management since the 1990s. In particular, it focusses on the shared experiences of local managing practitioners in Mongolia by exploring the conceptions of a manager, management, and managerial roles from the participants' perspective and the contextual influencing factors on their understanding. Since the 1990s Mongolia has undergone a series of cultural and institutional changes in relation to its political, economic and societal development. The country has fluctuated between having the fastest growing economy and the world's worst performing currency. Mongolia itself has become the land of opportunity for many by attracting foreign direct investment, however, the knowledge of local management practice is as yet little understood as there have been no academic or empirical studies conducted in English before. Therefore, this research aims to build an understanding of the concept of management in Mongolia by examining the narratives of thirty five local managers in relation to their experiences during and after the socialist period. Moreover, it investigates the contextual influencing factors from practitioners' perspectives with an ethnographic approach. This qualitative study draws on interviews with three groups of local managers in Mongolia, who are described as socialist-era, transitional-era and non-native managing practitioners. There are some similarities and differences amongst these identified groups, but each was distinguishable by their formal training, work ethic and management approach. Furthermore, this research found that the intertwining contextual factors of a nomadic cultural heritage, socialist legacy, and the pressures of the current economic and societal changes and political interference influence management thinking in equal measure in contemporary Mongolia. The importance of this study lies in its theoretical and empirical contributions. By evaluating the relationship between classical management literature and indigenous management concepts with a focus on the varieties of contextual factors, this study attempts to provide an original insight into non-Western management practices. It aims to extend the current theories of crossvergence, indigenous management studies, and understand the nature of managerial work in a cross-cultural context. By carrying out the first academic study to examine Mongolian management perspectives in English, it contributes empirically to global management knowledge, and to the local business community.

Presentation made at Latinos in the Heartland (11th : 2013 : Columbia, Mo.) and published in the annual conference proceedings. ; This study addresses a social capital literature that has targeted a White majority in the United States. Hispanic/Latino audiences, especially new immigrant populations, have not been primary subjects in most studies. Information about the social connectedness of minorities has come from secondary sources. The goal of this study was to understandhow Hispanics/Latinos compare to Anglo, families in rural Kansas, to different levels of social capital. This comparison also looked into the differences of social connectedness and community involvement. The study was done in English and Spanish in order to reach the under-represented population. According to political scientist Robert Putnam (2000), it is through experiences of face-to-face interaction with those from different backgrounds, that people learn to trust each other. Connections create networks that allow social trust to spread throughout society. At the individual level, there has been strong, consistent evidence that social connectedness has positive effects. Individuals have the capacity and the choice to build their social connectedness and community engagement. Those assets can be shared with the collective family, organization, community, state, or country. When individuals have access to networks of supportive and accepting associates, it can generate an array of personal and societal benefits that include preventing or overcoming illness, improving health, supporting child development, mitigating poverty, addressing racial inequalities, preventing crime, and addressing other social concerns. When one builds a stock of personal relationships and other social connections from which he or she can call upon in times of need, it is called social capital. This study, in part, assessed social connectedness and community engagement of people in Kearny County, a rural location in Southwest Kansas that has a 30% Hispanic/Latino population. Surveys were sent to selected households in English and Spanish, and two small focus groups were conducted in the two languages. Statistical analyses indicated support for the hypothesis that Spanish-speaking populations build and maintain social connections and are engaged in community. The independent variables including gender, age, race/ethnicity, education, income, and community durability, were analyzed with dependent variables made of scaled items to measure social connectedness and community engagement. Race/ethnicity, education, and income appeared to be the strongest predictors of social connectedness and community engagement. Implications of the results are discussed.

Tudor intellectual historians have neglected the role of peace in English society by largely accepting a priori an enduring and vital role for the just war, the consequence of which has been the egregious inattention to the literature of peace. In England, the Hundred Years War proved to be a catalyst that galvanized first a profound reexamination of the just war and then of the institution of war itself. The prolonged conflict and the political, social and economic devastations which it spawned led many of the literati to question the code of chivalry that had attempted to control soldierly behavior, as well as to provide a discursive context for later, more idealistic considerations of peace. "Erasmian pacifism," by insisting on the dignity of peace, created an ethic to which almost everyone paid at least nominal acknowledgement. The experience of the mid-Tudor wars along with Protestant reformulations of the Christian approach to war and peace helped to demystify warfare even further (while accepting its necessity in a fallen world) and to assert the need for peace as lifestyle in both private and public arenas. As a result, the alternative of peace became both a practical virtue and an earnest pursuit of English policy, eventually to be embodied in many aspects of Elizabethan political culture. ; This research is based on a variety of literary, didactic and public sources. Methodologically it follows the parameters of intellectual history outlined by Quentin Skinner and J. G. A. Pocock, which stress authorial intent, context, and discourse analysis, although it is modified somewhat by historicist and post-structuralist critiques. The writers are viewed as self-consciously entering into a timeless dialogue on the justice of war and the place of peace, which led them to transcend sometimes existent conceptual conventions. The result is a challenge to the traditional and unhelpful concentration on the just war (an idea that appears to have waned significantly by the mid-1400s) and a claim that peace, when understood as an attainable condition (when connected with real and specific benefits to the commonwealth) permeated substantively the intellectual milieu of Tudor England. ; Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 51-11, Section: A, page: 3872. ; Thesis (Ph.D.)--Georgetown University, 1990.

In the present essay, I will examine the traces of coexistence between the Muslim and Christian world in architecture and literature, using the examples of the mezquita, or 'mosque', and the most important novel of Spain, Don Quixote of la Mancha (1605;1615) by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. This study incorporates an interdisciplinary approach that utilizes historical, literary, and architectural methods to explain the dual function of the margin— its architectural function in the Mosque and its narrative function as used in specific chapters from Cervantes's novel. Furthermore, I will show how the architectural margin of the wall of the mosque was familiar to Cervantes's readers who lived in Spain and this familiarity allows Cervantes to exploit the metaphorical meaning of the literary margin as architectural margin. A metaphor establishes an equivalency between a pair of images; the best-known example of which belongs to Ezra Pound, the founding leader of Imagism (1912-1923). This is a school of poetry that endorsed clarity of expression and simplicity through the use of precise visual imagery. The best known metaphor is Pound's own, in which faces are compared with petals in the poem, "In a Station of the Metro": The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough. Through his architectural and literary metaphor, Cervantes covertly expresses his personal beliefs about multiculturalism that could not be directly expressed for fear of censorship by the Inquisition. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the Senior Arts/Humanities category. ; In the Margins of Literary and Architectural Discourse: A Comparison of Arabic Commentary in Cervantes's Don Quixote and Moorish Architectural Inscription Pablo Picasso: Don Quixote, August 10, 1955. Internet: Public Domain Alexandra Parent SP 415: Seminar on Don Quixote Professor Stallings-Ward 28 February 2020 1 Introduction The history of the Iberian Peninsula is a rich one, filled with influences from the entire European and Asian continents over time. When we think about Spain, there is one defining factor that distinguishes her from the rest of Europe: the presence of racial, ethnic and religious influence from Africa, and, resulting therefrom, a unique moment in world history: the confluence of three major world religions in one geographical place. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam once flourished side by side in mutual tolerance and economic interdependence in the Andalusian region of southern Spain, known as 'Al-Andalus,' in the High Middle Ages. Tolerance of others who are different, as Maria Rosa Menocal points out, is the underpinning of this unique historical coincidence and the essential component for the development of science, philosophy, medicine, urbanization, and hence trade and commercial prosperity.1 The Jews and Christians of Muslim Andalusia flourished economically and culturally under the Umayyad, whose dynasty (661-750) was transplanted from Damascus to Cordoba by Abd al-Rahman (756- 1031) after a civil war between two rival Caliphates. These three religions borrowed language and architecture from one another leaving traces of their coexistence, not surprisingly, within the architecture and literature of Spain. In the present essay, I will examine the traces of coexistence between the Muslim and Christian world in architecture and literature, using the examples of the mezquita, or 'mosque', and the most important novel of Spain, Don Quixote of la Mancha (1605;1615) by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. This study incorporates an interdisciplinary approach that utilizes historical, literary, and architectural methods to explain the dual function of the margin— its architectural function in the Mosque and its narrative function as used in specific chapters from Cervantes's 1 Menocal, The Ornament of the World. 2 novel. Furthermore, I will show how the architectural margin of the wall of the mosque was familiar to Cervantes's readers who lived in Spain and this familiarity allows Cervantes to exploit the metaphorical meaning of the literary margin as architectural margin. A metaphor establishes an equivalency between a pair of images; the best-known example of which belongs to Ezra Pound, the founding leader of Imagism (1912-1923). This is a school of poetry that endorsed clarity of expression and simplicity through the use of precise visual imagery. The best- known metaphor is Pound's own, in which faces are compared with petals in the poem, "In a Station of the Metro": The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough.2 Through his architectural and literary metaphor, Cervantes covertly expresses his personal beliefs about multiculturalism that could not be directly expressed for fear of censorship by the Inquisition. My essay is divided in three sections. In the first section, I will present a historical overview of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula. In the second section, I present a survey of Muslim Architecture in Andalusia based on the results of a photographic study of architecture I did while visiting Spain during study abroad. I survey the presence of Muslim architecture found throughout Andalusia, placing particular emphasis on the function of the margin in the design of the walls of the mosque reserved for the calligraphy that features citations of scripture from the Holy Koran. The margin, although small in size compared to the rest of the entire structure of the mosque, is as I will show, actually the most important part of the mosque. In the third section of my essay, I analyze the literary margin treated in the episode of the lost manuscript in Volume I: Chapters Eight and Nine of Cervantes's Don Quixote. I will look at 2 Judith Stallings-Ward, Gerardo Diego´s Creation Myth of Music: Fábula de Equis y Zeda. London: Routledge, 2020, 175. 3 the coexistence of the Christian and Arab writers in Cervantes's Don Quixote. The collaboration between Cervantes and Cide Hamete Benengeli allows Cervantes to establish a metaphor between the architectural margin of the mosque and the literary margin of the manuscript as the place for covertly expressing his esteem for multiculturalism and his condemnation of the expulsion of the Moors by national decree; a ploy he uses to escape censorship by the Inquisition. The play with spatial perspective (margin vs center) and the severance of the manuscript (with the lost section recovered in the market of Toledo) establishes the architectural and narrative metaphor that recalls the physical and cultural coexistence between Muslims and Christians valued by Cervantes. In addition, I examine how Cervantes extends this metaphor to also evoke the rupture of that coexistence through expulsion of the Moors, which Cervantes believed broke the backbone of the country. Part I: Historical Overview of Muslim Presence in the Iberian Peninsula The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula began with one young man named Abd Al- Rahman, the son of the Arab family ruling Damascus in the east—the Umayyads. However, during a civil war, his family was massacred, and his escape left him the sole survivor. He fled through North Africa into Cordoba where he began to establish himself as the Caliph, or ruler.3 After the Visigoth monarchy fell, Muslim control dominated the Iberian Peninsula. From 711 through 1492, Islamic society had a long and profound presence on shaping Spanish culture until the Christian kings unified the country. By 716, almost all of Iberia, with the exception of the far northwest and mountainous regions, was under Muslim control and the province was name 'Al- Andalus'. By naming the country in this manner, it directly opposes the 'Hispania' title that the 3 BBC Worldwide Learning, The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711-1492. 4 Romans gave the peninsula, foreshadowing the enmity between the religions of Islam and Christianity.4 Abd Al-Rahman sought to recreate his cultural roots here in Iberia. The peninsula was dominated by the Umayyad dynasty, who had no affiliation to the eastern Muslim dynasties at the time, and were met with little to no resistance from the small groups of Christians still living in the peninsula. As demonstrated in Figure 1, the conquering forces came through Northern Africa and thus were also comprised of Berber forces from that region. By 741, there were approximately 12,000 Berber forces, 18,000 Arabs, and 7,000 Syrians entering through the Southern tip of the peninsula. This totaled anywhere from 4,000,000 to 8,000,000 living in the Iberian Peninsula at the time.5 6 Islam and Christianity under Islamic Rule By the mid eighth century, the population of Iberia had grown exponentially and became more diverse both racially and religiously. Although Muslim forces had conquered what remained of the Visigoth territories and established themselves as the dominant, ruling power, a 4 O'Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain, 91. 5 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain. 6 Alchetron.com. "Umayyad Conquest of Hispania - Alchetron, the Free Social Encyclopedia," August 18, 2017. https://alchetron.com/Umayyad-conquest-of-Hispania. Figure 1: Depiction of the route of Abd-Al Rahman and the subsequent conquests of the Muslim Empire. From Internet: public domain.6 5 majority of the population living in Iberia was still Christian. This undoubtedly posed issues for the Moorish rulers who practiced Islam. As a result, conversion became a necessity for Christians. It is important to distinguish between the upper and lower class when discussing the notion of conversion. Many Visigoth royalty, nobles, and influential families saw it in their best interest to convert and to do what they could to join the new rulers in an effort to pursue political advantages.7 Yet, the majority of Iberia was home to lower class Hispano-Roman Christians who converted out of survival. Despite this, many of the people in this situation retained their Christian faith while adopting Muslim customs like learning Arabic so as to appease the rulers. The name given to these people are mozárabes, or 'Mozarabs', meaning 'Muslim-like'.8 A Christian writer noted the following about Christians living under Islamic rule in 854: Our Christian young men, with their elegant airs and fluent speech, are showy in their dress and carriage, and are famed for the learning of the gentiles; intoxicated with Arab eloquence they greedily handle, eagerly devour, and zealously discuss the books of the Chaldeans (i.e. Muhammadans), and make them known by praising them with every flourish of rhetoric, knowing nothing of the beauty of the Church's literature, and looking down with contempt on the streams of the Church that flow forth from Paradise ; alas ! The Christians are so ignorant of their own law, the Latins pay so little attention to their own language, that in the whole Christian flock there is hardly one man in a thousand who can write a letter to inquire after a friend's health intelligibly, while you may find a countless rabble of kinds of them who can learnedly roll out the grandiloquent periods of the Chaldean tongue. They can even make poems, every line ending with the same letter, which displays high flights of beauty and more skill in handling metre than the gentiles themselves possess.9 It is evident from this passage that the Christians admired the Arabs for the type of civilization they created. The Mozarabs recognized that the Arabs had something to offer them in terms of literature, character, and even language. This demonstrates that on some level, there was an 7 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain. 8 Phillips and Phillips. 9 Alvar, Indiculus luminosus; quoted from Arnold, The Preaching of Islam; A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith, 137-138. 6 acceptance of Muslim culture and practices which set the foundation for the incorporation of Islamic architectural styles and writing styles to be continued after the Christians' reconquering of Iberia. Christian Kingdoms and "La Reconquista" When the Muslim forces conquered Iberia, they were not able to infiltrate the regions in the north. These regions were not seen as an apparent threat because they were isolated, poor, and not heavily populated, so the Moors did not make a vigilant effort to convert or control these Christians.10 However, the Christian states organized themselves into kingdoms and solidified their control in northern Spain by the mid-twelfth century before moving into Southern Spain during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The progression of the Christian kingdoms' conquests can be seen in Figure 2. 11 At the height of the reconquest, there were seven individual Christian kingdoms within the peninsula: Asturias, Galicia, Aragon, Navarre, Leon, Castile, and Valencia. Each of these kingdoms had their own struggles trying to gain territory, power, and recognition. The Kingdom 10 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain, 55. 11 "Reconquista+General.Jpg (1600×914)." Accessed February 19, 2020. http://4.bp.blogspot.com/- ofiGywz891k/TzynBPnsc7I/AAAAAAAAAok/ECNzH3rSp3E/s1600/Reconquista+General.jpg. Figure 2: Timeline of the Christian King's Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Internet: public domain.11 7 of Navarre was largely under the control of the French to the north and did not have much to do with the conquering of other Spanish Christian kingdoms, let alone taking a stance on combating the Arab south. However, not only were the Christian kings working to overthrow the Islamic caliphate and reconquer Iberia from the Muslims, they were all vying for control amongst themselves. In the tenth century, Alfonso III expanded into the regions of Galicia and Leon slowly gaining more territory and strengthening his Christian kingdom to combat the Moors. The kingdoms of Castile and Leon unified in 1085 and then under the kingship of Alfonso VI, they conquered Toledo.12 Toledo is situated where the Moorish Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Leon border each other, so the conquering of Toledo was a push in the right direction for the Christian kings' ultimate goal of expelling the Moors from Spain. In the northeast, Alfonso I of Aragon began consolidating his power and conquered Zaragoza by 1134, and joined with Barcelona in 1137 to form the Kingdom of Aragon. By this point, the Muslim empire was facing many issues in trying to run their territories and were slowly losing their sphere of power in the south. King Fernando III of Castile was able to penetrate Al-Andalus and conquer the Andalusian cities of Cordoba and Seville in the mid-thirteenth century. So, when the two kingdoms of Aragon and Castile prevailed over their Christian counterparts, they were left with only the Emirate of Granada as their last steppingstone to banish Muslim rule from the peninsula. King Fernando II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile married in 1469 and this consolidated the royal authority of Spain.13 In January of 1492, the city of Granada fell to the Spanish forces and this ended the 780 years of Muslim control in the Iberian Peninsula. This was the final act of La Reconquista and the beginning of the age of Los Reyes Católicos or 'The Catholic Kings.' King Ferdinand and Queen 12 Phillips and Phillips, 306. 13 Phillips and Phillips, 116. 8 Isabela ruled into the first few years of the sixteenth century, which is marked as the beginning of the Spanish Inquisition—a judicial institution that was used to combat heresy in Spain. Islam and Christianity under Christian Rule Islam first began to submit to Christian rule during the period when the Christian kingdoms were all building up their states and conquering each other in the eleventh century. When Toledo was captured in 1085, allowing the Muslims to stay was crucial to the economic stability and the intellectual advancement of Christian society.14 With the expulsion of the Moors came the expulsion of their religion and began the institution of Christianity, more specifically Catholicism. The immediate issue that the church saw after the reconquest of Spanish cities was the need to introduce their ecclesiastical structure, so they began to assign bishops to these major cities in addition to creating two new ecclesiastical provinces.15 This rapid organization and dispersion of the Catholic religion in previously Islamic territories was not good news for those Muslims still living in Spain after the reconquest. The Christians could not simply expel the Muslims because in some places they made up the majority of the population and were an integral part of the economy for the country.16 Muslims who continued to live under Christian ruler adopted the name mudéjares or 'mudejars' in English. This name is derived from the Arabic word mudajan meaning 'permitted to remain' with a colloquial implication of 'tamed or domesticated.'17 Ironically, the same way the minorities were treated under Islamic rule, to include Christians, was now how the Muslims were treated under Christian rule. The Mudejars would practice their religion, law, and customs in addition to being permitted to continue their 14 Watt, A History of Islamic Spain, 150. 15 O'Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain, 488. 16 Watt, A History of Islamic Spain, 151. 17 Watt, 151. 9 craft so long as they paid a tax. It was not uncommon for these minority groups to distinguish themselves by dressing differently and even inhabiting different quarters of town. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, a period known as the Mudejar age, it is evident that there is a culture common to both Christians and Muslims, and that coexistence, to the point of assimilation, was possible. However, it is important to note that the Christians, being the dominant power, were selective in what they chose to assimilate. The most evident piece demonstrating assimilation is the artistic productions, both architecturally and literarily. It was obvious that incorporating the Muslims into society was necessary and beneficial, but towards the end of the fifteenth century, economic disparages were becoming obvious and the Mudejars were the wealthier of the two groups. This jealousy and animosity led to a growing prejudice of Mudejars and once Ferdinand and Isabella unified the peninsula, they turned this prejudice into policy. The previous flirtation of religious tolerance was coming to an end, but due to the policy written for the surrender of Granada, many people of Islamic faith were briefly safe in 1492, so these religiously intolerant policies attacked other groups, namely the Jewish factions of the country. This period of brutal intolerance is known as the Inquisition, and it drastically influenced Spanish society for the years to follow, to include Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote of La Mancha. Part II: Survey of Muslim Architecture in Andalusia Moorish architecture is something that when one sees it, they know it. It is a mixture of oriental and occidental to create a recognizable and unique form of architecture. There are certain staple architectural features that help make this style so well-known and are also the features that other cultures adopt simply because of their beauty. Some of these features include 10 stone parapets with Islamic crenellations, horseshoe windows and doors, towers sometimes evoking a minaret, domes, arches, slender pillars, and many of these features were typically constructed with alternating colors of yellow and red brick and stone.18 The following figures demonstrate these architectural features. 18 Kalmar, "Moorish Style: Orientalism, the Jews, and Synagogue Architecture," 73. Figure 4 (above): The series of arches and horshoe shaped doors. Taken by Alexandra Parent in the Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. January 31, 2018. Figure 5 (below): The classic Islamic crennelations and attention to detail that characterizes all of Islamic architecture. This is also exemplatory of the domes that were utilized in Moorish architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. January 31, 2018. Figure 3: The slender pillars and open courtyards. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. February 23, 2018. Figure 6: The Torre del Oro or Tower of Gold located in Seville, Spain. Exemplifies the use of towers and minarets in Islamic architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent in Seville, Spain. April 12, 2018. 11 19 These features are apparent throughout all the everyday buildings within the cities of Al- Andalus, but they also came together to make great, exceptional buildings. One in particular is the Great Mosque in Cordoba. This was built when the religion of Islam was only a century old, so it is renowned as one of the first mosques ever built. This mosque is truly grandeur in architectural style in addition to sheer size. In Islamic faith, it is forbidden to depict Allah, or any religious figure, so the traditional methods of using a painting to inspire religious awe was not possible, thus allowing for architecture to take its place. As seen in Figure 7, the rows of archways are seemingly never ending and absolutely uniform. 20 The architectural margin of the mosque (Fig 8 and Fig 10.D), which Cervantes metaphorizes with the annotation of Dulcinea written on the margin in Don Quixote, refers to the most important part of the mosque: the inscriptions. In the Islamic religion, as aforementioned, worshipping any idols or to depict Allah, Muhammad, or any other important religious figures 20 "The Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba (Spain)." Accessed February 19, 2020. https://www.turismodecordoba.org/the-mosque-cathedral-of-cordoba-spain. Figure 7: The Great Mosque located in Cordoba, Spain. Known for the uniformity and neverending archways and pillars. From Internet: public domain.20 12 through paintings are prohibited. So, the role of the inscriptions becomes the most important and revered part of the mosque much like the depiction of Jesus on the cross is worshipped by Christians. This is because the inscriptions are the holy words of the Koran. The phrase most 21commonly inscribed in these architectural margins are 'only Allah is victorious.' The metaphor Cervantes makes between the architectural and literary margin is developed to a second degree with the handwriting in the margin of the manuscript being Arabic calligraphy. This can be compared to the inscriptions in the architectural margin of the mosques, which are also written in Arabic calligraphy. This type of writing is very distinct from Western modes of writing because the purpose of Arabic calligraphy is "no como un medio utilitario de 21 Fernando Aznar, La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos, 12. Figure 10: Architecture of the Mosque21 (from left to right and top to bottom): A) ataurique B) interlacing decoration C) calligraphy in the margin of the wall with scripture "Only Allah is Victorious". Also shown in Fig 11. D) horseshoe arc E) muqarnas F) half horseshoe arcs G) arc with muqarnas H) column with crowned capital Figure 8 (above): The horsehoe shaped windows and use of alternating colors and very detailed crennelations. The Arabic calligraphy can be seen above the windows. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. February 23, 2018. Figure 9 (above): Fig 8 on a closer scale to better see the calligraphy 13 comunicación entre los hombres sino como un medio sagrado de comunicación entre Dios y los hombres," meaning, it is not like a utilitarian means of communication between humans, but rather a sacred means of communication between God and men.22 This type of calligraphy that Arabs place in the margins of their mosques obviously have religious value and is called caligrafía cúfica or 'Kufic calligraphy' as is shown in Figure 11. 23 The text written in Arabic calligraphy in the margin of the wall of the mosque is epigrafía. It is present in all mosques and throughout the royal palace known as La Alhambra in Granada. As Fernando Aznar explains, "El texto tiene gran importancia en la decoración. Frases que ensalzan a Alá, o que hace referencia a las bellezas del lugar donde se encuentra, ditando a veces a los constructores de cada zona, se reparten por todos los muros de la residencia real."24This quote says that text has great importance in the decoration of the buildings, and that the phrases that praise Allah, or that refers to the beauties of the place where Allah is located, are all throughout the royal palace. It amplifies the important role that language has in religious symbols. 22 "La Caligrafía Árabe." 23 "Arabic Inscription." Alamy. Accessed February 24, 2020. https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-arabic-inscription- carved-in-a-palace-wall-of-the-alhambra-in-granada-17181753.html. 24 Fernando Aznar, La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos, 12. Figure 11: An example of Kufic calligraphy. The style of the Arabic writing in this image is classically used in Islamic mosques to state the word of Allah from the Holy Koran. This is the architectural margin. From Internet: public domain.23 14 Moorish Architectural Influence Under Christian Rule As the Christians slowly began organizing themselves into kingdoms and conquering Moorish cities in Al-Andalus, two incredibly different cultures met each other. As previously stated, an assimilation of sorts was taking place by the Christians who were adopting Islamic practices and other elements of their culture. Architecture was one of these elements that Christian rulers not only preserved, but in some cases built from bottom up utilizing these inherently Moorish styles. Using the example of the Mosque of Cordoba, it is important to note that in the middle of this Islamic prayer hall, there is something unknown to Islam; a Catholic Cathedral (Fig. 12, 13, and 14). This addition was made in the sixteenth century after the Moors were abolished from Iberia. The rulers who erected this cathedral demolished the central columns in order to make room for the Christian edifices, however, Charles V recognized the gravity of this action and how it drastically changed the ambiance and historical significance of this architectural feat. This cultural vandalism by the Christians is symbolic of the enforcement and imposition of their religion onto a different group of people. This theme is also apparent in the literary works of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to include Don Quixote of La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes. Figure 12: Located in the middle of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Christian, gothic architecture meeting with Islamic architectural styles. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 15 An example of Mudejar work is the Cathedral of Seville, built after the demolition of a mosque, in order to increase the power of the Christian rulers. The architectural style of the building is very European and gothic with high vaulted ceilings and stained glass.25 As a statement piece for Christianity in former Islamic Spain, it is not expected for one to find traces of Moorish architectural influence, but there is. The Cathedral was built by Christian architects, so there was no lack of qualified Christian craftsmen, however there are qualities inherently Moorish that make its way into this grand architectural achievement. As depicted in Figure 15, the high altar in the Cathedral is adorned in so much detail that it mimics the Moorish tendency to not leave any blank space. The incessant ornamental decoration style that was a part of Islamic Spain bled into and permeated traditional Christian and European styles of architecture making its way into the very soul of Christian craftsmanship. Although the Christian Spanish rulers 25 BBC Worldwide Learning, The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711-1492. Figure 13 (right): Christian altar located in the middle of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 14 (left): Example of Christianity inserting itself into Muslim architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 16 erected this cathedral as a statement to assert their religious dominance, the Moorish aesthetic had already made its way into the minds of the architects of that era. In addition to this, the minaret attached to the Cathedral of Seville, La Giralda (Figure 16), is evidence of this as well. The construction of this minaret concluded in 1568 and is the twin tower to the city of Marrakech. Having begun construction in 1184, La Giralda is host to the visible mixing of Moorish and Christian culture. Through the stonework, inscriptions, and different styles used, La Giralda is evidence of this assimilation of cultural and architectural practices. 26 Perhaps the most notable architectural feat in regard to Moorish influence on Christianity is seen in the Real Alcázar, or Royal Alcazar. At first glance, it is a very distinct Moorish-looking building in terms of architecture; it contains the classic Moorish archways, courtyards, crenellations and pillars (Fig 17 and 18), so it would be reasonable to conclude that it was 26 "Cathedral of Seville. Aerial View." Accessed February 24, 2020. https://seebybike.com/blog/must-see-cathedral-and- alcazar-of-seville/cathedral-of-seville-aerial-view/. Figure 15 (right): The altar located inside the Cathedral of Seville. Known for it's incredulous detail and extravagant style that is suspected to be a result of lingering Moorish influences. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 16 (left): An aerial view of the Cathedral of Seville. It includes many influences of Morrish architecture to include the large tower known as La Giralda, the minarets all over the building, and the many domes that make up the cathedral. From Internet: public domain.26 17 constructed under Islamic rule. However, Christian king Peter of Castile, also known as Peter the Cruel, commissioned the Alcazar as his royal palace in the fourteenth century. He made the Alcazar identical to the architectural stylings of the Spanish Middle Ages. So, the question arises as to why a Christian ruler would deliberately choose Islamic decoration? The answer is that it comes down to power. By appropriating the Islamic art and traditional expressions, the Christian ruler projects a sort of authority over the minority subjects.27 The Moorish expressions of wealth and power are understood differently than traditional Europeans, so by creating something that the Muslim population would recognize as powerful, Peter the Cruel wielded a sort of power over the Mudejars. 27 Fernández, "Second Flowering: Art of the Mudejars." Figure 17 (left): The courtyard of the Royal Alcazar. Despite being built by a Christian king, it has many, if not completely full of, influences from Islamic architecture. Note, the pillars, the archways, the courtyard, the crennelations. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 18 (right): The Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. This wall has both Christian and Islamic influences. Note the differences between the lower floor and the second floor of the archways. The bottom is much more functional and plainer, like traditional Christian architecture whereas the top portions are much more detailed and colorful such as depicted by Islamic architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 18 Part III: The Literary Margin Treated in the Episode of the Lost Manuscript in Volume I: Chapters Eight and Nine of Cervantes's Don Quixote When reading Don Quixote, the reader is frequently taken off the main narrative path involving the adventures of the main characters, the knight and his squire Sancho Panza, and led down secondary narratives involving encounters with characters who interrupt the main narration with tales of their own stories of love, captivity, and triumph. The complexity of the narrative shows the novel to be an amalgam of many different short novels, much like the way of the river Amazon, which is fed by many smaller rivers, at the heart of which is Cervantes's parody of books of chivalry. Nevertheless, the one unchanging constant is the way the novel opens a window onto the life and times of the man who wrote it. Cervantes's novel reflects his lived experience rooted in multicultural society whose heterogeneity was the source of Spain's economic and agricultural well-being. Cervantes saw the well-being of his country destroyed by the Hapsburg dynasty's religious intolerance and persecution of minorities who did not convert from their Jewish or Muslim faith. Cervantes himself was of Jewish ancestry. His father was a surgeon, a vocation known to be practiced by Jews. Cryptic references to his Jewish ancestry appear in the portada, or cover page of this novel. For example, the phrase from the book of Job—after darkness light is hoped for—and references to their inability to worship on the Sabbath appear in the first chapter of the novel; a day when the Jewish population must be in duelos and quebrantos, or 'pain and suffering'. While a student, Cervantes was arrested and ordered to have his right hand cut off for allegedly shooting a man who had insulted his sisters. Cervantes escaped punishment by fleeing to Italy from where he joined the Holy League (an alliance among the Vatican, France, and Spain) in the Battle of Lepanto, a major battle against the Turks in the waters of the 19 Mediterranean, during which Cervantes lost the use of his left hand. After his distinguished military service in this major victory against the Turks, Cervantes was taken captive and held prisoner for five years in Algeria. His profound understanding of the Islamic world of the Maghreb, as the northern region of Africa is known, is reflected throughout Don Quixote. Upon return to Spain, he obtained work as a tax collector tasked with gathering funds throughout Andalusia for the construction of the Spanish Armada. His detailed knowledge of the geography and customs of Southern Spain is reflected throughout the novel as well. Cervantes's experiences from his military expedition against the Turks, his years in captivity in northern Africa, his travels through Andalusia, and his Jewish ancestry can be added as another factor that forged the broad multicultural perspectivism formed in his novel. As a student, Cervantes was taught by Lope de Hoyos, a known follower of the Dutch humanist philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam. Erasmus criticized the empty ritual of the Catholic Church as well as its intolerance for Christians, especially followers of Martin Luther, who sought an unmediated religious relationship with God; one that did not require mediation by a Catholic priest. The teachings of Erasmus, an intellect who denounced the hypocrisy of the Catholic Church and its persecution of minorities and different versions of Christianity, are embraced by Cervantes and find expression in a covert manner in Don Quixote (II: 22-23).28 The episode of the lost manuscript (Volume I:8-9) reflects the perspective of multiculturalism and diversity Cervantes gained from the life experiences outlined above. Chapter eight is first and foremost about Don Quixotes's iconic battle with the windmills, the most well-known episode of the novel. Don Quixote's illusion leads him to believe that the windmills were originally giants that have been transformed into windmills by his enemy, the 28 Judith Stallings-Ward, "Tiny (Erasmian) Dagger or Large Poniard? Metonymy vs. Metaphor in the Cave of Montesinos Episode in Don Quixote." 20 wizard Freston, to cheat Don Quixote from a victory in battle against them. The deception of the knight conveys Cervantes's use of humorous parody to denounce the books of chivalry whose fantasy version of reality has brainwashed Don Quixote. A subsequent adventure in this chapter reveals Don Quixote has another lapse of reason. He believes that a Basque woman travelling to Seville, preceded by two Benedictine friars who are not in her party, and surrounded by her own men on horseback, is a princess being kidnapped. Upon observing once again his master's mind in the grip of delusion, Don Quixote's squire Sancho Panza replies, "This will be worse than the windmills."29 This foreshadows the battle that Don Quixote will ultimately have with the Basque. At the end of Chapter eight, we are left with both men having their swords unsheathed and raised at each other, but then the narration of the story abruptly stops. The narrator, a literary form of Cervantes inserted into the story by the real historical Cervantes, begins to speak directly to the reader as if in an informal conversation with them to convey that the end of the scene and the rest of the history are missing.30 This narrative style continues into Part II, chapter nine when the narrator begins a search for the missing manuscript. In this chapter we are brought to Toledo and the narrator brings the reader through the Alcaná market. The narrator Cervantes tells the story of his journey to find the manuscript in the market and how he comes across a young boy trying to sell him some notebooks, old torn papers, and other small commodities. Cervantes is inclined to pick up a certain book that the boy has and realizes the script on the front is in Arabic. Since he could not read Arabic, he finds a Morisco aljamiado, so called for their ability to speak both Arabic and Spanish, who can help translate the manuscript. It was not difficult to find this person and soon Cervantes flipped to the middle of the book and asked the Morisco to translate. Cervantes points out the availability of translators of 29 Cervantes, Don Quixote, 62. 30 Cervantes, 65. 21 all classic languages in the market, thus underscoring the advantage of multicultural spaces such as the markets of Spain. As the translator--the Morisco aljamiado--began to read the page, he laughed at something written in the margin: it stated, "'This Dulcinea of Toboso, referred to so often in this history, they say had the best hand for salting pork of any woman in La Mancha.'"31 The narrator immediately knew that this was the missing manuscript he was looking for, so he had the Morisco read even more. It is then that the reader learns the novel was originally written in Arabic by the Arab historian Cide Hamete Benengeli. Narrator Cervantes commissions the Morisco to translate the entire novel, paying him in "two arrobas of raisins, and two fanegas of wheat," so that the story of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza can be continued.32 This process of translation of the original manuscript from Arabic to Spanish is now the source of the narrator Cervantes's history of Don Quixote, and it is a collaboration between the literary Christian "Cervantes" and the original Arabic author Cide Hamete Benengeli, delivered through the translator. The reader is now being told the story through someone else's eyes and mind. The novel descends into a rabbit hole of authorship in which, ironically, the new lens is a Morisco translator. This metaphor demonstrates that true Spanish history is written as a compilation between Christianity and Islam, not one or the other, thus demonstrating historical Cervantes's disdain and disapproval of the expulsion of the Moors. Rather, Cervantes displays the importance and necessity of diversity and multiculturalism. The true author, historical Cervantes, also establishes a metaphor between the literary margin, in which the literary Cervantes discovered the novel was indeed Don Quixote, and the architectural margins of the mosque. Cervantes does this in a very clever and implicit manner, 31 Cervantes, 67. 32 Cervantes, 68. 22 otherwise he would be severely censored. Through this implied metaphor of architectural and literary margins, Cervantes is able to write a novel that has commentary to covertly express his condemnation of the Moors and announce his glorification of multiculturalism. The focus of attention placed on the margin of the manuscript wherein Arabic commentary is written calls to mind the architectural margin of the mezquita, or 'mosque', in which the Arabic calligraphy is written. The comparison between the textual margin of Cervantes's manuscript and architectural margin of the walls of the mosque would be easy for the readers of Cervantes's day to recognize given the prevalence of Muslim architecture throughout Spain, as my survey in the first part of this essay shows. Furthermore, the handwriting in Arabic by the Arab historian easily calls to mind the calligraphy used for citations from the Koran. The Arabic commentary—associated with the authoritative word of the Koran placed in the margin of the walls of the mosque—second guesses the religious purity of Dulcinea, the object of courtly worship by the Christian knight. When the translator points out the Arab historian's commentary in the margin of the manuscript, that 'the Lady Dulcinea has the best hand at salting pork,' he taints her purity by placing her in contact with a food source that is considered polluted for Muslims. The comment casts Dulcinea in tainted light. The Arab historian's questioning of religious purity occurs in tandem with the questioning of the authority or authorship of the history of Don Quixote. The literary Cervantes is a Christian writer, but he is not the true author of the original manuscript; the Arab historian Cide Hamete claims true authorship; and Dulcinea is not the pillar of religious purity she is perceived to be. The play with the double meaning of the margin (textual vs architectural) occurs with the play of spatial perspective between margin vs center. The reader sees through Cervantes's use of the metaphor as a multicultural perspective that questions the absolute status of Christian 23 authority and Christian purity. The play with meaning and perspective in Cervantes's treatment of the margin in chapters eight and nine may be taken to one final and third level of development. The margin, shown to be central in connection with the ruptured or severed manuscript, is a covert expression for Cervantes's esteem for the contributions to Spanish society by the Muslim population of his country and his condemnation for their expulsion by governmental degree from Spain. In the eyes of Cervantes, this broke of the backbone of Spain's culture and economy since the Arab population made up an incredibly large portion of the Iberian Peninsula. Cervantes accomplishes this by, not only changing chapters, but beginning a whole new section of the novel. Part I concludes with chapter eight and the pending battle between Don Quixote and the Basque, then Part II begins with the narrator Cervantes informing the reader of his journey to find the rest of the novel. Being wary of the censorship that plagued others during the Inquisition, Cervantes chose this metaphorical approach to convey his true sentiments about the situation of Spain at this moment in history. This rupture in Don Quixote's history is reflective of the moment in Spain's history where law has been decreed to banish something so inherent to the nation itself: the Moorish people. By placing these episodes side by side, Cervantes invites the reader to compare the delusion of the Hapsburg imperial vision and its expulsion of the Moors with the episode of the windmills. The blindness of Spain's government seems even more laughable than Don Quixote's own misguided attack on the windmills. Cervantes's play with the margin allows him to express his views on multiculturalism in an indirect manner that allowed him to escape censorship by the Inquisition. The Inquisition was not savvy enough to realize that this profound division between Part I and II is symbolic of the division of tolerant Spain into an intolerant Spain. After Cervantes 24 died, the Inquisition did censor and expurgate a passage that was considered too directly stated. In chapter thirteen, Don Quixote is once again declaring his servitude and attesting to the beauty of his beloved Dulcinea of Toboso. In his description to Vivaldo, he uses a Petrarchan metaphor, a very classical and renaissance style of poetry, to describe Dulcinea. Don Quixote states (Volume I:13): "Her tresses are gold, her forehead Elysian fields, her eyebrows the arches of heaven, her eyes suns, her cheeks roses, her lips coral, her teeth pearls, her necklace alabaster, her bosom marble, her hands ivory, her skin white as snow, and the parts that modesty hides from human eyes are such, or so I believed and understand, that the most discerning consideration can only praise them but not compare them."33 While eloquently put, Cervantes is nonetheless making references to the private areas of Dulcinea's body and thus was censored by the Catholic Church in 1624 after his death; they dared not censor him before since his novel made him so beloved by the people. Cervantes was too clever to have to follow the rules. His questioning of authority was apparent from the very opening words of the novel when he writes, "[s]omewhere in La Mancha, in a place whose name I do not care to remember…"34 Cervantes conveys how exact places and names are all arbitrary and are not relevant to the novel. This echoes Cervantes own questioning of authority and Spain's religious Inquisition going on that persecuted the Moors and other minorities alike. 33 Cervantes, Don Quixote, 91. 34 Cervantes, 19. 25 Conclusion The religious tolerance and interdependence between minorities of Al-Andalus, which are reflected through the architecture of Andalusia and also underscored in Cervantes's Don Quixote through the metaphorical treatment of the literary margin in the episode of the lost manuscript, seems evermore elusive today. In light of the divisiveness and racism rampant in our society that mars efforts toward multiculturalism and diversity, such as those undertaken at universities like Norwich, tolerance seems like the impossible dream that is the object of the quest of the chivalrous knight Don Quixote. 26 Bibliography Arnold, Thomas Walker. The Preaching of Islam; A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. New York: C. Scribner's sons, 1913. http://archive.org/details/preachingofisla00arno. Aznar, Fernando. La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos Declared of World Interest by Unescco. Mariarsa:1985. BBC Worldwide Learning. The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711- 1492. Documentary Film. The Art of Spain: From the Moors to Modernism, 2009. https://fod.infobase.com/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=39408. Cervantes, Miguel. Don Quixote. Translated by Edith Grossman. 5 edition. New York: Harper Collins, 2003. Fernández, Luis. La Historia de España en 100 preguntas. Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Nowtilus, 2019. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/norwich/reader.action?docID=5703133&ppg=1. Fernández, María Luisa. "Second Flowering: Art of the Mudejars." Saudi Aramco World, The Legacy of Al-Andalus, 44, no. 1 (February 1993): 36–41. Harsolia, Khadija Mohiuddin. "Captivity, Confinement and Resistance in Mudejar and Morisco Literature." University of California, Riverside, 2016. WorldCat.org. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1849025713?accountid=14521. Kalmar, Ivan Davidson. "Moorish Style: Orientalism, the Jews, and Synagogue Architecture." Jewish Social Studies 7, no. 3 (2001): 68–100. "La Caligrafía Árabe." Accessed February 21, 2020. http://www.arabespanol.org/cultura/caligrafia.htm. Maíz Chacón, Jorge. Breve historia de los reinos ibéricos. 1a. edición. Quintaesencia ; 6. Barcelona: Ariel, 2013. http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy1313/2013369841- b.html. Menocal, Maria Rosa. The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. Reprint edition. Boston: Back Bay Books, 2003. O'Callaghan, Joseph. A History of Medieval Spain. 1st ed. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1975. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/norwich/detail.action?docID=3138541. 27 Phillips, William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge Concise Histories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. https://library.norwich.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true &db=e000xna&AN=490553&scope=site. Raquejo, Tonia. "The 'Arab Cathedrals': Moorish Architecture as Seen by British Travellers." The Burlington Magazine 128, no. 1001 (1986): 555–63. Sheren, Ila Nicole. "Transcultured Architecture: Mudéjar's Epic Journey Reinterpreted." Contemporaneity: Historical Presence in Visual Culture 1 (June 1, 2011): 137–51. https://doi.org/10.5195/contemp.2011.5. Stallings-Ward, Judith. "Tiny (Erasmian) Dagger or Large Poniard? Metonymy vs. Metaphor in the Cave of Montesinos Episode in Don Quixote." Comparative Literature Studies. 43.4 (2006) special issue: Don Quixote and 400 Years of World Literature. 441-65. Stallings-Ward, Judith. Gerardo Diego´s Creation Myth of Music: Fábula de Equis y Zeda. London: Routledge, 2020. Urquízar-Herrera, Antonio. Admiration and Awe: Morisco Buildings and Identity Negotiations in Early Modern Spanish Historiography. 1 online resource (289 pages) vols. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2017. http://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=4850548. Watt, W. Montgomery. A History of Islamic Spain. Islamic Surveys; 4. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1977.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the origin of sciences on peace, war, and ethnopolitical conflicts in philosophical, religious and political dimensions. Views and ideas of Ancient Eastern philosophers marked the beginning of future sciences on analysis of the origin of sciences on peace, war, and ethnopolitical conflicts. Subsequently, Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers took up these ideas. Beginning and development of these sciences started in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. The Middle Ages witnessed the birth of a number of projects related to achieving and maintaining permanent peace. These projects were based on religious principles. Some of them are of scientific interest to this day. Thus, the treatise of George of Poděbrady was republished several times in English, German, Czech and other languages and had an influence on the development of ideas on war, armed conflict, and peace. Erasmus of Rotterdam, the brightest representative of the Renaissance, became well-known due to his exposure of the true causes of wars and armed conflicts. The fundamental work of the prominent Dutch lawyer and political thinker at the turn of the Renaissance and the Modern Era Hugo Grotius made a significant contribution to the study of the issues identified in the article, predominantly from the political and legal viewpoint. A notable contribution to the further development of the sciences on peace, war, and armed ethnopolitical conflicts was made by the eminent English philosopher and lawyer Jeremy Bentham. An outstanding German philosopher Immanuel Kant made a huge contribution to the formation of a new field of knowledge on peace and ethnopolitical conflicts. From a political perspective, it's worth to mention the contribution of the distinguished Austrian-German thinker and politician Friedrich von Gentz to the development of sciences on peace, war, and armed conflicts. The science of peace is called "eirenology" (from Greek "eirnene" – peace). However, this relatively unknown and incomprehensible term due to various reasons has been popular among most foreign researchers, not to mention domestic researchers who are engaged in the study of this problem. In Western corresponding academic literature in 1960–1970 this term was known as "Peace Studies". Nevertheless, since the mid-1980s issues related to it had been investigated mainly within the framework of a new field of scientific knowledge called "Peace and Conflict Studies". In the West today, it is quite known and influential scientific trend. This is demonstrated by the training at many Universities of bachelors, masters and even PhDs in this field and publishing scientific journal "Peace and Conflict Studies".However, in the author's view, this field should be divided into 2 separate ones, namely a) science of peace and b) science of conflicts. The author of the article offers to introduce a new concept "mirology" into the corresponding Ukrainian political and conflict literature, which should be interpreted as the science of peace as the eternal and highest all-human value. Speaking of science aimed at studying conflicts in ethnopolitical sphere of social life. in the West it is known as "Ethnic Conflict Studies". But given that the global ethnopolitical conflicts explosion has occurred at the turn of the millennia, in our opinion, a new branch of scientific knowledge of these conflicts deserves a more correct and adequate name - "Ethnopolitical Conflict Studies". ; The article is devoted to the analysis of the origin of sciences on peace, war, and ethnopolitical conflicts in philosophical, religious and political dimensions. Views and ideas of Ancient Eastern philosophers marked the beginning of future sciences on analysis of the origin of sciences on peace, war, and ethnopolitical conflicts. Subsequently, Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers took up these ideas. Beginning and development of these sciences started in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. The Middle Ages witnessed the birth of a number of projects related to achieving and maintaining permanent peace. These projects were based on religious principles. Some of them are of scientific interest to this day. Thus, the treatise of George of Poděbrady was republished several times in English, German, Czech and other languages and had an influence on the development of ideas on war, armed conflict, and peace. Erasmus of Rotterdam, the brightest representative of the Renaissance, became well-known due to his exposure of the true causes of wars and armed conflicts. The fundamental work of the prominent Dutch lawyer and political thinker at the turn of the Renaissance and the Modern Era Hugo Grotius made a significant contribution to the study of the issues identified in the article, predominantly from the political and legal viewpoint. A notable contribution to the further development of the sciences on peace, war, and armed ethnopolitical conflicts was made by the eminent English philosopher and lawyer Jeremy Bentham. An outstanding German philosopher Immanuel Kant made a huge contribution to the formation of a new field of knowledge on peace and ethnopolitical conflicts. From a political perspective, it's worth to mention the contribution of the distinguished Austrian-German thinker and politician Friedrich von Gentz to the development of sciences on peace, war, and armed conflicts. The science of peace is called "eirenology" (from Greek "eirnene" – peace). However, this relatively unknown and incomprehensible term due to various reasons has been popular among most foreign researchers, not to mention domestic researchers who are engaged in the study of this problem. In Western corresponding academic literature in 1960–1970 this term was known as "Peace Studies". Nevertheless, since the mid-1980s issues related to it had been investigated mainly within the framework of a new field of scientific knowledge called "Peace and Conflict Studies". In the West today, it is quite known and influential scientific trend. This is demonstrated by the training at many Universities of bachelors, masters and even PhDs in this field and publishing scientific journal "Peace and Conflict Studies".However, in the author's view, this field should be divided into 2 separate ones, namely a) science of peace and b) science of conflicts. The author of the article offers to introduce a new concept "mirology" into the corresponding Ukrainian political and conflict literature, which should be interpreted as the science of peace as the eternal and highest all-human value. Speaking of science aimed at studying conflicts in ethnopolitical sphere of social life. in the West it is known as "Ethnic Conflict Studies". But given that the global ethnopolitical conflicts explosion has occurred at the turn of the millennia, in our opinion, a new branch of scientific knowledge of these conflicts deserves a more correct and adequate name - "Ethnopolitical Conflict Studies".

The article is devoted to the analysis of the origin of sciences on peace, war, and ethnopolitical conflicts in philosophical, religious and political dimensions. Views and ideas of Ancient Eastern philosophers marked the beginning of future sciences on analysis of the origin of sciences on peace, war, and ethnopolitical conflicts. Subsequently, Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers took up these ideas. Beginning and development of these sciences started in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. The Middle Ages witnessed the birth of a number of projects related to achieving and maintaining permanent peace. These projects were based on religious principles. Some of them are of scientific interest to this day. Thus, the treatise of George of Poděbrady was republished several times in English, German, Czech and other languages and had an influence on the development of ideas on war, armed conflict, and peace. Erasmus of Rotterdam, the brightest representative of the Renaissance, became well-known due to his exposure of the true causes of wars and armed conflicts. The fundamental work of the prominent Dutch lawyer and political thinker at the turn of the Renaissance and the Modern Era Hugo Grotius made a significant contribution to the study of the issues identified in the article, predominantly from the political and legal viewpoint. A notable contribution to the further development of the sciences on peace, war, and armed ethnopolitical conflicts was made by the eminent English philosopher and lawyer Jeremy Bentham. An outstanding German philosopher Immanuel Kant made a huge contribution to the formation of a new field of knowledge on peace and ethnopolitical conflicts. From a political perspective, it's worth to mention the contribution of the distinguished Austrian-German thinker and politician Friedrich von Gentz to the development of sciences on peace, war, and armed conflicts. The science of peace is called "eirenology" (from Greek "eirnene" – peace). However, this relatively unknown and incomprehensible term due to various reasons has been popular among most foreign researchers, not to mention domestic researchers who are engaged in the study of this problem. In Western corresponding academic literature in 1960–1970 this term was known as "Peace Studies". Nevertheless, since the mid-1980s issues related to it had been investigated mainly within the framework of a new field of scientific knowledge called "Peace and Conflict Studies". In the West today, it is quite known and influential scientific trend. This is demonstrated by the training at many Universities of bachelors, masters and even PhDs in this field and publishing scientific journal "Peace and Conflict Studies".However, in the author's view, this field should be divided into 2 separate ones, namely a) science of peace and b) science of conflicts. The author of the article offers to introduce a new concept "mirology" into the corresponding Ukrainian political and conflict literature, which should be interpreted as the science of peace as the eternal and highest all-human value. Speaking of science aimed at studying conflicts in ethnopolitical sphere of social life. in the West it is known as "Ethnic Conflict Studies". But given that the global ethnopolitical conflicts explosion has occurred at the turn of the millennia, in our opinion, a new branch of scientific knowledge of these conflicts deserves a more correct and adequate name - "Ethnopolitical Conflict Studies". ; The article is devoted to the analysis of the origin of sciences on peace, war, and ethnopolitical conflicts in philosophical, religious and political dimensions. Views and ideas of Ancient Eastern philosophers marked the beginning of future sciences on analysis of the origin of sciences on peace, war, and ethnopolitical conflicts. Subsequently, Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers took up these ideas. Beginning and development of these sciences started in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. The Middle Ages witnessed the birth of a number of projects related to achieving and maintaining permanent peace. These projects were based on religious principles. Some of them are of scientific interest to this day. Thus, the treatise of George of Poděbrady was republished several times in English, German, Czech and other languages and had an influence on the development of ideas on war, armed conflict, and peace. Erasmus of Rotterdam, the brightest representative of the Renaissance, became well-known due to his exposure of the true causes of wars and armed conflicts. The fundamental work of the prominent Dutch lawyer and political thinker at the turn of the Renaissance and the Modern Era Hugo Grotius made a significant contribution to the study of the issues identified in the article, predominantly from the political and legal viewpoint. A notable contribution to the further development of the sciences on peace, war, and armed ethnopolitical conflicts was made by the eminent English philosopher and lawyer Jeremy Bentham. An outstanding German philosopher Immanuel Kant made a huge contribution to the formation of a new field of knowledge on peace and ethnopolitical conflicts. From a political perspective, it's worth to mention the contribution of the distinguished Austrian-German thinker and politician Friedrich von Gentz to the development of sciences on peace, war, and armed conflicts. The science of peace is called "eirenology" (from Greek "eirnene" – peace). However, this relatively unknown and incomprehensible term due to various reasons has been popular among most foreign researchers, not to mention domestic researchers who are engaged in the study of this problem. In Western corresponding academic literature in 1960–1970 this term was known as "Peace Studies". Nevertheless, since the mid-1980s issues related to it had been investigated mainly within the framework of a new field of scientific knowledge called "Peace and Conflict Studies". In the West today, it is quite known and influential scientific trend. This is demonstrated by the training at many Universities of bachelors, masters and even PhDs in this field and publishing scientific journal "Peace and Conflict Studies".However, in the author's view, this field should be divided into 2 separate ones, namely a) science of peace and b) science of conflicts. The author of the article offers to introduce a new concept "mirology" into the corresponding Ukrainian political and conflict literature, which should be interpreted as the science of peace as the eternal and highest all-human value. Speaking of science aimed at studying conflicts in ethnopolitical sphere of social life. in the West it is known as "Ethnic Conflict Studies". But given that the global ethnopolitical conflicts explosion has occurred at the turn of the millennia, in our opinion, a new branch of scientific knowledge of these conflicts deserves a more correct and adequate name - "Ethnopolitical Conflict Studies".