Suchergebnisse

Rwanda is a country with a troubled history. Its genocide in 1994, fifteen years ago, is still considered as one of the most shocking episodes of the twentieth century. Since then, however, Rwanda seems to be recovering well. Economic growth in the immediate post-war period was spectacular and remained considerable in the years thereafter (8,6% between 1996 and 2001). The Rwandan government elaborated a poverty reduction policy (PRSP), which was implemented between 2001 and 2006. Rwanda was widely applauded for the efficiency in the elaboration and execution of policy objectives, and could count on extensive financial engagements from the international community. Some even speak of a 'Rwandan Renaissance' to refer to this seemingly spectacular success. There is however also a bleaker picture next to the growth success. The poverty problem remains pressing, certainly in rural areas. Indeed, the percentage of people living below the national poverty line of 1.22$ (PPP, 2006 prices) decreased between 2001 and 2006, from 60.3% to 56.8%. But because of the impressive population growth, the absolute number of poor people increased. In the countryside, an additional half million people lived in poverty in 2006 in comparison to 2001. In this rural environment, the problem of land scarcity is enormous. The overall majority of the rural population has to survive with less than 1 hectare per family and limited possibilities to diversify their income sources beyond subsistence agriculture. In addition, there is a strong inequality. In 2001, the 20% richest consumed as much as the remaining 80% of the population. Since then, inequality has further been rising. Several research questions arise. *) How are the peasants, the overall majority of the Rwandan population surviving in this optimistic post-genocide economic growth climate? Are they able to profit from economic growth? *) How are they dealing with the problem of extreme resource scarcity? They have to deal with enormous hazards and uncertainties, to which they have to adapt their livelihood strategies through risk avoidance and diversification. Are they able to productively exploit their land, and how do they survive if their land holdings are not (no longer) sufficient to produce enough food? *) How does the Rwandan government capture the challenges in the fight against poverty? How do policy makers see their role in rural development, and which type of agricultural and land policy do they adopt? The PhD provides an answer to these questions. It provides a unique insight in how the process of rural change - including the role of rural policies in this process - impacts upon the differentiation and polarization in livelihood profiles in the context of rural Rwanda. It points to the danger of the current Rwandan development model, based on large-scale professionalised farming. Moreover, it elaborates an alternative more sustainable development model based on broad-based economic growth and brings forward technically feasible solutions that build upon the potential and capacity of the large majority of small-scale farmers. But it also reflects upon the current political economy context in which the division of power and wealth make this technically feasible alternative development model politically unrealistic. The PhD points to the crucial role of international donors to support structures that help the voices from below reach the surface, the voices of the Rwandan small-scale peasants. The diversity in focus, level and techniques adopted in the various papers of the PhD allows us to look at the overarching theme - faces of rural poverty - from very different angles. Indeed, as mentioned by Scoones et alii (1996: 10), "models of change that oversimplify, standardise and aggregate in order to ease computation can be highly misleading; instead a methodological pluralism that includes qualitative and quantitative methods is seen to be most appropriate for increasing our understanding of complex, diverse and risk-prone agricultural systems". Some of the chapters analyse macro-level tendencies; others look with a micro-lens at particular case studies. Parts of the PhD engage in a quantitative analysis of nationally representative data. Other parts draw conclusions from in-depth qualitative field research in particular local settings. Some chapters focus on policy makers' perspectives, others literally bring in the voices of the Rwandan peasants. We consider this variety of approaches both relevant and complementary for a comprehensive understanding of the process of rural change and polarization in livelihood profiles in the context of rural Rwanda. The first two chapters provide an analysis of the policy makers' perspective with regards to rural development. The first chapter is titled: "Striving for growth, bypassing the poor? A critical review of Rwanda's rural sector policies". It studies Rwanda's current rural policies, which aim to modernise and 'professionalise' the rural sector. The chapter points to the risk for currently formulated rural policy measures to be at the expense of the large mass of small-scale peasants. A second chapter, "Reengineering rural society: The visions and ambitions of Rwandan elites" illuminates a general trend of policy makers misplaced belief in the potential to socially engineer rural development. Based upon interviews conducted by the author in mid-2007, the chapter focuses upon three engineering ambitions: 1) policy makers aim to transform the agricultural sector into a professionalised motor for economic growth, with little place left for traditional smallholder agriculture; 2) policy makers have a vision on how to artificially upgrade the portrait of rural life by inserting 'modern' tools and concepts into the local realities, while hiding true poverty and inequality; 3) policy makers hope to transform Rwanda into a target-driven society from the highest up to the lowest level. The chapter takes the necessity of rural development and poverty reduction as the bench mark to point to the (potential) dangers, flaws and shortcomings of the reengineering mission of Rwandan policy makers. The next two chapters study the livelihoods of rural peasants on the basis of a quantitative approach. The third chapter, "Rural poverty and livelihood profiles in post-genocide Rwanda", identifies different livelihood profiles that prevail in the Rwandan rural post-conflict context. By means of exploratory tools such as principal component and cluster analysis, it combines variables that capture natural, physical, human, financial and social resources in combination with environmental factors to identify household groups with different livelihood profiles. The chapter also explores how household groups differ with regards to the intra-cluster incidence of poverty. Finally, for a subsample, it looks in detail at how the identified household clusters perceive changes in their living conditions between 2001 and 2004. The analysis allows identifying policies for poverty alleviation that take into account the different livelihood profiles and pathways in the rural setting. The fourth chapter focuses particularly upon the land resource, using a nationally representative database to analyse "the inverse relationship between farm size and productivity in rural Rwanda". Policies aiming for agricultural modernisation concentrate on promoting regional crop specialisation and monocropping. This chapter, however, identifies the strong inverse relationship between farm size and land productivity under the current land management system; also when taking into account farm fragmentation, crop diversification, frequency of multicropping and household size. In addition, increased farm fragmentation and a higher frequency of multicropping seem to have a positive (although modest) impact upon productivity. This seems to suggest that small-scale peasants' risk-cooping strategies not only protect them against risks but also pay off in terms of productivity. The chapter's findings are formulated at an aggregated meso level and are relevant for national rural policies. The final chapter, "Views from below on the pro-poor growth challenge: The case of rural Rwanda", is complementary to the previous two. It adopts a qualitative approach to focus on peasants' livelihoods and rural class differentiation at the micro-level. Based on field data from six case-study settings, we analyse local peasants' perceptions of the characteristics and degree of poverty for different locally-present socio-economic categories. This results in classifications that are based upon livelihood strategies (self-subsistent versus market-oriented peasants, agricultural and non-agricultural wage labour, …), and that relate much closer to local level dynamics (in comparison to the third and fourth chapter). We look at the opportunities and constraints of those categories, which are crucial determinants for their capacity to participate in growth strategies and for their social mobility potential. Further, we analyse how the peasant categories perceive specific policy measures included in the Rwandan government's 'pro-poor' agricultural strategies. Whereas the two quantitative chapters capture trends in rural livelihoods and land productivity at the macro level, and can claim representativity and external validity, they fail to capture local-level dynamics. The final chapter does provide insights into class (trans)formation processes at the local level, but can by no means claim validity beyond these local settings. Both approaches contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the process of rural change. The concluding chapter of the PhD is a reflection on the insights of the previous chapters with regards to the process of rural change and class (trans)formation in contemporary Rwanda. It looks at the causes, processes, mechanisms, contexts and symptoms of the rural differentiation process. It pleads for an alternative rural policy that promotes broad-based agricultural growth with a key role for small-scale peasants, in combination with an activation of the potential of (nearly) landless rural agents in the local off-farm sector. The technical feasibility and societal desirability of this solution for the Rwandan development problem has been proven in the previous chapters of the PhD. The final part of the concluding chapter however reflects upon the political feasibility of this technical solution, given the current political economy context. It points to the responsibility of donors to support mechanisms that allow bringing in the voices from below to the surface, the voices of the Rwandan small-scale peasants.

Dottorato di ricerca in Economia e territorio ; In agricoltura l'acqua è spesso un fattore produttivo limitante e soggetto a frequenti ed importanti periodi di scarsità, che incentiva una forte competizione per il suo impiego anche tra diversi settori, sia industriali che urbani. Avvalendosi del principio che l'uso familiare dell'acqua debba prevalere su quello produttivo, le Pubbliche Amministrazioni tendono a razionalizzarne l'utilizzo agricolo, attraverso consorzi per la gestione delle fonti d'acqua. Tuttavia, esiste ancora una forte necessità di calibrare la gestione delle risorse idriche a scopo irriguo, per perseguire obiettivi di natura economica e politica che riguardano la riduzione degli sprechi e l'allocazione efficiente. Il problema della gestione della risorsa idrica è reso ancora più rilevante e attuale dalle recenti osservazioni e teorie sul cambio climatico globale, che prospettano scenari futuri con una scarsità dell'acqua in aumento, accompagnata da modificazioni della variabilità degli eventi atmosferici che sono alla base della sua disponibilità. Una prima e importante difficoltà nasce dall'uso normativo del concetto di efficienza, in un'ottica di recupero dei costi. E' quindi d'interesse lo studio dei costi legati all'uso della risorsa idrica in agricoltura, per comprendere meglio in che direzione sarebbe opportuno spingere le politiche di gestione dell'acqua per il raggiungimento degli obiettivi comunitari e, più in generale, di traguardi di efficienza economica più sostenibili. Per una corretta e consapevole gestione delle risorse idriche, è necessaria un'analisi degli aspetti economici legati alla fornitura del servizio irriguo, per comprendere gli effetti che determinati interventi avranno sui benefici associati a tale servizio. E' sulla comprensione di questi aspetti della distribuzione dell'acqua a scopo irriguo che si incentra il lavoro di tesi. Per realizzare questo studio, è stata presa in esame l'area servita da un consorzio di bonifica e irrigazione in Sardegna. Tale scelta è da ritenersi interessante, giacché i sistemi di distribuzione dell'acqua irrigua e i metodi di tariffazione adottati da questo consorzio sono tra i più praticati in Italia e nell'area del Mediterraneo. Pertanto, le caratteristiche di questa area permettono di estendere le conclusioni del lavoro per considerazioni più generali. Attraverso un'approfondita ricostruzione delle tecnologie distributive e dei dati economici e tecnici, sono stati prodotti i dati per poter costruire un modello dei costi operativi della distribuzione irrigua. Il lavoro di raccolta dati ha permesso di comprendere come la realtà dei consorzi irrigui sia molto variegata e diversificata. A tal proposito, infatti, non va trascurato che nel corso degli anni le strutture consortili hanno operato delle ristrutturazioni, sia dal punto di vista organizzativo che tecnico. E' quindi auspicabile comprendere come queste ristrutturazioni hanno modificato le economie e le efficienze dei consorzi irrigui e quanto spazio può ancora sussistere per un ulteriore miglioramento di queste condizioni. All'interno dello stesso comprensorio, difatti, coesistono strutture molto diverse per la distribuzione dell'acqua irrigua che sono il risultato del processo di ammodernamento differenziato e disomogeneo dei vari distretti irrigui. L'approccio metodologico utilizzato è quello basato sulla funzione di costo logaritmica trascendente (translog), già ampiamente utilizzato in altre aree di studio dell'economia applicata, soprattutto nell'analisi dell'efficienza e nella valutazione del progresso tecnologico. In questo lavoro sono stati sviluppati 7 modelli econometrici con 3 diversi gradi di dettaglio nella specificazione della tecnologia. Questa differenzazione è stata utile per comprendere come alcuni aspetti peculiari dei diversi sistemi di distribuzione dell'acqua possano essere presi in considerazione nelle politiche di tariffazione dell'acqua irrigua. Esiste ancora una forte necessità di calibrare la gestione delle risorse idriche a scopo irriguo, per perseguire obiettivi di natura economica e politica che riguardano la riduzione degli sprechi e l'allocazione efficiente. Si è visto come il volume d'acqua fornito sia di fatto un elemento insufficiente per descrivere i costi operativi: la distribuzione dei volumi d'acqua su superfici più o meno estese ha impatti spesso più importanti dei volumi d'acqua in sé. Ciò è facilmente comprensibile, perché le strutture utilizzate nella distribuzione hanno dei costi anche di 'attivazione' e di mantenimento in funzione che sono più legati alla loro dimensione piuttosto che a loro livello operativo. Quando l'acqua viene distribuita per gravità si generano delle perdite di rete dovute a necessità tecnologiche e organizzative, che raggiungono anche il 30% dell'acqua immessa nei canali. Queste perdite non assumono alcun valore economico, tranne forse quando l'acqua deve essere pompata per brevi tratti collinari. Ciò è rilevante per la gestione del servizio irriguo, nel momento in cui si vuole regolare l'esternalità dello spreco di acqua generata dal consorzio attraverso la tariffazione. Dai risultati, emerge anche un sostanziale sotto utilizzo delle strutture che generano i costi fissi di fornitura: è importante specificare che l'implementazione del recupero costo pieno, richiesto dalla attuale normativa, non determini che in varie circostanze, gli agricoltori si trovino a pagare le inefficienze dei sistemi che gestiscono i servizi idrici. Certamente, la sola conoscenza dei costi di fornitura è incompleta per adottare un adeguato sistema di tariffazione. Lo studio dei costi operativi ha comunque dato un apporto significativo alla conoscenza sul funzionamento dei consorzi di bonifica e irrigazione ed i risultati ottenuti permettono di fare delle considerazioni sulle indicazioni di tariffazione introdotti dalla WFD. ; In agriculture the water is often a limiting factor and subject to frequent and important periods of scarcity, which encourages strong competition for its use even among different sectors, both industrial and urban areas. Using the principle that the family use of water should take precedence over the production, Public Administrations tend to rationalize the agricultural use, through consortia for the management of water sources. However, there is still a strong need to adjust the management of water resources for irrigation purposes, in pursuit of economic objectives and policy dealing with waste minimization and allocation efficiency. The management of water resources is made even more relevant and topical by recent observations and theories on global climate change, which envisage future scenarios with an increasing scarcity of water, accompanied by changes in the variability of atmospheric events that underlie the availability. A first and important difficulty arises from the use of the concept of regulatory efficiency, considering cost recovery. The study of the costs associated with the use of water resources in agriculture is therefore interesting to better understand in what direction we should push the water management policy for the achievement of EU objectives and, more generally, the goals of sustainable economic efficiency. For a correct and conscious management of water resources is necessary to analyze the economic aspects related to irrigation service supply, in order to understand the effects that certain actions will have on the benefits associated with such service. The thesis focuses on understanding of these aspects of water supply for irrigation purposes. In order to carry this study on, the area served by a consortium of drainage and irrigation in Sardinia has been examined. This choice can be considered interesting, since the irrigation water distribution systems and pricing methods adopted by this consortium are among the most practiced in Italy and the Mediterranean. Therefore, the characteristics of this area allow us to extend the conclusions of the work for more general interpretations. Through a detailed reconstruction of the distribution technologies and the economic and technical aspects, the data for constructing a model of the operational costs of the irrigation distribution have been produced. The work of data collection has made it clear that the reality of the consortium irrigation is very varied and diverse. In this regard, it should not be overlooked that over the years the facilities have operated consortium of restructuring, both organizationally and technically. It is therefore desirable to understand how these renovations have changed the economies and efficiencies of irrigation consortia and how much space can still exist for further improvement of these conditions. Within the same area, in fact, very different structures for irrigation water distribution coexist, and are the result of the variable and heterogeneous modernization process throughout the various irrigation districts. The methodological approach used is based on the transcendental logarithmic (Translog) cost function, already widely used in other areas of applied economics, particularly when analyzing and evaluating the efficiency of technological progress. In this work 7 econometric models were developed, with 3 different degrees of detail in the specification of the technology . This differentiation is helpful in understanding how certain distinctive features of different water distribution systems can be taken into account in the irrigation water pricing policies. There is still a strong need to balance the management of water resources for irrigation purposes, in pursuit of economic objectives and policy dealing with waste minimization and allocation efficiency. It is seen that the volume of water supplied is in fact inadequate to describe the operational costs: the distribution of volumes of water onto land is relevant when it is accounted for considering also the land on which it is distributed. This is easily understandable, because the structures used in the distribution have also costs for activation and continued operation that are more related to their size rather than their operational level. When the water is distributed by gravity, network losses appear, due to technological and organizational needs, which reach even 30% of the water distributed in the channels. These losses do not take any economic value, except perhaps when the water must be pumped over low hills. This is relevant for the management of irrigation service, when we want to adjust the externalities of waste water generated by the consortium through the pricing. The results also shows a substantial under use of the distribution facilities that generate the fixed costs of delivery. So it is important to specify that the implementation of full cost recovery required by current legislation determines that, in some circumstances, farmers are paying the inefficiencies of the systems that manage the water services. Certainly, the mere knowledge of supply costs is incomplete to adopt a proper system of charging. The study of operating costs has nevertheless made a significant contribution to knowledge on the functioning of the consortia of reclamation and irrigation, and the results obtained allow to make some considerations on the indications for pricing introduced by the WFD.

Introduction. Nowadays TNCs undoubtedly determine the dynamics and main trends of the world economy as a whole, control its main trends and technological level and to a large extent determine the rules of the game. On the other hand, TNCs can not fail to take into account the realities and trends that are formed in society, and are forced to adapt to them in their activities. One of the main such realities is the concept of sustainable development, analysis of the impact of which on the activities of TNCs will be devoted to this article.Obviously, neither the concept of exogenous nor the concept of endogenous economic growth does not fully take into account the environmental factors and challenges faced by modern society. In addition, none of the above-mentioned models of economic growth did not pay sufficient attention to social factors and stability issues. Therefore, the emergence of a new, ecological and economic model of growth, which would combine the achievements of natural and social sciences.Analysis of used sources. In the world economic science, TNC's were researched by such scholars as S. Agarval, P. Backley, D. Bennett, G. Vaenrich, R. Vernon, S. Gaimer, J. F. Gennart, C. Gill, C. Hofer, J. Danning, D. Datta, M. Casson, R. Kewz, C.D.D., J.L., T. Moran, T. Ozava, K. Omae, H. Pitilis, M. Porter, P. Rana, R. Reich, S. Rolf, J. Rotheb, F. Rout, M. and S. Tolchin, F. Trompenaars, A. Shapiro, K. Sharp; in Ukrainian science, certain aspects of TNC's activity were studied by O. Bilorus, O. Budkin, V. Butkevich, I. Gladiy, B. Gubsky, V. Dikan, V. Kisil, V. Melnyk, A. Moky, Y. Pakhomov, K. Panchenko, A. Pekhnyk, J. Poplavskaya, O. Rogach, A. Semenov, K. Semenov, S. Sokolenko, A. Filipenko, O. Shnirkov and others. At the same time, despite the large number of researches on TNCs, some aspects of TNCs' activity in the modern international business remain insufficiently elucidated and require further analysis.The purpose of the article. To conduct the theoretical aspects and practical recommendations of regulation of TNC activities according to the concept of sustainable development.Presentation of the main material. Obviously, neither the concept of exogenous nor the concept of endogenous economic growth does not fully take into account the environmental factors and challenges faced by modern society. In addition, none of the above-mentioned models of economic growth did not pay sufficient attention to social factors and stability issues. Therefore, the emergence of the emergence of a new, ecological and economic model of growth, which would combine the achievements of natural and social sciences.Such a concept was the model of sustainable development, formulated in the late 80's and approved in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, as well as approved in the Declaration on Environment and Development "Agenda for the 21st Century"The next stage in the development of this concept was the International Conference on Financing for Development (International Conference on Financing for Development), held March 18-22, 2002 in Monterey (Mexico), where the heads of the participating countries adopted a coordinated decision on the use of tax levers, investments in economic and social infrastructure, the development of capital markets through banking systems, balanced fiscal and monetary policies, the reduction of the impact of inflation, the promotion of high standards of economic growth, full employment, the eradication of poverty and price stability. These ideas were further developed in the framework of the World Summit on Sustainable Development from 26 August to 4 September 2002, which allowed setting goals and timelines for a wide range of issues, in particular, setting target targets with the provision of sanitation, the use and production of chemical products. As a result of the summit, more than 200 partnerships were announced in various areas of sustainable development in all regions, for which significant funding was allocated. The Johannesburg Implementation Plan and the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development were adopted within the framework of the Summit.In addition, the extremely important element of the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg was that international commitments were complemented by a series of voluntary partnership initiatives on sustainable development.The decision of the above-mentioned international meetings allowed us to proceed to the practical implementation of the decisions taken, which, in our time, with the corresponding periodic adjustment, is conducted under the guidance of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development.According to the UN Commission on Sustainable Development, its goal is to meet the needs of modern society without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.Accordingly, 5 basic principles are based on the concept of sustainable development:1) Economic development can be sustained and sustainable in order to meet the needs of the present generation, while not undermining the ability of future generations to meet their needs.2) The restrictions that exist in the field of exploitation of natural resources are relative, they relate only to the constraints imposed by the current level of technology and social organization, as well as the ability of the biosphere to self-healing.3) It is necessary to satisfy the basic needs of all people and to provide everyone with an opportunity of high-quality life.4) It is necessary to reconcile the state of life of those who enjoy excessive benefits (monetary and material), with the ecological potential of the planet, in particular regarding the use of energy.5) The size and pace of population growth should be consistent with the productive potential of the changing global ecosystem. It should be noted that this does not mean a return to Malthusianism, but it certainly requires the bringing of technologies and economic development to the level of pressing problems of mankind.Subsequently, this concept was adopted as the basis for the coordination of environmental and economic policies by governments of many states and even regional integration associations. In particular, the leaders of the European Union at the EU summit held in Göteborg in June 2001 adopted a joint strategy for sustainable development. This was the definition of the very concept of sustainable development. According to the declaration of the heads of 15 European countries, "sustainable development is in such a way as to meet the needs of the present generation of people, which would not endanger future generations". Although the strategy itself was largely declarative (in particular, the EU Commissioner for the Environment, Margot Wallström, expressed regret that the leaders of the countries "did not concentrate enough on concrete actions"), yet the EU leaders outlined a series of measures who should help build a sustainable society.In Ukraine, the Concept of Sustainable Development was approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine in 1997. In addition, within the framework of the joint Ukrainian-American project "The Program for the Promotion of Sustainable Development in Ukraine", with the participation of many leading scientists of Ukraine, a "Concept of Sustainable Development of Ukraine" was developed. It defines sustainable development as "the process of building the state on the basis of harmonization and harmonization of social, economic and environmental components in order to meet the needs of present and future generations," in which "a balanced solution to socio-economic problems, the maintenance of a favorable state of the environment and natural resource potential in order to meet the vital needs of present and future generations ".At the same time, the authors of the concept especially emphasize that "the basis of sustainable development is the parity of relations in the triad" man - economy - nature. "Sustainable development combines the process of survival and reproduction of the nation's gene pool, the activation of the role of each individual in society, ensuring its rights and freedoms, preservation of the natural environment, formation of conditions for the restoration of the biosphere and its local ecosystems, orientation towards reducing the level of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment and harmonizing human development in nature. "It is also important to realize that "Ukraine can ensure the transition to sustainable development exclusively through the effective use of all kinds of resources, structural and technological modernization of production, using the creative potential of society for the building and prosperity of the state," and also that "the definition of ways to ensure sustainable the development of the state should be based on the formulation of strategic goals of state building taking into account the realities of the present, the trends of the world community, the place and role of Ukraine in Europe and in the world ".Obviously, the concept of sustainable development causes a significant, but in many respects, determinants of the impact on the whole system of modern international business. Accordingly, the development of a strategy for integration into a globalized economy is extremely important in taking into account the specifics and constraints imposed by the concept of sustainable development and the documents and criteria adopted on its basis. At the same time, the key weight takes into account the above mentioned peculiarities when regulating the activities of transnational corporations, which at the moment is definitely one of the most powerful factors in the integration of Ukraine into the system of world economic relations.There exists a fundamental possibility of harmonizing the impact of transnational corporations on the territory of Ukraine with the concept of sustainable development. The optimum for this is the use as an optimization criterion of the type of the most intensively used TNC resources and their expansion strategies applied to the relevant market.Conclusions. The analysis of the concept of sustainable development proposed by the UN and the "Concept of Sustainable Development of Ukraine" developed on its basis allows us to draw conclusions about the existence of a fundamental possibility of harmonizing the impact of transnational corporations on the territory of Ukraine with the concept of sustainable development.The optimum for this is the use as an optimization criterion of the type of the most intensively used TNC resources and their expansion strategies applied to the relevant market. ; Проведено аналіз, на основі якого обґрунтовано, що, з одного боку, ТНК безперечно визначають динаміку та основні тенденції розвитку світової економіки загалом, контролюють її основні тренди та технологічний рівень і значною мірою визначають правила гри. З іншого боку, у реаліях сучасного міжнародного бізнесу ТНК теж не можуть не враховувати реалії та тенденції, що складаються у суспільстві, і змушені підлаштовуватися під них у своїй діяльності. Однією з основних таких реалій є концепція сталого розвитку, аналізу впливу якої на діяльність ТНК і присвячено дану статтю.Показано, що, що ні концепція екзогенного, ні концепція ендогенного економічного зростання не враховують повною мірою екологічних чинників та викликів, що стоять перед сучасним суспільством. Крім того, жодна зі згаданих моделей економічного зростання не приділяла достатньої уваги соціальним чинникам та проблемам стабільності. Тому назріла потреба формування нової, еколого-економічної моделі зростання сучасних ТНК, що поєднала б у собі здобутки природничих та суспільних наук,і дозволила б задовольняти потреби сучасного суспільства, не ставлячи під загрозу здатність майбутніх поколінь задовольняти свої потреби.Визначено, що ключовим критерієм при виборі оптимальної моделі поведінки стосовно тієї чи іншої ТНК повинен бути тип ресурсів, який вона найбільше використовує у своїй діяльності. При цьому оптимізацію державної політики стосовно ТНК найдоцільніше визначати відповідно до стратегії експансії, яку вона використовує на українському ринку.

Moving back to the land is, from different perspectives, a fascinating topic that has been on stage since the sixties. Since then, new forms of rurality have become an upcoming phenomenon on the media, still today we often hear of unexpected success of rural entrepreneurs who reinvented their life, they represent their triumph as reaction to market failure and city-life depression. From a sociological point of view, it is an exciting counter-cultural subject. How to study neo-rurality nowadays? Speaking in contemporary terms, we can talk about changes in rurality, taking Rural Social Innovation as our approach. As we'll see, social innovation is as appropriate as ambiguous when it comes to the research implementation, lacking in the specificity of the definition. Therefore, I decided to integrate the conceptual framework with two more solid theoretical approaches: social capital and moral market, which may analytically help understand and investigate the topic. From that, a research question rises, followed by an intense fieldwork. Let's go step by step, starting by introducing the study. a) The topic: Neo-rurality In the first chapter I explain the topic. Rurality studies connect different disciplines: sociology (marginality, mobility, market dynamics); geography (distance and periphery); policies and normative discourse (inner areas and rurality). 'Back-to-the-land' generally refers to the adoption of agriculture as a full-time vocation by people who have come from non-agricultural lifestyles or education. Originated in the 1960s, it situates back-to-the-landers as part of broader counterculture practices (Belasco, 2006). The back-to-the-land movement of the 1960s and 70s is often framed in relation to general cultural currents that encouraged "dropping out" of mainstream society in search of alternatives. "Multiplying fivefold between 1965 and 1970" writes Belasco (1989: 76) of communal back-to-the-land projects, "3,500 or so country communes put the counterculture into group practice". During the 1970s, the "protestant neo-ruralism" (neoruralismo protestatario, Merlo, 2006) conceives rural areas as the place where an alternative way of life can be experienced through the creation of an alternative agricultural production process. That approach refuses completely the Green Revolution (GR) paradigm (Shiva, 2016). Later, the development of alternative agricultural production was embedded in the agro-ecological paradigm, then absorbed by the global industrial system through the creation of organic certifications. Such a process of integration has developed a new critical reflection on food production and market relations. Neo-rurality is the frame that collects different approaches which are changing rural areas on different levels. It calls for attention to the relation between environmental issues, rural crisis and territorial issues (Ferraresi, 2013). Neo-rural farmers try a new model that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable, protects biodiversity and promotes local quality food. In fact, production of quality food is key for the activation of practices and community relationships within the horizon of agro-ecological values. In Italy, pioneers of the alternative movements came from different backgrounds: the radical left, the ecologist movement and the anti-conformist or alternative movements. Also, a pioneering phase was characterized by a multiplicity of regional-level and often unconnected initiatives (Fonte, Cucchi, 2015). Ferraresi (2013) describes 'Neo-rurality' as a new, social and complex economy. Born partly in response to expansion of industrial food and partly due to the survival of some systems that resisted to conversion, we see emerging new or resurgent forms of production, trade and consumption, latterly conceptualised by academics as 'Alternative Agro-Food Networks' (AAFNs) or 'Alternative Food Networks' (AFNs). Movements become key players in the definition of new market places (Friedmann, 2005). Food movements act as an engine of awareness in consumption, and address issues that are core for social and media consensus, for instance health, environment, quality of life (Goodman, 1999), and also social justice and fair trade (Elzen et al., 2010). A second important effect of AAFNs is the empowerment of consumers, a leverage on citizenship action for the transformation of consumption behaviours into political action (Goodman, DuPuis, 2002). Exponents of neo-rural economy, as part of AAFNs, have promoted participation in alternative infrastructures contrasting the conventional market system, developing specific organisational forms, negotiating new forms of collaborative economy (Kostakis, Bauwens, 2014). They thus blur the distinction between public sphere and private sphere (Tormey, 2007). The AAFNs, as shown in the article by Murano and Forno (2017), has three main drivers shaping the form of development of this type of collective action: 1. Greater citizen awareness around economic, social and environmental sustainability issues; 2. The loss of purchasing power within important portions of the middle class, due to the increasing unemployment rates following the recession which started in 2007-2008; 3. General loss of meaning, due to the consumerism and the depletion of social relations, along with the decoupling of GDP growth and happiness (as suggested by the paradox Easterlin, 1974), people's search for a meaning in their life (Castells, Caraça, Cardoso, 2012) which seems to have been lost in a consumer society threatened by an economic, environmental and social crisis (D'Alisa et al., 2015). Tradition of local governance studies focuses on central areas, hi-tech districts, city-regions, overlooking the role of less industrialized areas, that actually represent two thirds of Italy. Northern Italy has been considered as a cluster of industrial development. Given current globalization forces, taking for granted recent government interest in undeveloped areas, inner areas have a stake in getting involved in wider market dynamics and renewed resources. An important contribution to the EU debate on territorial marginalisation has been provided by the Italian government's innovative approach to 'Inner Areas' (DPS, 2014). The government mapped all municipalities and categorized them according to their degree of remoteness from services, consistently with criteria that the debate on Foundational Economy indicates as key factors of spatial (in)justice. The emerging picture offers a polycentric connotation of the Italian territory. The geography of the inner peripheries includes mountain and coastal areas, as well as hilly and lowland areas, but provides no conclusive evidence to establish correlations between morphological conditions and degree of remoteness. The second chapter is dedicated to theoretical approaches: Rural Social Innovation, Social Capital and Sociology of Markets. b) Rural Social Innovation The neo-rurality phenomenon is strictly connected to Rural Social Innovation. Social innovation is a term on everyone's lips, indicating change and development, including social effects. Social Innovation is not specifically mentioned in literature on regional development, but in the more nuanced models we find that most important features are trust among actors, informal ties and untraded interdependencies between actors, which are key factors determining positive differentials in economic performance. Rural Social Innovation is helpfully used in many studies (Bock, 2012). Still, even though it is currently a very relevant phenomenon, Social Innovation itself is a critic concept, it is both one of the most common and ant the most unclear concepts nowadays. Because of its credits to local development, social networks and economic outcomes, I decided to use two more analytical sociological concepts to understand the phenomenon: social capital and sociology of markets. c) Social Capital Individuals generally pursue major life events—marriage, occupational choice—as part of a social network or group. As an exemplum, engaging in the creation of a new firm is generally done in a network of social relationships (Aldrich, 2005; Reynolds, 1991; Thornton, 1999); in that sense entrepreneurship can be considered a social phenomenon, rather than solely one of individual career choice. Social capital is a conscious use of embeddedness, the use of relations and resources for a purpose. According to Coleman (1988), social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity but a variety of different entities, with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspects of social structures, and they facilitate certain actions of actors within the structure. Coleman refers to the social structure that enables access to resources. Additionally, we can also recall Bourdieu, who sees social capital as the aggregate of actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance or recognition. And Putnam pointing at three components: moral obligation and norms; social values (trust); and social networks (voluntary association). d) Sociology of Markets The structure of markets can be reduced to its minimal components, that are a buyer and two sellers which compete according to some defined rules (Aspers, 2006b). Relations among actors can be of exchange, as between buyers and sellers, or of competition, as between producers. In the structure of markets, people also mobilize beliefs, ethics, values and views of the common good to talk about the effects of market processes (Boltanski, Thevenot, 2006). As pointed in the recent book published by Granovetter "Society and Economy" (2017:28) The fact that people seek simultaneously economic and non-economic goals is an unprecedented challenge for that economic analysis that focuses only on one of the two horns, as for sociology that focuses only on the other. Current theories of action in social sciences offer little knowledge of how individuals mix these goals. We can therefore recall Zelizer (2007) highlighting that economists and sociologists face a common presumption: the twinned stories of separate spheres and hostile worlds. Separate spheres indicate a distinction between two arenas, one for rational economic activity, a sphere of calculation and efficiency, and one for personal relations, a sphere of sentiment and solidarity. The companion doctrine of hostile worlds affirms that contact between the spheres generates contamination and disorder: economic rationality degrades intimacy, and close relationships obstruct efficiency. Moral economy is based on this attack on the common presumption. According to these considerations on ways that shape relationships and market, the main question that rises is: "Are values and social relationship separate from the market?". e) The Research During my PhD studies I worked on an answer to this question. In the third chapter I present the case of alternative agro-food movements and neo-rurality in urban and inner areas in the region of Campania (southern Italy). The study is based on qualitative research design, composed of fieldwork and interviews, undertaken in Campania during 2014-2016, where inner and central areas are the scenery of innovative development processes, founded on structural and territorial resources, as well as on individual and social capitals. Here I present you with a quote from an Italian journalist, Alessandro Leogrande, recalling the most important anthropologist of southern Italy, Ernesto Demartino: In a complex society, old elements and new elements continue to coexist, traits of modernity and traits of archaisms, pre-Christian segments and post-Christian segments, or entirely de-Christianised ones. It seems to me that the [Italian] South of these years, precisely in the light of a Demartino's analysis, fully returns the overlapping of these various layers. (Leogrande, 2016) I wish you a pleasant journey throughout my pages, at the discovery of neo-rural dynamics in southern Italy, a special place for meeting contradictions, traces of ancient and futuristic art, holy and desacralized behaviours, traditional and innovative practices.

Проведено аналіз, на основі якого обґрунтовано, що, з одного боку, ТНК безперечно визначають динаміку та основні тенденції розвитку світової економіки загалом, контролюють її основні тренди та технологічний рівень і значною мірою визначають правила гри. З іншого боку, у реаліях сучасного міжнародного бізнесу ТНК теж не можуть не враховувати реалії та тенденції, що складаються у суспільстві, і змушені підлаштовуватися під них у своїй діяльності. Однією з основних таких реалій є концепція сталого розвитку, аналізу впливу якої на діяльність ТНК і присвячено дану статтю.Показано, що, що ні концепція екзогенного, ні концепція ендогенного економічного зростання не враховують повною мірою екологічних чинників та викликів, що стоять перед сучасним суспільством. Крім того, жодна зі згаданих моделей економічного зростання не приділяла достатньої уваги соціальним чинникам та проблемам стабільності. Тому назріла потреба формування нової, еколого-економічної моделі зростання сучасних ТНК, що поєднала б у собі здобутки природничих та суспільних наук,і дозволила б задовольняти потреби сучасного суспільства, не ставлячи під загрозу здатність майбутніх поколінь задовольняти свої потреби.Визначено, що ключовим критерієм при виборі оптимальної моделі поведінки стосовно тієї чи іншої ТНК повинен бути тип ресурсів, який вона найбільше використовує у своїй діяльності. При цьому оптимізацію державної політики стосовно ТНК найдоцільніше визначати відповідно до стратегії експансії, яку вона використовує на українському ринку. ; Introduction. Nowadays TNCs undoubtedly determine the dynamics and main trends of the world economy as a whole, control its main trends and technological level and to a large extent determine the rules of the game. On the other hand, TNCs can not fail to take into account the realities and trends that are formed in society, and are forced to adapt to them in their activities. One of the main such realities is the concept of sustainable development, analysis of the impact of which on the activities of TNCs will be devoted to this article.Obviously, neither the concept of exogenous nor the concept of endogenous economic growth does not fully take into account the environmental factors and challenges faced by modern society. In addition, none of the above-mentioned models of economic growth did not pay sufficient attention to social factors and stability issues. Therefore, the emergence of a new, ecological and economic model of growth, which would combine the achievements of natural and social sciences.Analysis of used sources. In the world economic science, TNC's were researched by such scholars as S. Agarval, P. Backley, D. Bennett, G. Vaenrich, R. Vernon, S. Gaimer, J. F. Gennart, C. Gill, C. Hofer, J. Danning, D. Datta, M. Casson, R. Kewz, C.D.D., J.L., T. Moran, T. Ozava, K. Omae, H. Pitilis, M. Porter, P. Rana, R. Reich, S. Rolf, J. Rotheb, F. Rout, M. and S. Tolchin, F. Trompenaars, A. Shapiro, K. Sharp; in Ukrainian science, certain aspects of TNC's activity were studied by O. Bilorus, O. Budkin, V. Butkevich, I. Gladiy, B. Gubsky, V. Dikan, V. Kisil, V. Melnyk, A. Moky, Y. Pakhomov, K. Panchenko, A. Pekhnyk, J. Poplavskaya, O. Rogach, A. Semenov, K. Semenov, S. Sokolenko, A. Filipenko, O. Shnirkov and others. At the same time, despite the large number of researches on TNCs, some aspects of TNCs' activity in the modern international business remain insufficiently elucidated and require further analysis.The purpose of the article. To conduct the theoretical aspects and practical recommendations of regulation of TNC activities according to the concept of sustainable development.Presentation of the main material. Obviously, neither the concept of exogenous nor the concept of endogenous economic growth does not fully take into account the environmental factors and challenges faced by modern society. In addition, none of the above-mentioned models of economic growth did not pay sufficient attention to social factors and stability issues. Therefore, the emergence of the emergence of a new, ecological and economic model of growth, which would combine the achievements of natural and social sciences.Such a concept was the model of sustainable development, formulated in the late 80's and approved in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, as well as approved in the Declaration on Environment and Development "Agenda for the 21st Century"The next stage in the development of this concept was the International Conference on Financing for Development (International Conference on Financing for Development), held March 18-22, 2002 in Monterey (Mexico), where the heads of the participating countries adopted a coordinated decision on the use of tax levers, investments in economic and social infrastructure, the development of capital markets through banking systems, balanced fiscal and monetary policies, the reduction of the impact of inflation, the promotion of high standards of economic growth, full employment, the eradication of poverty and price stability. These ideas were further developed in the framework of the World Summit on Sustainable Development from 26 August to 4 September 2002, which allowed setting goals and timelines for a wide range of issues, in particular, setting target targets with the provision of sanitation, the use and production of chemical products. As a result of the summit, more than 200 partnerships were announced in various areas of sustainable development in all regions, for which significant funding was allocated. The Johannesburg Implementation Plan and the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development were adopted within the framework of the Summit.In addition, the extremely important element of the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg was that international commitments were complemented by a series of voluntary partnership initiatives on sustainable development.The decision of the above-mentioned international meetings allowed us to proceed to the practical implementation of the decisions taken, which, in our time, with the corresponding periodic adjustment, is conducted under the guidance of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development.According to the UN Commission on Sustainable Development, its goal is to meet the needs of modern society without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.Accordingly, 5 basic principles are based on the concept of sustainable development:1) Economic development can be sustained and sustainable in order to meet the needs of the present generation, while not undermining the ability of future generations to meet their needs.2) The restrictions that exist in the field of exploitation of natural resources are relative, they relate only to the constraints imposed by the current level of technology and social organization, as well as the ability of the biosphere to self-healing.3) It is necessary to satisfy the basic needs of all people and to provide everyone with an opportunity of high-quality life.4) It is necessary to reconcile the state of life of those who enjoy excessive benefits (monetary and material), with the ecological potential of the planet, in particular regarding the use of energy.5) The size and pace of population growth should be consistent with the productive potential of the changing global ecosystem. It should be noted that this does not mean a return to Malthusianism, but it certainly requires the bringing of technologies and economic development to the level of pressing problems of mankind.Subsequently, this concept was adopted as the basis for the coordination of environmental and economic policies by governments of many states and even regional integration associations. In particular, the leaders of the European Union at the EU summit held in Göteborg in June 2001 adopted a joint strategy for sustainable development. This was the definition of the very concept of sustainable development. According to the declaration of the heads of 15 European countries, "sustainable development is in such a way as to meet the needs of the present generation of people, which would not endanger future generations". Although the strategy itself was largely declarative (in particular, the EU Commissioner for the Environment, Margot Wallström, expressed regret that the leaders of the countries "did not concentrate enough on concrete actions"), yet the EU leaders outlined a series of measures who should help build a sustainable society.In Ukraine, the Concept of Sustainable Development was approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine in 1997. In addition, within the framework of the joint Ukrainian-American project "The Program for the Promotion of Sustainable Development in Ukraine", with the participation of many leading scientists of Ukraine, a "Concept of Sustainable Development of Ukraine" was developed. It defines sustainable development as "the process of building the state on the basis of harmonization and harmonization of social, economic and environmental components in order to meet the needs of present and future generations," in which "a balanced solution to socio-economic problems, the maintenance of a favorable state of the environment and natural resource potential in order to meet the vital needs of present and future generations ".At the same time, the authors of the concept especially emphasize that "the basis of sustainable development is the parity of relations in the triad" man - economy - nature. "Sustainable development combines the process of survival and reproduction of the nation's gene pool, the activation of the role of each individual in society, ensuring its rights and freedoms, preservation of the natural environment, formation of conditions for the restoration of the biosphere and its local ecosystems, orientation towards reducing the level of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment and harmonizing human development in nature. "It is also important to realize that "Ukraine can ensure the transition to sustainable development exclusively through the effective use of all kinds of resources, structural and technological modernization of production, using the creative potential of society for the building and prosperity of the state," and also that "the definition of ways to ensure sustainable the development of the state should be based on the formulation of strategic goals of state building taking into account the realities of the present, the trends of the world community, the place and role of Ukraine in Europe and in the world ".Obviously, the concept of sustainable development causes a significant, but in many respects, determinants of the impact on the whole system of modern international business. Accordingly, the development of a strategy for integration into a globalized economy is extremely important in taking into account the specifics and constraints imposed by the concept of sustainable development and the documents and criteria adopted on its basis. At the same time, the key weight takes into account the above mentioned peculiarities when regulating the activities of transnational corporations, which at the moment is definitely one of the most powerful factors in the integration of Ukraine into the system of world economic relations.There exists a fundamental possibility of harmonizing the impact of transnational corporations on the territory of Ukraine with the concept of sustainable development. The optimum for this is the use as an optimization criterion of the type of the most intensively used TNC resources and their expansion strategies applied to the relevant market.Conclusions. The analysis of the concept of sustainable development proposed by the UN and the "Concept of Sustainable Development of Ukraine" developed on its basis allows us to draw conclusions about the existence of a fundamental possibility of harmonizing the impact of transnational corporations on the territory of Ukraine with the concept of sustainable development.The optimum for this is the use as an optimization criterion of the type of the most intensively used TNC resources and their expansion strategies applied to the relevant market.

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :공과대학 기계항공공학부,2020. 2. 송한호. ; 본 논문에서는 리서치옥탄가(Research octane number; RON)가 100으로 고정된 상황에서 가솔린-에탄올 혼합 연료 내 에탄올 함량을 최적화하여 불꽃점화(Spark ignition; SI)엔진에서의 노킹을 억제하는 방법에 관해 논하였다. 이를 위해 에탄올표준연료(Ethanol reference fuel; ERF) 내 에탄올 함량 혼합을 바꾸어가며 총 4가지 테스트연료를 선정한 다음, 급속압축장치를 이용하여 해당연료의 점화지연을 측정하였다. 측정결과를 바탕으로 각 ERF의 노킹특성이 엔진운전조건에 따라 어떻게 변화하는지를 분석하였으며, 이를 통해 임의의 엔진운전조건에서 최적의 에탄올 함량을 도출하는 방법을 제시하였다. 본 연구의 첫 번째 목표는 엔진운전조건에 따라 실린더 내 온도-압력 프로파일이 변화할 시, 서로 다른 ERF연료들의 노킹 특성이 각각 어떻게 변화하는지를 분석하는 것이다. 이를 위해 온도, 압력 및 에탄올 함량 변화에 따른 점화지연을 측정하고, 회귀분석을 통해 이에 대한 경험식을 도출하였다. 그 후, 0-D 2구역 SI엔진 시뮬레이션을 사용하여 다양한 엔진운전조건 변화에 따른 온도-압력 프로파일의 편차를 계산한 뒤, 온도-압력 프로파일의 편차가 점화지연을 어떻게 변화시키는지 정량적으로 분석하였다. 그 결과, 테스트연료의 점화지연은 RON이 동일함에도 불구하고 온도 및 압력에 대해 상이한 의존성을 나타내는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 특히, 에탄올 함량이 높을 수록 점화지연의 활성화 에너지가 높기 때문에 온도 편차 ΔT/T에 더 민감하며, 압력 편차 ΔP/P에 덜 민감한 것을 발견하였다. 또한, 점화지연에 대한 온도-압력 편차의 영향은 ΔT/T가 (γ-1)/γ ΔP/P와 동일한 경우에만 에탄올 함량과 무관하다는 것이 밝혀졌다. 본 결과는 Kalghatgi의 K 값 원리에서 예측 한 것과 일치하는 것으로 확인되었으며. 결과적으로 본 연구에서 사용한 방법론을 통해 엔진운전조건에 따른 연료 별 노킹 특성에 대한 새로운 관점을 제시할 수 있었다. 상기 결과는 외부 배기 가스 재순환(External exhaust gas recirculation; external-EGR)을 사용하는 조건에서도 적용할 수 있도록 확장되었다. 앞선 방법론과 유사하게, External-EGR이 엔진 내 점화지연에 미치는 영향을 희석 효과 및 온도-압력 프로파일 효과로 나누어 개별적으로 평가하였다. 그 결과, External-EGR의 희석효과는 연료 내 에탄올 함량이 10 %일 때(ERF10) 극대화된다는 사실을 발견하였다. 이 원인을 분석하기 위해 회귀 분석을 진행한 결과, 화염전파 동안 미연소가스에서 방출된 열량과 희석 효과의 크기 사이에 강한 상관관계가 있음을 발견 하였다. 따라서, ERF10가 희석효과에 가장 민감한 이유는 화염전파 동안의 열 방출량이 크기 때문인 것으로 이해된다. 한편, External-EGR에 의한 온도-압력 프로파일 효과는 연료 내 함량이 많을수록 더 크게 나타나는 것을 확인하였으며, 이는 External-EGR에 의한 온도-압력 프로파일의 편차가 항상 ΔT/T>(γ-1)/γ ΔP/P의 조건을 만족시키기 때문인 것을 알 수 있었다. 결과적으로, RON측정조건에서 Externa-EGR이 사용될 시 최적의 에탄올 함량은 10 %로 확인되었다. 이에 더하여, 엔진속도가 변화함에 따라 화염전파 동안의 열 방출량이 줄어드는 상황을 모사하여, 최적의 에탄올 함량이 엔진속도에 따라 0 %에서 10 %까지 변할 수 있다는 점도 알 수 있었다. 엔진운전조건에 따른 최적 에탄올함량에 대한 이해를 바탕으로, 대한민국 내 SI엔진차량군의 노킹억제를 최대화할 수 있는 최적 에탄올 함량을 제시하였다. 이와 관련하여, 2018년 대한민국 자동차판매통계를 이용하여, 각 SI엔진모델 별 판매량을 도출하였다. 그 후, 0-D 2 구역 SI엔진 모델을 사용하여 노킹경계선(Detonation borderline; DBL) 조건에서의 각 SI엔진모델 내 열역학적 상태를 계산하였다. 그 결과, 2018 년 대한민국에서 판매된 SI엔진차량군의 72 %가 ERF30이 최적인 영역에서 운행되는 것을 알 수 있었다. 또한 엔진속도가 빨라질수록 DBL조건에서의 실린더 내 압력이 증가하여 ERF30이 최적인 영역에서 운행되는 SI엔진차량이군이 더 많아지는 것을 확인하였다. 본 연구결과를 확장하여, 미래에 External-EGR이 활발히 사용되는 상황에서 최적의 에탄올함량이 어떻게 변화할 것인지를 분석하였다. 결과적으로, Extern-EGR이 도입됨에 따라 최적의 에탄올 함량은 ERF10에 가까워 질 것이며, 이는 ERF10에서 External-EGR의 희석 효과가 극대화되기 때문인 것으로 밝혀졌다. 그러나 엔진속도가 빨라짐에 따라 희석 효과가 줄어들기 때문에, 고RPM영역에서는 External-EGR에 관계없이 ERF30가 여전히 최적인 것으로 확인되었다. 본 연구는 다양한 엔진운행조건에 따라 연료 별 점화지연 특성을 분석하고 본 결과와 노킹 현상 사이의 상관 관계를 제시한 최초의 실험연구이다. 또한, 본 연구는 임의의 엔진운행조건에서 최적의 에탄올함량을 결정하는 다이어그램을 제안하여, 향후 대한민국에 가솔린-에탄올 혼합연료가 도입될 시 최적에탄올 함량을 결정할 수 있도록 하였다는 점에서도 의의를 지닌다. ; This dissertation is devoted to optimize the ethanol content in gasoline-ethanol blend fuel with a fixed RON of 100, for maximizing antiknock characteristics in spark-ignition (SI) engines of light duty fleet in South Korea. To this end, the ethanol reference fuels (ERFs), which is a blend of ethanol and primary reference fuel, with varying ethanol content were chosen as surrogate fuels, then their auto-ignition characteristics were measured on rapid compression machine (RCM). The measurement was manipulated to quantitatively analyze the dependency of knocking characteristics of each ERF on engine operating condition from the aspect of chemical kinetics, whose results will eventually derive the optimal ethanol content with varying engine operating condition. The first objective of this study was to analyze the dependency of knocking characteristic of various ERFs on temperature–pressure profile of engine operating condition. To this end, an empirical correlation of the ignition delay with varying temperature, pressure, and ethanol content was derived based on a regression analysis using ignition delay measurement. Then, the deviation in the temperature–pressure profile owing to changes in various engine operating parameters was calculated using a 0-D two zone SI engine simulation. Based on these results, it was quantified how the individual effects of temperature deviation and pressure deviation affect the ignition delay of each tested fuel. Consequently, it was found that the ignition delay of the tested fuels exhibits different dependencies on the temperature and pressure despite a fixed RON. In particular, the ignition delay of the fuel with the higher ethanol content is more sensitive to the temperature deviation, ΔT/T, owing to its higher activation energy, whereas it is less sensitive to the pressure deviation, ΔP/P. Moreover, it was revealed that the effect of temperature–pressure deviation on the ignition delay is independent of the ethanol content, if and only if ΔT/T is equal to (γ-1)/γ*ΔP/P, where γ is the specific heat ratio of the end gas. The results of this study were verified to be consistent with those predicted from Kalghatgi's K value principle. Consequently, both approaches exhibited the same result on the knocking characteristics of various ERFs under varying engine operating conditions. The above results were expanded to cover the engine operating condition with external-exhaust-gas-recirculation (EGR), where the thermodynamic state of end gas is significantly varied with the rate of dilution. Similar as the analysis on the effect of temperature-pressure effect, the total effect of external-EGR on the ignition delay of the simulated end gas was divided into two effects affecting the auto-ignition behavior: dilution effect and temperature–pressure profile effect, then each effect was evaluated separately. As a result, the dilution effect by adding external-EGR was maximized when the fuel is ERF10. With a regression analysis, it was found that there is the correlation between the amount of dilution effect and the amount of pre-heat release in the end gas during a flame propagation; therefore, it is understood that ERF10 is the most sensitive to dilution effect due to its pre-heat release characteristic. On the other hand, ERF with lower ethanol content was more sensitive to temperature–pressure effect by external-EGR on the ignition delay. It is found out that the deviation of temperature–pressure profile by external-EGR always satisfies the condition of ΔT/T>(γ-1)/γ*ΔP/P; therefore, the temperature–pressure effect of the fuel with lower ethanol content is higher than the other fuels, due to its lower sensitivity of ignition delay on temperature. Consequently, ERF10 has the highest external-EGR sensitivity in anti-knock behavior at RON test condition, and it is further discussed that the optimum ethanol content for external-EGR strategy could vary from ERF0 to ERF10 according to engine speed. Based on the understanding of the effect of engine operating condition on the knocking characteristics of various ERFs, the ethanol content was optimized for maximizing knock suppression of light duty fleet in South Korea. In this regard, the sales volumes of each SI engine models was achieved from the statistics for model year 2018 in South Korea, which can be found from the database of KAMA. Then, the thermodynamic state of each SI engine design at detonation borderline (DBL) condition with varying engine speed were calculated using 0-D two-zone SI engine model. As a result, it was found that 72 % of SI engines sold for model year 2018 operates on the thermodynamic state where ERF30 is optimal for knock suppression. Moreover, as engine speed get faster, in-cylinder pressure at DBL condition increases, and more SI engines becomes operated on the thermodynamic state where ERF30 is optimal. The analysis was expanded to how the optimal ethanol content changes on the scenario that external-EGR is widely used in the future. Consequently, it was found that the introduction of external-EGR will makes the optimal ethanol content to be ERF10, which is the most sensitive to dilution effect of external-EGR. However, as the engine speed gets faster, the priority of ERF10 on dilution effect was surpassed by the priority of ERF30 on pressure effect, thus ERF30 still be optimal at the faster engine speed regardless of external-EGR. This is the first experimental study to analyze the effect of engine operating condition on the ignition delay of various ERFs and develop quantitative correlations between ignition delay and knocking phenomena, reflecting operating conditions of modern engines. Moreover, this study suggested the useful diagram determining the optimal ethanol content at an arbitrary engine operating condition, which can be manipulated for government to determine the optimal ethanol content in gasoline-ethanol blend fuel suitable for the countries. ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Research background 1 1.1.1 Regulations on carbon dioxide emissions and petroleum consumption from light duty vehicles 1 1.1.2 Advance in engine design for high thermal efficiency 5 1.1.3 Knocking 8 1.1.4 Ethanol as an antiknock additive 11 1.1.5 Optimal ethanol content for a fixed RON 13 1.2 Literature review 15 1.2.1 New knock metrics 15 1.2.2 Optimization of fuel composition 17 1.3 Research objective and implication 18 1.4 Summary 19 Chapter 2. Methodology 21 2.1 Fuel matrix 21 2.2 0-D two-zone SI engine model 22 2.2.1 Determination of representative engine operating condition 22 2.2.2 Governing equation for the model 23 2.3 Rapid compression machine experiment 30 2.3.1 Measurement procedure and data processing 30 2.3.2 Active manipulation of compression process for simulating the flame propagation process in SI engine 38 Chapter 3. Effect of temperaturepressure profile of the end gas on optimal ethanol content 43 3.1 Engine simulation for varying engine operating conditions 44 3.2 Regression analysis on the ignition delay data 48 3.3 Quantitative analysis on the effect of engine operating condition on knocking characteristics 56 3.4 Uncertainty Quantification of E_T, E_P, and E_TP 57 3.5 The effect of engine operating condition on the knocking characteristics 58 3.6 Dependency of optimal ethanol content on the engine design 62 3.7 Analogy with K value principle 67 3.8 Summary 71 Chapter 4. Effect of external exhaust gas recirculation on optimal ethanol content 74 4.1 Engine simulation for the engine operating condition with external-EGR 76 4.2 Regression analysis on the ignition delay data 78 4.3 Quantitative analysis on the effect of engine operating condition on knocking characteristics 84 4.4 The effect of external-EGR on the knocking characteristics 85 4.4.1 Dilution effect 85 4.4.2 Temperature and pressure profile effect 88 4.4.3 The total effect of external-EGR 90 4.5 Dependency of the effect of external-EGR on engine speed 91 4.6 Summary 94 Chapter 5. Ethanol content optimization for light duty fleet in South Korea 95 5.1 Optimal ethanol content diagram 96 5.2 Thermodynamic state of SI engines in South Korea 98 5.3 Optimal ethanol content maximizing knock suppression in South Korea 103 5.4 Summary 106 Chapter 6. Conclusion 107 6.1 Knocking analysis based on the ignition delay 107 6.2 Optimal ethanol content for South Korea 110 6.3 Future work 111 Nomenclature 113 Abbreviation 118 Reference 121 국문초록 134 ; Doctor

Keyword: widening participation, non-traditional students, teacher strategies, postnational educational system According to Hickling-Hudson et al. (2004:6) 'Indigenous peoples and Indigenous knowledges are marginalized by a view of the world through 'imperial eyes', a view which (re)inscribes the dominant, exclusionary Western beliefs'. Other things being equal, teachers in general are said to draw on three main interrelated and changing knowledge bases: knowledge of content, knowledge of teaching processes and knowledge of their students (Shulman, 1987; Turner-Bisset, 1999). As a dimension of pedagogic practice, the management of non-compliant classroom behavior is varied and historically shaped, subject to ideological, legislative and policy shifts over time. The relation between university teachers and students has to all times been characterized as an asymmetric relation since the teachers have the power of definition of what counts as academic standards. We have seen considerable studies on student perspectives (Stuart, et al 2012). However, a review reveals scarce knowledge about how university teachers try to compensate and include the non-traditional and first-generational students. In this paper, we pay special attention to curricular and pedagogical traditions or management strategies in postnational educational systems, where the majority of students are first-generation and at higher risk of attrition. Assuming that the academic staff (Both Greenlandic and Danish) has bodily incorporated an awareness of these circumstances since they are part of common knowledge of Greenlandic history, an ideal of emancipatory approach derives from compensating both teacher- and postcolonial dominance. The research question asked is how university teachers navigate in this context, what are their experiences and how do they manage to integrate and make students participate more actively and achieve what they consider to be academic standards? The experiences of teachers working in these contexts have rarely been reported in the literature. Our aim is to highlight the ambiguous nature of change of a particular educational system, the Greenlandic University which can be considered a representative of a neocolonial university with Western conceptions of curriculum, pedagogy, and language. In this way the Greenlandic case can be seen as an institution struggling to match western/European standards and at the same time acknowledging the non-traditional behavior. The theoretical framework is based on Bourdieus theory of practice and selective concepts. To understand how the teachers act when teaching, the notion of strategy is used referring to something that rests on a practical 'feel for the game.' Strategies are the result of combining practical good sense with commonly accepted practices. Symbolic power is used to understand and explain the nature of the strategies. The structures of the field arise from differentiation, which is grounded in a defining principle of what is of value. Thus, teachers have the authority and the means to assess students, and do so based on a certain set of assumptions, expectations, and values that are not always explicit. The notion of cultural capital is therefore used to understand the experiences of teachers' strategies in higher education. (Bourdieu, 1986). Methods This study is based on classroom observations and interviews of teachers who joined a university requested pedagogic course to improve their teaching. 18 teachers participated in the course. The teacher participants (of both Danish and Greeenlandic origin) taught in their practices a range of subjects and used Danish, Greenlandic (and English) as the medium of instruction. In order to explore the types of knowledges taught, categories of teaching process knowledge, and the range of pedagogic identities made available to teachers and students, lectures focused on the teachers' descriptions of the learner characteristics of Greenlandic students, their professional roles whilst teaching at the university, and curriculum and pedagogic design. We were interested in understanding how the various teachers are actually working and exploring their various ethical and epistemological stands on the nature of 'true' knowledge, on the 'right' teacher and the 'right' student. To this end, our interviews focused on episodes of classroom trouble that provoked the respondent's intervention and what moral expectations the teachers invoked and legitimated in their efforts to regulate student behaviour (ex. increase participation or student activation). In the interviews, we also queried the two groups of teachers (Danish and Greenlandic) on the students they taught, their own role, professional and social identity, the knowledge transmitted, and their pedagogical strategies whilst teaching. Expected outcomes / results We have identified 4 teacher strategies which have not yet been refined. Here we present 3. Zero-fault on Greenlandic language-strategy in contrast to "teaching in the dark". A Greenlandic teacher expresses a distinct awareness of how she masters her Greenlandic language when teaching students in her mother tongue, Greenlandic. When she writes major pieces/instructions, she consults what she considers "language experts" within and outside the university. During lectures, she enhances her students to correct her if she uses "wrong" words or grammar. In contrast to this rigorous self-policing, we see how Danish teachers on the opposite are ready to give up on the use of understandable language. Several Danish teachers frame disciplinary discussions followed up by plenary sessions where the students are allowed to discuss and work in Greenlandic which is a language the teacher does not understand. The teachers argue that activating the students is crucial in spite of the fact that they are unable to validate or respond to the academic content. One teacher talks about "teaching in the dark". Teaching formalia-strategy A Greenlandic female teacher in her 50's tries to neutralize a classic problem with students not knowing what is expected from them by making an effort teaching in explaining the learning goals. She makes exercises on how to translate the Danish concepts of the learning goals and the key concepts. She makes a virtue out of the semantic translation of the concepts from Danish to Greenlandic, and argues within the framework of Biggs and Blooms taxonomy. She argues theoretically with the concept of "parallel languaging" where the idea is to use both mother tongue and the second language intertwined or parallel. References: A. Marshall, C. (2016). Barriers to accessing higher education. Widening participation, higher education and non-traditional students: Supporting transitions through foundation programmes (pp. 1-18). Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London: Springer Nature. Ball, S., Hoskins, K., Maguire, M., & Braun, A. (2011). Disciplinary texts: A policy analysis of national and local behaviour policies. Critical Studies in Education, 52(1), 1-14. Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice Cambridge university press. Bourdieu, P. (1990a). In other words: Essays towards a reflexive sociology Stanford University Press. Bourdieu, P. (1990b). The logic of practice Stanford University Press. Bowl, M. (2003). Non-traditional entrants to higher education: "They talk about people like me.". PO Box 605, Herndon, VA 20172-0605.: Stylus Publishing. Chen, X., & Carroll, C. D. (2005). First-generation students in postsecondary education: A look at their college transcripts. postsecondary education descriptive analysis report. NCES 2005-171. (). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Hemsley-Brown, J. (2012). 'The best education in the world': Reality, repetition or cliché? international students' reasons for choosing an english university. Studies in Higher Education, 37(8), 1005-1022. Hickling-Hudson, A., Matthews, J. M., & Woods, A. (2004). Education, postcolonialism and disruptions. Disrupting preconceptions: Postcolonialism and education (pp. 1-16). Flaxton: Post Pressed. Langgård, P. (2002). Greenland and the university of. In D. C. Nord, & G. R. Weller (Eds.), Higher education across the circumpolar north: A circle of learning (1st ed., pp. 77-99). New York: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. greenland Scott, I. (2012). Access, success and curriculum: Aspects of their organic relationship. Alternative Access to Higher Education: Underprepared Students Or Underprepared Education, , 25-49. Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1-23. doi:10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1-23. doi:10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 Skatte- og Velfærdskommissionen. (2010). Hvordan sikres (). Denmark: Skatte- og Velfærdskommissionen. vækst og velfærd i Grønland? Spiegler, T., & Bednarek, A. (2013). First-generation students: What we ask, what we know and what it means: An international review of the state of research. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 23(4), 318-337. doi:10.1080/09620214.2013.815441 Thomas, L. (2002). Student retention in higher education: The role of institutional habitus. Journal of Education Policy, 17(4), 423-442. Turner-Bisset, R. (1999). The knowledge bases of the expert teacher. British Educational Research Journal, 25(1), 39-55. doi:10.1080/0141192990250104 ; According to Hickling-Hudson et al. (2004:6) 'Indigenous peoples and Indigenous knowledges are marginalized by a view of the world through 'imperial eyes', a view which (re)inscribes the dominant, exclusionary Western beliefs'. Other things being equal, teachers in general are said to draw on three main interrelated and changing knowledge bases: knowledge of content, knowledge of teaching processes and knowledge of their students (Shulman, 1987; Turner-Bisset, 1999). As a dimension of pedagogic practice, the management of non-compliant classroom behavior is varied and historically shaped, subject to ideological, legislative and policy shifts over time. The relation between university teachers and students has to all times been characterized as an asymmetric relation since the teachers have the power of definition of what counts as academic standards. We have seen considerable studies on student perspectives (Stuart, et al 2012). However, a review reveals scarce knowledge about how university teachers try to compensate and include the non-traditional and first-generational students. In this paper, we pay special attention to curricular and pedagogical traditions or management strategies in postnational educational systems, where the majority of students are first-generation and at higher risk of attrition. Assuming that the academic staff (Both Greenlandic and Danish) has bodily incorporated an awareness of these circumstances since they are part of common knowledge of Greenlandic history, an ideal of emancipatory approach derives from compensating both teacher- and postcolonial dominance. The research question asked is how university teachers navigate in this context, what are their experiences and how do they manage to integrate and make students participate more actively and achieve what they consider to be academic standards? The experiences of teachers working in these contexts have rarely been reported in the literature. Our aim is to highlight the ambiguous nature of change of a particular educational system, the Greenlandic University which can be considered a representative of a neocolonial university with Western conceptions of curriculum, pedagogy, and language. In this way the Greenlandic case can be seen as an institution struggling to match western/European standards and at the same time acknowledging the non-traditional behavior. The theoretical framework is based on Bourdieus theory of practice and selective concepts. To understand how the teachers act when teaching, the notion of strategy is used referring to something that rests on a practical 'feel for the game.' Strategies are the result of combining practical good sense with commonly accepted practices. Symbolic power is used to understand and explain the nature of the strategies. The structures of the field arise from differentiation, which is grounded in a defining principle of what is of value. Thus, teachers have the authority and the means to assess students, and do so based on a certain set of assumptions, expectations, and values that are not always explicit. The notion of cultural capital is therefore used to understand the experiences of teachers' strategies in higher education. (Bourdieu, 1986).

In this research, logistic villages, especially the logistic village, where will be established in Bayburt, have investigated in order to understand to the economic contributions to the city, region and country, and the development and potential development which will be achieved afterwards. With the model proposal of Bayburt logistic village, we have tried to give an idea about the structure and function of the logistic village which will be established to the local and national interlocutors It is also aimed that our work will be inspired to mainly future research about logistics and logistic villages and Bayburt logistics village works and directory direction. Our research İs basically work İnto the world logistics, logistic of Turkey, logistic in the region and logistics in the Bayburt.Bayburt has a duality in the Eastern Black Sea region in terms of its geographical location, but hard continental climate is dominant. When we take Bayburt province center, Erzurum in the east, Gümüşhane and Erzincan in the west; In the north, it is observed that Trabzon and Rize are in a very strategic position. Therefore Bayburt is a very important center in terms of logistics with the use of the transportation conditions in these areas and the finishing of the tunnels which are constantly under construction from the great targets of our country in 2023. In Bayburt province, dry food storage areas can be established as Logistics. In contrast to the black sea climate in the vicinity, the nemo ran is low and it can create an efficient and sheltered storage area. It can also create an incentive for employment in the region. Also in our study Methodology; After the descriptive analysis, the Fit index intervals were examined within the scope of factor analysis, ANOVA analysis and Structural equation model. The H1, H2, H3 hypotheses investigated in our study were evaluated within this scope. STRUCTURED ABSTRACT 1-Introduction In consequence of globalization and rapid developments in technology, companies have to be able to optimize speed, flexibility, cost and consumer demands in order to survive in a challenging national and international competitive environment. Therefore, it is essential that companies deliver their products and services to target markets much faster and at an optimum cost than their competitors. There is no doubt that this competition of companies is a big deal in logistics activities. As a matter of fact, logistics activities will result in lower costs, higher quality, increased production and customer satisfaction. At the end of all this, a significant advantage will be gained nationally and internationally. The desire of companies to appreciate these advantages has led to an increase in the importance of logistics. 2-Conceptual Framework Logistics management is the full range of administrative activities that meet the two-way flow of goods or supplies between shipment points and delivery points in line with customer needs (Tanyaş, 2005: 6). Logistics management is basically the process of planning the flow of goods and services through the various channels of production to the producer. It is mainly aimed at solving the problems that may be experienced in this flow process. The nececities for businesses to have a logistics management lies in the need to achieve the following objectives (Erdal ve Çancı, 2009: 47): • Reducing the cost of goods and services • Creating a competitive advantage • Providing added value to the business • Establishing high quality standards • Harmonizing the business with environmental conditions. Logistics management consists of three basic stages. In the first phase, there is a physical distribution. The physical distribution phase essentially begins with the acceptance the order. Following the order acceptance step, order processing, inventory control, warehouse and stock movements are in the line. The second step in logistics management is to identify the raw materials and materials that will be needed in the manufacturing process. They are transportation, main production program and support for the distribution of goods within the manufacturing process from one warehouse to another. Providing necessary coordination between manufacturing and physical distribution is one of the main objectives of logistics management. Procurement is the process of obtaining raw materials and goods by utilising external sources. Important elements in the procurement process include determining the characteristics and boundaries of supply sources, searching for new sources of supply and establishing continuous and systematic relationships with existing sources of supply. The development of logistics activities can be taken up to the 19th century. The birth of Logistics as an industry and trade area is linked to the Industrial Revolution and modernism process. In this part of the study, the development of logistics activities in our country and abroad will be examined. The history of the first work in the field of logistics dates back to the 1850s. The logistics economy was written by Lardner in London. Later, economists such as Taussig, Fetter and Handley worked. Between 1956 and 1965, the concept of integrated logistics came to light, and Drucker, one of the well-known names in this field, began to gain clarity (Drucker, 1962: 72). The 1980s are a turning point in terms of the logistics sector. There was a rapid development and growth in the process. In the 1980s, the notion of integrated logistics began to gain importance due to the evergrowing rapid growth in the logistics sector (Bowersox et al., 2002: 328). With the 1990s, organizations began to reduce logistics costs. Combination of logistics services and outsourcing strategies have begun to be preferred (Ross, 1998: 96). The development of the concept of logistics in our country is quite new. Mainly import and export activities, in general large-scale retailing and e-commerce development are the main factors that enable the development of logistics in our country. The development as a sector of logistics in our country is linked to the historical development process that took place in the 1980s and 1990s. In this period, where land, sea and air transportation increased in our country, it was a milestone in terms of logistics activities. (Babacan, 2002: 10) There were diversified needs in Turkey for the transition to the free market economy in the 1980s and for the institutions that will carry out logistics activities on the axis of export-based growth (Tuna and Ozer, 2002: 173). The 1990s created an rise in terms of the logistics sector. Turkey has begun to develop and diversify its logistics services in a similar way to applications in the world in this period. The 2000s have become a sector in which both the local and international companies actively participate in the development of the logistics sector (Babacan, 2002: 10). The idea of logistic village for Bayburt lies in the fact that Bayburt and Gümüşhane Airport will be opened in the near future. This airport will be used logistically as well as human transportation will play an important role for the logistic village to be established. The most plausible logistic village near Bayburt Airport will bring together big businesses operating in the area of international cargo and air transport. In this case, a part of freights and cargos, which are sent and delivered to Erzurum and Trabzon at airports, will shift to this region. In case of operation of Bayburt Lojistik Village, all cargo companies will be collected from Bayburt-Gümüşhane Airport. Later on, the companies that come to this area will get to their departments and use the way they want to reach them. It is also a suitable region for storage according to the Bayburt climate conditions. It is also important to emphasize that the established logistic village in Bayburt that are managed by cooperation with industry, government and universities. These groups need to focus on a common goal. It is expected that the distribution products from the production in this respect will increase the competitiveness of the products in national and international markets. 3-Method While developing the scale in this study, Karabük University Institute of Social Sciences, Business Administration Department, adapted the questions given in the thesis titled "The Impact of Logistics Villages on Marketing Process: Sectoral Perceptions for Karabük" and applied them to the students who are studying at Bayburt University and by factor analysis (Socio-Cultural, Socioeconomic and Social Welfare), a new scale consisting of 25 questions was created.Ölçeğin güvenirliğinin belirlenmesinde de Cronbach's Alpha yöntemi yapılmıştır. (Cronbach,1951: 297-334) Structural equilibrium modeling is an effective model testing and development method that can explain the causal relationship of variables in integrated hypotheses related to models based on statistical dependence and allows the theoretical models to be tested as a whole. The FE model allows the researcher to determine the direct and indirect effects between variables. (Ullman, 2003). In addition, after the T-test and one-way ANOVA tests were first performed by SPSS program in this study, only factor analysis and Fit indices were tried to be examined with YEM. 4-Findings The research was carried out by way of "Bayburt Illi Logistics Strategic Plan and Logistic Center Feasibility BAP Project" in order to provide a better understanding of the logistic villagers who are active in Turkey in 2017 and who are the lifeblood for sustainability of logistics. Our research was conducted on 250 students at Bayburt University. The main mass size of this questionnaire is approximately 1000. The 95% confidence level is 1.96 for the 5% significance level. The sample universe is made up of 248 people. As a result of these surveys, it can be said that the number of participants represents the universe. 5- Results With this research, the economic contribution of the logistic village, where will be established in Bayburt, to the city, region and country was pointed out, and the development and progress that will be achieved later was investigated. We examined how the logistic village, which will be established by the model proposal that have been presented for Bayburt logistics village, should be. In addition, the structure of this village has been tried to give an idea to the interlocutors on the local and national basis about its function and its possible benefits. It is also aimed that our work will be inspired by reseacrhers who focus on the logistics and logistics villages in general and Bayburt logistics village in particular, and expecting that it should be a source for them. In this research, the benefits that the Bayburt logistics village which is proposed in the model can provide for regional and national significance can be listed as follows: • Bayburt logistics village will play a leading role in the development of Bayburt and its region. The logistic village will be a project that will serve not only Bayburt but all the region, especially Gümüşhane and Erzincan. • As a result of the activation of Bayburt-Gumushane airport that will be opened, local and international air transportation and cargo transportation sector will develop and will contribute to regional exports. • By establishing a logistics village, businesses in Bayburt will be able to deliver products they produce more efficiently, productive and quickly. All these processes related to logistics to customs can be done within the logistic village. • With modern facilities and advanced technology, the logistics village will have a direct impact on employment and will seriously reduce the unemployment problem for Bayburt. • Bayburt will become a center of attraction through the logistic village. For this reason, infrastructure and environmental regulations must be made. As a result, the city could become a more modern place. • The logistics village will lead to some structural changes in the logistics sector and create new business areas in Bayburt. In the transportation between the logistics villages, the efficiency will increase because more cargo will be carried at less cost (unit transport costs will decrease). This will be ensured by the orientation of the truck and trailer to air transport. All of these facts, almost all key factors are evaluated and it is seen that Bayburt Lojistik Village has all the features and it is considered to be an important project for the region in many respects. This study was piloted on Bayburt University faculty of economics and administrative sciences students to learn ideas about the logistic village. We evaluated the answers we received for specific survey questions. Then we looked at the homogeneity and significance of these data. We finally made a fit analysis on the structural equation package program Lisrel about the model to be built

Received: 2021-05-17 | Accepted: 2021-07-08 | Available online: 2021-12-31https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2021.24.04.315-321Milk fat is a source of not only nutritionally valuable but also biologically active ingredients that are involved in various regulatory processes, thus participating in a functioning organism. These compounds have been studied and various beneficial effects on the health and development of the organism have been described. Ingredients such as fatty acids (monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid) and phospholipids (glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids) may have a beneficial effect on human health or can prevent various diseases. Some candidate genes that are significantly involved in milk fat metabolisms, such as diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1 and stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1, thus contribute to the composition and concentration of the individual components of milk fat. 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Pitanje mogućnosti formiranja ekološkog pokreta u Srbiji u kontekstu postsocijalistiĉke transformacije društva i procesa evrointegracija, predstavlja predmet bavljenja ove doktorske disertacije. Rad se sastoji iz tri veće celine i poglavlja u kome su izneta zakljuĉna razmatranja. U prvom delu rada, razvijeni su uporedno-istorijski, kontekstualni, konceptualni i metodološki okvir istraţivanja, kao polazne osnove za dalje analize. Kako bi mogle biti obuhvaćene sve relevantne dimenzije kompleksnog fenomena ekološkog pokreta i sloţena mreţa ĉinilaca koji utiĉu na njegov nastanak i razvoj, u istraţivanju su kombinovano korišćene razliĉite metodološke tehnike: anketno ispitivanje stavova i praksi na reprezentativnom uzorku graĊana Srbije (N=1952) i predstavnika lokalnih samouprava (N=232), polustrukturisani intervjui sa predstavnicima nevladinih organizacija (N=44), kao i dve studije sluĉaja zajednica sa izraţenim ekološkim problemima - Panĉeva i Bora. Drugi deo rada je posvećen opisu i analizi pojedinaĉnih elemenata ekološkog pokreta: ekoloških aktivista, ekoloških grupa / organizacija, ekoloških mreţa, kolektivnog identiteta i ekoloških konflikata. Na osnovu detaljne analize karakteristika osnovnih elemenata pokreta, u zakljuĉnom poglavlju drugog dela rada daje se odgovor na pitanje: da li u Srbiji postoji ekološki pokret? Osnovni istraţivaĉki nalaz je da u Srbiji nije došlo do formiranja klasiĉnog participativnog tipa ekološkog pokreta, kakav je prisutan u zemljama Zapada. TakoĊe, nema ni naznaka znaĉajnijeg prisustva elemenata transakcionog ekološkog aktivizma (pokreta), ĉiji je prisustvo zabeleţeno u zemljama Centralne Evrope. Umesto toga, svedoci smo razvoja specifiĉnog modela ekološkog kolektivnog delanja koji smo nazvali "ekološkim trećim sektorom". Naime, za razliku od participativnog i transakcionog delanja, koji imaju naglašeno politiĉku dimenziju, aktivnosti organizacija u okviru trećeg sektora su preteţno "apolitiĉne" po karakteru, usmerene na pruţanje usluga u oblastima iz kojih se, u sklopu neoliberalnih reformi, drţava povukla. Pored nerazvijenosti konfliktne (politiĉke) dimenzije, ekološki treći sektor odlikuje i atomizovano delanje profesionalnih ekoloških organizacija, koje samo izuzetno (pod spoljnim pritiscima ili podsticajima) uspostavljaju fiziĉke veze (mreţe) meĊu sobom, dok se na planu kolektivnog identiteta razvija samo kognitivna dimenzija (formalno prihvatanje odreĊenih ekoloških vrednosti i naĉela koja ĉine sastavni deo ekološkog diskursa dominantnog na Zapadu). GraĊani, po pravilu, nisu ukljuĉeni u rad ovih organizacija, izuzev kao korisnici usluga. U trećem delu rada se razmatraju razlozi usled kojih ne dolazi do razvoja participativnog i/ili transakcionog ekološkog pokreta (aktivizma). Za potrebe objašnjenja nastanka specifiĉne hibridne forme ekološkog trećeg sektora, kreiran je sintetiĉki eksplanatorni model koji kombinuje elemente razvijene u okviru razliĉitih teorijskih pristupa fenomenu društvenih pokreta. Eksplanatorna shema je formulisana na sledeći naĉin: za pokretanje kolektivnog delanja i nastanak ekološkog pokreta neophodno da prethodno budu ispunjeni sledeći uslovi: potrebno je da postoji izvesno socijalno-konstruisano nezadovoljstvo (problem) kod većeg broja pojedinaca / profesionalnih zastupniĉkih organizacija (socijalno-konstruktivistiĉka reinterpretacija klasiĉnih pristupa); zatim, grupa pojedinaca koja oseća dati problem / zalaţe se za njegovo rešavanje, mora posedovati odreĊene resurse za pokretanje i odrţavanje 5 kolektivne akcije (pristup teorije mobilizacije resursa); šire okruţenje treba da bude relativno povoljno kako bi nagovestilo mogućnost pozitivnog ishoda aktivnosti koja se ţeli realizovati (pristup strukture politiĉkih mogućnosti), a vrednosni okvir na takav naĉin podešen da usmerava na delanje predstavnike profesionalnih ekoloških organizacija i / ili neposredno ugroţenu populaciju (nezadovoljne) i (eventualno) širi krug podrţavalaca (pristup Novih društvenih pokreta). Na proces formiranja ekološkog pokreta, kroz ĉetiri neposredna faktora (socijalna-konstrukcija ekoloških rizika, dostupnost i karakteristike resursa, struktura politiĉkih mogućnosti, vrednosni sistem),indirektno deluju širi društveni procesi - postsocijalistiĉka transformacija i evropeizacija srpskog društva, kao i ĉinioci duţeg trajanja ((pred)socijalistiĉko nasleĊe). Testiranje postavljenih eksplikativnih hipoteza je pokazalo da ni jedan od uslova neophodnih za formiranje ekološkog pokreta, nije delimiĉno ili u potpunosti zadovoljen. Postojeći ekološki problemi su dominantno odreĊeni u kategorijama niskog rizika i male vaţnosti u odnosu na druga društvena pitanja, usled ĉega je i njihov podsticajni kapacitet za kolektivnu (re)akciju bitno sniţen. Pored toga, vladajuće shvatanje prema kome u ekološkoj modernizaciji leţi rešenje za gotovo sve ekološke probleme, pokazuje se kao ĉinilac koji nepovoljno utiĉe na graĊanski aktivizam, jer upućuje na pasivno išĉekivanje uvoĊenja obećanih mehanizama odrţivog razvoja. Većini graĊana na raspolaganju stoji vrlo ograniĉena koliĉina resursa, usled ĉega, u velikom broju sluĉajeva, oni odustaju od uĉešća u ekološkim akcijama. Ekološke organizacije, takoĊe, imaju poteškoća da obezbede neophodne resurse za rad, a dodatni problem predstavlja i naĉin njihove mobilizacije, usled kojeg gube samostalnost postajući zavisne od stranih izvora finansiranja. Kao posledica, ekološko delanje je atomizovano, a rivalitet i konflikti unutar ekološkog civilnog sektora, naglašeni; ekološke mreţe se teško formiraju i odrţavaju, kolektivni identitet je slab (nad njim prevagu odnose partikularni interesi), a kritiĉko delovanje ekoloških organizacija, nerazvijeno. Struktura politiĉkih mogućnosti se, uprkos postojanju relativno povoljnog zakonskog okvira, pokazuje zatvorenom prema uĉešću graĊana u donošenju odluka. GraĊani percipiraju predstavnike vlasti kao neprijemĉive za njihove potrebe, što se nepovoljno odraţava na njihovu spremnost da se organizuju i pokušaju da nametnu svoje zahteve. S druge strane, ekološke organizacije su iskljuĉene iz procesa odluĉivanja i svedene na ulogu asistenata u podizanju kapaciteta drţave za sprovoĊenje programa u oblasti zaštite ţivotne sredine. Konfliktno delanje organizacija je ograniĉeno, s jedne strane, time što ne dobijaju podršku moćnih aktera (meĊunarodne ekološke organizacije, strani donatori), a sa druge, finansijskim uslovljavanjem od strane drţavnih struktura. Karakteristike kulturološkog konteksta se, takoĊe, pokazuju nepovoljnim za razvoj ekološkog pokreta u Srbiji. Dominacija materijalistiĉkog sistema vrednosti i s njim povezano visoko vrednovanje ekonomskog razvoja, koje u senci ostavlja ekološke probleme, negativno utiĉe na ekološko aktiviranje graĊana. Ipak, uprkos preteţno materijalistiĉkoj vrednosnoj orijentaciji, graĊanima su vrlo bliske vrednosti Nove ekološke paradigme. MeĊutim, od naĉelnog prihvatanja vrednosti karakteristiĉnih za ovu paradigmu do aktivnog delanja, u kontekstu materijalne oskudice, put je dug i vrlo neizvestan. Zakljuĉno poglavlje je posvećeno rezimiranju i diskusiji empirijskih nalaza, kao i razmatranju širih implikacija nerazvijenosti ekološkog pokreta na zaštitu ţivotne sredine u Srbiji. ; he environmental movement in Serbia, in the context of post-socialist transformation and the EU integration process. The paper consists of three major parts and the concluding chapter. In the first part a comparative - historical, contextual, conceptual and methodological framework of the research is developed, as a starting point for the further analyses. In order to capture all relevant dimensions of the complex phenomenon of environmental movement and the composite set of factors that influence its emergence and development, the study is using a combination of different methodological techniques: a survey of attitudes and practices based on a representative sample of Serbian citizens (N = 1952) and local government representatives (N = 232), in parallel with the semi-structured interviews with representatives of non-governmental organizations (N = 44), and the two case studies of communities with serious environmental problems – the municipalities of Pancevo and Bor. The second part contains the description and analysis of individual elements of the environmental movement: environmental activists, environmental groups / organizations, environmental networks, collective identity and environmental conflicts. Based on a detailed analysis of the characteristics of the key elements of environmental movement, the concluding chapter of this part of the paper offers an answer to the question - is there an environmental movement in Serbia? The main research finding is that participatory type of environmental movement that is typical for the Western countries has not been formed in Serbia. There are even no indications of the existence of significant elements of transactional environmental activism (movement), that is present in the countries of Central Europe. Instead, we are witnessing the development of a distinct model of collective environmental action that we have named "the third environmental sector". Different from the participative and transactional activism which have an emphasized political dimension, the nature of the activities of the third sector organizations is mostly "non-political", aimed at providing services in those areas that the state has withdrew from, in the context of neo-liberal reforms. In addition to the underdeveloped conflict/political dimension, the environmental third sector is characterized by atomized actions of professional environmental organizations, which establish physical connections (networks) among themselves only as an exception (under external pressures or incentives), while at the level of collective identity only the cognitive dimension is being developed (the formal acceptance of the environmental values and principles which form an integral part of the environmental discourse dominant in the West). Citizens, as a rule, are not included in the work of these organizations, except as users of services. In the third part, the reasons for the absence of the participatory and / or transactional environmental movement (activism) are discussed. In order to explain the emergence of the specific hybrid form of the environmental third sector, a synthetic explanatory model was established, combining elements developed within different social movement theories. The explanatory scheme has been formulated as follows: for the launch of collective action and the emergence of the environmental movement certain conditions are necessary to be met - a certain level of socially-constructed 8 dissatisfaction (problem) needs to be generated in large numbers of individuals / professional advocacy organizations (social constructivist reinterpretation of classical approaches); then, a group of individuals who perceive the problem / advocates for its solution must possess appropriate resources to initiate and sustain a collective action (the Resource Mobilization Theory approach); the wider context should be relatively favorable as to suggest the possibility of a positive outcome of the action (the Political Opportunities Structure approach); the value framework should be set up in such a way to initiate the action of professional environmental organizations and / or the directly affected population, and possibly also of a wider circle of supporters (the New Social Movements approach). Through the four direct factors (social – construction of environmental risks, the availability and characteristics of resources, the structure of political opportunities, the value system), the process of development of the environmental movement is indirectly affected by wider-scale social processes – the post-socialist transformation and Europeanization of Serbian society, as well as by the factors of longer duration ((pre-) socialist heritage).The testing of the set of explicative hypotheses showed that the necessary pre-conditions for the formation of the environmental movement in Serbia have neither been fully, nor even partially met. In comparison with other issues, the existing environmental problems are dominantly defined in the terms of low-risk and low-importance, due to which their capacities to induce collective (re)action are significantly reduced. In addition, the prevailing concept of environmental modernization, presented as a solution to almost all environmental problems, proves to be a factor that adversely affects civic activism, as it leads to passive anticipation of the promised introduction of mechanisms for sustainable development. Since the majority of citizens have access only to very limited resources, they, in many cases, tend to give up their participation in environmental actions. Environmental organizations also face difficulties in obtaining necessary resources for their operation. An additional problem lies in the way resources are being mobilized: becoming increasingly dependent on foreign funding, organizations tend to lose their autonomy. As a result, the environmental action is atomized and rivalries and conflicts within the environmental civil society accentuated; environmental networks are difficult to establish and maintain and the collective identity is weak (due to domination of particular interests); the conflictual dimension of environmental organizations remains undeveloped. Despite the relatively favorable legal framework, the structure of political opportunities seems closed to the participation of citizens in the decision-making process. Citizens perceive government representatives as unresponsive to their needs, which negatively affects their readiness to act in an organized way and to attempt to impose their demands. On the other hand, environmental organizations are excluded from the decision-making process and reduced to the assisting role in the capacity building of the state bodies for the implementation of programs in the field of environmental protection. Conflicting action of such organizations is limited, on the one hand by the lack of support from powerful actors (international environmental organizations, international donors), and on the other - by the financial preconditions imposed by the state authorities. The characteristics of the cultural context also appear to be unfavorable for the development of the environmental movement in Serbia. The dominance of the materialistic value system and the related high priority attributed to the economic 9 growth, leaves the environmental problems on the margins, thus negatively affecting the environmental activation of citizens. However, despite the predominantly materialistic value orientation, the values of the New environmental paradigm are very familiar to the citizens. Still, in the context of material insecurity, the road from the general acceptance of such values to active action towards reaching them, is long and very uncertain. The concluding chapter is devoted to summarizing and discussing the empirical findings, as well as to considerations of implications of the under-developed environmental movement to the overall state of environmental protection in Serbia.

In Italy, Protection System for Asylum Seekers and Refugees (SPRAR) manages the second reception of forced migrants. This organization was founded by the Bossi-Fini law n. 189/2002 and is composed by the network of local governments, which uses the available resources of National Fund for Asylum Policies and Services provided by Government finance law and managed by the Ministry of Interior. Its principal goal is to realize integrated reception projects for refugees, asylum seekers, subsidiary and humanitarian protection holders in order to ensure their socio-economic inclusion within local contexts in cooperation with voluntary and third sector organizations. On 10th July 2014, local governments were signed an agreement between national and regional executive to create a national reception system to face the growing number of people who have arrived on the Italian coasts. The main goal of this system is to overcome only a material reception (food and lodging), in order to offer a "widespread reception" within urban areas. The strategy is to create an individual project and an accompaniment to ensure the integration of each person in the local community. The services provided consist in inclusion of migrants in the national health and scholastic system, orientation and access to other local services, professional training, job placement, legal assistance and social and housing integration . Indeed, it is crucial to emphasize that the Italian reception system is characterized by extreme fragmentation. Only SPRAR provides these services with the goal of enabling social and economic inclusion of hosted people in local context, which is why we talk about second reception centres. In Italy, there are, however, many different types of first and extraordinary reception centres for migrants . They are managed by the prefectures and differ in terms of goals, structural characteristics, services and receptive capacity. Only 18.7% of migrants are hosted in the SPRAR structures, while the remainder incurs the possibility of carrying out the entire procedure of the asylum application in the centres of first and extraordinary reception (IDOS, 2017). In recent years, the Italian reception structures have undergone a reorganization and redenomination phase, in which the SPRAR should have become a reference standard. In fact, this system has positively distinguished itself for its objectives, the structuring of his interventions and many best practices. This did not prevent bad reception occurrences even within SPRAR structures, as well as a large number of violent and verbal conflicts, some of which carried out by Italian citizens to the detriment of asylum seekers and owners of a status of international protection. These episodes, exacerbated by a political and media discourse that represents migrants as a threat (Battistelli et al., 2016), are the consequence and symbol of the fragmentary and contradictory reception policies adopted at a European level, in the individual countries and at a local level (IDOS, 2016). Instability and political, economic and social uncertainty, rulers in this historical period, are manifested in an emergency approach that is characterized by insufficient planning and a lack of coordination between the reception agencies. This orientation, supported by many and incongruent legislative changes, deprives the system of a strong structure and facilitates the overturning of the same principles of "widespread reception" of migrants in local communities. Moreover, this facilitates the affirmation of nationalist, xenophobic and localist drifts, as well as reception situations in which human rights are violated and which do not provide real opportunities for inclusion in the territories in a safe and dignified manner. Therefore, the conceptual distinction of the terms danger, risk and threat, used as the interpretative line of this work, appears fundamental to understand why subjective responses, in terms of perception and actions, differ according to the situations, as well as to manage the effects that derive in a consistent manner (Battistelli e Galantino, 2018). In order to realize the analysis, I decided to use an ethnographic approach that is traced back to the constructivist philosophical paradigm, where the vision of facts is investigated locally. Ethnographers, indeed, study subjects, artefacts and actions in their interactions, from an interpretative-dialectical point of view, without the claim of absolute objectivity of the results (Piccardo and Benozzo, 1996). Then, I have chosen to use focused narrative interviews because they turn to individuals, they aim for their "understanding", and this is part of the renewed interest in the subject's centrality and in the "deliberately intentional" social action (Weber, 1922). It is also an approach that allows investigating deeply the phenomena. It is very interactive, flexible and able to empathize in the perspective of the subject being studied. This makes it easier to interview marginal subjects neglected by "official knowledge" and to rediscover the social function of research, which is "giving voice to those who do not have it" (Crespi, 1985, pp. 351) In addition, observation and fieldwork are supported by a strong theoretical basis that offers its help to the researcher for the understanding of the social world, providing an order that supports they in their critical analysis of the facts. So, empirical work and theory support each other (Silverman, 2002). Then, narrative approach is highly adaptable to the study of organizations and to analyse the collected data. In fact, this approach is characterized for attention given to concrete situations and not to general theorizations (Czarniawska, 2000). Hence, the empirical research carried out in 2016-2018 can be summarized in the following phases: 1- Analysis of secondary data and documents produced by European and national statistical institutes, private associations, protection bodies and by SPRAR itself. 2- Participant observation in: - a political protest demonstration against the opening of a SPRAR centre in XIII Town Hall, on the north-western suburb of Rome; - nine meetings of social operators working in SPRAR network of Rome and in the national CARA and CAS reception centres; - a SPRAR centre (20 reception places increased to 40 in the south-eastern suburbs of Rome, VII Town Hall). One year of observation and shadowing of operators: 16th January 2017 – 22th January 2018; - a SPRAR apartment (14 reception places for families in the residential area of Monte Sacro neighbourhood, Town Hall III). Five days of observation and shadowing of operators in January 2018; - a seminar of reflection organized by SPRAR and ANCI on the reception system in Lazio, focused on the role of the Regions and Municipalities. 3- Forty-one narrative focused interviews: - Twenty-four SPRAR operators working in SPRAR centres of Rome; - Seventeen asylum seekers and refugees from SPRAR centre observed in Town Hall VII of Rome. The intent behind this ethnographic research started in a restructuring phase aimed to make the SPRAR a reference standard of reception for all asylum seekers who came to our country. But it was characterized, as still today, by speculative situations, the high presence on the territory of large collective reception centres and managing bodies without the necessary experience (Olivieri, 2011; Lunaria 2016). Therefore, the analysis of the risk management and the operators perception of the SPRAR of Rome has the objective to unveil and analyse the contradictions and weaknesses that may arise within this model due to a reckless management that produces specific factors of risk. The hypothesis underlying the case study is that, although the SPRAR has been recognized as an ordinary model, it can also be reproduced in a distorted manner, not respecting the reference guidelines. The alteration between SPRAR in books, the theoretical expression of a principle, and SPRAR in action, its implementation (Pound, 1910), is caused by specific factors that can cause significant effects from several points of view. To bring to light these aspects, closely related to the risk management and the perception that its operators have, I achieve a classification of the risks that I applied to three different types of SPRAR structures (large, medium and single apartment). Then, I identified a series of outcomes involving the people hosted, the operators, the local community and the SPRAR organization itself. The decision to draw the case study at the SPRAR of the city of Rome is driven by the complexity that distinguishes this territory on a social, cultural and political level. In fact, I believe it can bring out the contradictions of the model as new forms of confinement compared to territories with reduced complexity. However, allowing a glimpse of a reception of asylum seekers and holders of a protection status also possible within urban and metropolitan areas. The empirical survey shows that an increase in the distortion compared to the assumptions of an integrated and widespread reception in the territories corresponds to a greater possibility that specific risk factors are produced. Which in their turn, crystallizing into unhealthy forms, can involve the people hosted, the operators, the local community and the SPRAR organization itself. The case study and the application of the risk classification, which I achieved based on the evidence revealed from the field, reveal how the identified risk areas (socio-spatial context, production of the service, recipients) and the corresponding categories, do not produce in itself a negative result. However, this can occur if a short-sighted management acts on these aspects and does not align with the proposed guidelines. Therefore, this classification appears to be a useful tool to identify problems and to develop preventive measures, aimed to improve the management of SPRAR centres in metropolitan cities such as Rome (and other contexts), by intervening on the identified risk categories and reducing the factors that eventually emerge. The analysis, focused on three different types of SPRAR structure (large, medium, single apartment) of the Capital, shows how this alteration occurs in a disruptive way in the large collective centres, the most represented in Rome. Meanwhile, greater adherence to the model is shown, with a modality proportional to the size, in the medium-sized structure and in the apartment. The distortion detected in the large SPRAR collective centres of Rome and partly also in the medium-sized centre, reflects the ambivalence of the general reception system. It promotes on the one hand the principles of a good reception that respects human rights and the autonomy of people and by another implements foreclosure practices and new forms of borders (Vacchiano, 2011; Van Haken, 2008). The field research shows that this happens on different levels due to specific material factors (location and capacity of the centres, management of internal spaces, activation of the services provided, etc.) and through the daily practices of the operators who, in a more or less assenting, controlling and disciplining the people hosted, shape their conduct. Therefore, in the daily life of the structures in which the situations described are involved, the principles of freedom, inclusion and autonomy supported by the rhetoric of reception system are governed by a neoliberal logic of citizenship that suggests the criteria to distinguish, in the same integration paths, who is more worthy than other beneficiaries (Van Haken, 2008). Although the case study highlights strong contradictions and weaknesses that come to life in the implementation of the SPRAR model, it also shows the realization of a good reception. That which, despite being included in an extremely complex context such as Rome, attempts to oppose the "logic of large numbers and profits" of large cooperatives and which implements functional inclusion paths to achieve the objectives. Alignment and consistency with the guidelines and the SPRAR operating manual, in fact, allow the construction of a real project of individualized socio-economic integration for the person hosted. Only by acting in a widespread manner on the territory, in apartments or small centres, the genesis of new forms of borders beyond those already present is avoided. In fact, through this management most of the risks identified are eliminated or at least reduced, precisely because the "trajectory of opportunities" of risk (Reason, 1997) towards unfavourable outcomes generally develops within large collective centres. References Battistelli Fabrizio, Farruggia Francesca, Galantino Maria Grazia and Ricotta Giuseppe. 2016. "Affrontarsi o Confrontarsi? Il "Rischio" Immigrati sulla Stampa Italiana e nella Periferia di Tor Sapienza a Roma". Sicurezza e Scienze Sociali 1:86-112. Battistelli Fabrizio e Galantino Maria Grazia. 2018. "Dangers, Risks and Threats: An Alternative Conceptualization to the Catch-All Concept of Risk". Current Sociology 1-15. Czarniawska Barbara. 2000. Narrare l'organizzazione. La costruzione dell'identità istituzionale. Tr.it. Torino: Edizioni di Comunità. Crespi Franco. 1985. Le vie della sociologia. Bologna: Il Mulino. IDOS in partnership with Confronti. 2017. Dossier Statistico Immigrazione 2017. Roma: Inprinting srl. IDOS. 2016. "INTRA MOENIA. Il Sistema di Accoglienza per Rifugiati e Richiedenti Asilo in Italia nei Rapporti di Monitoraggio Indipendenti". Affari Sociali Internazionali IV (1-4). Lunaria. 2016. Il mondo di dentro. Il sistema di protezione per richiedenti asilo e rifugiati a Roma. (https://www.lunaria.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Il_mondo_di_dentro.pdf). Olivieri Maria Silvia. 2011. "L'accoglienza frantumata sotto il peso dell'«emergenza»", pp. 35-44 in Lunaria. 2011. Cronache di ordinario razzismo. Secondo libro bianco sul razzismo in Italia. Roma: Edizioni dell'Asino. Piccardo Claudia and Benozzo Angelo. 1996. Etnografia organizzativa. Una proposta di metodo per l'analisi delle organizzazioni come culture. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore. Reason James. 1997. Managing the Risks of Organisational Accidents. London: Ashgate Publishing Company. Vacchiano Francesco. 2011. "Discipline della Scarsità e del Sospetto: Rifugiati e Accoglienza nel Regime di Frontiera". Lares LXXVII (1): 181-198. Van Aken Mauro. 2008. Rifugio Milano. Vie di fuga e vita quotidiana dei richiedenti asilo. Roma: Carta. Weber Max. 1922. Economia e Società. Tr.it. Milano: Edizioni di Comunità.

Between 2001 and 2004, the OECD, the European Training Foundation, CEDEFOP and the World Bank carried out extensive reviews of career guidance, looking broadly at related policy and practice in both the labourmarket and the education sectors. In 2002, the European PES Network's Expert Group carried out a study on personalised services with a special focus on guidance and counselling, documenting examples of interesting practice in six Public Employment Services (PES). The present study, commissioned by DG Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities in October 2004 in collaboration with the Heads of PES Network, sets out to build on the accumulated knowledge of the previous reviews by drawing on the responses of 28 countries—the EU25 plus three EEA countries (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland)—to a questionnaire survey that was specifically developed to facilitate the identification and examination of the place of career guidance in the Public Employment Services across Europe. The survey data was complemented by country visits to Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Poland, Slovenia and Sweden, in order to provide a qualitative dimension to the study, and to enable a deeper examination of the issues that were foregrounded in the survey. The key purpose behind the study was to gauge the manner in which—and the extent to which—personalised employment and career guidance services in the European PES have responded to the widely-adopted goal of implementing a personal service approach, identifying the difficulties they have encountered and the innovative responses they have generated. The study is guided by a concern with the practical, i.e. it sets out to describe the day-to-day realities of work in the PES with a view to identifying some of the more promising and successful practices, and to make proposals for improvement. The report provides details of the various models of career guidance in use, the processes that are being implemented across the range of EU and EEA countries, the outcomes of PES interventions, the tools and instruments used to attain such outcomes, the level of staff preparation for delivering career guidance services, and the strategies that are in place in order to ensure quality provision. An understanding of the context in which the PES across Europe provide career guidance services is crucial. The study is therefore careful to locate the survey within the context of the European Employment Strategy (EES), and particularly the European Employment Guideline on prevention and activation. It also draws a link between the latter and the effort to modernise the PES across Europe through the widespread adoption of a personal service model, which gives pride of place to the client, and which strives to guarantee citizens' rights for quality, proximity, personalisation and individualisation of public services. The report further examines the potential of career guidance in contributing to the attainment of the Lisbon targets, particularly in relation to the priorities established by the EES to increase in the adaptability of workers, to attract more people to the labour market, and to increase quality investment in human capital. It is argued that career guidance and personalised employment services have the potential for making such a contribution by advancing lifelong learning goals, by helping to address a whole range of labour market issues, and by supporting efforts to attain social equity and social inclusion goals. While career guidance services are offered in a range of settings, and there is an overlap in the way that these services are understood in such settings, specific attention needs to be given to the way career guidance is defined within the overall mission of the PES. Here we can distinguish three main categories of activities: - The first are those activities that fall within the area of 'personalised employment services', and that have elements of career guidance embedded in them. Employment advisers register and interview clients, and in the process of doing so utilise several guidance-related skills, particularly where efforts are being made to personalise services through client segmentation. While the employment adviser's work at this level—in relation to the initial interview, personal action planning, and assistance in the job-search process through job-broking and other means—cover processes and tasks that are largely administrative, they can also have strong guidance elements embedded in them. The report acknowledges the tensions that arise in the mix and balance between administrative and guidance roles, stressing that both elements are critical in the consolidation of career guidance elements within services that have, as their primary objective, the placing of people in employment. - The second category of activities are specialised career guidance services. These are distinguished from the first category by their more intensive and more focused engagement with the client, on the basis of a deeper knowledge base and extended competence. It is noted that the two categories are increasingly becoming blurred, and that this carries with it both opportunities and challenges for career guidance in a PES context. - A third category of activities considers other career guidance provision that the PES may be involved in, including the production and/or dissemination of labour market information, as well as occupational information, and the provision of career guidance services to students. These three categories of activities need to be considered within the changes in the overall organisational context of the public employment services. One of the key trends that have an impact on the way personalised employment and career guidance services are delivered is responsibility-sharing. The study considers three key aspects in relation to this organisational trend. The first is the sharing of responsibility with regional and local employment offices through decentralisation. The second is the sharing of responsibility with partners through joint service delivery, or through outsourcing and contracting-out. In both cases, the different modalities by means of which the process can be organised are discussed in some detail, particularly with a view to identifying how they can improve—or jeopardise— quality career guidance provision. Indeed, a key challenge that the PES has to confront is to find the right balance between, on the one hand, encouraging innovative, flexible and context-sensitive responses in its decentralised mediation between clients and local labour markets, and on the other, maintaining standards across the whole range of providers, thus ensuring that citizens, irrespective of their geographical or social location, have guaranteed access to the same quality of service that they are equally entitled to. The issue of quality standards in the attempt to manage the decentralisation process is therefore pivotal, and constitutes the third aspect considered. The study highlights different approaches to quality assurance across the 28 European countries, pointing to some of the formative experiences in the use of both quantitative and qualitative strategies in this respect. The change in the organisational context, as well as the paradigmatic shift towards a 'personal service model', has given rise to a number of trends in the delivery of career guidance and career-guidance-related services within Europe's PES. One of the more important is the increase in the range and depth of services that contain career guidance elements. This increase in both supply and demand for services can lead to tensions resulting from the attempt to develop personalised approaches while at the same time catering for increasingly large numbers of unemployed in a differentiated manner. Such tensions are particularly accentuated in those contexts where human and material resources have either remained stable or even been decreased. Europe's PES have developed three key ways to manage these tensions. These include: a resort to partnership and to outsourcing; a shift to self-service modes of delivery; and the introduction of tiering, to provide career guidance in self-access modes and in groups to the majority of clients, reserving to the rest more intensive individual career guidance interviews if and when needed. Employment advisers and career guidance staff are at the crucible of most of the transformations taking place in the PES, and their training, competence levels and motivation have a great bearing on the quality and nature of services provided. The study considers PES staff involved in delivery of personalised employment and career guidance services from a variety of angles. First, attention is given to aspects of their profile, including age, gender and conditions of work. The focus then turns to the distribution of career guidance roles among PES staff, with distinctions being drawn between those systems that have specialised tiers of staff, and those that require their staff to be multi-functional. The implications that such role distributions have for the provision of specialised services on the one hand, and holistic services on the other, are also examined. A third major consideration in regard to staff is the profile required of career guidance and career-guidance-related personnel at the point of recruitment, as well as the opportunities that such staff have for pre-service, induction and continued training. While many systems do not provide initial training, and recruitment is often effected on the basis of proxy qualifications, there is a trend for improved induction and in-service professional development opportunities—linked, for example, to the range of tools and instruments that career-guidance-related staff use in delivering services. Details of the modalities for the provision of training are presented, as are examples of commendable practice from a variety of countries. Training gaps are also identified, many of which were signalled by respondents to the survey who felt that expanded roles required the targeting of specific competence development. In their attempt to modernise their delivery systems, Europe's PES have striven to reach out to a range of clients, giving special attention to those categories that have particularly acute needs for individualised and tailor-made support on the road to employment: these include the long-term unemployed, women returnees, persons with disability, the unqualified and low-skilled, company-closure clients, and customers with a variety of social problems and/or tenuous links to citizenship rights. The study provides details of the different career guidance models and strategies used to deliver services to such clients. It also considers the results of client-satisfaction surveys, which are being used by PES in several countries as an indicator of effectiveness. Despite major improvements in catering for differentiated needs, it is also clear that there are other categories of customers that the PES are finding more challenging to reach. In particular, rising unemployment levels in a tight resource environment are often leading PES to focus narrowly on the unemployed, despite the fact that lifelong career guidance perspectives are adhered to in principle. Swift placement in employment remains a pivotal challenge for the PES, even as they strive to balance this with other career guidance-related goals such as client clarification of occupational strengths and interests, as well as career management and development in a lifelong perspective. In their attempt to maintain the dynamics of transformation into effective and client-oriented organisations, Europe's PES face a number of important challenges. Four are particularly relevant to personalised employment and career guidance services: - The first challenge concerns the need for PES career guidance and careerguidance- related services to be more systematic in the evaluation of their effectiveness. While there is a strong tradition of critical assessment of PES functions overall, the targeted evaluation of career guidance within PES settings needs further attention, even if there are a number of examples of good practice in several countries that could serve to provide models for emulation. A stronger evidence base on the match between career guidance services and policy objectives buttresses claims for improved resourcing. On the other hand, a lack of systematic evidence leads to a situation where the major shifts in the modalities of service delivery—particularly in relation to responsibility-sharing with partners and outsourced agencies—remain unexamined in terms both of efficiency in resource use, and of impact on quality of service. - A second challenge is to get the right balance between integrating career guidance elements in the services and activities provided by the PES, while at the same time maintaining specialist services for deeper engagement with clients when this is required. In many ways this implies the foregrounding of the identity of career guidance within PES settings. In addition, the attempt to deepen career guidance and career-guidance-related services towards a larger range of clients signals the need for more intensive preparation of staff, and for a more careful consideration of the ways in which the administrative and the career guidance roles of providers can be kept in appropriate balance. - A third challenge arises from the necessity to open up guidance services within the PES to embrace a more long-term, life-long perspective: one that is more in tune with the needs of citizens in the emergent knowledge economy. This vision presents enormous resource and training challenges for the PES, but it is likely to be one that it will need to rise to as citizens increasingly move through occupational and training pathways in more complex, non-linear ways. A lifelong perspective on career guidance would entail the PES in stronger collaboration with education institutions and with companies, so that service delivery is experienced by the client in a seamless, holistic way, with community resources being mobilised in support of goals that have, as an outcome, both the private good and the public good. - Finally, the PES has to rise to the challenge of addressing key gaps in service delivery, and to focus on those areas that require further attention and investment in order to facilitate the provision of quality services for all. The way forward lies in addressing these challenges. ; peer-reviewed

Memoria de Tesis doctoral presentada por Guillermo Asín Prieto, para obtener el doctorado (Mención en Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y de Automatización) por la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M), realizada bajo la dirección de Juan Camilo Moreno Sastoche y José Luis Pons Rovira .-- 186 páginas. ; This doctoral thesis presents, after reviewing human gait, the main pathologies and conditions that affect it, and the different rehabilitation approaches with the corresponding neurophysiological implications, the research journey that leads to the development of the rehabilitation robotic tool, and the therapies that have been designed, within the framework of the European projects BioMot: Smart Wearable Robots with Bioinspired Sensory-Motor Skills and HANK: European advanced exoskeleton for rehabilitation of Acquired Brain Damage (ABD) and/or spinal cord injury's patients, and tested under the umbrella of the European project ASTONISH: Advancing Smart Optical Imaging and Sensing for Health and the national project ASSOCIATE: A comprehensive and wearable robotics based approach to the rehabilitation and assistance to people with stroke and spinal cord injury. Initially human gait is presented, characterizing it according to its stance and swing phases, and the spatiotemporal, kinetic and kinematic parameters, without neglecting the physiological parameters; followed by a review of the main pathologies or conditions that affect human gait: spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, traumatic brain injury, neuromuscular impairments, osteoarticular diseases, aging, and stroke or cerebrovascular accident. Next, the robotic tool that is developed in this thesis is framed in the context of rehabilitation for stroke, based on its use in this widespread pathology, as it affects 13.7 million people every year, since there are about 80 million survivors, affecting all age ranges. In addition, 80 % of people affected by a stroke find also compromised their motor abilities, motivating the need to develop tools focused on the rehabilitation and recovery, as far as possible, of the independence lost due to the disease, with gait as a fundamental component of that independence. After reviewing gait and the characteristics of the pathology, an explanatory review is given for the three phases of therapy for gait rehabilitation: T1) preparatory training based on mobilization of the lower limb joints; T2) gait recovery; and T3) improvement of gait with the aim of recovering mobility for activities of daily living. This classification of the therapy phases is presented to frame the work of this thesis in phases T1 and T2. Motor recovery is based on motor learning, and thus, I provide a brief introduction to it, exposing its relationship with neuroplasticity, and establishing that, in order to enhance all types of learning, it is essential to establish a challenge, i.e., an acceptable difficulty, not only making the training less monotonous, but also enhancing retention. Motor learning, like all kinds of learning, requires the occurrence of neural plasticity. Neural plasticity can be described by these four factors: 1) evolution of neuronal representation for movements that require skill, which were latent before the injury; and recruitment of healthy areas that were used before the injury occurred, when the difficulty of the task was greater; 2) greater excitability of neurons and more efficiency of synaptic connections; 3) morphological changes associated with long-term potentiation and depression (LTP and LTD) phenomena; and 4) adaptation of cortical, subcortical and spinal networks that still function to the learned movement. There are different non-invasive methods that allow the evaluation of neuroplastic changes (Hoffman reflex, F-wave, motor evoked potentials, etc.), and since in this thesis the motor evoked potentials (MEPs) have been assessed, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is presented as the technique used to evoke potentials in the motor cortex associated with the muscle or muscles whose excitability is being evaluated, collected by means of superficial electromyography. The TMS technique allows to observe changes in corticospinal excitability before and after a treatment that potentially induces motor learning, being able also to evaluate if these changes are related to the treatment, as well as allowing to observe if they are long-lasting. In the literature review chapter, the differences between traditional rehabilitation approaches, and those robotic technology-aided are also introduced, showing that there is no clear winner in such a battle, but showing the advantage of robot-aided approaches, as they allow objectively measuring and help characterizing the recovery process. Once the robotic technology has been introduced as a rehabilitation technology, exoskeletons are presented as the most appropriate robotic technology involved in rehabilitative approaches for gait, and a review of the relevant existing devices, with their characteristics and limitations, is given to show the motivation of this work. The limitations presented by current devices are: they use pre-recorded patterns; they do not have visual feedback systems, or their feedback systems are too simple, not presenting the potential of a video game: entertainment and adherence to the treatment, allowing the difficulty to be modified. Some, on the other hand, are so complex that they demand a high cognitive effort for patients, or are even complex to configure and command, leading to the abandonment of the technology by both patients and therapists. In addition, most of them lack the ability to introduce randomness in the treatment, potentially leading to boredom of the patient, and ultimately abandonment of the therapy. Last but not least, the tasks are not adapted along the treatment to the capacities and the recovery of the subject. Therefore, the tool proposed in this thesis consists of the integration of a robotic ankle fixed to a platform, with a visual feedback comprised of a video game designed to train movements in the sagittal plane of the ankle: dorsiflexion and plantarflexion; with the subject sitting. The tool is capable of generating controlled torque patterns that disturb the trajectory followed by the subject, increasing the difficulty to collect the items on the screen. In addition, the magnitude of these disturbances depends on the performance during the task, increasing the difficulty when the performance is rising, managing to impose a continuous challenge, enhancing the adherence to the treatment as well as its effectiveness to promote the retention of what has been learned. After presenting the review of the literature, I present the development of the rehabilitation tool, describing the journey from the test of the control algorithms, to the development of the video game and design of the experimental protocol, through the adaptation of the control to the compliant actuator on which the tool is based, or tests first on a test bench and then with healthy subjects wearing the device. The first study presents the application of a bioinspired algorithm for autonomous learning, used in bipeds (providing them with the ability to learn to walk without prior knowledge of the task nor the environment, only knowing some points of the angular trajectory), to a six degrees of freedom actuated exoskeleton, with rigid actuators, in the sagittal plane, corresponding to the three main joints of the lower limb, i.e., hip, knee and ankle. This adaptation of the algorithm allows to modulate the rigidity of a rigid actuator with a simple implementation. The term tacit adaptability (TAd) was coined to refer to this control strategy. The third study extends the results to subjects on a treadmill, showing that the algorithm allows to absorb the deviations that the subject may have on the trajectory imposed by the controller of the robot. These studies have demonstrated the use of TAd with a position controller. For the development of the tool, its use is also tested with a torque controller, in order to modulate the amplitude of the applied torque. Then, the following chapter shows two protocols applicable to the T2 phase, just before starting free overground gait rehabilitation. The same robotic tool is used, varying the angle at which the subject's leg rests, to be used standing up. This study aims to explore the application of torque controllers to the rehabilitation robotic tool. In the first training, the robot applies a torque downwards, during the time equivalent to the swing phase, to force the subject to make a higher dorsiflexion torque to be able to follow a natural ankle angular trajectory profile. At the end of the training, during the final 15-20 % of time, the torque is removed. It is observed that the subjects have a greater dorsiflexion when the effect is removed, as well as a minor activation of the dorsiflexor muscles (in the absence of the force to be compensated), and tend to normalize the patterns over time. We also observe that when the torque downwards is removed, there is a trend to anticipate the maximum dorsiflexion peak angle in the swing phase, a trend that tends to disappear over time. In the second training, the robot exerts a torque upwards, similar to that exerted by the ground in the stance phase (ground reaction force), but at a lower magnitude, throughout the training. A lower activation is observed in the gastrocnemius medialis (plantarflexor muscle) than during a free walking over ground. This indicates that the reduced force made by the robot is similar to that experienced when wearing a body weight support. Next, the development of the visual feedback based on a video game is presented. The game consists of a gyrocopter whose position on the vertical axis can be modified by means of the dorsi and plantarflexion of the instrumented ankle (the horizontal axis advances automatically). The aim of the game is to collect the gas bottles that appear on the screen, following the optimal trajectory between bottles. The following study, whose objective is to demonstrate the feasibility of using the tool integrated by the robotic ankle fixed to the platform and the rehabilitation video game, prior to applying the TAd, exposes that applying a training without modulating, and modulating progressively and with a simple rule, the maximum torque applied by the robot, learning is promoted in healthy subjects, being greater the learning with the modulated approaches. Once the viability of the tool to promote motor learning in healthy subjects has been proven, the adaptation of TAd to MACCEPA, with a torque controller, is presented, giving rise to what we have dubbed as haptic adaptive feedback (HAF). This paradigm makes use of the performance in the task to modulate the maximum amplitude of the torque exerted by the robot, depending on the capabilities of the subject. In this way, the concept of challenge is maintained, without excessively exceeding the subject's capabilities, and adapting to the improvements in the execution of the task. The last study I present, corresponding to the development phase, presents the results when testing the feasibility of the final protocol with a healthy individual. For five consecutive days, the subject received a training with the robotic ankle consisting of playing the video game designed to encourage motor learning. We observed that the subject learned throughout the days, showing a significant reduction in the error when following the best trajectory between bottles, as well as a significant increase in the score, understood as the number of collected bottles. The study shows that the protocol is capable of generating learning in a healthy subject. The following chapter shows an extension of the previous study to a sample of ten healthy subjects, applicable to the T1 therapy phase. The subjects trained for three consecutive days. In addition, corticospinal excitability was recorded by means of TMS, focused on the tibialis anterior muscle, before starting the training on the first day, just after the training on the third (and last) day, 30 minutes later to see if the effects were maintained along time (LTP-like), and 24 hours after, to see long-lasting effects. An increase in both score and error was observed throughout the days. Likewise, a significant increase in the corticospinal excitability of the tibialis anterior was obtained, but not in the other two registered muscles: soleus (as a muscle involved in the task) and rectus femoris (as a proximal muscle, and, therefore, not involved in the task of dorsi/plantarflexion). The lack of significant changes in the soleus may be due to the fact that being a muscle whose action is in favor of gravity, it has been less potentiated. Another possible reason is that, because the tibialis anterior receives a higher density of corticospinal projections than the rest of the lower limb muscles, it needs a lower intensity to be recruited compared to the soleus. We extended this study in a case study with a pathological subject to test the feasibility of applying the protocol with patients. To do this, we modified the torque profile exerted by the robot so that it only forced dorsiflexion, preventing the patient from having to compensate for a movement of the robot downwards, focusing on training the dorsiflexor muscles. We observed a significant increase in the score in the task of the video game, as well as a significant decrease in the error, throughout the five days of the experiment. In the case of the patient, clinical scales were also recorded, observing improvements in resistance, speed, distance and transition time to standing position. Finally, the range of motion and speed of dorsi/plantarflexion were also recorded by means of an ad-hoc designed test, in which the subject was asked to move the foot up and down as quickly as possible to vertically move an onscreen ball to the limits of the screen. These metrics also shown improvements throughout the treatment. Nonetheless, these positive results cannot be extrapolated to the population of pathological subjects, as the effects of our training cannot be isolated from the rest of the patient's daily therapy; but it is concluded that it is a viable training for use in clinical scenarios. ; Esta tesis doctoral presenta, tras repasar la marcha humana, las principales patologías y condiciones que la afectan, y los distintos enfoques de rehabilitación con la correspondiente implicación neurofisiológica, el camino de investigación que desemboca en la herramienta robótica de rehabilitación y las terapias que se han desarrollado en el marco de los proyectos europeos BioMot: Smart Wearable Robots with Bioinspired Sensory-Motor Skills y HANK: European advanced exoskeleton for rehabilitation of Acquired Brain Damage (ABD) and/or spinal cord injury's patients, y probado bajo el paraguas del proyecto europeo ASTONISH: Advancing Smart Optical Imaging and Sensing for Health y el proyecto nacional ASSOCIATE: A comprehensive and wearable robotics based approach to the rehabilitation and assistance to people with stroke and spinal cord injury. Inicialmente se presenta la marcha humana, caracterizándola en arreglo a sus fases de apoyo y balanceo, y a los parámetros espaciotemporales, cinéticos y cinemáticos, sin dejar de lado los parámetros fisiológicos; para pasar a mostrar un repaso por las principales patologías o condiciones que afectan la marcha humana: lesión medular, parálisis cerebral, lesión cerebral traumática, deficiencias neuromusculares, enfermedades osteoarticulares, envejecimiento, e ictus o accidente cerebrovascular. A continuación, se enmarca la herramienta robótica que se desarrolla en esta tesis, en la rehabilitación para el ictus, fundamentando su uso en esta extendida patología debido a que afecta a 13,7 millones de personas cada a˜no, y a que hay unos 80 millones de supervivientes, afectando a todos los rangos de edad. Además, el 80 % de las personas afectadas por un accidente cerebrovascular ven asimismo comprometida su capacidad motora, motivando la necesidad de desarrollar herramientas enfocadas en la rehabilitación y recuperación, hasta donde sea posible, de la independencia perdida por motivo de la enfermedad, con la marcha como componente fundamental de esa independencia. Después de dar un repaso por la marcha y las características de la patología, se da un repaso explicativo por las tres fases de la terapia para rehabilitación de la marcha: T1) entrenamiento preparatorio basado en movilización de las articulaciones del miembro inferior; T2) recuperación de la marcha; y T3) mejora de la marcha con el objetivo de recuperar la movilidad para las actividades de la vida diaria. Se presenta esta clasificación de las fases para enmarcar el trabajo de esta tesis en las fases T1 y T2. Debido a que la recuperación motora se basa en el aprendizaje motor, se da una breve introducción al mismo exponiendo su relación con la neuroplasticidad, y estableciendo que, para potenciar todo tipo de aprendizaje, es capital establecer un reto, esto es, una dificultad asumible, y que no sólo hace que la tarea de entrenamiento sea menos monótona, sino que además potencia el proceso de retención del aprendizaje. El aprendizaje motor, como todo aprendizaje, para poder tener lugar, requiere que haya plasticidad neuronal. La plasticidad neuronal se puede describir por medio de estos cuatro factores: 1) evolución de la representación neuronal para movimientos que requieren habilidad, que estaban latentes antes de la lesión; y reclutamiento de áreas sanas y que se usaban antes de que la lesión ocurriera, cuando la dificultad de la tarea era mayor; 2) mayor excitabilidad de las neuronas y m´as eficacia de la conexión sináptica; 3) cambios morfológicos asociados a los fenómenos de potenciación y depresión a largo plazo (LTP y LTD de sus siglas en inglés, long term potentiation y long term depression respectivamente); y 4) adaptación de las redes corticales, subcorticales y espinales que aún funcionan al movimiento aprendido. Hay distintos métodos no invasivos que permiten evaluar los cambios neuroplásticos (reflejo de Hoffman, onda F, potenciales motores evocados, etc), y dado que en esta tesis se han usado los potenciales motores evocados(MEPs, de sus siglas en inglés, motor evoked potentials), se presenta la estimulación magnética transcraneal (TMS, de sus siglas en inglés, transcranial magnetic stimulation), como la técnica utilizada para evocar en la corteza motora asociada al músculo o a los músculos, cuya excitabilidad corticoespinal se desea evaluar, un potencial motor, recogido por medio de electromiografía superficial. La técnica de TMS permite observar cambios en la excitabilidad corticoespinal antes y después de un tratamiento que potencialmente induzca un aprendizaje motor, para poder evaluar si estos cambios están relacionados con el tratamiento, as´ı como permitiendo observar si son duraderos en el tiempo. En el capítulo de la revisión de la literatura se introducen también las diferencias entre los enfoques clásicos de rehabilitación, y los ayudados por las tecnologías robóticas, mostrando que no hay un claro ganador en tal batalla, pero manifestando la ventaja de la tecnología al permitir medir de manera objetiva y ayudar a caracterizar el proceso de recuperación. Una vez introducida la tecnología robótica como tecnología para la rehabilitación, se presentan los exoesqueletos como la tecnología robótica más adecuada implicada en los enfoques rehabilitadores para la marcha, y se da un repaso por los dispositivos existentes, con sus características y limitaciones, para mostrar la motivación de este trabajo. Las limitaciones que presentan los dispositivos actuales relevantes son que: utilizan patrones pre-grabados; no tienen sistemas de retroalimentación visual, o sus sistemas de retroalimentación son demasiados simples, no presentando el potencial de un video juego: entretenimiento y adherencia al tratamiento, permitiendo modificar la dificultad. Algunos, por otro lado, son tan complejos que demandan un esfuerzo cognitivo difícil para los pacientes, o incluso son complejos de configurar y comandar, llevando al abandono de la tecnología tanto por parte de pacientes como por parte de terapeutas. Además, la mayoría de ellos carecen de la capacidad de introducir aleatoriedad en el tratamiento, potencialmente desembocando en el aburrimiento del paciente, y en el abandono de la terapia en última instancia. Por último, pero no por ello menos importante, las tareas que proponen no se adaptan a lo largo del entrenamiento a las capacidades y recuperación del sujeto. Por ello, la herramienta que se propone en esta tesis consta de la integración de un tobillo robótico fijado a una plataforma, con una retroalimentación visual por medio de un video juego diseñado para entrenar los movimientos en el plano sagital del tobillo: dorsiflexión y plantarflexión; con el sujeto sentado. La herramienta es capaz de generar patrones de par controlados que perturban las trayectorias seguidas por el sujeto, dificultando la tarea de recoger los ítems en pantalla. Además, la magnitud de estas perturbaciones depende del rendimiento durante la tarea, incrementando la dificultad cuando el rendimiento va mejorando, consiguiendo imponer un reto continuo, potenciando la adherencia al tratamiento así como su eficacia para fomentar la retención de lo aprendido. Tras exponer la revisión de la literatura, se presenta el desarrollo de la herramienta de rehabilitación, recorriendo el camino desde la prueba de los algoritmos de control, hasta el desarrollo del video juego y diseño del protocolo experimental, pasando por la adecuación del control al actuador compliant en que se basa la herramienta, o las pruebas primero en banco de pruebas y después con sujetos sanos vistiendo el dispositivo. El primer estudio que se presenta consiste en aplicar un algoritmo, bioinspirado, de aprendizaje autónomo, utilizado en b´ıpedos (los cuales presentan la capacidad de aprender a caminar sin conocimiento previo de la tarea ni del entorno, únicamente conociendo algunos puntos de la trayectoria angular a realizar por las articulaciones), a un exoesqueleto con seis grados de libertad actuados, con actuadores rígidos, en el plano sagital, correspondiendo con las tres principales articulaciones del miembro inferior, esto es, cadera, rodilla y tobillo. Esta adaptación del algoritmo permite modular la rigidez de un actuador rígido con una implementación sencilla. Se acuñó el término adaptabilidad tácita (TAd, de sus siglas en inglés, tacit adaptability) para referirse a esta estrategia de control. El segundo estudio que se presenta tiene como objetivo aplicar el TAd a un actuador compliant: el MACCEPA (de sus siglas en inglés, mechanically adjustable compliance and controllable equilibrium position actuator). El MACCEPA es un actuador basado en un elemento elástico en serie, cuya pre-compresión puede variarse, ofreciendo distintos grados de rigidez. La ventaja de este actuador es que permite aplicar un control de par sin necesidad de un complejo sensor de par, conociendo la constante del elemento elástico y las posiciones del motor y del ángulo articular del sujeto. En el estudio, se presenta adaptación del TAd al MACCEPA, en el banco de pruebas, mostrando que, mediante este algoritmo, y sin modificar la pre-compresión del elemento elástico, se puede modular la rigidez del actuador tanto en condiciones estáticas como dinámicas, demostrando que el control puede adaptarse a las capacidades del sujeto, de manera automática y autónoma. El tercer estudio extiende los resultados a sujetos sobre la cinta de marcha, mostrando que el algoritmo permite absorber las desviaciones que pueda tener el sujeto sobre la trayectoria impuesta por el control del robot. Estos estudios han demostrado el uso del TAd con un control de posición. Para el desarrollo de la herramienta, se prueba también su uso con un control de par, para poder modular la magnitud del par aplicado. El siguiente capítulo muestra dos protocolos aplicables a la fase T2, justo antes de empezar un entrenamiento de marcha libre. Se utiliza la misma herramienta robótica, variando el ángulo en que reposa la pierna del sujeto, para poder ser utilizado en bipedestación. Este estudio tiene como objetivo explorar los controladores de par con la herramienta de rehabilitación robótica propuesta. El primero de los entrenamientos consiste en que el robot aplica un par negativo (hacia el suelo), durante el tiempo equivalente a la fase de balanceo, para forzar a que el sujeto haga un par de dorsiflexion superior al habitual para poder seguir una trayectoria angular de tobillo natural en caminata. Al final del entrenamiento, durante el 15 - 20 % final del tiempo, se quita el par negativo. Se observa que los sujetos tienen una dorsiflexión mayor al quitar el efecto, así como una activación menor de los músculos dorsiflexores (en ausencia de la fuerza a compensar), y tienden a normalizar los patrones a lo largo del tiempo. Observamos también que cuando se deja de aplicar el par, hay una tendencia a anticiparse al efectuar el pico máximo de dorsiflexión en la fase de balanceo, tendencia que va desapareciendo con el tiempo. En el segundo entrenamiento, el robot ejerce un par positivo, similar al ejercido por el suelo en la fase de apoyo, pero de una magnitud inferior, durante todo el entrenamiento. Se observa una activación inferior en el gastrocnemio medial (músculo plantarflexor) que durante una caminata normal sobre suelo. Esto indica que la fuerza reducida efectuada por el robot es similar a una caminata con un sistema de suspensión del peso. A continuación, se presenta el desarrollo de la realimentación visual a modo de videojuego. El juego consiste en un autogiro cuya posición en el eje vertical puede modificarse por medio de la dorsi y plantarflexión del tobillo instrumentado (el eje horizontal avanza de manera automática). El objetivo es recoger las botellas de gasolina que aparecen en la pantalla, siguiendo la trayectoria óptima entre botellas. El siguiente estudio, cuyo objetivo es demostrar la viabilidad de uso de la herramienta integrada por tobillo robótico fijado a la plataforma y el videojuego de rehabilitación, previo a aplicar el TAd, expone que aplicando un entrenamiento sin modular de ninguna manera, y modulando de manera progresiva y con una regla simple, el máximo par aplicado por el robot, se promueve aprendizaje en sujetos sanos, siendo mayor con los enfoques modulados. Una vez probada la viabilidad de la herramienta para fomentar el aprendizaje motor en sujetos sanos, se presenta la adaptación del TAd al MACCEPA, esta vez controlado en par, dando lugar a lo que hemos bautizado como retroalimentación adaptativa háptica (HAF, de sus siglas en inglés, haptic adaptive feedback). Este paradigma hace uso del rendimiento en la tarea para modular la máxima amplitud del par efectuado por el robot en cada momento en función de las capacidades del sujeto. De esta manera, se mantiene el concepto de reto, sin sobrepasar en exceso las capacidades del sujeto, y adecuándose según se producen mejoras en la ejecución de la tarea. El último estudio presentado, correspondiente a la fase de desarrollo, presenta los resultados a la hora de probar la viabilidad del protocolo final con un sujeto sano. A lo largo de cinco d´ıas consecutivos, el sujeto recibío el entrenamiento con el tobillo robótico consistente en jugar al videojuego diseñado para fomentar el aprendizaje motor. Se observó que el sujeto aprendía a lo largo de los días, mostrando reducción significativa en el error a la hora de seguir la mejor trayectoria entre botellas, así como aumento significativo en la puntuación, entendida como número de botellas recogidas. El estudio demuestra que el protocolo es capaz de generar aprendizaje en un sujeto sano. El siguiente capítulo muestra una ampliación del estudio previo a una muestra de diez sujetos sanos, aplicable a la fase de terapia T1. Los sujetos entrenaron a lo largo de tres días consecutivos. Además, se registró la excitabilidad corticoespinal por medio de TMS, enfocado en el tibial anterior, antes de empezar el entrenamiento el primer día, justo después del entrenamiento del tercer (y ´ultimo) día, media hora después para ver si los efectos se mantenían con el tiempo, y 24 horas después, para ver efectos a largo plazo. Se observó, a lo largo de los días, un incremento tanto en puntuación como en error. Así mismo, se obtuvo un incremento significativo en la excitabilidad corticoespinal del tibial anterior, pero no así de los otros dos músculos registrados: sóleo (como músculo involucrado en la tarea) y recto femoral (como músculo proximal, y, por tanto, no involucrado en la tarea de dorsi/plantarflexión). La falta de cambios significativos en el sóleo puede deberse a que al ser un músculo cuya acción es a favor de la gravedad, se haya visto menos potenciado. Otra posible razón es que, debido a que el tibial anterior recibe una mayor densidad de proyecciones corticoespinales que el resto de músculos del miembro inferior, necesite una intensidad inferior para ser reclutado en comparación con el sóleo. Se extendió este estudio con un caso de estudio con un sujeto patológico para probar la viabilidad de aplicación del protocolo con pacientes. Para ello, se modificó el par realizado por el robot para que sólo forzase dorsiflexión, evitando que el paciente tuviera que compensar un movimiento del robot hacia abajo, centrado en entrenar los músculos dorsiflexores. Se observó un incremento significativo en la puntuación en la tarea del videojuego, así como un decremento significativo del error, a lo largo de los cinco días de experimento. En el caso del paciente se registraron también escalas clínicas, observando mejoras en resistencia, velocidad, distancia recorrida y tiempo de transición a bipedestación. Por ´ultimo, también se registró el rango de movimiento y velocidad de dorsi/plantarflexión por medio de un test dise˜nado ad-hoc, en el que se pidío al sujeto que moviera el pie arriba y abajo lo más rápido posible para tocar con una bolita los extremos verticales de la pantalla. Se observó una mejora en esta métrica a lo largo del tratamiento. Aunque se ven mejoras, no puede extrapolarse este resultado a la población de sujetos patológicos, así como no se pueden aislar los efectos del juego del resto de la terapia diaria del paciente; pero se concluye que es un entrenamiento viable para su uso en entornos clínicos. ; The research presented in this thesis has been funded by the Commission of the European Union under the BioMot project - Smart Wearable Robots with Bioinspired Sensory-Motor Skills (Grant Agreement number IFP7-ICT - 611695); under HANK Project - European advanced exoskeleton for rehabilitation of Acquired Brain Damage (ABD) and/or spinal cord injury's patients (Grant Agreements number H2020-EU.2. - PRIORITY 'Industrial leadership' and H2020-EU.3. - PRIORITY 'Societal challenges' - 699796); also under the ASTONISH Project - Advancing Smart Optical Imaging and Sensing for Health (Grant Agreement number H2020-EU.2.1.1.7. - ECSEL - 692470); with financial support of Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under the ASSOCIATE project - A comprehensive and wearable robotics based approach to the rehabilitation and assistance to people with stroke and spinal cord injury (Grant Agreement number 799158449-58449-45-514); and with grant RYC-2014-16613, also by Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness.

Sturgeons (Family Acipenseridae) are one of the largest and most primitive fish families on Earth. Although they have always been typically distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, during the last decades wild populations have declined due to anthropogenic factors such as overfishing, poaching, pollution, and habitat loss. The situation is particularly dramatic for Atlantic sturgeon, one of the most ancient species among the family, which is currently extinct in Europe. In order to reintroduce the Atlantic sturgeon in Europe, several Baltic countries have been working together for more than two decades to build an ex-situ broodstock locally with fish derived from Canada, where the populations are not threatened, and releasing juveniles into the rivers flowing to the Baltic Sea.However, rearing fish aimed for restocking in the same manner as aquacultured fish has been shown to impact the post-release survival of juveniles in the long term. For example, in aquaculture conditions, fish are often maintained in high densities, at constant photoperiod and temperature conditions, and feeding on commercial pellets, leaving them cognitively naïve when released into natural environments. Additionally, increased water temperatures due to global warming have a strong influence on the geographic distribution of the species, resulting in local extinctions and population shifts. Although the effect of heat and cold stress on the juvenile and embryonic development have been assessed for several sturgeon species, most studies on gene expression have looked at a very limited number of genes due to the lack of sequence information and genomic resources. Also, most studies use other sturgeon species such as Siberian, Japanese, and white sturgeons, which are widespread aquacultured species. Exposing fish to temperatures higher than the optimal can trigger phenotypic adaptations leading to increase thermotolerance and potentially improve postrelease survival, however the impact of temperature-training protocols on the response to a subsequent heat shock has not yet been assessed in sturgeons. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis was to generate genomic and transcriptomic resources for Atlantic sturgeon, which are essential to improve and promote research in many fields, such as ecology, physiology and evolutionary studies. Moreover, it provides a reference for RNAseq-mediated transcriptome mapping. Additionally, we have used these resources to develop and evaluate the impact of novel rearing techniques toward improving restoration success, focusing on temperature training. First, we have assembled a high-quality de novo transcriptome, made an inventory of all the heat shock protein (HSP) gene family members and exposed a cell line derived from Atlantic sturgeon larvae to a moderate and severe heat shock in order to identify all heat-responsive genes using an RNAseq approach (Paper I). We found 76 HSP genes in the Atlantic sturgeon transcriptome, only 16 of which were responsive to at least one of the applied heat shock protocols, and only 5 of which were consistently upregulated after both moderate and severe heat shock at all the tested timepoints. After building the reference transcriptome and annotating all the HSP genes, we have evaluated the differences in liver transcriptome between temperature-trained and nontrained juveniles upon exposure to a new heat shock (Paper II). After four weeks of treatment, fish exposed to temperature training showed between 2 to 4 fold less dysregulated genes in response to a new heat shock than the non-trained group, indicating their improved ability to maintain transcriptomic homeostasis during a new heat shock. Again, like in the in vitro experiment, very few of the annotated HSP genes were dysregulated in response to heat shock in the liver transcriptome, namely hspa1, hspc1 and dnajb4. Overall, the response to heat shock in the liver transcriptome was milder than the in vitro response, which is likely a consequence of the activation of compensatory mechanisms. These mechanisms include the neuroendocrine system and result in increased tissue protection and thermogenic capacities, especially in the trained fish. We therefore propose that temperature-training protocols like the one tested in this thesis should be included in the set of new rearing techniques for fish used for restocking; however, other protocols should be investigated. Since the main bottleneck in the evaluation of the effect of such training is the lack of sequence information and a reference genome for RNAseq experiments, we have additionally assembled a reference genome for Atlantic sturgeon using a combination of short and long-read sequencing technologies (Paper III). The assembled genome provides for the first time clear evidence of a sturgeon-specific whole-genome duplication event (SR), independent from the American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), which is the main representative of the sister Family (Polyodontidae) within the same Order (Acipensiformes). The presence of duplicated Hox clusters, together with synteny and phylogenetic studies of these developmental genes, and the results of microsatellite loci analysis, suggests that sturgeons have a paleotetraploid origin, and that a rediploidization process is still ongoing. In summary, the results presented in this thesis advance the field of sturgeon research. We hypothesized that temperature training has a positive effect during the exposure to a subsequent heat shock, but its potential to improve post-release survival in the long term should still be assessed. We therefore suggest that future work should be aimed at the optimization of rearing methods for stocking programs and that a reference genome should be used. ; Stør (Familie Acipenseridae) er blant de største og mest primitive familier av benfisk. Mens de opprinnelig var utbredt over hele den nordlige halvkule, er mange populasjoner nå kritisk truet på grunn av menneskeskapte faktorer som overfiske, forurensning og tap av habitat. Situasjonen er spesielt dramatisk for atlantisk stør, en av de eldste artene i familien, som er utdødd i Europa. For å gjeninnføre atlantisk stør, har flere baltiske land arbeidet for å etablere en ex situ stamfiskpopulasjon basert på fisk fra Canada (hvor bestanden ikke er truet), for produksjon av yngel til utsetting i baltiske vassdrag. Imidlertid gir produksjon av settefisk etter samme prinsipper som for oppdrettsfisk svært lav overlevelse i naturen. Eksempelvis vil høy tetthet, konstant fotoperiode og vanntemperatur, og fôring med pellets til faste tider gi en kognitivt naiv fisk som ikke klarer seg i det fri. I tillegg kommer økte vanntemperaturer som resultat av global oppvarming, og som har stor innvirkning på den geografiske fordelingen av arter, som igjen resulterer i lokal utryddelse og forflytning av populasjoner. Selv om effekter av vanntemperatur har blitt undersøkt på embryonal- og yngelutviklingen i flere størarter, har de fleste studier fokusert på et lite sett av gener fordi genomiske ressurser har manglet. I tillegg er de fleste studiene utført på andre arter som er vanlig i akvakultur, slik som sibirsk, japansk og hvit stør. Eksponering til vanntemperaturer som er høyere enn artens optimum, kan utløse fenotypiske tilpasninger som fører til økt termotoleranse og potensielt forbedre overlevelse i naturen. Men effekten av slike temperaturtreningsprotokoller på responsen på et påfølgende varmesjokk er ikke studert i stør. Hovedmålet med denne avhandlingen var å generere genomiske og transkriptomiske ressurser for atlantisk stør, som en viktig faktor for å forbedre og fremme forskning innen økologi, fysiologi og evolusjon. Videre gir avhandlingen en referanse for RNAseq-mediert transkriptomkartlegging. Disse ressursene er så benyttet til å utvikle og evaluere virkningen av nye oppdrettsteknikker for settefisk, med fokus på temperaturtrening. Først har vi satt sammen et høykvalitets de novo transkriptom, deretter karakterisert genfamilien av varmesjokkproteiner (HSP), og så eksponert en cellelinje avledet fra atlantiske størlarver for et moderat og et kraftig varmesjokk for å identifisere alle varmeresponsive gener ved bruk av RNAseq (Artikkel I). Vi fant 76 HSP-gener i transkriptomene fra atlantisk stør, hvorav 16 responderte på minst en av de testede varmesjokkprotokollene, og bare 5 av disse ble konsekvent oppregulert etter både moderat og kraftig varmesjokk ved alle testede tidspunkt. Etter å ha bygget referansetranskriptomet og karakterisert alle HSP-gener, evaluerte vi forskjellene i levertranskriptom mellom temperaturtrent og ikke-trent yngel ved eksponering for et nytt varmesjokk (Artikkel II). Etter fire ukers behandling viste fisk som ble utsatt for temperaturtrening mellom 2-4 ganger færre dysregulerte gener som svar på et nytt varmesjokk sammenlignet med den ikke-trente gruppen. Dette antyder en forbedret evne til å opprettholde transkriptomisk homeostase under et nytt varmesjokk. I likhet med in vitro eksperimentet var svært få HSP-gener dysregulert som respons på varmesjokk i levertranskriptomet, nemlig hspa1, hspc1 og dnajb4. Totalt sett var responsen på varmesjokk i levertranskriptomet mildere enn in vitro responsen, noe som sannsynligvis skyldes ulike kompensatoriske mekanismer. Disse inkluderer det nevroendokrine systemet og resulterer i økt vevsbeskyttelse og termogen kapasitet, spesielt i trent fisk. Selv om andre protokoller bør undersøkes nærmere, foreslår vi at protokoller for temperaturtrening lik den som ble testet i denne avhandlingen bør vurderes i nye oppdrettsprotokoller for settefiskproduksjon av stør. Siden den viktigste flaskehalsen i evalueringen av effekten av slik trening er mangelen på sekvensinformasjon og et referansegenom for RNAseq-eksperimenter, har vi i tillegg produsert et referansegenom for atlantisk stør ved bruk av ulike sekvenseringsteknologier for korte og lange reads (Artikkel III). Genomet gir for første gang klare bevis for en størspesifikk helgenomdupliseringshendelse (SR), uavhengig av spadestør (Polyodon spathula), som er hovedrepresentanten for søsterfamilien (Polyodontidae) innenfor samme Orden (Acipensiformes). Tilstedeværelsen av dupliserte klynger av hox-gener som er sentrale i tidlig utvikling, i tillegg til hox-gen synteni og fylogeni, og mikrosatellitt loci-analyser, antyder at stør har en paleotetraploid opprinnelse, og at en rediploidiseringsprosess fortsatt pågår. Oppsummert vil de forbedrete genomiske og transkriptomiske verktøy presentert i denne avhandlingen åpne for nye muligheter innen størforskning. Videre har temperaturtrening en positiv effekt ved eksponeringen til varmesjokk, men potensialet for temperaturtrening og dermed økt overlevelse ved utsett bør undersøkes videre. ; Os esturións (Familia Acipenseridae) pertencen a unha das familias de peixes mais grandes e primitivas da Terra. Aínda que sempre estiveron distribuídos no hemisferio Norte, nas últimas décadas as poboacións salvaxes teñen diminuido debido a factores antropoxénicos como a sobrepesca, a caza furtiva, a contaminación e a perda do hábitat. A situación é especialmente dramática para o esturión Atlántico, unha das especies máis antigas da familia que se atopa extinta en Europa na actualidade. Co fin de reintroducir o esturión Atlántico en Europa, varios países bálticos levan traballando xuntos durante máis de dúas décadas para construír un núcleo reprodutor con peixes derivados de Canadá, onde a poboación non esta ameazada, e liberar xuvenís nos ríos que flúen ao Mar Báltico. Non obstante, cultivar peixe destinado ao repoboamento utilizando as mesmas técnicas típicamente utilizadas en acuicultura afecta negativamente á supervivencia a longo prazo. Por exemplo, en condicións de acuicultura os peixes adoitan producirse en altas densidades, baixo condicións abióticas constantes (fotoperíodo e temperatura), e aliméntanse de pellets comerciais, producindo animais congitivamente inxenuos cuando son libertados no ambiente natural. Ademais, o aumento das temperaturas da auga debido ao quentamento global ten unha forte influencia na distribución xeográfica das especies, dando lugar a extincións locais. Aínda que os efectos do estrés térmico no desenvolvemento embrionario e etapas xuvenís xa teñen sido avaliados en varias especies de esturións, a maioría dos estudos de expresión xénica céntranse en un número moi limitado de xenes debido á falta de recursos xenómicos. Ademáis, a maioría dos estudos utilizan outras especies de esturións como o branco, siberiano ou xaponés, mais comúns en acuicultura. A exposición dos peixes a temperaturas superiores ás óptimas pode desecandear adaptacións fenotípicas resultando nun incremento da tolerancia térmica e potencialmente unha mellora da supervivencia no hábitat onde son libertados. Sen embargo, os efectos do réxime de temperatura utilizado durante a cría na resposta a un choque de calor posterior non teñen sido avaliados. Por todo isto, o obxectivo principal desta tese foi xerar recursos xenómicos e transcriptómicos para o esturión Atlántico, esenciais para mellorar e promover a investigación en moitos campos da ciencia como a ecoloxía, fisioloxía e a xenómica evolutiva, ademais de fornecer unha referencia para o mapeado do transcriptoma. Ademais, empregamos estes recursos para desenvolver e avaliar o impacto de novas técnicas de cultivo para mellorar o proceso de repoboación, centrándose na xeración de individuos termotolerantes. En primeiro lugar, temos ensamblado un transcriptoma de alta calidade, fixemos un inventario de todos os membros da familia das proteínas de choque térmico (HSP) e expuxemos unha liña celular isolada a partir de larvas disgregadas de esturión Atlántico a un choque de calor moderado e severo para identificar xenes sensibles ó calor (Artigo I). Atopamos 76 HSP no transcriptoma de esturión Atlántico, dos cuáis só 16 foron sensibles a polo menos un dos protocolos de choque de calor avalidado, e 5 foron sensibles a ambos choques térmicos idenpendentemene do momento da amostraxe. Utilizando as secuencias dos xens HSP e o trancriptoma de esturión ensamblado no Artigo I como referencia, temos avaliado as diferenzas no transcriptoma hepático en resposta a un choque térmico entre xuvenís criados baixo un réxime de temperatura constante e en réxime fluctuante (Artigo II). Despois de catro semanas de tratamento, os peixes criados en réxime de temperatura fluctuante mostraron entre 2 e 4 veces menos xens diferencialmente expresados en resposta a un novo choque térmico que os peixes criados en réxime de temperatura constante, indicando a súa mellor capacidade para manter a homeostase transcriptómica durante un novo choque térmico. Como xa indicaron os resultados in vitro, moi poucos HSP foron diferencialmente expresados en resposta ó choque de calor no transcriptoma hepático, concretamente hspa1, hspc1 e dnajb4. En xeral, a resposta ao choque térmico no transcriptoma hepático foi máis leve que a resposta in vitro, o que é probablemente consecuencia da activación de mecanismos compensatorios. Estes mecanismos inclúen o sistema neuroendocrino e teñen como consecuencia un aumento da protección dos tecidos e das capacidades termoxénicas, especialmente no peixe criado a temperaturas fluctuantes. Polo tanto, propoñemos que a cría de peixes a temperaturas fluctuantes debe ser incluida no conxunto de novas técnicas empegadas en peixes criados con fins de repoboamento, non obstante, outros protocolos de temperatura deben ser investigados. Dado que unha importante limitación para a avaliación de novas técnicas de cría é a falta dun xenoma de referencia para experimentos de mapeado do transcriptoma, no Artigo III temos ensamblado un xenoma de referencia para o esturión Atlántico, combinando tecnoloxías de secuenciación de curta e longa lectura. O xenoma do esturión Atlántico evidencia por primeira vez a presenza dun evento de duplicación específico de esturión (SR) e independente do peixe-espátula (Polyodon spathula). A presenza de xenes Hox duplicados, xunto con estudos filoxenéticos e de sintenia e os resultados da análise de loci microsatélite suxire que os esturións teñen unha orixe paleotetraploide e que a rediploidización é aínda un proceso activo. En resumo, os resultados presentados nesta tese avanzan no campo da investigación con esturións. Os nosos resultados suxiren que a cría de peixes baixo un réxime de temperatura fluctuante ten un efecto positivo durante un choque térmico subsecuente, pero a influencia de esta nova técnica de cría na supervivencia dos xuvenís tras a súa liberación no habitat a repoboar aínda debe ser avaliada. Contudo, suxerimos que o traballo no futuro ten que estar centrando na optimización dos métodos de cría en programas de repoboación e que o xenoma de referencia debe ser usado. ; The European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 642893: Improved Production Strategies for Endangered Freshwater Species, "IMPRESS".

Bacillus cereus sensu lato comprises Gram-positive spore-forming bacteria producing toxins associated with foodborne diseases. Three pore-forming enterotoxins, nonhemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe), hemolysin BL (Hbl), and cytotoxin K (CytK), are considered the primary factors in B. cereus sensu lato diarrhea. The aim of this study was to determine the potential risk of enterotoxicity among soil B. cereus sensu lato isolates representing diverse phylogroups and originated from different geographic locations with various climates (Burkina Faso, Kenya, Argentina, Kazakhstan, and Poland). While nheA- and hblA-positive isolates were present among all B. cereus sensu lato populations and distributed across all phylogenetic groups, cytK-2-positive strains predominated in geographic regions with an arid hot climate (Africa) and clustered together on a phylogenetic tree mainly within mesophilic groups III and IV. The highest in vitro cytotoxicity to Caco-2 and HeLa cells was demonstrated by the strains clustered within phylogroups II and IV. Overall, our results suggest that B. cereus sensu lato pathogenicity is a comprehensive process conditioned by many intracellular factors and diverse environmental conditions. ; Izabela Święcicka - izabelas@uwb.edu.pl ; Justyna Drewnowska - Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland ; Natalia Stefańska - Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland ; Magdalena Czerniecka - Department of Cytobiochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland; Laboratory of Tissue Culture, Faculty of Biology, University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland ; Grzegorz Zambrowski - Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland ; Izabela Święcicka - Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland; Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland ; Mock M, Fouet A. 2001. Anthrax. 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