Suchergebnisse

Dottorato di ricerca in Diritto dell' economia ; La tesi affronta il tema degli effetti spiegati sul piano civilistico da alcuni provvedimenti adottati dalle Autorità Amministrative Indipendenti. Dopo il richiamo, seppure in sintesi, dell'ambito storico-economico (liberalizzazioni del mercato e privatizzazioni) nel quale si colloca e va individuata la genesi di tali organismi indipendenti, si è proceduto alla analisi sistematica delle Autorità medesime, suddividendo la trattazione in due parti. L'una, dedicata alle Autorità cd. "di regolazione" - Autorità per l'energia elettrica ed il gas; Autorità per le garanzie delle comunicazioni; ISVAP - preposte alla regolazione ed al successivo controllo del settore di propria competenza. L'altra, riservata alle Autorità cd. "di garanzia" - Banca d'Italia; Consob, Antitrust – istituite allo scopo di garantire ed assicurare la tutela di interessi pubblici o collettivi di rilevanza costituzionale. Per ciascuna delle Autorità menzionate è stata richiamata ed esaminata sia la legge istitutiva sia le successive che ne hanno integrato e/o modificato la disciplina. La vastità del panorama normativo - cui corrisponde, peraltro, la complessità e la diversità dei poteri e delle funzioni riconosciuti a ciascun organismo – e l'ambito del profilo specifico trattato hanno reso necessaria la individuazione selettiva delle norme più rilevanti sotto il profilo civilistico, anche alla luce della prassi applicativa. Si è, quindi, proceduto ad enucleare le norme che attribuiscono alle Autorità: - poteri di natura prevalentemente "regolatoria", che si esplicano e si realizzano mediante provvedimenti normativi di natura secondaria ("regolamenti" ed anche "direttive" dell'Autorità per l'energia elettrica ed il gas e dell'Autorità per le garanzie delle comunicazioni; regolamento ISVAP in ordine al contenuto ed allo schema della "nota informativa"); - poteri di natura più squisitamente amministrativa cui corrispondono atti amministrativi a carattere discrezionale ("autorizzazione in deroga" dell'Antitrust); - altri poteri, infine, cui il legislatore non attribuisce un preciso nomen (potere della Banca d'Italia di prescrivere il "contenuto tipico determinato" per determinati contratti o titoli), lasciando spazio a diverse soluzioni interpretative. Quanto agli effetti conseguenti alla mancata osservanza dei provvedimenti delle Autorità, talora è prevista la sanzione di "nullità relativa" (in caso di "inosservanza" della forma prescritta dalla Consob ed in caso di contratto "difforme" rispetto al contenuto tipico determinato prescritto dalla Banca d'Italia). Altra volta (nell'ambito del mercato vincolato della energia elettrica) conseguono la "modifica" e la "revisione" del regolamento di servizio. L'approfondimento dei temi trattati nell'ampiezza del quadro legislativo rende palese la difficoltà di affrontare in termini unitari il profilo degli "effetti privatistici" delle (diverse) attività delle Autorità Amministrative Indipendenti e di pervenire ad univoche conclusioni di sintesi. ; The thesis addresses the civil-law effects of several measures issued by the Independent Administrative Authorities. A brief review of the historical and economic context leading up to the establishment of the independent authorities (market liberalization and privatization), is followed by a two-part systematic analysis of the Authorities themselves. The first part focuses on the so-called "regulatory" authorities, such as the electricity and gas regulator, the telecommunications regulator, and the insurance market regulator (ISVAP), set up to regulate and control their respective market sectors. The second part focuses on the so-called "supervisory" authorities, such as the Bank of Italy, the financial services authority (Consob) and the competition authority, set up to ensure the protection and safeguarding of constitutionally relevant public or collective interests. The laws establishing each of the above mentioned Authorities are examined, including any later supplements and/or amendments. Due to the vastness of this body of regulations, which, moreover, reflects the great complexity and diversity of the powers and functions of each organization, and the specific profile addressed, it has been necessary to selectively determine the more relevant civil-law rules and provisions, also in the light of their application. Therefore, the thesis highlights the provisions vesting the Authorities with the following powers: - powers of a predominantly "regulatory" nature, which translate into the issuing of secondary legislation (the "regulations" or "directives" issued by the electricity and gas regulator and the telecommunications regulator; the ISVAP regulation relating to the layout and contents of the "nota informativa" or notice providing information on insurance policies); - administrative powers, translating into the introduction of discretionary administrative measures (in the form of the "autorizzazione in deroga" by the competition authority, namely authorized exceptions to the law); - other powers without a specific name (such as, for example, the power of the Bank of Italy to lay down, in a pre-determined manner, a "template" for certain contracts or securities), leaving room for various legal interpretations. With regard to the effects of the failure to comply with and abide by the measures introduced by the Authorities, a penalty of "nullità relativa" (relative voidness) is sometimes provided (in the case of failure to comply with the form laid down by the Consob, and in the case of contracts "differing" from the standard template set out by the Bank of Italy). In other cases (with regard to the regulated electricity market) there is the "amendment" or "revision" process of the supply regulation. The in-depth investigation of the subject matter, with respect to the broadness of the statutory framework, clearly highlights the difficulty of addressing the "civil-law effects" of the (different) activities of the Independent Administrative Authorities in unitary terms, and, therefore, to reach univocal summary conclusions.

Over fifteen years have elapsed since the transition from the centrally planned economic system started in the early 1990's. During this time agricultural and rural areas of Central and Eastern Europe have undergone profound structural changes with wide variations in the degree of transformation and in the rate of success in creating a competitive market and private ownership based food and agricultural system. By becoming member of the European Union the 'transition' in its traditional interpretation has been concluded in ten of the Central East European countries. The transition to market based agriculture, however, is far from completion in Southern and Eastern Europe and especially in the CIS countries. CONTENTS: From public to private governance of agri-food supply chains in transition countries: Some theoretical and empirical lesson; Johan F. M. Swinnen, Anneleen Vandeplas. Assessing market functioning: The case of the Hungarian milk chain; Heinrich Hockmann, Éva Voneki. Modelling dairy farm size distribution in Poland using an instrumental variable generalized cross entropy markov approach; Axel Tonini, Roel Jongeneel. Spatial integration on the hungarian milk Market; Lajos Zoltán Bakucs, Imre Ferto. Some approaches to the analysis of market structure's impact in milk commodity chain; Petr Novák. A comparative analysis of the meat sector in Hungary and Emilia-Romagna: Performance and efficiency; Cristina Brasili, Roberto Fanfani, Elisa Ricci Maccarini, Irene Monasterolo. Bottlenecks and success factors for the introduction of quality assurance schemes in the agri-food secto; Xavier Gellynck, Bianka Kühne, Adrienn Molnár. The impact of trust on co-operative membership performance and satisfaction in the hungarian horticulture; Lajos Zoltán Bakucs, Imre Ferto, Gábor G. Szabó. Integration of small and medium size farmers by co-operatives in the Hungarian fruit and vegetable sector - A case study; Gábor G. Szabó. Lessons on vertical collaboration in Ukraine; Taras Gagalyuk, Jon Hanf. Promoting sustainable market institutions in the transition economies: The role of international assistance; Nancy J. Cochrane. Role of research and researchers during transition: Case study of Lithuania; Natalija Kazlauskiene, William H. Meyers. Role of state administration in updating land-estate and farm-size conditions; Maria Fekete-Farkas, József Molnár, István Szucs. The role of professional agricultural economics associations in shaping national agricultural policy: The case of SERiA; Wojciech J. Florkowski. Some conceptional thoughts on the impact of social networks on non-farm rural employment; Diana Traikova, Judith Möllers, Jana Fritzsch, Gertrud Buchenrieder. Repayment performance under joint liability borrowing. Does social capital matter? - Evidence from Armenia; Milada Kasarjyan, Jana Fritzsch, Gertrud Buchenrieder, Rüdiger Korff. Agriculture in New Member States - Expectations and lessons learned; Jerzy Wilkin. Hungarian agriculture and EU Accession; Jozsef Popp, Gábor Udovecz. Implications of EU enlargement for agricultural markets in the New Member States; Myrna van Leeuven, Lubica Bartova, Robert M'barek, Emil Erjavec. Structural change and distribution of support in Hungarian agriculture following EU Accession: A preliminary FADN analysis; Carmen Hubbard, Szilárd Podruzsik, Lionel Hubbard. Consequences of the two record years of cereal intervention in Hungary; László Rieger, Gyula Szoke. Sustainability dimensions and income prospects for farming systems in the New Member States; Adriana Cristoiu, Francisco Caceres-Clavero, Blanca Lucena-Cobos. Assessing the implications of EU enlargement for CEEC agri-food trade specialization; Dusan Drabik, Lubica Bartova. The agricultural export-growth Nexus in the EU-27 an the country risk; Maria Sassi. The effect of CAP payments on territorial cohesion; Judit Katona-Kovács. Factors of efficiency change of assets on the EU-15 and Hungarian farms from 1990s; István Takács, Zsolt Baranyai, Emese Takács. The European regional policy in Hungary. An evaluation of the objectives and instruments for the cohesion; Irene Monasterolo. POSTERS: Land policy and farm efficiency: The lessons of Moldova; Dragos Cimpoies, Zvi Lerman. Transformation and its impact on structural changes in Polish agriculture; Renata Przygodzka, Ryta Iwona Dziemianowicz. Change in agricultural holdings structure during the transition period in Slovenia; Andrej Udovc. Large farms in Poland founded on the basis of the prooerty of former state-owned farms (PRGs); Adam Kagan. Changes in land utilisation in Hungary since the transition; Robert Magda. Transformation of agricultural sector of Ukrainian economy: Some social and economic results; Elena Borodina, Alexandra Borodina. Survival analysis of culling reasons and economic examination of production period in sow cullin; Péter Balogh, Imre Ertsey, Sándor Kovács. The effect of funding the investments in the Romanian agricultural holdings through the pre-accession programs; Camelia Toma, Camelia Gavrilescu, Lucian Luca. The institutional support of agricultural loans and its role in Czech agriculture; Lukás Cechura. Technological and economic risk analysis of laying hen breeding applying simulation; Sándor Kovács, Imre Ertsey, Péter Balogh. Impact assessment on milk incentive policies in Turkey: Antalya province case; Cengiz Sayin, M. Nisa Mencet, Suleyman Karaman. From subsistence to efficiency in the Romanian agriculture during transition; Dinu Gavrilescu, Camelia Gavrilescu. Longitudinal study of fruit and vegetable consumption in Hungary; Géza Székely, Dénes Pecze. Competitiveness of Polish food sector after the accession to the European Union; Iwona Szczepaniak, Monika Szczególska. Agricultural technology adoption and land productivity: Evidence from the rice-prawn gher farming system in Bangladesh; Basanta Kumar Barmon, Takumi Kondo, Fumio Osanami

In der Arbeit wird untersucht, welchen Beitrag Schulen dazu leisten können, dass Schülerinnen und Schüler zur Teilhabe an der Demokratie befähigt werden. Ausgangspunkt ist die Feststellung, dass sich die öffentliche Wahrnehmung der Qualität von Schule in den vergangenen Jahren zunehmend darauf ausrichtet, welche Leistung Schülerinnen und Schüler erbringen. Nicht(fach)leistungsbezogene Kriterien, die ebenfalls ein normativ begründbares und einzuforderndes Ergebnis von institutionellen Beschulungsprozessen sind, werden dagegen in der politischen, wissenschaftlichen und medialen Auseinandersetzung weit weniger reflektiert. Hierbei wird jedoch übersehen, dass der Schule nicht nur die Aufgabe der Wissensvermittlung zukommt, sondern auch der Auftrag zur umfassenden Persönlichkeitsbildung von Schülerinnen und Schülern. Vor diesem Hintergrund wird das Konstrukt demokratischer Handlungskompetenzen als Ergebnis schulischer Erziehungs- und Sozialisationseffekte auf der Grundlage demokratie- und kompetenztheoretischer Überlegungen begrifflich-konzeptuell entfaltet. Als Facetten dieses mehrdimensionalen Konstrukts werden beispielsweise das politische Wissen und Interesse, die Überzeugung, politisch kompetent zu sein, die Bereitschaft zu politischem Diskurs, zu gezielter Informationssuche und zu gesellschaftlicher Verantwortungsübernahme einbezogen. Es wird postuliert, dass eine spezifische Verfasstheit der Schule, die als demokratische Schulkultur organisations- und schulqualitätstheoretisch konzeptualisiert wird, dem Erwerb solcher Kompetenzen förderlich ist. Auf der Grundlage einer Interviewstudie wird zunächst qualitativ untersucht, welche Konzeptionen des zentralen Konstrukts demokratischer Schulkultur bei den an Schule Beteiligten vorherrschen und wie sich der demokratische Auftrag der Schule im konkreten schulischen Geschehen niederschlägt. Es kann aufgezeigt werden, dass demokratiespezifische Bezüge – Notwendigkeit zum pluralistischen Diskurs, Fördern von Mündigkeit, kritische Reflexion bestehender Verhältnisse – bedeutend seltener vorzufinden sind als die Vorstellung eines auf Gemeinschaftlichkeit, Solidarität und gemeinsamer Verantwortung ausgerichteten Miteinanders. In der quantitativen Studie werden auf der Basis eines umfassenden Datensatzes von ca. 6700 Schülerinnen und Schülern, 3500 Lehrkräften und 137 Schulleitungen die Zusammenhänge zwischen demokratischer Schulkultur und demokratischen Handlungskompetenzen analysiert. Der hierarchischen Struktur der Daten gemäß, werden mit Hilfe von Mehrebenenregressionsanalysen individuelle Effekte von denen der Organisationsebene (Schule) analytisch getrennt. Es kann gezeigt werden, dass jenseits von individuellen Voraussetzungen – Geschlecht, Migrations- und familiärer Hintergrund – systematische Effekte der Schulkultur auf das Niveau demokratischer Handlungskompetenzen bestehen. Dabei erweisen sich nicht solche schulischen Merkmale als bedeutsam, die allgemeine Schulqualitätskonzepte beschreiben, wie beispielsweise die Kooperation der Lehrkräfte oder die aktive Elternarbeit, sondern vor allem auf demokratieförderliche Aspekte ausgerichtete Faktoren, wie zum Beispiel die Unterstützung eines pluralistischen, offenen Diskurses, die Verlebendigung demokratischer Prinzipien oder die Abwesenheit von gewaltsamen Formen der Konfliktlösung. Ausblickend verweist die Arbeit insbesondere auf methodologische Desiderata, die für das Paradigma der Schulqualitätsforschung insgesamt gelten: So wird in der Betrachtung hierarchischer Daten häufig eine Ebene, die nicht im Zentrum des Interesses liegt, ignoriert; was jedoch unter Umständen zu einer Verzerrung der geschätzten Effekte führt. Darüber hinaus wurde deutlich, dass es sich bei einer demokratischen Schulkultur offenbar um ein eigenständiges, über den allgemeinen Qualitätsbegriff hinausgehendes Qualitätsmerkmal von Schule handelt, was jedoch in weiteren Studien sowohl quantitativ als auch qualitativ – beispielsweise im Zuge eine kommunikativen Validierung mit den Beteiligten – nachgewiesen werden müsste. (Autorin) ; This work examines how schools can contribute to empowering students to participate in democracy. It starts with the observation that in recent years, the public perception of school effectiveness has increasingly focused on the achievements of students. Criteria bearing no relation to (academic) achievement that likewise constitute a normatively justified outcome of school institutional processes receive far less attention in political, scientific and medial discussions. This overlooks the fact that school does not only have to fulfill the task of conveying knowledge, but it also has a commitment to developing the personalities of students in a comprehensive manner. The construct of democratic action competencies is conceptually and terminologically developed against this background, as an outcome of school-related education and socialization effects, following democracy theoretical and competence theoretical thoughts. This multi-dimensional construct includes the facets of, for example, knowledge and interest in politics, the confidence in being politically competent, the readiness to join in political discourse, to a focused search for information and to take on responsibility in society. A specific character of the school, which is conceptualized as a democratic school culture in organization and school effectiveness theoretical terms, is predicted to be beneficial to the acquisition of such competencies. In a first step, an interview study provides the basis for a qualitative examination of the conceptions of democratic school culture prevailing among the participants in the school process, and how the democratic commission of the school is evident in concrete everyday school life. It is shown that democracy-specific aspects such as the necessity for pluralistic discourse, advancement of autonomy, critical reflection of existing conditions occur far less frequently than the idea of living together on the basis of community, solidarity and shared responsibility. The quantitative study, which is based on a comprehensive set of data gained from ca. 6700 students, 3500 teachers and 137 school managers analyses the correlations between democratic school cultures and competencies for democratic action. Following the hierarchical structure of the data, multi-level regression analyses are applied to analytically discern individual effects from those of the organization level (school). Systematic effects of the school culture on levels of competence for democratic action can be proven to exist besides individual preconditions such as sex, migration and family background. Not those features of school quality are significant in this context that de-scribe general school effectiveness concepts (such as the cooperation of teachers or active parent involvement), but rather those factors that are directed towards promoting democracy, such as the support of a pluralistic, open discourse, the coming to life of democratic principles or the absence of violent forms of solving conflicts. In an outlook, the study points out desiderata particularly with regard to methodology, which pertain to the paradigm of school effectiveness re-search itself. For instance, the analysis of hierarchical data often ignores a level that does not lie at the heart of interest, but this might lead to a distortion of estimated effects. It furthermore became evident that a democratic school culture seems to be an autonomous quality feature of school that goes beyond the general concept of effectiveness. However, this would need to be proven by subsequent qualitative and quantitative studies – for example, by means of a communicative validation with the participants. (Author)

This paper considers the effects on the local labour market, for both women and men, of the relocation of Kiruna, a large town in the north of Sweden. Whilst the area of Kiruna has been dominated by mining activity for many years this has now become the source of both problems and opportunities for those in the labour market, if not the whole community, as they ready themselves for the relocation of their town - presently situated above a number of deep mine shafts - to a safer area. Mining, transport and engineering industries flourish in Kiruna, with the current labour market and the relocation of the town expected to generate growth and a regional expansion. But the labour market for mining has been dominated traditionally by men, with women found predominantly in the public sector. A question that rises is how much will change, and who might be winners and losers, when the town relocates? Equal opportunities in labour markets have long been a part of political and philosophical debates in a number of European countries, not least Sweden where achievements of political gender equality debates have earned it an international reputation as a world leader in gender equality (Regeringskansliet, 2007). Indeed, in Sweden equal opportunities in respect of gender have been promoted as a part of the school curriculum since 1970 (SCB, 2006; Regeringskansliet, 2007). Subsequent to this and other achievements during the 1970's, social democratic politicians and other campaigners have striven to keep equal opportunities at the forefront of social awareness. This remained the case throughout the 1980's and 1990's, and into the new millennium (SCB, 2006). In 2004, for example, strategies for the integration of gender equality in Government Offices in Sweden were implemented, followed by "new" gender equality policies, that also focused on equal opportunities, in 2006 (SCB, 2006). However, in 2007 a "new" liberal approach to gender equality emerged, its significance albeit somewhat unclear. It is this on which the study focuses: changes to gender equity and labour markets in Kiruna. In order to do this we draw on early results from an empirical investigation involving a subset of data comprising 1,732 questionnaires sent to men and women respondents in the Kiruna local authority area. Although limited, the evidence suggests that the current gender discourse in Kiruna, at least amongst those that participated in the empirical research, is that the attitudes of women and men in respect of gender are decidedly similar. The indication from the data is that work is prioritised over the family and home. Yet while securing an income is widely agreed to be a joint responsibility, the evidence also suggests that the expectation that women will contribute jointly is lower. Moreover, whilst a majority of the participants agree that responsibility for taking care of the home and family is mutual, there is nonetheless a desire for men to increase their contribution. Even so, this does not mean that the men are expected to reduce the amount of paid work they do. These somewhat contradictory findings might be expected - people after all may well say one thing and then do another - but the findings do indicate that ideas of gender equity are in the minds of our respondents, even if they appear to co-exist in ways that are perhaps far from complementary, suggesting the need for an exploration that sets their responses in context as they shift between discourses of gender equity and the experience of inequity in their daily lives.This is important because it has been shown that imbalanced gender distribution has and continues to exist in the labour market in Sweden. This is despite apparent opportunities, choices and legal rights, with many men and women in Sweden 'choosing' gender-segregated occupations and professions, raising questions about the degree of freedom in such choices even in a gender-friendly country that prides itself on equality of opportunity. Yet this appears to have predated the self-interest and competitiveness promoted by the "new" liberal equality-integration policies of the present neo-liberal coalition government concerning the freedom to choose between occupation, profession and parenthood. But what effect is this now having? In what ways have form(s) of gender discrimination persisted and are there new varieties, linked to neo-liberalism (Harvey 2005) at play? The current gender discourse allows women and men to make apparently free choices, with the prioritising of paid work over the home and family by both women and men indicating that parenthood is the least attractive option presently on offer. Indeed, the evidence suggests that denying oneself parental responsibilities - or maybe at least deferring - is becoming the norm. In order to do this parents are mutually dependent on one another and, in most cases, municipal day-care facilities provided through the offices of the local authorities. However, the present government is scrutinising the costs of this provision closely. It is issues such as these that the paper explores through a consideration of approaches to equal opportunity - a concept that is itself liberal in its promotion of equal opportunities to be unequal, in contrast to affirmative action and quotas - in changing contexts in Sweden as they impact on our case study of Kiruna ; Godkänd; 2008; 20081210 (allkin)

Nach ein paar Hinweisen auf wunderliche Phänomene des Weinens wird der Gegensatz von Tränenapparat und leerem Horizont nonverbalen Weinens thematisiert. Damit wird die Berechtigung begründet, über eine Kulturgeschichte des Weinens zu sprechen. Beispiele aus der Antike, dem Mittelalter und der Vorklassik werden exemplarisch für die Offenheit früherer Epochen gegenüber dem Weinen angeführt. Da auch die wissenschaftliche Analyse des Weinens in einer Kulturtradition zu sehen ist, wird ein Querschnitt historischer und aktueller Forschungsergebnisse diskutiert; es wird dabei auf die "Gefahr" für das Weinen hingewiesen, durch Empirie seine wahre Funktion zu verdecken. Die Wahrhaftigkeitsfunktion des Weinens wird an Beispielen aus der Politik demonstriert. Zum Schluss wird die Notwendigkeit hervorgehoben, dem tabuisierten Weinen, das jenseits banaler und kon-textueller Zusammenhänge auftritt, durch den Gebrauch des Sprechens und der Psychotherapie die zerbrochenen Inhalte zurückzugeben. Diese Inhalte lassen sich nach dem Schema des Dra-menaufbaus erkennen.Schlüsselwörter Tränen; Weinen; Antike; Mittelalter; Empfindsamkeit; Politik; Psychotherapie; Narrativ. ; After several references to the enigmatic phenomenon of weeping, the contrast between the lachrymal glands and the "emptiness" of nonverbal crying will be put into context. It becomes therefore plausible to discuss the cultural history of crying. Examples from the ancient world and medieval and preclassic eras are given to illustrate their relatively great openness to weeping. Since the scientific analysis of crying has to be viewed as a specific cultural tradition, a cross section of historic and current research results shall therefore be discussed, including a discussion of the "danger" of disguising the true function of crying through empiricism. The truthfulness function of crying is demonstrated by examples from the political arena. To conclude, the necessity of removing the taboo from weeping is emphasized, as well as the need for speech and psychotherapy to allow the act of crying to return to its original meaning. It is suggested that this matter can be recognized through the pattern of drama building.Keywords Tears; Crying; Ancient world; Medieval times; Preclassic era; Policy; Psychotherapy; Narrative ; Le thème des larmes est inépuisable. Elles sont associées à d'innombrables mythes et contes et on les retrouve aujourd'hui dans la presse à sensation - lorsque la question est posée de savoir pourquoi telle ou telle personne - un politicien non-réélu, une médaillée olympique - en a versé. Par ailleurs, les scientifiques s'intéressent à l'appareil lacrymal par rapport à son usage potentiel et à ses fonctions au niveau de l'organisme humain. Je pense du reste que cette discussion est largement close. Selon Antonio Damasio (2003), les glandes lacrymales sont un organe déjà entièrement développé à la naissance et qui permet à l'individu de verser des larmes comme bon lui semble. C'est en fait ce signal non-verbal qui doit intéresser, dans la mesure où il est soumis à une évolution en cours de vie et où, comme la capacité à marcher et à parler, il fait l'objet d'un apprentissage. Quels sont donc les contenus immatériels des pleurs, quel est le sens qui peut être dérivé de l'acte non-verbal qu'ils représentent ? Ils impliquent en fait les dimensions interprétation et communication et, à ce niveau, on ne peut nier que ce qu'ils expriment est relativement constant sur le plan de l'usage et des occasions. Nous en trouvons d'anciens témoignages, par exemple, dans l'Odyssée. Les Romains étaient eux aussi concernés par les larmes. Le Moyen Âge semble avoir été une époque où l'on pleurait particulièrement volontiers. Et Lessing, dans ses théories sur la tragédie, considère les pleurs comme un instrument d'élaboration d'une morale - ils ne seraient donc pas une fin en soi. Aujourd'hui, en une époque dominée par la pensée scientifique, le fait de pleurer est plutôt décrit en termes objectifs. C'est pourquoi - à mon avis - nous ne comprenons souvent plus du tout pourquoi quelqu'un pleure. Les sciences objectives ont fait des larmes un phénomène marginal et leur contenu n'est plus communicable, donc tabou. L'emprise de la science sur l'existence qui avait débuté avec Galilée provoque des questions sur la fonction évolutionnaire des larmes et sur les processus physiologiques d'homéostasie ; scientifiquement parlant, les pleurs servent à désintoxiquer le corps et ils sont régulés par les systèmes nerveux sympathique et parasympathique. Il est clair que ce modèle n'est pas faux, mais je tiens à souligner qu'il ne nous permet pas de saisir l'ensemble du phénomène. Cela ne nous sert pas à grand-chose de disposer des résultats d'une recherche empirique indiquant que les femmes pleurent plus que les hommes, ou que l'on pleure plus facilement devant sa famille qu'en public. La question du pourquoi demeure ouverte, du moins concernant les situations dont le contexte n'est pas la douleur et le deuil, soit celles où des aspects biographiques et narratifs sont associés.Considérés sous l'angle de l'organe lacrymal, les pleurs ont suffisamment été expliqués et je ne crois pas que nous pouvons faire de nouvelles découvertes sur leur fonction chez l'homme. C'est pourquoi nous devrions adopter l'approche prônée par Husserl et mettre de côté tout le savoir que nous avons à ce sujet pour, avec Richard Rorty, nous intéresser au langage de ceux qui pleurent. Comment des larmes peuvent-elles être traduites en langage, comment pouvons-nous élaborer un narratif qui, à partir d'un moment de 'too much', nous permette de mieux saisir les aspects tragiques d'une biographie individuelle ? Nous pourrions appliquer à cette démarche un regard guidé par la structure classique des tragédies car cela nous permettrait de saisir les cassures qui marquent nos schémas et projets existentiels.

In this article an attempt is undertaken to study the federal and regional legislation which regulates the problems of territorial reformations, and related to it the problems of the formation of the local government and state administration within the subjects of the Russian federation as well. We make stress on legal collisions caused by the legislative mixture of procedures of dividing the territory of a Federation subject into municipal formations and into administrative and territorial formations. These collisions are used by some regional leaders to "create" new mechanisms of the territorial redistribution to satisfy political preferences and subjective understanding of comfortable governing in the appropriate territory and it leads to inefficiency both in municipal and state management. Particularly, there is the situation where the Russian federation subjects, using their authorities in administrative and territorial structure, simultaneously try to engage in the reorganization of municipal formations, that takes into account the population's opinion according to the Constitution of the RF and the Federal legislation. The author, comparing the principles of "deconcentration" and "decentralization" of power, shows a distinct difference between the division of the territory of a RF subject into municipal formations and administrative and territorial units. It is of interest, that the decentralization system, being in force in modern federative Russia with its local government, by no means abolishes the possibility of deconcentration aimed at the comfortable management for any level of public authorities. This is actively used by the federal bodies, rarely by municipal. At the same time, as a result of legislation gaps (the absence of the definition of such notions as "administrative and territorial formations" and "administrative and territorial structure"), and because of maintaining the former traditions of administration, there arises the danger of incorrect regulation of the problems of the administrative and territorial management. Thus, they create the conditions for infringing the citizens' right for local government. According to the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation it is possible to divide the territory of a RF subject not only into municipal formations, but also into administrative and territorial units with the state power. Moreover, the borders of both of them can coincide or not. But one should not forget, that the bodies formed within them, have different competence. Of principal difference are the goals, the legal basis and the very procedure of the municipal power bodies' formation and subdivisions of the state power of the Federation subjects. Thus, the aim of establishing the status of municipal formations in appropriate territories is the implementation of the process of the power decentralization, whereas the aim of the creation of administrative and territorial formations (units) is the power deconcentration. Different aims suggest a dif ferent order of carrying out appropriate procedures. That is why, according to the Constitution of Russia and the Federal law № 131-FL the changing of the borders of municipal formations territories is made only with taking into consideration the population's opinion of the given territory. It is of principle importance, that now the federal legislation does not contain any conditions for the formation of territorial subdivisions or the municipal power. On the regional level there is the increasing of legal gaps of the federal level and of the imperfection of procedures in force of the territorial reorganization of the local government. Thus, for example, there are no legal mechanisms for the rising "in the open field" of new municipal formations (for example, cottage villages, whose population would like to acquire the status of a settlement, in other words, not of a populated area, but one of the types of municipal formations), for changing the status of city districts onto the status of municipal areas, and for other territorial changes as well. The absence of the legislative procedures in many Federation subjects, adequate to the modern state formation is of special concern, likewise the procedures, which set borders of the territories of municipal formations and administrative and territorial units, and arising here the problems of creation of appropriate structures for the decentralization and deconcentration of power (administration). That is, if a subdivision of the state power body is formed, then, even more so logic is the necessity of defining the territory, where it is supposed to be in force. And on the contrary, why should one create the administrative and territorial formation, if the appropriate subdivision of the state power body is not provided? The analysis of the regional legislation showed the existence of the law about the administrative and territorial structure almost in every subject of the RF. At the same time, there aren't regional laws about the system of executive power bodies in every RF subject. There are still fewer regions, where in the adopted laws about the system of executive bodies of the state power of a RF subject, the existence of the territorial subdivisions of these bodies is provided. It is known, that the creation of such subdivisions is provided only in 16 Federation subjects of 77. The monitoring of the regional legislation related to the given problem is presented here. The situation in Krasnoyarsk, Perm and Khabarovsk territories, Moscow and Kaliningrad regions is illustrated in detail. The recommendations are given.

[spa] La presente tesis pretende exponer de forma clara y sistemática la doctrina filosófica del pensador irlandés John Toland (1680-1722) en sus vertientes más importantes, a saber, la teología, la política y la ciencia, así como también su concepción de la filosofía y del filósofo. Con tal fin, este estudio, pionero en lengua española, se estructura a través de una introducción que expone la problemática de los estudios tolandianos en la actualidad, pasando a posteriormente a ofrecer una extensa y detallada biografía de Toland, así como un listado cronológico de sus principales obras. Para la comprensión de su persona y de su pensamiento filosófico, se lleva a cabo, asimismo, una breve exposición de su momento histórico y filosófico. A continuación, se analiza el pensamiento teológico - dominante en su filosofía - con el examen de su primera obra, Christianity not Mysterious (1696), destacando tanto sus fuentes como su posterior recepción polémica y su influencia en el pensamiento anglosajón deísta. Para la comprensión de esta obra y del pensamiento tolandiano posterior en torno a la religión cristiana, se añade un breve estudio sobre el movimiento sociniano. El papel de la política en Toland se analiza detalladamente, destacando tanto un análisis de sus obras más importantes, como por ejemplo, Anglia libera (1701), como su acción política y sus consecuencias no sólo para la historia de Inglaterra, sino también para la europea. La cuestión científica ocupa un lugar importante en el pensamiento del filósofo irlandés, en tanto que en ella se unen de manera clara el Leitmotiv religioso y político que guiaba su filosofía en su lucha contra una interpretación errónea del cristianismo (anglicanismo oficial) y del universo, ejemplarizada en el newtonianismo y su difusión pública en las famosos Boyle Lectures ( Letters to Serena, 1704). Posteriormente se analiza la última obra de Toland, Pantheisticon (1720), en el cual se encuentran reunidos, en breves páginas, lo que sería toda su concepción filósofica tanto del hombre, como del universo, de la religión, de la política y de la filosofía. Es justamente esta exposición sobre su concepción de la filosofía lo que nos lleva a dedicarle todo un capítulo al análisis de la evolución de la filosofía en el pensamiento de Toland, indagando tanto en sus fuentes histórico-filosóficas como biográficas, destacando el importante papel que tenía en su pensamiento la distinción entre filosofía esotérica y filosofía exotérica, así como la lucha encarnizada del filósofo contra la superstición y la tiranía a favor de la libertad y la tolerancia. La conclusión de este estudio resalta justamente los motivos rectores del pensamiento tolandiano, así como su influencia en los movimientos filósoficos posteriores, destacando el papel tan importante que en su doctrina y en su actuar jugaron siempre los valores de la tolerancia y de la libertad en este filósofo injustamente olvidado hoy día. PALABRAS CLAVE: John Toland, Cristianismo, Guillermo III, Baruch de Spinoza, Isaac Newton, Giordano Bruno, Socinianismo. ; [eng] This investigation seeks to discuss, clearly and systematically, the philosophical doctrine of the Irish thinker John Toland (1680-1722), focusing on its most important points: Theology, Politics and Science, besides his own conception of philosophy and the philosopher. This study, which is the first discussing John Toland in Spain, begins with an introduction to the status quaestionis of the recent studies regarding John Toland, and tries to offer a wide and detailed account of Toland's life, with a chronology of his works. In order to understand both Toland and the Toland's thought, we offer a brief expositio of its historical and philosophical background. "Christianity not Mysterious" (1696), which is his first work, allows us to examine his theological thought and to give an account of the sources, polemic reception and influence on Deist Anglo-Saxon thought. As a means of understanding this work and the later Toland's conception on Christian religion, we offer a brief account on Socinianism. Regarding Politics and its importance for Toland's Philosophy, we examine his most important works, such as "Anglia libera"(1701), and also his political action and consequences over England and Europe. The Science takes an important place in the work of our Irish philosopher, since in Toland's presumptive fight against Newton's Physics and their public diffusion in Boyle Lectures ("Letters to Serena", 1704), we find actually together both the religious and political Leitmotiv in the struggle against Christianity and its false interpretation of the Universe. Finally, we examine his last work "Pantheisticon" (1720), where we can find altogether his philosophical conception of Man, Universe, Religion, Politics and Philosophy. This exposition leads us to discuss his Philosophy's conception, searching for his historical, philosophical and biographical sources and, at last, pointing out the difference between esoteric and exoteric Philosophy, and the battle of the philosopher for freedom and tolerance in a superstitious and tyrannical society. The conclusion regards these points as the main features of Toland's thought and remarks the difference between it and the later philosophical movements.

In der gesellschaftlichen Umbruchsphase des späten Mittelalters äußerte sich das Streben der Laienbevölkerung nach einer aktiven Rolle insbesondere auf dem Gebiet der Wohlfahrt. Diese fand vor allem im Rahmen der äußerst populären religiösen Bruderschaften und vergleichbaren Semireligiosengruppen statt, die gleichsam als Brennpunkte laikalen Aktionswillens auf der Suche nach eigenen religiöse Lebensformen, Heilswegen und politischen Rechten fungierten. Im Zentrum der Dissertation stehen die visuellen Ausdrucksformen dieser für die Stärkung der laikalen Position und die Entwicklung der Wohltätigkeit so folgenreichen Bewegung in Italien. Gerade die Bildkunst der Gemeinschaften läßt die speziellen Bedürfnisse und Anliegen wie auch die sich wandelnde gesellschaftliche Position der Laien hervortreten, wie an ausgesuchten Bildprogrammen karitativer Einrichtungen aus Bergamo, Florenz, Ancona, Prato, Assisi, Siena, Parma und Rom aus der Zeit zwischen 1300 und 1500 aufgezeigt werden kann. Pietas und Caritas, Frömmigkeit und Barmherzigkeit zu Gunsten des Hilfsbedürftigen wie auch des Wohltäters im Diesseits und im Jenseits bildeten das duale Leitprinzip der Sozietäten. Das Miteinander von religiöser und sozialer Zielsetzung prägte zugleich die per se sehr unterschiedlichen architektonischen Kulissen der korporativen Tätigkeit, resultierte in der Untrennbarkeit von religiöser und profaner Sphäre, von Kirchen, Kapellen und Oratorien mit Räumen der Vereinigungen und der Armen- und Krankenpflege. Auch deren Bilddekoration bestätigte mit ihrer Themenwahl die Bedeutung beider Aspekte, wie die in der vorliegenden Arbeit exemplarisch betrachtete Bildformel der biblischen "Werke der Barmherzigkeit" beweist, diente doch die Matthäus-Perikope vom Weltgericht (Mt 25,31-46) als Leitmotiv der korporativen Fürsorge. In dem entsprechend häufig anzutreffenden ikonographischen Muster konnte eine summarische Darbietung theologischen Lehrguts in biblischer Form mit der sozial-historischen urbanen Realität und der Repräsentation der Auftraggeber verbunden werden. Mit der Visualisierung der gelebten Frömmigkeit wurde nicht nur der Laie an sich als Teil der Gemeinschaft bildwürdig, sondern seine in Wohltätigkeit transformierte, seinen Mitbürgern zugute kommende Religiosität wurde zum eigentlichen Bildthema: Der barmherzige Laie erhielt – im Bild wie im Leben – einen eigenen Standort im religiösen Heilsplan und in der spätmittelalterlichen Gesellschaftsordnung. Über das einzelne Mitglied hinaus erstreckte sich die heilsame Wirkung für Körper und Seele, welche der Bilddekor den Räumlichkeiten und der korporativen Tätigkeit zusprach, auf die Hilfesuchenden, ja auf die ganze Stadt. Das in Architektur wie Bild bezeichnende Ineinandergreifen von urbanem und korporativem Bereich macht die Stellung der Institutionen als sozial, wirtschaftlich und politisch wichtigen Bestandteil des städtischen Gefüges zwischen weltlichen und religiösen Mächten, ob Potentaten, kommunalen Regierungen, politischen Parteien, Bischöfen, Pfarreien oder Orden deutlich. Von diesen teils gänzlich instrumentalisiert, wurde der Bilddekor der Einrichtungen gezielt zur Propagierung spezieller Personen und Regierungen oder zur Verbreitung spezifischer religiöser Konzepte und Kultformen genutzt. In Sprache, Inhalt und Einsatz der Bilder zeigt sich die beträchtliche Transferleistung der Vereinigungen im Austausch religiöser und gesellschaftlicher Ideen, Normen, Rituale und Interessen, ihre maßgebende Funktion als Schaltstelle zwischen öffentlichem und privatem, politischem und religiösem, diesseitigem und jenseitigem Leben. ; Pietas - Caritas - Societas : Pictorial programs of charitable institutions in late medieval Italy In the social upheaval of the late middle ages, the striving of the lay population for an active role expressed itself especially in the area of charity. This was carried out in the main by the highly popular religious confraternities and similar groups, which at the same time acted as foci for the lay desire for their own forms of religious living, their own routes to salvation and their political rights. At the centre of the dissertation are the visual forms of expression of this movement in Italy, a movement which was to be so influential in the development of charity and in the strengthening of the lay position. The decorative art of local communities in particular allowed the specific desires and concerns of the lay population to be expressed, as well as illustrating their changing position in society as a whole. This can be seen in selected pictorial works from charitable establishments in Florence, Ancona, Prato, Assisi, Siena, Parma and Rome from the period between 1300 and 1500. Pietas and caritas, piety and mercy to help the needy as well as the charitable in this world and the one to come, formed the dual founding principle of the societies. At the same time, the coincidence of religious and social goals formed the per se divergent architectural backdrops of corporate activity. This resulted in the inseparability of the religious and the profane spheres, joining churches, chapels and oratories with the associations' halls and places for helping the poor or sick. In their choice of subjects, their pictorial decoration, too, confirmed the importance of both aspects, as is shown in the dissertation using the example of the formula pictures of the biblical "works of mercy", where the Matthew pericope (Mt 25.31-46) of the Last Judgement is used as a leitmotiv for corporate charity. In the often-seen iconographic pattern, a summary presentation of theological teachings in biblical form is connected with social-historical reality, as well as with a representation of the sponsor. With the visualisation of lived devoutness, the lay person as part of the community became not only worthy of picturing, but his religiosity, transformed into charity and helping his fellows, became the actual subject of the picture. The charitable lay person received – in the picture as in life – his own place in the religious journey to salvation and in the late medieval social order. The healing effect for body and soul to which the pictorial decoration and corporate activity spoke, extended beyond the individual member, out to those seeking charity, and indeed to the whole city. The intertwining of urban and corporate spheres which was expressed in architecture as well as image makes clear the position of the institutions as an important social, economic, and political part of the urban structure – amongst the worldly and religious powers, the potentates, communal governments, political parties, bishops, parishes and religious orders. In part entirely instrumentalised by their patrons, the pictorial decorations of these institutions were purposefully used for the promotion of specific people and authorities, or for the dissemination of specific religious concepts and cults. The language, content and use of the pictures demonstrate the impressive achievements of the associations in their exchange of religious and social ideas, norms, rituals and interests, their defining function as interface between the public and the private, between the political and the religious, and between life in this world and in the next.

Data security is today an important requirement in various applications because of the stringent need to ensure confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information. Comprehensive solutions to data security are quite complicated and require the integration of different tools and techniques as well as specific organizational processes. In such a context, a fundamental role is played by the access control system (ACS) that establishes which subjects are authorized to perform which operations on which objects. Subjects are individuals or programs or other entities requiring access to the protected resources. When dealing with protection of information, the resources of interest are typically objects that record information, such as files in an operating system, tuples in a relational database, or a complex object in an object database. Because of its relevance in the context of solutions for information security, access control has been extensively investigated for database management systems (DBMSs) [6], digital libraries [3, 14], and multimedia applications [24]. Yet, the importance of the spatial dimension in access control has been highlighted only recently. We say that access control has a spatial dimension when the authorization to access a resource depends on position information.We broadly categorize spatially aware access control as object-driven, subject-driven, and hybrid based on whether the position information concerns objects, subjects, or both, respectively. In the former case, the spatial dimension is introduced because of the spatial nature of resources. For example, if the resources are georeferenced Earth images, then we can envisage an individual be allowed to only display images covering a certain region. The spatial dimension may also be required because of the spatial nature of subjects. This is the case of mobile individuals allowed to access a resource when located in a given area. For example, an individual may be authorized to view secret information only within a military base. Finally, position information may concern both objects and subjects like in the case of an individual authorized to display images of a region only within a military office. There is a wide range of applications which motivate spatially aware access control. The two challenging and contrasting applications we propose as examples 190 Maria Luisa Damiani and Elisa Bertino are the spatial data infrastructures (SDI) and location-based services (LBS). An SDI consists of the technological and organizational infrastructure which enables the sharing and coordinated maintenance of spatial data among multiple heterogeneous organizations, primarily public administrations, and government agencies. On the other side, LBS enable mobile users equipped with location-aware terminals to access information based on the position of terminals. These applications have different requirements on access control. In an SDI, typically, there is the need to account for various complex structured spatial data that may have multiple representations across different organizations. In an SDI, the access control is thus object-driven. Conversely, in LBS, there is the need to account for a dynamic and mobile user population which may request diversified services based on position. Access control is thus subject-driven or hybrid. However, despite the variety of requirements and the importance of spatial data protection in these and other applications, very few efforts have been devoted to the investigation of spatially aware access control models and systems. In this chapter, we pursue two main goals: the first is to present an overview of this emerging research area and in particular of requirements and research directions; the second is to analyze in more detail some research issues, focusing in particular on access control in LBS. We can expect LBS to be widely deployed in the near future when advanced wireless networks, such as mobile geosensor networks, and new positioning technologies, such as the Galileo satellite system will come into operation. In this perspective, access control will become increasingly important, especially for enabling selective access to services such as Enterprise LBS, which provide information services to mobile organizations, such as health care and fleet management enterprises. An access control model targeting mobile organizations is GEO-RBAC [4]. Such a model is based on the RBAC (role-based access control) standard and is compliant with Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards with respect to the representation of the spatial dimension of the model. The main contributions of the chapter can be summarized as follows: • We provide an overview of the ongoing research in the field of spatially aware access control. • We show how the spatial dimension is interconnected with the security aspects in a specific access control model, that is, GEO-RBAC. • We outline relevant architectural issues related to the implementation of an ACS based on the GEO-RBAC model. In particular, we present possible strategies for security enforcement and the architecture of a decentralized ACS for large-scale LBS applications. The chapter is organized as follows. The next section provides some background knowledge on data security and in particular access control models. The subsequent section presents requirements for geospatial data security and then the state of the art. Afterward the GEO-RBAC model is introduced. In particular, we present the main concepts of the model defined in the basic layer of the model, the Core GEO-RBAC. Hence, architectural approaches supporting GEO-RBAC are presented. Open issues are finally reported in the concluding section along with directions for future work.

The higher education system in Europe is currently under stress and the debates over its reform and future are gaining momentum. Now that, for most countries, we are in a time for change, in the overall society and the whole education system, the legal and political dimensions have gained prominence, which has not been followed by a more integrative approach of the problem of order, its reform and the issue of regulation, beyond the typical static and classical cost-benefit analyses. The two classical approaches for studying (and for designing the policy measures of) the problem of the reform of the higher education system - the cost-benefit analysis and the legal scholarship description - have to be integrated. This is the argument of our paper that the very integration of economic and legal approaches, what Warren Samuels called the legal-economic nexus, is meaningful and necessary, especially if we want to address the problem of order (as formulated by Joseph Spengler) and the overall regulation of the system. On the one hand, and without neglecting the interest and insights gained from the cost-benefit analysis, or other approaches of value for money assessment, we will focus our study on the legal, social and political aspects of the regulation of the higher education system and its reform in Portugal. On the other hand, the economic and financial problems have to be taken into account, but in a more inclusive way with regard to the indirect and other socio-economic costs not contemplated in traditional or standard assessments of policies for the tertiary education sector. In the first section of the paper, we will discuss the theoretical and conceptual underpinning of our analysis, focusing on the evolutionary approach, the role of critical institutions, the legal-economic nexus and the problem of order. All these elements are related to the institutional tradition, from Veblen and Commons to Spengler and Samuels. The second section states the problem of regulation in the higher education system and the issue of policy formulation for tackling the problem. The current situation is clearly one of crisis with the expansion of the cohorts of young students coming to an end and the recurrent scandals in private institutions. In the last decade, after a protracted period of extension or expansion of the system, i. e., the continuous growth of students, universities and other institutions are competing harder to gain students and have seen their financial situation at risk. It seems that we are entering a period of radical uncertainty, higher competition and a new configuration that is slowly building up is the growth in intensity, which means upgrading the quality of the higher learning and getting more involvement in vocational training and life-long learning. With this change, and along with other deep ones in the Portuguese society and economy, the current regulation has shown signs of maladjustment. The third section consists of our conclusions on the current issue of regulation and policy challenge. First, we underline the importance of an evolutionary approach to a process of change that is essentially dynamic. A special attention will be given to the issues related to an evolutionary construe of policy analysis and formulation. Second, the integration of law and economics, through the notion of legal economic nexus, allows us to better define the issues of regulation and the concrete problems that the universities are facing. One aspect is the instability of the political measures regarding the public administration and on which the higher education system depends financially, legally and institutionally, to say the least. A corollary is the lack of clear strategy in the policy reforms. Third, our research criticizes several studies, such as the one made by the OECD in late 2006 for the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, for being too static and neglecting fundamental aspects of regulation such as the logic of actors, groups and organizations who are major players in the system. Finally, simply changing the legal rules will not necessary per se change the behaviors that the authorities want to change. By this, we mean that it is not only remiss of the policy maker to ignore some of the critical issues of regulation, namely the continuous non-respect by academic management and administrative bodies of universities of the legal rules that were once promulgated. Changing the rules does not change the problem, especially without the necessary debates form the different relevant quarters that make up the higher education system. The issues of social interaction remain as intact. Our treatment of the matter will be organized in the following way. In the first section, the theoretical principles are developed in order to be able to study more adequately the higher education transformation with a modest evolutionary theory and a legal and economic nexus of the interactions of the system and the policy challenges. After describing, in the second section, the recent evolution and current working of the higher education in Portugal, we will analyze the legal framework and the current regulatory practices and problems in light of the theoretical framework adopted. We will end with some conclusions on the current problems of regulation and the policy measures that are discusses in recent years.

2012 Summer. ; Includes bibliographical references. ; Wild waterfowl and aquatic birds serve as the natural reservoir host for influenza A viruses. As the reservoir, wild waterfowl play an important role in the persistence and transmission of influenza viruses among bird populations and to other mammalian species. In many Asian countries, domestic ducks are raised for meat and egg production. Some of these domestic ducks are ranged on rice paddies or post-harvest rice fields. The ducks provide service to the rice fields by fertilizing the field with feces and aerating the field by swimming and walking through the ground cover. Additionally, the ducks serve as a form of insect control through their natural grazing behaviors. The role that domestic ducks play in the ecology of influenza viruses is poorly understood. Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus (HPAI H5N1) originated in Guangdong Province, China in 1996, which was followed by global dissemination of the virus that began in 2003. This virus is unprecedented in geographical spread, economic consequences and public health significance. At the present time, HPAI H5N1 virus is endemic six countries, including Indonesia. Indonesia has experienced the highest incidence of human infections with HPAI H5N1 virus and one of the highest case fatality rates. Control of the virus in Indonesia has proven extremely challenging, due to its diverse and complex poultry and domestic duck production systems. HPAI H5N1 virus is highly virulent in chickens and turkeys and causes severe systemic disease. Outbreaks of HPAI H5N1 in poultry populations are accompanied by high mortality. In contrast, HPAI H5N1 virus is typically nonpathogenic or mildly pathogenic in ducks and mortality in duck flocks during outbreaks of the virus is absent or limited. This allows ducks to serve as silent carriers of the virus, as they may shed large quantities of virus without displaying clinical signs of illness allowing infected ducks to evade detection by flock owners or government livestock officials. Domestic duck production is common in Southeast Asia. Indonesia has a large domestic duck population, estimated at more than 34 million ducks. Because HPAI H5N1 induces only mild disease in domestic ducks, outbreaks of the virus are difficult to detect and are rarely reported by domestic duck flock owners. Thus, domestic duck flocks have been left out of many government HPAI H5N1 surveillance and control programs. While a number of studies have demonstrated that the presence of domestic ducks in a country or at a specific location may be a risk factor for the presence of HPAI H5N1 virus, few studies have been conducted evaluating the role that domestic ducks play in the ecology of HPAI H5N1 virus. The objectives of the studies described in this dissertation were to elucidate the role of domestic ducks in the maintenance and spread of avian influenza viruses, particularly HPAI H5N1 virus, by evaluating domestic duck flock characteristics and behaviors, estimating the prevalence and incidence of avian influenza viruses in these flocks and characterizing HPAI H5N1 viruses detected in the field. To meet the objectives, two studies were conducted in West Java, Indonesia. The first study was a cross-sectional study aimed at characterizing domestic duck flocks and estimating the point prevalence and seroprevalence of avian influenza viruses, particularly HPAI H5N1 virus. This study was followed by a 7 month longitudinal study, aimed at estimating the incidence of avian influenza viruses, particularly HPAI H5N1 virus, in domestic duck flocks and evaluating flock illness and mortality during avian influenza virus outbreaks. A subset of samples from each of the studies was transported to the United States for virus characterization. The findings of the studies conducted demonstrate that domestic duck flocks are raised in complex production systems, are highly mobile, have significant contact with wild and domestic birds and mammals, are frequently ill and are provided with little formal veterinary care. The prevalence and incidence of avian influenza virus, including HPAI H5N1 virus, are high in domestic duck flocks in Indonesia. Clinical signs of illness and increased mortality did not correlate with the presence of avian influenza virus in the flock. Interestingly, there was also no correlation between increased flock mortality and the presence of HPAI H5N1 virus in the flock, demonstrating that domestic duck flocks can be asymptomatically infected with HPAI H5N1 virus while shedding high quantities of virus. Characterization of some of the viruses isolated from domestic duck flocks demonstrated that the flocks can be infected with more than one avian influenza virus at one time, as demonstrated by one flock that was positive for HPAI H5N1, as well as H3 and H7 avian influenza viruses. These situations are concerning, as domestic duck flocks may serve as mixing vessels for avian influenza viruses and co-infections in these flocks may result in the emergence of novel influenza viruses that may have capabilities for human-to-human transmission. It is likely that domestic ducks play an important role in the maintenance and spread of avian influenza viruses, including HPAI H5N1 virus. A number of domestic duck flock practices, including extensive flock movement, frequent introduction and sale of ducks, free-ranging of ducks in areas where they have contact with wild birds and animals and continual contact of duck flocks with other duck and poultry flocks, increasingly adds to the difficulty of control of HPAI H5N1 virus within this production system and makes eradication of the virus within a country extremely challenging.

In den letzten Jahren hat die Diskussion um den Erhalt und die Nutzung von kulturellem Erbe aufgrund des Potenzials für Tourismus, Planung und Bildung sowie der Bedeutung für die Entwicklung in der Informationsgesellschaft verstärkt politisches und gesellschaftliches Interesse auf sich gezogen. Die rasanten informationstechnologischen Entwicklungen im Kulturerbe-Sektor führen zu einer Neubewertung der gesellschaftlichen Rolle von öffentlichen Einrichtungen. Die Beteiligten stellen erhöhte Anforderungen an das Management von Sammlungen, die wissenschaftliche Forschung über die Erhaltung von Materialien sowie die Verfügbarkeit und den innovativen, umfassenden und dynamischen Zugang zu kulturellen Beständen durch Wissenschaftler, Fachkräfte und interessierte Bürger. Mit dem Einsatz der Internettechnologie sowie neueren Entwicklungen der Datenbanktechnologie in Standard-Computeranwendungen oder Spezialsystemen können Informationen zum kulturellen Erbe einer großen Anzahl von Nutzern verfügbar gemacht werden. Seit Anfang der 90er Jahre werden Geoinformationssysteme (GIS) zunehmend auch in Disziplinen außerhalb der Geodäsie und Geografie eingesetzt. Unter anderem beschäftigen sich aktuell die Archäologie, die Geologie und die Denkmalpflege mit der digitalen Datenverarbeitung von kulturell und historisch interessanten Objekten in GIS. Insbesondere zur Bearbeitung von raumbezogenen Problemstellungen stehen in allen gängigen GIS zahlreiche Methoden zur Erfassung, Speicherung, Analyse und Visualisierung zur Verfügung. Der zeitlichen Komponente dagegen, die gerade für historische Entwicklungen oder dynamische Prozesse eine große Rolle spielt, wurde sehr viel weniger Bedeutung beigemessen. Sie wird aber neben der nach wie vor sehr wichtigen dritten Dimension in Anwendungen für das kulturelle Erbe zunehmend geschätzt. Objektorientierte Sprachen und Methoden sind als Softwareentwicklungs-Technologie in der Geoinformatik und ihren Anwendungsgebieten unverzichtbar geworden. Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit ist es daher, durch die Nutzung der Vorteile der Objektorientierung bzw. eines objektrelationalen Datenbanksystems einen durchgängigen objektorientierten Ansatz zur Erfassung und Verwaltung von Geoobjekten in einem temporalen GIS (TGIS) für kulturelles Erbes aufzuzeigen. Die Vorgehensweise beinhaltet die objektorientierte konzeptionelle Modellierung eines temporalen Datenmodells für kulturelles Erbe unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von temporalen Anforderungen der Anwendung mittels der Bildung von Objekten mit räumlichen, zeitlichen und thematischen Eigenschaften sowie der Implementierung in eine objektorientierte Software-Umgebung. Es wird auf punktuelle Aspekte des temporalen Umfelds in GIS für kulturelles Erbe eingegangen und diese werden anhand von Anwendungsbeispielen beschrieben. Bei der Modellierung des Informationssystems wurde ein UML-Klassendiagramm eingesetzt und dieses in ein objektrelationales Datenbanksystem abgebildet. Die Grundlage der vorliegenden Arbeit bildete eine Zusammenarbeit der Technischen Universität München mit Gemeinden des Achentals und Verwaltungen in Lehrveranstaltungen und Projekten in Bereichen der Erfassung, Dokumentation und Analyse von kulturellem Erbe in einem GIS. Der eigentliche Wert von kulturellem Erbe, so wurde von den Beteiligten in einem Workshop im Jahr 2001 festgestellt, liegt für die ländlichen Gemeinden nicht in rein kommerzieller Natur, sondern besteht in der Förderung intellektueller Aktivitäten und der Bewusstmachung, dass kulturelles und historisches Wissen die Wurzel regionaler und lokaler Identität bildet. Durch die Kombination neuer Medien, GIS und Internet können neue Anwendergruppen für eine nachhaltige Nutzung, beispielsweise im Heimat- oder Geschichtsunterricht, hinzu gewonnen werden. Zusätzliche oder neue Einnahmequellen entstehen dann in anderen, mit dem Kultursektor verbundenen wirtschaftlichen Sektoren, wie z. B. der regionalen Entwicklung, dem Tourismus oder der Medienindustrie. ; In recent years, there has been a growing social and political debate about the preservation and use of cultural heritage resources. Attention was drawn to the potential of cultural heritage for tourism, planning and education as well as to its significance for the formation of the information society in general. The rapid development of information technologies in the field of cultural heritage leads to a revaluation of the social role of public facilities. The parties hereto make great demands on the management of collections, scientific research on the preservation of materials as well as the availability and innovative, comprehensive and dynamic access to cultural assets through scientists, specialists and interested citizens. By employing Internet technologies and recent developments in database technologies in standard computer applications or expert systems, information about cultural heritage can be made accessible to a large group of users. From the early nineties, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have increasingly been used outside disciplines such as geodesy and geography. Amongst others, archaeologists, geologists and people concerned with the preservation of monuments and historic buildings work with digital representations of cultural and historical objects in GIS. Particularly with regard to the processing of spatial problems, state-of-the-art GIS provide numerous methods for acquisition, storage, analysis and visualisation. In contrast, the temporal component that plays an important role for historical developments and dynamic processes has received far less attention. However, in addition to the still very important third dimension, the temporal dimension is increasingly being valued in cultural heritage applications. Object-oriented languages and methods have become indispensable software development technologies in geoinformatics and its fields of applications. It is therefore a goal of this work to present an integrated object-oriented approach for the acquisition and management of geo-objects in a temporal GIS (TGIS) for cultural heritage. This is achieved through utilising the advantages provided by object-oriented concepts and object-oriented database management systems respectively. The approach comprises the object-oriented conceptual modelling of a temporal data model for cultural heritage. Special consideration is given to the temporal requirements of applications by modelling objects with spatial, temporal and thematic properties as well as by implementing the solution within an object-oriented software environment. Selected aspects of the temporal environment for cultural heritage in GIS are addressed and further explained on the basis of use case scenarios. An UML class diagram is used for the modelling process which is transformed into an object-relational database management system. The basis of the present work is a co-operation between the Technical University of Munich, local authorities of the "Achental" valley and regional authority in university courses and projects concerned with the acquisition, documentation and analysis of cultural heritage in a GIS. According to the results of a workshop held in 2001, the real value of cultural heritage for rural communities is not merely financial in nature, but lies in an encouragement of intellectual activities and in increasing the awareness that cultural and historical knowledge forms the roots for regional and local identity. Combining new media, GIS and Internet, new user groups for a sustainable utilisation, for example, in social and history lessons, can be found and inspired. Additional or new sources of revenue will then emerge from other economic sectors that are connected to the cultural sector. Examples here are regional development, tourism or the media industry.

International audience ; Le colloque organisé sous l'égide du CRILAUP à l'Université de Perpignan - Via Domitia les 30 septembre et 1er octobre 2005 a réuni une trentaine de communicants, cinq intervenants à une table ronde finale et un public particulièrement attentif, autour du thème annoncé : «L'école, instrument de sauvegarde des langues menacées ?» pour un dialogue fructueux dont voici aujourd'hui les actes. L'enjeu de la discussion proposée est considérable, tant du point de vue sociolinguistique - au sens des rapports langue(s)-société(s) - que de la didactique des langues - de chaque langue concernée, mais aussi du plurilinguisme, individuel et social). On ne peut donc considérer les textes réunis que comme une pierre modestement apportée à un édifice aussi monumental.Les données observables, de moins en moins incertaines d'un point de vue statistique, l'attestent : le mouvement de disparition des langues s'accélère et semble, dans un avenir proche, devoir le faire chaque jour davantage, prenant une ampleur jusqu'ici inconnue. Jamais les flux migratoires n'avaient concerné un pourcentage aussi élevé d'une population mondiale qui pour sa part ne cesse de croître. La mondialisation des échanges économiques y est pour beaucoup et n'est pas sans incidence sur les usages langagiers et donc sur le devenir des langues. Elle contribue puissamment à homogénéiser la (ou les) langue(s) de communication dans la/lesquelle(s) sont réalisés les échanges, et à creuser ainsi les écarts entre «grandes» et «petites» langues, comme l'illustre bien la «théorie gravitationnelle» diffusée par Louis-Jean Calvet, qui comporte un volet prédictif du plus grand intérêt. Au premier rang des «victimes» : les langues dites minoritaires, c'est-à-dire toute langue en situation de subordination et menacée de substitution par une langue dominante sur son propre territoire. Et du coup, c'est bien la diversité linguistique et culturelle qui est ainsi menacée à l'échelon planétaire.Cette question interpelle, selon le degré de conscience linguistique qui y a cours, des secteurs plus ou moins importants de la population de nombreux pays ; tous, y compris les plus puissants, sont en effet concernés : la diversité se joue tout autant au plan international qu'au sein même des états. Mais la question interpelle également au premier chef les sociolinguistes, tant en leur qualité d'observateurs des situations que d'experts appelés à poser sur elles leur diagnostic et à contribuer à la mise en oeuvre de politiques linguistiques autant que possible adéquates. Or il apparaît que les planificateurs linguistiques sont eux-mêmes divisés sur les méthodes qui permettraient de favoriser la survie, voire la résurgence des langues minoritaires : leurs différentes options, parce qu'elle interviennent sur le terrain sociopolitique, n'échappent pas au champ contradictoire de l'idéologie. Au centre de leurs débats, nécessairement, pourrait-on dire, se trouve l'école. En dehors des échanges informels, sur lesquels les institutions n'ont que difficilement prise, l'école constitue, avec le secteur administratif et celui des média, l'un des trois supports fondamentaux de toute politique linguistique. Et, parce qu'elle forme, outille et conforte les jeunes, en tant que locuteurs du futur, elle est généralement tenue pour l'élément clé de la récupération linguistique. Or si son rôle s'est bien souvent révélé déterminant dans le processus ayant engagé ces langues sur la voie de la substitution, les avis sur la capacité de cette institution à ramener des langues menacées sur la voie de la normalité sont plus partagés. À côté des très nombreux défenseurs de l'école comme instrument principal d'une politique de normalisation linguistique, on en trouve quelques autres, plus rares mais de la notoriété d'un Joshua Fishman, fondateur des études sur la «vitalité ethnolinguistique», qui en contestent fermement l'efficacité. Si bien que l'objectif déclaré de ce colloque était d'évaluer l'impact réel du milieu scolaire dans une politique de normalisation linguistique, sa capacité ou non à assurer la survie d'une langue menacée, et les moyens d'en «optimiser la fonction». Il s'agissait, comme il a été dit, d'aborder la question dans la perspective des politiques linguistiques, en se demandant quelle est la place du milieu scolaire dans une politique globale de normalisation linguistique ; en s'interrogeant sur le fait de savoir si l'avenir d'une langue menacée doit et peut reposer sur le système scolaire ; si l'introduction d'une langue minoritaire en milieu scolaire est ou non toujours souhaitable, et si l'on peut éventuellement se passer d'une telle action. Il n'en importait pas moins de l'envisager sous l'angle de la didactique des langues, que ce soit dans la perspective historique des rapports aux langues de l'institution scolaire ; dans celle des problèmes sociolinguistiques posés par les langues minoritaires ; dans celle de l'adaptation des outils de la didactique au cas particulier de ces langues ; dans celle, corollaire, de leurs besoins spécifiques en matière de didactique ; et dans la présentation d'un certain nombre d'expériences ou de projets pédagogiques novateurs, récents ou en cours de développement. Les contributions ont porté pour l'essentiel sur trois grands domaines géolinguistiques : celui de la France métropolitaine et d'outre-mer, avec ses «langues territorialisées» ou «langues de France» ; celui de l'état espagnol et de ses minorités linguistiques officialisées dans certaines Communautés autonomes dotées de «langues propres» ; celui, enfin, à la fois local et transnational, des territoires de langue catalane, régis par des systèmes institutionnels et juridiques distincts.

En este trabajo se examina las nuevas condiciones para las relaciones económicas internacionales de Bolivia que ha creado el gobierno del Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS). La visión más común en los gobiernos anteriores a los del MAS era que si Bolivia ha de desarrollarse, necesitaba participar ampliamente en el comercio internacional y atraer, al mismo tiempo, flujos de capital externo para financiar las inversiones requeridas para su crecimiento. Se veía a la participación en la globalización como una condición necesaria mas, obviamente, no suficiente para el crecimiento y el desarrollo. La posición del gobierno del MAS difiere en muchos aspectos de la concepción anterior y de las visiones de los gobiernos previos. Ella está claramente más volcada al interior, con un papel más importante para el estado y en pos de una mayor industrialización de los recursos naturales del país, siguiendo modelos de mediados del siglo pasado. Las preguntas que hay que responder son: ¿cuál es el espacio de maniobra del gobierno del MAS dadas las tendencias de los principales socios comerciales de Bolivia y de las fuentes internacionales de financiamiento? ¿Cuán bien preparada está la economía boliviana para actuar bajo otras reglas de juego? ¿Qué consecuencias puede tener el retorno de políticas arcaicas? ; The "deliberative development" approach to policy reform has gained popularity in both academic and policy circles without a clear understanding of the requirements for its success. Based on a reading of the deliberative democracy literature, we detail those requirements, finding them to be quite restrictive. We then examine Bolivia's 2000 National Dialogue, a national deliberation on development policy, and find—not surprisingly—that these requirements were generally missing. More importantly, we demonstrate that the lack of these requirements is not benign: the institutional characteristics of the Dialogue had direct effects, and the Dialogue continues to affect Bolivia's politics in debatable ways. The late 1990s and early part of this decade witnessed what appeared to be a major change in the approach of international development institutions to policy reform. The most important evidence of this change was the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) initiative of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. This initiative, which arose in 1999 in the context of updating the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries' (HIPC) Initiative, required countries to prepare a PRSP prior to receiving debt relief (see International Monetary Fund and International Development Association, 1999). Each country's PRSP was to outline an overall strategy to reduce poverty, including structural reforms such as trade and privatization as well as specific anti-poverty programs. These PRSPs are now required to receive any World Bank or IMF concessional assistance. What made the PRSP initiative particularly innovative and noteworthy was that the Bank and Fund required that the strategy be developed in a "participatory" way. That is, the PRSP needed to be based on some sort of consultative process by which the government solicited input from various societal groups—including local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), businesses, and unions—and then incorporated those preferences in the policy. This approach to government policymaking seemed to go directly against a line of academic work on economic reform that had been influential in these institutions for years (e.g. Sturzenneger and Tommasi, 1998), arguing that there was an inverse relationship between the success of economic reform and the amount of participation of society in making policies. Having criticized this old approach for years, most NGOs and developing country governments supported the new direction taken by the World Bank and IMF. In fact, few critics of the approach (e.g. Stewart and Wang, 2003) have critiqued the idea of participation, most instead focusing their critiques on the poor "extent" and "quality" of participation. In one of the benchmark articles supporting this "deliberative" approach to policy reform, Peter Evans (2004) notes that such an approach to policymaking is supported by work by the economists Amartya Sen (1999) and Dani Rodrik (2000), who argue that participation and public deliberation are means to better policies. Evans writes, "If it were possible to implant this sort of deliberative process in political units large enough to impact developmental trajectories—say, the provincial or municipal level—we would have something that could be called 'deliberative development'" (2004: 37). Discussing examples from Porto Alegre, Brazil, and Kerala, India, Evans goes on to argue that this type of development is not only desirable, but attainable. Despite its increasing popularity in the academic and policy worlds, we still know little about what is needed for the deliberative development approach to be successful. While it may be true that political processes in Porto Alegre, Kerala, and elsewhere have exhibited deliberative aspects as well as positive development outcomes, the particular details of how the former relates to the latter remain murky. Are deliberative processes appropriate for all development decisions? Are there particular characteristics of the society that need to be present in order for deliberation to work well? Are there particular characteristics of the deliberative institutions that need to be present? Can there be any negative effects if deliberation is not done well? If the deliberative development approach is to be considered a viable and superior policymaking alternative, these questions must be answered.

Vecāku līdzdalība izglītības procesā skolā Brigita Ūdre, Latvijas Universitātes Pedagoģijas un psiholoģijas fakultāte Izglītības zinātņu nodaļa Maģistra darbs Rīga 2006. gads Lai globalizācijas apstākļos varētu attīstīties pēc iespējas ideālāka sabiedrība ir nepieciešams skolās piedāvāt pēc iespējas labāku un kvalitatīvāku izglītību katram gan mazam, gan lielam skolēnam. Jāpievērš liela uzmanība, lai izglītību iegūtu visi, to var palīdzēt nodrošināt vecāki. Ļoti svarīga ir izglītības kvalitāte. Lai panāktu izglītības augsto kvalitāti un vadīšanas procesa efektivitāti skolām svarīgu lēmumu pieņemšanā ir jāaicina skolēnu vecāki. Maģistra darbam tika izvirzīts sekojošs mērķis: teorētiski un praktiski pamatot vecāku līdzdalības izglītības procesā galvenos principus skolā. Pamatot, ka tikai kopīgiem spēkiem var panākt pilnvērtīgu nākotnes sabiedrību. Latvija ir demokrātiska valsts, līdz ar to arī izglītības procesam tādam jābūt. Lai izglītības process kļūtu demokrātiskāks tajā jāpiedalās visai sabiedrībai. Ļoti svarīga ir vecāku līdzdalība, jo viņus var uzskatīt par pakalpojuma pasūtītāju. Maģistra darbā tiek analizēta pedagoģiskā un skolvadības literatūra par skolas un skolēnu vecāku sadarbības jēdzienu un par vecāku līdzdalību izglītības procesa kvalitātes pilnveidē. Tiek izpētīta likumdošana, kas reglamentē šo procesu, tā ir sakārtota, bet ļoti bieži paliek kā rakstīts teksts, nevis realizēts dzīvē. Lai būtu visaptverošāka informācija, tiek pētīta citu skolu un vecāku sabiedrisko organizāciju pieredze. Darbā apskatītajās skolās vecāku līdzdalība izglītības procesā tiek organizēta līdzīgi, bet katra skola meklē kaut ko jaunu, lai vecāki tiktu vairāk piesaistīti skolai. Vecāku organizācija pēdējos gados attīstās un kļūst lielākas, tās pārsvarā nodarbojas ar vecāku izglītošanu un organizēšanu sabiedriskajam darbam, lai radītu drošu vidi bērniem uz ielas vakara stundās un novērstu narkomānijas, alkoholisma, huligānisma izplatīšanos. Pētījumā piedalās skolēnu vecāki, skolotāji, skolas vadība un skolēni. Pētījuma rezultāti rāda, ka vecāku līdzdalība izglītības procesā ir ļoti nepieciešama, lai varētu panākt labāku rezultātu izglītības kvalitātes jomā un nodrošinātu skolēniem labāku psiholoģisko un fizisko vidi skolā. Vecāki ir ļoti aizņemti savos darbos, tāpēc skolu apmeklē ļoti reti, bet skolu uztver pozitīvi vai neitrāli. Skolotāji veic dažādus pasākumus, lai piesaistītu vecākus skolai, bet par lielāko šķērsli uzskata vecāku neieinteresētību un aizņemtību. Skolēni uzskata, ka vecāku līdzdalība vairāk ir nepieciešama sākumskolā, jo nākamajos vecumposmos šī līdzdalība var atņemt skolēniem turpmākajā dzīvē būt patstāvīgiem un nepazust mainīgajā sabiedrībā un darba tirgū. ; The Parents' iIterest in Educational Process at School Brigita Udre, Latvian University The faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology The section of Educational sciences The Master's Paper Riga 2006 So that in the conditions of globalization, as much perfect society as possible could develop, it is necessary to offer at schools as good and qualitative education as possible to everyone not only to small, but also to large pupil. Great attention should be paid to everyone in order to get education, parents can help to provide it. The quality of education is very important. To get the high quality of education and the effectiveness of administration process, schools have to ask pupils' parents in important decision approval. The following aim was set for the Master's paper: theoretically and practically to substantiate the main principles of parents' interest in educational process at school. To substantiate that only together we can obtain valuable future society. Latvia is democratic country, therefore the process of education should be the same. The whole society has to take part so that the process of education should be more democratic. Parents' interest is very important, because they can be taken for the client of service. In the Master's paper pedagogical and school management literature about schools and pupils parents' collaboration concept and about the quality development of parents' interest in educational process is analyzed. Legislation is learned, which regulates this process, it is straightened, but very often it remains as written text, but not realized in practice. Another schools' experience of parents' public organization experience is researched, so that we would have more comprehensive information. In the Master's paper studied schools, the parents' interest in educational process is organized similarly, but each school finds something new, so that parents will be more involved at school. Parents' organizations of late years develop and become larger, they deal with parents' educating and organizing for social work to create safe environment for children on the streets in the evening and to avert outspread of drug addiction, alcoholism, hooliganism. Pupils' parents, teachers, school's administration and pupils take part in the research. The results of the research show, that parents' interest in educational process is very necessary, to get better result in the field of the educational quality and ensure better psychological and physical environment at school for pupils. Parents are very busy in their jobs therefore they visit school very rarely, but they comprehend school positive or neutral. Teachers perform various enterprises to attract parents to school, but the largest drawback is considered parents disinterest and busyness. Pupils think, that parents interest is more necessary in primary school because in the coming agedness this interest can take away for pupils in their future to be self-dependent and not to be lost in the variable society and labour market.