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Summary: Motivation: Agricultural mechanization was once a mainstream issue. From the 1990s onwards it received less priority, as public policy concern for equitable economic development in rural areas faded. Despite recent signs of renewed interest, questions of rural mechanization require more systematic attention. After a long period of neglect, our knowledge is in disarray. Purpose: This article traces the evolution of thinking about rural mechanization. It examines how three increasingly important factors affect or potentially affect mechanization: (1) expansion of capital goods markets; (2) evolving urban–rural linkages; and (3) climate crisis. Methods and approach: The article reviews the literature that documents long‐standing debates, and that which records changes in the rural areas of the global south in the 2010s. Findings: Public policy for rural mechanization was often seen in the 1960s as central to rural development. When neoliberal economics rose in the 1980s, it was thought issues of mechanization could be left to the suppliers and customers in the market. In the meantime, and especially in Asia, many rural operations have been mechanized, but these changes have attracted relatively little attention from either researchers or policy‐makers. In the 2010s, the pattern of mechanization has been influenced by changes in the production of machinery and the way that suppliers try to sway policy‐makers towards favouring their products; by changes in the relations between urban and rural areas, including the emergence of rural labour shortage and the availability of remittances for capital investment; and by the challenges posed to farmers by global heating and the climate crisis. Each of these trends is potentially disruptive, risking disjuncture between our understandings of the changing realities of "real world" rural livelihoods and wider political economy on the one hand, and the need to ensure the relevance of research agendas to policy priorities on the other. Policy implications: Policy‐makers ...

Historical thinking skill is the ability to think historically related to how to identify in critical and deep thinking about history. This historical ability is important for students to have, because critical thinking is a representation of the universal, multicultural and democratic character of citizens. With this model of thinking development model, it is hoped that students can be more critical and thorough in determining life in the future. The pattern of developing historical thinking is adjusted to the age or level of education of the students. Learners are human beings who are in a state of resistance to development and growth, students are considered immature so they need guidance from parents and educators in the development process which is certainly at every level of education has its own educational focus according to the abilities of students whose ending when entering the age of late adolescence will there are cognitive, affective and psychomotor changes of learners which are obtained through the process of education and teaching at every level of education. ABSTRAK Historical thingking skill merupakan kemampuan berpikir historis yang berkaitan dengan cara mengidentifikasi dalam berpikir kritis dan mendalam mengenai sejarah. Kemampuan kesejarahan ini penting dimiliki oleh peserta didik, karena berpikir kritis adalah representasi karakter warga negara yang universal, multikultural dan demokratis. Dengan model pengembangan berpikir model ini diharapkan agar peserta didik dapat lebih kritis dan teliti dalam menentukan kehidupan di masa mendatang. Pola pengembangan berpikir historis disesuaikan dengan usia atau jenjang pendidikan peserta didik. Peserta didik merupakan seorang insan yang berada dalam tahan perkembangan dan pertumbuhan, peserta didik dianggap belum dewasa sehingga perlu bimbingan orang tua maupun pendidik dalam proses perkembangannya yang pastinya dalam setiap jenjang pendidikan memimiliki fokus pendidikan tersendiri sesuai kemampuan peserta didik yang endingnya ketika memasuki usia ...

This article describes about the Role of Women in contemporary era. In the Contemporary era, women doesnt focus on fight to get their equality of her rights. But, she to take a part in all of the field, such as politic,economy,internasional organization, and soon. In contemporary era, we've known that we have multipolar pattern, and individu can to be actor of international relations. One of the example in this cases role of Beauty Vlogger or Influencer as fight of feminist in contemporary era. She doesnt look for equality but she shows her capabilities to join in a lot of fied. She can to be Brand Ambassador, Mediator and Comunicator of the International Cosmetic. Beside that, she can giving influence to society to buy the cosmetics from arond the world. She can empowerment her self to influence someone for the better future on her life. She use Social Media like youtube and instagram to promote her capabilities. This article use Liberal Feminsim to answer this fenomena, because of women can get her right, for example Women can empowerment her self, and can giving impact from her role to be Beauty Vlogger or Influencer. The Role of Beauty Vlogger has important meaning for International Trade of Cosmetics. It can increase of international or Local Tradeof Cosmetics and separate the self-acceptance and support each other for similar gender.Abstrak :Artikel ini menjelaskan tentang Peran Perempuan di era kontemporer. Di era Kontemporer, perempuan tidak fokus pada perjuangan untuk mendapatkan kesetaraan hak-haknya. Tapi, dia berkiprah di segala bidang, seperti politik, ekonomi, organisasi internasional, dan sebagainya. Di era kontemporer, kita telah mengetahui bahwa kita memiliki pola multipolar, dan individu dapat menjadi aktor hubungan internasional. Salah satu contohnya dalam hal ini peran Beauty Vlogger atau Influencer sebagai perjuangan feminis di era kontemporer. Dia tidak mencari kesetaraan tetapi dia menunjukkan kemampuannya untuk bergabung dalam banyak medan. Dia bisa menjadi Brand Ambassador, Mediator dan ...

The main problem in this study is that the cashews sold by farmers are still in the form of logs and not in processed form (processed cashew kernels). The purpose of this study was to analyze the trading system and marketing margins of cashew in Rakadua Village, Bombana Regency. The research method used in this study is a qualitative research with a descriptive approach which aims to provide an overview of the research problem. Based on the results of the study, the trade system used by cashew farmers in Rakadua Village, Poleang Barat District, Bombana Regency has used these four trading channels. Marketing channel I is the simplest trading system pattern, while marketing channel II, III, and IV are the most complex channels, namely by passing the most intermediaries. The results of this study may become the basis in the process of formulating policies issued by the government in order to improve the quality of cashews, especially for farmers. ; Permasalahan utama dalam penelitian ini adalah bahwa jambu mete yang dijual petani masih dalam bentuk gelondongan dan bukan dalam bentuk olahan (biji mete olahan). Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis tataniaga dan margin pemasaran jambu mete di Desa Rakadua Kabupaten Bombana. Metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif dengan pendekatan deskriptif yang bertujuan untuk memberikan gambaran pada masalah penelitian. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian bahwa saluran tataniaga yang digunakan oleh petani jambu mete di Desa Rakadua Kecamatan Poleang Barat Kabupaten Bombana telah menggunakan empat saluran tataniaga tersebut. Saluran pemasaran I merupakan pola tataniaga yang paling sederhana, sedangkan saluran pemasaran II, III, dan IV merupakan saluran yang paling kompleks yaitu dengan melewati perantara paling banyak. Hasil penelitian ini semoga menjadi dasar dalam proses penyusunan kebijakan yang dikeluarkan oleh pemerintah agar dapat meningkatkan kualitas jambu mete khususnya untuk pihak petani.

We show that shortage of human activity may represent an internal constraint to economic growth as relevant as external resource and sink constraints. Human time is required, both inside and outside the market, to produce and consume the goods and services needed to sustain societal metabolism. The time allocation profile is therefore an emergent property of the societal metabolic pattern. When most time is invested in services and final consumption rather than supplying the inputs required by the metabolic process, further growth is constrained. This problem may be temporarily overcome by three strategies: (i) increasing capital investment to boost labor productivity in the productive sectors; (ii) externalizing the requirement of working hours through imports of goods and services; (iii) importing economically active population through immigration. Each strategy is illustrated with an empirical example: (i) a comparison of the evolution of the profile of time and capital allocation between China and the EU; (ii) an assessment of the labor hours embodied in EU imports; (iii) an analysis of demographic changes in response to immigration in Spain. While these strategies can temporarily overcome constraints to economic growth at the national level, they do not represent a long-term solution at the global level. ; MM and LPS gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Catalan administration/AGAUR (Grant number: 2018 FI_B 00313 and 2019 FI_B 01317). RVF and MG acknowledge support by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement no. 689669 (MAGIC). The Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA) has received financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, through the "María de Maeztu" program for Units of Excellence (CEX2019-000940-M). This work reflects the authors' view only; the funding agencies cannot be held responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.

[Context] Studies of Class 0 objects allow to characterize the dynamical processes taking place at the onset of the star formation process and to determine the physical mechanisms responsible for the outcome of the collapse. Observations of dense gas tracers allow for the characterization of key kinematics of the gas that are directly involved in the star formation process, such as infall, outflow, and rotation. [Aims] This work is aimed at investigating the molecular line velocity profiles of the Class 0 protostellar object B335 and attempts to place constraints on the infall motions happening in the circumstellar gas of the object. [Methods] We present observations of C17O (1-0), C18O (1-0), and 12CO (2-1) transitions along with an analysis of spectral profiles at envelope radii between 100 and 860 au. [Results] C17O emission presents a double-peaked line profile distributed in a complex velocity field. Both peaks present an offset of 0.2-1 km s-1 from the systemic velocity of the source in the probed area. The optical depth of the C17O emission has been estimated and found to be less than 1, suggesting that the two velocity peaks trace two distinct velocity components of the gas in the inner envelope. [Conclusions] After discarding possible motions that could produce the complex velocity pattern, such as rotation and outflow, we conclude that infall motions are responsible for producing the velocity field. Because inside-out symmetric collapse cannot explain those observed profiles, it is suggested that these are produced by non-isotropic accretion from the envelope into the central source along the outflow cavity walls. ; This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (MagneticYSOs project, grant agreement N° 679937). J.M.G. is supported by the grant AYA2017-84390-C2-R (AEI/FEDER, UE).

Trabajo presentado en el XIII Congreso de la Asociación Ibérica de Endocrinología Comparada, celebrado los días 16 y 17 de septiembre de 2021 ; Corticosteroids control inter alia, metabolism, immunology, osmoregulation, and stress responses. In the present work, we examined the different physiological and molecular responses evoked in the gilthead seabream acclimated to seawater (SW, 38 ppt) after chronic oral administration for 30 days of cortisol (F; 400 mg/kg fish feed) and the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone (DEX; 300 mg/kg fish feed), prior- and post-hypersaline seawater (HSW, 60 ppt) direct transfer for 3 days. After the feeding trial, plasma cortisol levels showed the following pattern: CT > F > DEX. HSW transfer significantly enhanced plasma cortisol levels in the CT group, whereas F and DEX groups showed about half of these values. Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) activity increased dramatically in the DEX group prior to HSW transfer. Surprisingly gill NKA activity levels in this tissue were recovered to the initial lowest levels for all the groups. Plasma and intestinal fluid osmolalities enhanced significantly after HSW transfer in the DEX group. Intestinal short circuit-current (Isc) showed a more anion absorptive capacity in the posterior intestine (PI) than the anterior. Moreover, F treatment significantly increased this anion absorptive capacity in the PI after HSW transference. Surprisingly HSW significantly decreased the anion absorptive capacity in all intestinal regions, specifically in the PI, indicating the appearance and/ or switch to secretory mechanisms in the intestine to counteract hypersalinity. Furthermore, molecular hypophyseal markers such as the pomcb and the gh were significantly altered/modulated by both pharmacological treatments and HSW challenge. ; This work was funded by Agencia Estatal de Investigación (Ministerio de Ciencia e Investigación, Spanish Government) (PID2020-117557RB-C22). A. Barany was supported by the University of Cadiz Ph.D. scholarship (UCA/REC01VI/2017).

Background: Inspiratory loading is experienced by military divers when they use rebreather device. Our objective was to assess the changes in diaphragm function induced by an increase in inspiratory load at values similar to those experienced by divers in real life. Methods: We recorded the excursion and the thickness of the right hemidiaphragm in 22 healthy male volunteers under inspiratory load conditions, using ultrasound in B- and M-mode. The measurements were performed at tidal volume and during breathing at 50% of inspiratory capacity. The breathing rate was regulated and similar in the various sessions with and without load. Results: The rebreather device used by French military divers leads to an increase in inspiratory load of close to 30 cmH(2)O. Consequently, the session under load was performed using a device set to this threshold. Significant increases in the excursion and the thickening fraction of the diaphragm were observed between the sessions at tidal volume and at high volume. With addition of the inspiratory load, the excursion of the right hemidiaphragm increased significantly from 2.3 to 3.4cm at tidal volume and from 3.9 to 4.7cm at high volume. The thickening fraction increased significantly from 30.4 to 76.6% at tidal volume and from 70 to 123% at high volume. The statistical analysis demonstrated that assessment of the changes of the thickening fraction during breathing at tidal volume was the most relevant marker to assess the impact of the inspiratory load on the diaphragm. Conclusion: Diaphragm ultrasound can be used to assess the changes in the diaphragm contraction pattern secondary to an increase in the respiratory load that can be generated by use a diving apparatus. The recording of the changes of the motion, and more importantly of the thickness of the diaphragm, during the breathing cycle is able to provide relevant information regarding the inspiratory load.

© The Author(s), 2021. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Sil, S., Gangopadhyay, A., Gawarkiewicz, G., & Pramanik, S. Shifting seasonality of cyclones and western boundary current interactions in Bay of Bengal as observed during Amphan and Fani. Scientific Reports, 11(1), (2021): 22052 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-01607-6. ; In recent years, the seasonal patterns of Tropical Cyclones (TC) in the Bay of Bengal have been shifting. While tropical depressions have been common in March–May (spring), they typically have been relatively weaker than the TCs during October–December. Here we show that the spatial pattern of recent warming trends during the last two decades in the southwestern Bay has allowed for stronger springtime pre-monsoon cyclones such as Amphan (May 2020, Super Cyclone) and Fani (April–May 2019, Extremely Severe Cyclone). The tracks of the pre-monsoon cyclones shifted westward, concurrent with an increasing rate of warming. This shift allowed both Fani and Amphan tracks to cross the northeastward warm Western Boundary Current (WBC) and associated warm anti-cyclonic eddies, while the weaker Viyaru (April 2013, Cyclonic Storm) did not interact with the WBC. A quantitative model linking the available along-track heat potential to cyclone's intensity is developed to understand the impact of the WBC on cyclone intensification. The influence of the warming WBC and associated anti-cyclonic eddies will likely result in much stronger springtime TCs becoming relatively common in the future. ; The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial and infrastructural support from the Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar to carry out this research. SS acknowledges the financial assistance from Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Government of India (Grant No. CRG/2019/005842). All the figures are prepared using MATLAB. AG and SS appreciate the support of SERB's VAJRA Faculty Scheme ...

This research aims to determine caring patterns for student in an integrated Islamic boarding school (SMIT) Bina Amal Semarang. Teacher act as parents in this caring activity to conduct supervision, guidance, discipline, giving reward and punishment. SMIT Bina Amal Semarang is an integrated boarding Islamic school which consists of junior and senior high schools. By using qualitative approach, the research found that caring patterns at these schools were developed in a democratic pattern of pesantren model. All students of the schools were automatically deemed as "santri"(students) of the "pesantren" Bina Amal. Supervision, guidance, discipline, reward and punishment implemented at the Bina Amal Semarang schools were carried out by caregivers along with a clear organizational management consisting of three coordinators: Islamic culture and discipline coordinator, tahsin tahfiz coordinator, and academic coordinator. The rules were strictly enforced through student management guidelines that contain academic guidelines and dormitory rules. Learning system was integrated between school and dormitory programmes. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pola asuh peserta didik Sekolah Menengah Islam Terpadu (SMIT) Bina Amal Semarang. Pola asuh merupakan cara guru sebagai orang tua dalam melakukan pengawasan, bimbingan, disiplin, pemberian hadiah dan hukuman yang diterapkan kepada peserta didik. SMIT Bina Amal Semarang merupakan Sekolah Islam Terpadu yang dikelola dengan sistem asrama (boarding school) terdiri atas jenjang SMP dan SMA. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif temuan penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pola asuh peserta didik pada SMIT Bina Amal Semarang menerapkan pola demokratis model pesantren. Seluruh peserta didik SMIT Bina Amal otomatis adalah "santri" pada "pesantren" Bina Amal. Pengawasan, bimbingan, disiplin, pemberian hadiah dan hukuman yang diterapkan di Bina Amal Semarang dilakukan oleh pengasuh beserta organ struktur organisasi yang jelas: korbid budaya Islami dan kedisiplinan, korbid tahsin tahfiz, dan korbid akademik. Aturan diterapkan secara ketat melalui pedoman pengelolaan peserta didik yang berisi pedoman akademik dan tata kehidupan asrama. Pembelajaran peserta didik terintegrasi antara kegiatan pembelajaran sekolah dan kegiatan santri di asrama.

Motivation: Agricultural mechanization was once a mainstream issue. From the 1990s onwards it received less priority, as public policy concern for equitable economic development in rural areas faded. Despite recent signs of renewed interest, questions of rural mechanization require more systematic attention. After a long period of neglect, our knowledge is in disarray. Purpose: This article traces the evolution of thinking about rural mechanization. It examines how three increasingly important factors affect or potentially affect mechanization: (1) expansion of capital goods markets; (2) evolving urban–rural linkages; and (3) climate crisis. Methods and approach: The article reviews the literature that documents long-standing debates, and that which records changes in the rural areas of the global south in the 2010s. Findings: Public policy for rural mechanization was often seen in the 1960s as central to rural development. When neoliberal economics rose in the 1980s, it was thought issues of mechanization could be left to the suppliers and customers in the market. In the meantime, and especially in Asia, many rural operations have been mechanized, but these changes have attracted relatively little attention from either researchers or policy-makers. In the 2010s, the pattern of mechanization has been influenced by changes in the production of machinery and the way that suppliers try to sway policy-makers towards favouring their products; by changes in the relations between urban and rural areas, including the emergence of rural labour shortage and the availability of remittances for capital investment; and by the challenges posed to farmers by global heating and the climate crisis. Each of these trends is potentially disruptive, risking disjuncture between our understandings of the changing realities of "real world" rural livelihoods and wider political economy on the one hand, and the need to ensure the relevance of research agendas to policy priorities on the other. Policy implications: Policy-makers need to ...

This is the final version. Available on open access from Nature Research via the DOI in this record ; Data availability: All data used in this manuscript are fully open access and available. The soil data were obtained from a published snapshot derived from the World Soil Information database (https://doi.org/10.17027/isric-wdcsoils.20160003), the long-term climate data are available in the WorldClim version 2.0 database (http://worldclim.org), while the MODIS primary productivity, evapotranspiration, and landcover data are available in the MOD17A3 (https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MOD17A3.006), MOD16A2 (https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MOD16A2.006) and MCD12Q1 (https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MCD12Q1.006) databases respectively. The UKESM data from the sixth coupled model intercomparison project (CMIP6) is available in the public data archive (https://data.ceda.ac.uk/badc/cmip6/data/CMIP6/CMIP/MOHC/UKESM1-0-LL). ; Physical and chemical stabilisation mechanisms are now known to play a critical role in controlling carbon (C) storage in mineral soils, leading to suggestions that climate warming-induced C losses may be lower than previously predicted. By analysing > 9,000 soil profiles, here we show that, overall, C storage declines strongly with mean annual temperature. However, the reduction in C storage with temperature was more than three times greater in coarse-textured soils, with limited capacities for stabilising organic matter, than in fine-textured soils with greater stabilisation capacities. This pattern was observed independently in cool and warm regions, and after accounting for potentially confounding factors (plant productivity, precipitation, aridity, cation exchange capacity, and pH). The results could not, however, be represented by an established Earth system model (ESM). We conclude that warming will promote substantial soil C losses, but ESMs may not be predicting these losses accurately or which stocks are most vulnerable. ; Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) ; Swedish Research Council ; European Union Horizon 2020

The existence of park facilities as public open spaces is a phenomenon of development activities that are much done, referring to the need for interaction space for the community. The function of the park in its development cannot be separated from the historical value since the colonial era, where its existence is a form of providing green open space oriented to parks in Europe. Seeing the reality of its development, the park facilities now are not only built in the city enclave, but also penetrate into formal environments such as government offices. Bandung, Surabaya and Semarang are the 3 (three) examples of capitals in Indonesia that carried out that development, which are the City Hall complex. The two facilities located in one area can encourage issues regarding the borders of public parks which accommodate informal activities over the control of the city government center office environment structure as an existing building that accommodates formal activities. The method used in this study is descriptive qualitative through an analytical approach based on theory. The analysis is carried out by observing the landscape layout and functions since its inception in order to find out what aspects are maintained or transformed. After that, regarding the ownership of the elements of its present spatial borders. Based on research, Bandung, Surabaya, and Semarang City Hall shows that the existence of public parks in an office environment results in an arrangement that can influence the overall arrangement and user movement pattern of the environment. ; Keberadaan fasilitas taman sebagai ruang terbuka publik menjadi fenomena kegiatan pembangunan yang marak dilaksanakan, merujuk pada kebutuhan ruang interaksi bagi masyarakat. Fungsi taman pada perkembangannya tidak lepas dari nilai sejarah sejak penjajahan era kolonial, dimana keberadaannya merupakan wujud pengadaan ruang terbuka hijau yang berkiblat pada taman-taman di Eropa. Melihat realita perkembangannya, fasilitas taman kini tidak hanya dibangun pada area ...

Abstract. Drought is one of the world's primary natural hazards because of its environmental, economic, and social impacts. Therefore, monitoring and prediction for small regions, countries, or whole continents are
challenging. In this work, the meteorological droughts affecting the
Miño–Limia–Sil hydrographic demarcation in the northwestern Iberian
Peninsula during the period of 1980–2017 were identified. For this purpose and to assess the combined effects of temperature and precipitation on
drought conditions, the 1-month standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI1) was utilized. Some of the
most severe episodes occurred during June 2016–January 2017, September 2011–March 2012, and December 2014–August 2015. An empirical-orthogonal-function analysis revealed that the spatial variability of the SPEI1 shows strong homogeneity in the region, and the drought phenomenon consequently behaves in the same way. Particular emphasis was given to investigating atmospheric circulation as a driver of different drought conditions. To this aim, a daily weather type classification based on the Lamb weather type (LWT) classification was utilized for the entire Iberian Peninsula. Results showed that atmospheric circulation from the southwest, west, and northwest are directly related to wet conditions in the Miño–Limia–Sil hydrographic demarcation during the entire hydrological year. Contrastingly, weather types imposing atmospheric circulation from the northeast, east, and southeast are best associated with dry conditions. Anomalies of the integrated vertical flow of humidity and their divergence for the onset, peak, and termination of the 10 most severe drought episodes also confirmed these results. In this sense, the major atmospheric teleconnection patterns related to dry and wet conditions were the Arctic Oscillation, Scandinavian pattern, and North Atlantic Oscillation. Hydrological drought investigated through the standardized runoff index was closely related to dry and wet conditions revealed by the SPEI at shorter temporal scales (1–2 months), especially during the rainy months (December–April).

AbstractTo date, research on sex differentials in lifespan variation and life expectancy has mainly been conducted in Western countries and there is a dearth of data from South Korea. This study aimed to further the understanding of mortality transition and life expectancy in South Korea, and the associated trajectories of age-at-death variation, through an analysis of life disparity by gender. Using complete life tables for South Korea for 1970–2015, sex differentials (female–male differences) in life disparity and life expectancy at birth were estimated, and sex differentials in life expectancy were decomposed by age and cause of death. The results showed that sex differentials in life expectancy at birth have not reduced significantly in the last 45 years (1970: 7.1 years; 2015: 6.2 years). Life disparity has reduced more rapidly for females than males, and the difference increased from −0.1 year in 1981 to −1.6 years in 2015. Sex differentials in life expectancy and life disparity in South Korea were higher during 1970–2015 than in several Western countries with high life expectancy. The elderly age group (60 and above) contributed 50% of the total sex difference in life expectancy at birth in 1970, and this increased to 70% in 2015. The contribution of the age group 15–59 years reduced significantly over the period. Decomposition of life expectancy at birth by cause revealed that diseases of the circulatory system (2.2 years), followed by external causes (1.3 years), were the most important causes of the sex differences in life expectancy at birth in 1983, and in 2015 neoplasms (2.2 years) and external causes (1.1 years) explained half of the total sex differences. There has been a significant shift in the age-specific pattern of the contribution towards each cause of death. Overall, sex differentials in life disparity and life expectancy at birth have remained significant in South Korea in the last 45 years.