Suchergebnisse

Las vías terciarias juegan un papel muy importante para Colombia, ya que mediante estas vías se puede llegar a las zonas más alejadas y marginales del país, estas conexiones permiten la integración nacional, regional y local, las cuales repercuten directamente en la economía de los municipios, y aun más de los hogares rurales, ya que mediante estas vías se permite el movimiento de personas, alimentos y mercancías que ayudan al desarrollo del país. Actualmente está malla vial se encuentra bajo la gestión de INVIAS, departamentos y los municipios, donde el Gobierno a lo largo de la historia ha intentado impulsar diferentes proyectos para realizar mejoras sobre esta infraestructura; actualmente estas vías son uno de los grandes focos nacionales, teniendo en cuenta que, de los 140.000 km de vías terciarias, solo el 6% se encuentra en buen estado. Teniendo en cuenta que estas vías se encuentran en lugares de difícil acceso, y Colombia cuenta con diversos tipos de climas, pasando por bajas temperaturas hasta llegar a climas húmedos con temperaturas altas, es necesario plantear alternativas de pavimentación, donde se pueda utilizar los materiales de cada región, que sean poco sensibles al clima y que se pueda implementar equipos simples, herramientas de fácil consecución y usos de mano de obra con baja capacitación; es por esto, que dentro de esta monografía se propone implementar pavimentos de concreto denominado como losas optimizadas, los cuales en primer lugar, son menos sensibles a la capacidad de soporte del suelo teniendo en cuenta que los esfuerzos se distribuyen en áreas más grandes por lo tanto las solicitaciones que llegan al suelo son bajas. Y en segundo lugar al tener pavimentos de concreto las deformaciones de las losas son bajas, lo que permite la circulación de cargas pesadas sin que el pavimento se deforme. Las losas optimizadas, es una tecnología desarrollada por El Ingeniero Chileno, Juan Pablo Covarrubias, donde propone reemplazar las metodologías de pavimento de concreto tradicional como AASHTO y PCA, por un sistema de losas con geometría optimizada que permiten una distribución más eficiente de la carga para evitar los problemas de agrietamiento, donde el principio fundamental del método consiste en diseñar el tamaño de la losa para que no más de un set de ruedas del vehículo se encuentre en una determinada losa, minimizando así la tensión de tracción crítica; las dimensiones propuestas son de 1,80 m x 1,80m. En el siguiente trabajo se realizaron 180 modelaciones, donde se tienen 3 cartas de diseño basadas cada una en un clima diferente (8°C a15°C, 15°C a 25°C y 25°C a 32°C), dentro de cada carta se utilizaron los mismos parámetros para la estructura de pavimento como se presenta a continuación: • Subrasante: Se escogieron 5 tipos de subrasante, pasando de suelos blandos con módulos bajos a suelos de buena calidad con módulos altos (30, 40, 50, 60 y 80 MPa). • Subbase granular: Se estableció un espesor único de 15 cm, donde con los módulos de subrasante se calculó mediante la fórmula de Shell; el módulo que generaba el material de subbase (60, 80, 100, 120 y 160 MPa respectivamente). • Transito: Se adoptaron 5 diferentes tránsitos en ejes equivalentes (50.000, 100.000, 300.000, 500.000 y 700.000 EE). • Losa de concreto: Se establecieron 3 módulos de rotura del concreto (3.8, 4.1 y 4.3 MPa), y se dejaba iterando el espesor de la losa. Mediante estas modelaciones se encontraron espesores entre 10 cm y 18 cm, siendo el factor del clima el que menos afecta al cálculo del espesor, teniendo en cuenta que al tener losas de menores dimensiones el alabeo es mucho menor, lo que genera una vida útil mayor a las losas convencionales (3.5 a 4 m), por otra parte, uno de los fatores que más importancia tiene dentro del diseño, es la rigidez de la subbase y subrasante, ya que al tener espesores más delgados el material granular ayuda con las tensiones de punzonamiento, de acuerdo a la afirmación anterior, al realizar la comparación de los resultados de las modelaciones entre un material granular blando (subrasante: 30 MPa y Subbase: 60 MPa) vs un material granular de buenas características (subrasante: 80 MPa y Subbase: 160 MPa) se obtienen diferencias de aproximadamente 3 cm, lo que equivale a un 20% de diferencia. Finalmente, al realizar la comparación en presupuesto entre una losa optimizada de dimensiones de 1.8 m x 1.8 para una vía de 3.6 m de ancho, de espesor variable entre 10, 15 y 18 cm vs una placa huella, con el espesor tipo de 15 cm, utilizando los mismos costos y características, se observa un ahorro de aproximadamente $197.553.390/km, $94.383.894/km y $32.482.196/km respectivamente, siendo siempre inferior al presupuesto de una placa huella, generando que esta alternativa de pavimento se viable para la construcción de las vías de BVT. Aun cuando en el presente estudio se realizaron modelaciones con diferentes parámetros de clima, material granular, concreto y tránsito, se recomienda realizar ensayos de laboratorio para caracterizar los materiales de subrasante, analizar los materiales de la cantera de donde se obtendrá el material granular de subbase y analizar el transito atraído que puede generar la construcción de la vía. ; The tertiary roads play a very important role for Colombia, since through these roads you can reach the most remote and marginal areas of the country, these connections allow national, regional and local integration, which directly affect the economy of the municipalities , and even more of rural households, since through these routes the movement of people, food and goods that help the development of the country is allowed. Currently this road network is under the management of INVIAS, departments and municipalities, where the Government throughout history has tried to promote different projects to make improvements on this infrastructure; these roads are currently one of the great national centers, taking into account that, of the 140,000 km of tertiary roads, only 6% are in good condition. Taking into account that these roads are in places of difficult access, and Colombia has several types of climates, going through low temperatures to reach humid climates with high temperatures, it is necessary to propose paving alternatives, where you can use the materials each region, that are not very sensitive to the climate and that simple equipment, tools of easy attainment and uses of workforce with low training can be implemented; This is why, within this monograph, it is proposed to implement concrete pavements called optimized slabs, which in the first place are less sensitive to the capacity of soil support, taking into account that the efforts are distributed in larger areas so both the requests that reach the ground are low. And secondly, having concrete pavements the deformations of the slabs are low, which allows the circulation of heavy loads without the pavement deforming. The optimized slabs, is a technology developed by the Chilean Engineer, Juan Pablo Covarrubias, where he proposes to replace the traditional concrete pavement methodologies such as AASHTO and PCA, with a slab system with optimized geometry that They allow a more efficient distribution of the load to avoid cracking problems, where the fundamental principle of the method is to design the size of the slab so that no more than one set of wheels of the vehicle is in a certain slab, thus minimizing the critical tensile tension; The proposed dimensions are 1.80 m x 1.80m. In the following work 180 modeling was carried out, where 3 design cards are based each in a different climate (8 ° C to 15 ° C, 15 ° C to 25 ° C and 25 ° C to 32 ° C), within Each letter used the same parameters for the pavement structure as presented below: • Subgrade: 5 types of subgrade were chosen, moving from soft floors with low modules to good quality floors with high modules (30, 40, 50, 60 and 80 MPa). • Granular subbase: A single thickness of 15 cm was established, where with the subgrade modules it was calculated using the Shell formula; the module that generated the subbase material (60, 80, 100, 120 and 160 MPa respectively). • Transit: 5 different transits were adopted on equivalent axes (50,000, 100,000, 300,000, 500,000 and 700,000 EE). • Concrete slab: 3 concrete break modules (3.8, 4.1 and 4.3 MPa) were established, and the thickness of the slab was left iterating. Through these modeling, thicknesses between 10 cm and 18 cm were found, with the climate factor being the one that least affects the thickness calculation, taking into account that having smaller slabs the warping is much smaller, which generates a longer useful life Conventional slabs (3.5 to 4 m), on the other hand, one of the most important fators in the design, is the stiffness of the subbase and subgrade, since having thinner thicknesses the granular material helps with stresses of punching, according to the previous statement, when comparing the results of the modeling between a soft granular material (subgrade: 30 MPa and Subbase: 60 MPa) vs a granular material of good characteristics (subgrade: 80 MPa and Subbase : 160 MPa) differences of approximately 3 cm are obtained, which is equivalent to a 20% difference. Finally, when making the comparison in budget between an optimized slab of dimensions of 1.8 mx 1.8 for a track of 3.6 m wide, of varying thickness between 10, 15 and 18 cm vs a footprint plate, with the type thickness of 15 cm, using the same costs and characteristics, a saving of approximately $ 197,553,390 / km, $ 94,383,894 / km and $ 32,482,196 / km respectively is observed, always being lower than the budget of a footprint plate, generating that this alternative of pavement is viable for the construction of the BVT tracks. Although in the present study modeling with different parameters of climate, granular material, concrete and transit were performed, it is recommended to perform ; Maestría ; Magíster en Ingeniería Civil con Énfasis en Geotecnia

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hosahalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 507 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 48 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent is cover by mining/industrial, 48 per cent is cover by rock-out crops and 2 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 6 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 0.75%) in 19 per cent area and medium (0.5-0.75%) in 29 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 27 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 21 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 48 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in 17 per cent area and low (4.5 ppm) and 11 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 28 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 18(3) 49(10) Sapota 18(3) 21(4) Maize 18(3) 49(10) Pomegranate 18(3) 21(4) Bajra 18(3) 147(29) Guava - 39(8) Groundnut - 88(17) Jackfruit 18(3) 21(4) Sunflower 18(3) - Jamun 18(3) 21(4) Cotton 18(3) 49(10) Musambi 18(3) 21(4) Red gram 18(3) - Lime 18(3) 21(4) Bengalgram - 130(26) Cashew - 47(9) Chilli 18(3) 31(6) Custard apple 18(3) 155(31) Tomato 18(3) 31(6) Amla 18(3) 155(31) Brinjal - 58(11) Tamarind 18(3) - Onion - 39(8) Marigold 18(3) 49(10) Bhendi - 57(11) Chrysanthemum 18(3) 49(10) Drumstick 18(3) - Jasmine 18(3) 49(10) Mulberry 18(3) 29(6) Crossandra 18(3) 31(6) Mango 18(3) -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Hosahalli-2 is located at North latitude 150 19' 19.816" and 150 17' 59.47" and East longitude 760 18' 24.245'' and 760 16' 32.16" covering an area of about 507.30 ha coming under Hirekasanakandi, Bevinahallli, Hitnal and Chikkasanakandi villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Hosahalli-2 micro watersheds of Shivpur sub-watershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 3 (8.57 %) were marginal, 5 (14.29%) were small, 15 (42.86 %) were Semi medium and 7 (20.00 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 102 (56.67%) men and 78 (43.33 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (44.44%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 32.22 per cent of illiterates, 27.78 per cent of them had primary school education, 11.11 per cent middle school education, and 8.33 per cent high school education, 8.33 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.56 per cent of them had Diploma, 2.22 per cent attained graduation.  About, 85.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 16.67 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 85.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 14.29 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 97.14 per cent possess TV, 62.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 82.86 per cent possess mobile phones and 51.43 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households possess plough, 22.86 per cent possess tractor, 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 17.14 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 20.00 per cent possess local cow and 8.57 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 21.95 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.54.  Further, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 52.91 per cent (53.91 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 47.09 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 16.00 live bore wells and 20.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 48.57 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Paddy, 0 and 0 and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.71 percent possessed bank account and 85.71 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 85.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra and Paddy was Rs.27102.02 22460.16 and 30172.94 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.60, 1: 1.50 and 1: 2.20 respectively. Further, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 86628.57 in micro-watershed, of which Rs. 69857.14 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 132 horticulture trees and 32 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 17.14 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 68.57 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.29 per cent of the households and 5.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households. In the study area, 57.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (88.57%), pulses (88.57%) and oilseeds (14.29%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (40.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (28.57%), high rate of interest on credit (25.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (8.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.14%), inadequate extension services (25.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (51.43%), Less rainfall (48.57%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (37.14%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

El ser humano a lo largo del tiempo ha buscado en la construcción de su hábitat satisfacer la necesidad de protección ante los elementos ambientales. Necesidad por la flexibilidad y la capacidad física que tiene a la adaptación, lo cual es relativamente débil comparada con la de otros seres vivos. Es por ello que la arquitectura ha creado el enfoque bioclimático, que persigue la eficiencia energética en los espacios, con el objetivo de ser autosuficientes y confortables gracias al aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales.El diseño de la vivienda en la historia de la humanidad ha reflejado diversas soluciones adoptadas para ser construida de manera controlada e insertada en un ambiente natural, el cual es por lo general variable y adverso con el frío, el calor, el viento, las lluvias y el sol. Sin embargo, el crecimiento y aglomeración de la población a partir del siglo XX ha fomentado una serie de problemáticas derivadas por no atender la tarea de adaptar de una manera adecuada la vivienda al entorno. El factor biológico en el sitio y los criterios de diseño y construcción han dejado de lado la consideración de atributos que propician el confort térmico, como componente determinante en la definición de una vivienda eficiente energéticamente. En el contexto institucional, se tiene más de una década en que la Unión Europea instauró en las viviendas, la obligación universal de Certificar la Eficiencia Energética (CEE) en el momento de su compra venta. Es así, que el mercado inmobiliario de Europa tiene una calificación institucionalizada para dar transparencia energética a las operaciones inmobiliarias y, sobre todo, incentivar la construcción/renovación de edificios eficientes. Sin embargo, no se han tenido los avances planeados y ha quedado como meras buenas intenciones. En el contexto mexicano se han creado diversos programas para mejorar la eficiencia energética en la vivienda, tal es el caso de la hipoteca verde. No obstante, el resultado no ha sido el esperado. La investigación nace ante estas inquietudes, en donde se pretende conocer el impacto de la eficiencia energética en el valor de la vivienda.Para ello se han establecido dos objetivos:1) Analizar si los potenciales compradores de vivienda estarían dispuestos a pagar (DAP) más por viviendas energéticamente eficientes.2) Saber si las unidades con las que se expresa la eficiencia energética inciden sobre la DAP.El método empleado es el de valoración contingente, el cual consiste en simular un mercado hipotético mediante una encuesta a los consumidores potenciales. Se le ha preguntado por la máxima cantidad de dinero que están dispuestos a pagar por el bien si tuviera una serie de atributos ligados a la eficiencia térmica al compararlo. Razón por la cual se ha situado a la valoración contingente como un procedimiento razonable para medir la pérdida de utilidad en personas que no van a disfrutar de forma inmediata un bien singular, pero que estarían dispuestas a pagar algo por la opción de disfrutarlo en el futuro.Entre los hallazgos obtenidos se tienen aproximaciones acerca del efecto de la eficiencia energética sobre las preferencias de las personas, y más particularmente sobre la disposición a pagar por las viviendas más eficientes. Se identifican confusiones en la manera de mesurar y la conceptualización de eficiencia energética. Adicionalmente las personas están dispuestas a realizar un pago adicional por la vivienda eficiente energéticamente, cabe señalar que relacionado al ahorro que se obtiene en la factura de gas y electricidad. ; L'ésser humà al llarg del temps ha buscat en la construcció del seu hàbitat satisfer la necessitat de protecció davant els elements ambientals. Necessitat per la flexibilitat i la capacitat física que té a l'adaptació, la qual cosa és relativament dèbil comparada amb la d'altres éssers vius. És per això que l'arquitectura ha creat l'enfocament bioclimàtic, que persegueix l'eficiència energètica en els espais, amb l'objectiu de ser autosuficients i confortables gràcies a l'aprofitament dels recursos naturals.El disseny de l'habitatge en la història de la humanitat ha reflectit diverses solucions adoptades per a ser construïda de manera controlada i inserida en un ambient natural, el qual és en general variable i advers amb el fred, la calor, el vent, les pluges i el sol. No obstant això, el creixement i aglomeració de la població a partir del segle XX ha fomentat una sèrie de problemàtiques derivades per no atendre la tasca d'adaptar d'una manera adequada l'habitatge a l'entorn. El factor biològic en el lloc i els criteris de disseny i construcció han deixat de banda la consideració d'atributs que propicien el confort tèrmic, com a component determinant en la definició d'un habitatge eficient energèticament.En el context institucional, es té més d'una dècada en què la Unió Europea va instaurar en els habitatges, l'obligació universal de Certificar l'Eficiència Energètica (CEE) en el moment de la seva compra venda. És així, que el mercat immobiliari d'Europa té una qualificació institucionalitzada per donar transparència energètica a les operacions immobiliàries i, sobretot, incentivar la construcció / renovació d'edificis eficients. No obstant això, no s'han tingut els avenços planejats i ha quedat com a meres bones intencions.En el context mexicà s'han creat diversos programes per millorar l'eficiència energètica en l'habitatge, tal és el cas de la hipoteca verda. No obstant això, el resultat no ha estat l'esperat. La investigació neix davant d'aquestes inquietuds, a on es pretén conèixer l'impacte de l'eficiència energètica en el valor de l'habitatge.Per això s'han establert dos objectius:1) Analitzar si els potencials compradors d'habitatge estarien disposats a pagar (DAP) més per habitatges energèticament eficients.2) Saber si les unitats amb què s'expressa l'eficiència energètica incideixen sobre la DAP.El mètode emprat és el de valoració contingent, el qual consisteix en simular un mercat hipotètic mitjançant una enquesta als consumidors potencials. Se li ha preguntat per la màxima quantitat de diners que estan disposats a pagar pel bé si tingués una sèrie d'atributs lligats a l'eficiència tèrmica en comparar. Raó per la qual s'ha situat a la valoració contingent com un procediment raonable per mesurar la pèrdua d'utilitat en persones que no van a gaudir de forma immediata un bé singular, però que estarien disposades a pagar una mica per l'opció de gaudir-lo en el futur .Entre les troballes obtingudes s'han aproximacions sobre l'efecte de l'eficiència energètica sobre les preferències de les persones, i més particularment sobre la disposició a pagar pels habitatges més eficients. S'identifiquen confusions en la manera de mesurar i la conceptualització d'eficiència energètica. A més a les persones estan disposades a realitzar un pagament addicional per l'habitatge eficient energèticament, cal assenyalar que relacionat a l'estalvi que s'obté en la factura de gas i electricitat. ; The human being over time has sought in the construction of their habitat to satisfy the need for protection from environmental elements. Necessity for the flexibility and physical capacity that has adaptation, which is relatively weak compared to other living beings. That is why architecture has created the bioclimatic approach, which pursues energy efficiency in spaces, with the aim of being self-sufficient and comfortable thanks to the use of natural resources.The design of the house in the history of humanity has reflected various solutions adopted to be constructed in a controlled manner and inserted in a natural environment, which is usually variable and adverse with the cold, heat, wind, rain and the sun. However, the growth and agglomeration of the population since the twentieth century has fostered a series of problems derived from not addressing the task of adapting housing in an adequate way to the environment. The biological factor in the site and the design and construction criteria have left aside the consideration of attributes that promote thermal comfort, as determinant components in the definition of an energy efficient house.In the institutional context, there is more than a decade in which the European Union established in housing, the universal obligation to Certify Energy Efficiency (EEC) at the time of purchase sale. Thus, the European real estate market has an institutionalized rating to give energy transparency to real estate operations and, above all, encourage the construction / renovation of efficient buildings. However, the planned progress has not been made and has remained as mere good intentions.In the Mexican context, several programs have been created to improve energy efficiency in housing, such as the green mortgage. However, the result has not been as expected. The research was born in response to these concerns, where the aim is to know the impact of energy efficiency on the value of housing.For this, two objectives have been established:1) Analyse if home buyers are willing to pay (DAP) more for energy efficient homes.2) Know if the units with which energy efficiency is expressed affect the DAP.The method used is contingent valuation, which consists of simulating a hypothetical market by means of a survey of potential consumers. He has been asked about the maximum amount of money they are willing to pay for the good if he had a series of attributes linked to thermal efficiency when comparing it. Reason why it has been placed to the contingent valuation as a reasonable procedure to measure the loss of utility in people who will not immediately enjoy a singular good, but who would be willing to pay something for the option to enjoy it in the future.Among the findings obtained are approximations about the effect of energy efficiency on the preferences of people, and more particularly on the willingness to pay for the most efficient homes. Confusions are identified in the way of measuring and the conceptualization of energy efficiency. Additionally, people are willing to make an additional payment for energy efficient housing, it should be noted that related to the savings obtained in the gas and electricity bill. ; Peer Reviewed

Resumen: El desarrollo agrícola de la altillanura Colombiana llevado a cabo con apoyo del gobierno es una meta ambiciosa por múltiples razones, empezando con la infertilidad intrínseca de los suelos que ha limitado el desarrollo agrícola hasta la fecha. Es importante diseñar un modelo de desarrollo agrícola que sea ecoeficiente, es decir rentable del punto de vista económico, equitativo del punto de vista social y sostenible del punto de vista ambiental. En este estudio, se diseñaron indicadores para evaluar y monitorear la ecoeficiencia de los cuatro sistemas de producción más usados por los productores que invirtieron en el área: cultivos transitorios, cultivos perenes (palma africana y hevea) y pastizales mejorados y se les comparo con la sabana natural, como sistema de referencia. El objetivo del estudio fue la construcción de indicadores de ecoeficiencia en los sistemas de producción: cultivos transitorios (soya, maíz, y arroz), cultivos permanentes (caucho y palma de aceite), pasturas mejoradas y la sabana natural, a partir de la generación de subindicadores sintéticos con valores entre 0.10 y 1.00, asociados a los grupos de variables de regulación hídrica, fertilidad química de suelo, biodiversidad (macrofauna), regulación climática (gases efecto invernadero y almacenamiento de carbono) y de variables el componente socioeconómico. El indicador de ecoeficiencia es la suma de un indicador de servicios ecosistemicos, de desarrollo social y de eficiencia económica. El estudio socioeconómico se hizo en 120 fincas que representan la diversidad de situaciones encontradas en el área. Análisis iniciales de la base de datos inicial de 227 preguntas organizadas en 13 bloques establecida por el CIAT, se extrajeron 5 variables representativas del entorno social (edad, tenencia de la tierra, trabajadores permanentes hombre y/o mujeres, capacitación recibida) y se usaron para diseñar un indicador de Capital Humano. Otro grupo de 11 variables se usó para describir el entorno económico con un indicador de sistemas de producción. Finalmente, un grupo de 7 variables, que describen la composición de la finca en diferentes coberturas vegetales, se usó para diseñar un indicador de paisaje. De los análisis multivariados (ACP y ACM) de cada grupo se calcularon indicadores variando de 0,1 a 1,0 siguiendo la metodología de Velásquez et al., (2007). Se hicieron también tipologías de las fincas de acuerdo a cada indicador, basadas en análisis de cluster. Se realizaron análisis de coinercias para evaluar la relación entre los juegos de variables, encontrándose una estrecha relación entre el capital humano disponible (número de trabajadores permanentes, edad y capacitación del productor), el sistema de producción, más o menos tecnificado que se usa, y la calidad del paisaje medida por la proporción de sistemas naturales, bosques y cultivos perenes presentes. El impacto ambiental de los sistemas de uso se evaluó en 75 parcelas localizadas en 41 fincas diferentes, distribuidas en el transecto entre Puerto López, Puerto Gaitán, incluyendo CNI Carimagua. Se evaluaron los cuatro sistemas productivos pastura mejorada, cultivos transitorios y cultivos perennes (caucho y palma de aceite) con respecto a la sabana natural. A partir de un extenso diagnóstico agroecológico, se diseñaron 5 sub indicadores: fertilidad química de suelos, funciones hídricas, biodiversidad (macrofauna de suelo), regulación climática (almacenamiento de carbono, emisiones de GEI) y estabilidad estructural del suelo (macroagregación y morfología del suelo). Estos 5 sub indicadores se combinaron después para constituir un indicador de servicios ecosistemicos que mide el impacto ambiental de los sistemas de producción. Cada uno de los indicadores generados separó los sistemas de uso de forma altamente significativa. Mientras que la pastura mejorada en promedio mejora la biodiversidad de la macrofauna (0.73 ±0.05) y la agregación (0.76 ± 0.02) del suelo limitando su erosión en comparación con la sabana natural, la palma de aceite mejora las funciones hídricas del suelo y el almacenamiento de C y los cultivos anuales mejoran la calidad química (0.78 ± 0.03) estos sistemas de producción desmejoran las otras funciones, aunque de formas distintas según el tipo de producción. Se observó así que cada sistema de uso tiene la capacidad de mejorar por lo menos uno de los servicios eco-sistémicos medidos, además de aumentar el indicador económico (máximo para los cultivos transitorios con un valor de 0.91 ± 0.09) y mejorar los índices sociales (valor promedio máximo con los cultivos perenes 0.46 ± 0.28). Existe sin embargo una variabilidad grande entre los sistemas, probablemente debida a la diversidad de los paisajes creados y al valor del capital humano presente. El componente socioeconómico presentó patrones muy interesantes asi (1) La ecoeficiencia aumenta de forma regular con el capital humano, (2) La ecoeficiencia aumenta con la intensificacion del uso de la tierra (indicador económico), hasta un punto de inflexión que corresponde a un valor del indicador de sistemas de producción de 0.9 y parece disminuir de forma abrupta justo después; (3) La ecoeficiencia aumenta con la intensificación del paisaje, pero disminuye fuertemente en los paisajes más intensificados. Estos resultados muestran globalmente una gran variabilidad en los datos de ecoeficiencia. Es clara la influencia de los sistemas de cultivo implementados sobre los parámetros ambientales y el capital humano. Sin embargo, se nota una relación fuerte con el paisaje creado, con una disminución de la ecoeficiencia ya notable en las fincas que tienen menores proporciones de espacios naturales y bosques, aunque los cultivos perenes puedan ayudar a mejorar la condición ambiental hasta cierto punto. Palabras clave: Oxisoles, Servicios ecosistemicos, Gases efecto invernadero, Caracterización socioeconómica y Análisis multivariado ; Abstract: The agricultural development of the Colombian altillanura, carried out with government support, is an ambitious goal for many reasons, starting with the intrinsic infertility of the soils that has limited the agricultural development up to now. It is important to design an ecofficient agricultural development model, that is economically profitable, equitable from a social point of view and environmentally sustainable. In this study, indicators were designed to evaluate and monitor the eco-efficiency of the four production systems most used by the producers who invested in the area: transitional crops, perennial crops (African palm and hevea) and improved pastures compared with Natural savanna as a reference system. The objective of the study was the construction of eco-efficiency indicators in the production systems: transitional crops (soybean, maize, and rice), permanent crops (rubber and oil palm), improved pastures and natural savanna, from generation Of synthetic sub-indicators with values between 0.10 and 1.00, associated to the groups of variables of water regulation, soil chemical fertility, biodiversity (macrofauna), climate regulation (greenhouse gases and carbon storage) and socioeconomic variables. The eco-efficiency indicator is the sum of an indicator of ecosystem services, social development and economic efficiency. The socioeconomic study was done in 120 farms that represent the diversity of situations found in the area. Five initial variables of the social environment (age, land tenure, permanent male and/or female workers, training received) were extracted from the initial database of 227 questions organized in 13 blocks established by CIAT and were used to design a Human Capital indicator. Another group of 11 variables were used to describe the economic environment with an indicator of Production Systems. Finally, a group of 7 variables, which describe the composition of the farm in different vegetation cover, was used to design a landscape indicator. From the multivariate analysis (PCA and ACM) of each group, indicators ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 were calculated following the methodology of Velasquez et al. (2007). Typologies of the farms were also made according to each indicator, based on clusters analysis to assist in the interpretation. Significant covariations were measured showing a close relationship between the available human capital (number of permanent workers, age and training of the producer), the production system, more or less technified, that is used, and the quality of the landscape measured by the relative proportions of natural systems, forests and perennial crops present. Ecosytem services of land use systems was evaluated in 75 plots located in 41 different farms, distributed in the transect between Puerto López, Puerto Gaitán and Carimagua. The four production systems improved pasture, transient crops and perennial crops (rubber and oil palm) were evaluated with respect to the natural savanna. Based on an extensive agroecological diagnosis, 5 sub indicators were designed: chemical soil fertility, water functions, biodiversity (soil macrofauna), climate regulation (carbon storage, GHG emissions) and soil structural stability (macroaggregation and morphology of floor). These 5 sub indicators were added later to constitute an indicator of ecosystem services that measures the environmental impact of production systems. Each of the indicators generated separated the systems of use in a highly significant way. While improved pasture on average improves the biodiversity of macrofauna (0.73 ± 0.05) and aggregation (0.76 ± 0.02) of the soil by limiting its erosion compared to the natural savanna, the oil palm improves the water functions of the soil and the Storage of C and annual crops improve the chemical quality (0.78 ± 0.03) these production systems deteriorate the other functions, but in different ways according to the type of production. It was observed that each system of use has the capacity to improve at least one of the measured ecosystemic services, besides increasing the economic indicator (maximum for transitory crops with a value of 0.91 ± 0.09) and to improve the social indexes (Maximum value with perennial crops 0.46 ± 0.28). There is, however, a large variability between the systems, probably due to the diversity of landscapes created and the value of present human capital. The socio-economic component presents very interesting patterns as well (1) Eco-efficiency increases on a regular basis with human capital, (2) Eco-efficiency increases with the intensification of land use (economic indicator), to an inflection point corresponding to a Value of the indicator of production systems of 0.9 and seems to decrease abruptly just after; (3) Eco-efficiency increases with the intensification of the landscape, but decreases strongly in the intensified landscapes These results globally show great variability in eco-efficiency data. The influence of cropping systems on environmental parameters and human capital is clear. However, there is a strong relationship with the landscape created, with a decrease in ecoefficiency already Key words: Oxisols, Ecosystem services, Greenhouse Gases, Socioeconomic Characterization and Multivariate Analysis. ; Doctorado

Non Communicable Diseases (NCDs) continue to elevate in the western pacific regions, including Vanuatu. Much efforts have been made in reducing the disease burden, however the challenges remains due to certain sociocultural behaviours, globalization, and urbanization which promotes unhealthy lifestyles such as eating lifestyles (unhealthy diet), physical inactivity, harmful use of alcohol and tobacco use. All these contributing factors tends to give rise to common risks for the intermediate factors such as raised in blood pressure, raised in the level of glucose in the blood, the unhealthy lipid profiles, and obesity.Comparing this disease in low-income countries and high-income countries it seem that the rate of NDC are higher in low-income countries, more specifically the countries in the western pacific regions. Even that there are few South East Asian countries such Vietnam, Malaysia, Philippines, and Cambodia which were also regarded as having high mortality rates of NCD (1). According to the profile in 2008 it was estimated that it's the western pacific region that has more of the effect, showing more than a quarter of the 36 million deaths were due to NCD alone.Furthermore it continue to states that the trend will continue to increase by 15% between 2010 and 2020, meaning an estimation (from baseline) from an elevation of up to 44 million deaths will be cause by NCD alone (1). And if we divide the figures up it will then show that the highest proportion will be from the Western Pacific regions, of 12.3 million of deaths, while South-East Asian regions on the other hand is estimated to reach 10.4 million. This is also supported by a report on economic-cost of NCD in the Pacific Island countries which states that NCD is already a challenge in the Pacific, leading to account for 70% or more of the deaths. And the most common cause is of cardiovascular disease, which accounts for between 29% and 38% of death from all other causes (2). In Vanuatu NCD is in the top 10 disease agenda due to fast escalating trend, and similarly are Cardiovascular diseases, including diabetes and hypertension. According to the reported it was estimated that 18% of deaths were due to circulatory heart diseases (7).Another study been conducted in 2008 showed a record of 0.5% and 0.3% deaths were respectively caused by NCD in male and female. The current daily tobacco smoking as a form of behavioural risk factor constitute of 12.3%, where 21.3% in male and 3.1% in female. Additionally from the study record it showed that males are more risks than female in having high blood pressure above normal. This is supported by showing 44.5% of males in the study have raised blood pressure, while female on contrary have 39.1% raised blood pressure. Other contributing factor in the metabolic risks factors are overweight and obesity. From the study it showed that 21% of both male and female are overweight, while 34.2% is of obesity (3).From the findings we have to know that there are unprecedented changes in our environment – cultural, economic, physical, political and social – pose new risks and threats to health. And from most reports and future focus it is predicted that NCD will continue to elevate globally, whether it is urbanization and the built environment, severe air pollution, climate change, unregulated marketing of tobacco and other harmful food products, or easy access to nutrient-poor and calorie dense food (4). In some countries, for instance Vanuatu still accepts more imported and processed food and is predicted to upscale further should the climate conditions such as the current El Nino continue to place threats on garden crops. There is additionally a weak monitoring on food regulations on imported food products and where most labelling are in languages. Lack of proper laboratory analysis of the content against the labelling is another contributing factor. Thus it is imperative that leaders in both Government and related Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) find innovative solutions to complex health challenges in ever-changing common practices and environments. Only then will the population be safe and healthy from the disease. On the other hand we have to understand that at each developmental stage of life, human beings exhibit different vulnerabilities and are exposed to different risks, placing them more vulnerable to contracting those diseases.According to WHO report in 2008 on prevention and control of non-communicable diseases (Annex 1-B) (5), in year 2000 the WHO's Member States adopted a global strategy for prevention and control of NCDs during the fifty-third World Health Assembly. The Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health was endorsed in 2002. In 2003, the WHO launched the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, and this treaty came into force in 2005. Even that in 2008 the Member States endorsed the Action Plan for the Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of non-communicable Diseases at the Sixty-first World Health Assembly. And the Regional Committee for the Western Pacific called for action to combat non-communicable diseases and their related risk factors in specific resolutions. There are also various regional action plans related to NCD prevention and control (e.g. Regional Plan for Integrated Prevention and Control of Cardiovascular Diseases and Diabetes for the Western Pacific Region 1998–2003, Tobacco Free Initiative Regional Action Plans 2000–2004 and 2005–2009, Plan of Action 2006–2010 for the Western Pacific.Declaration on Diabetes, and the Regional Strategy to Reduce Alcohol-related Harm) were developed over the past decade, sharing a focus on policy and planning, surveillance, health promotion and clinical prevention. Furthermore WHO developed a Pacific Framework for the Prevention and Control of Non-communicable Diseases in 2007 to serve as a guide in addressing NCDs among Pacific island countries and areas, and this framework was adopted by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC). Augmenting these action plans and frameworks is a Region-wide interest and commitment to fostering health systems change, particularly in relation to the prevention and control of NCDs. In November 2007, the WHO-supported meeting on "Strengthening Health Systems to Improve Chronic Disease Prevention and Control" culminated in a set of recommendations for reducing the health burden from non-communicable diseases through health systems improvements. The Western Pacific Regional Action Plan for NCDs is a collaborative effort by the WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific and Member States to establish a shared vision and strategic actions to reduce the NCD burden (5).However despite of all these developed global and regional framework, strategies, planning, and action plans it is still recognized that countries still have less capacities and some are still at different stages of progress in the fight against non-communicable diseases. Therein it is suggested that more plenary discussions, consultations, and a support networking collaborations be established between the Government and private sectors, including the partners and associated stakeholders, and the affected communities. Moreover the Regional Action Plan also aims to operationalize the objectives of the Global Action Plan within the Western Pacific context, thereby adding value through concrete and relevant guidance. In other words the member states need to reconsider and rectify these further to be able to absorb perfectly into the country settings and the environmental contexts. Vanuatu on the other hand has also the capacity to address and respond to NCDs as it has its funding available for Cardiovascular diseases, NCD treatment for control, prevention and health promotion messages, and NCD surveillance and M&E. Additionally the health reporting system also includes information on screening of patients at health peripheries, NCD cause specific –morbidity, and the risks factors. Further to that the country has an integrated or topic-specific policy, programme, and action plan which is currently operational for these mentioned NCD diseases, including Alcohol, unhealthy diet, overweight, and obesity. Physical inactivity and Tobacco were other areas that the policy and action plan covers (1).Furthermore the member states need to strictly consider and implement WHO global NCD action plan which is a road map from 2013 to 2025 (6). In the road map are six global objectives that clearly states to make prevention and control of NCDs a priority, strengthening national capacities and leaderships, reduce modifiable risks factors, promote high-quality research, and finally is to monitor the impact and the trend of the disease. Additionally are nine major and more specific targets along the road map towards 2025. These are to be able to establish 80% availability of affordable technology and medicine to treat NCDs, ensuring that at least 50% of the patients receive preventive therapy for heart attacks and stroke, be able to pause the rise in diabetes and obesity, at least a 30% drop in sodium chloride (salt) intake, a 10% reduction in the harmful in the use of alcohol, to at least also receive 25% drop in premature death of people age 30-70 from cardiovascular diseases, cancers, diabetes, or chronic respiratory diseases, be able to reduce 10% in the prevalence of insufficient physical activity, reduce by 30% in tobacco use, and finally is to drop by 20% in the prevalence of high blood pressure (6). All these can be adopted and implemented strategically and effectively only when adequate resources such as adequate human resource, access to appropriate technology at all levels of implementations, adequate financial support, good working collaborations with partners and NGOs, including the communities, other associate stakeholders such as community leaders, and a very motivated and action-oriented personals are in place. Moreover is the health systems, political commitment, good network with shop entrepreneurs, and private sector that can contribute in the prevention and promotion of these mentioned health lifestyles.It is therefore strongly believed that unless all these are identified and notified then will there be some changes expected, and thus meet most of the target indicators as stated in the 2013-2025 target objectives.

Die unternehmensbezogenen Prozesse der Individualisierung, des Sozialstrukturwandels, der Technologieentwicklung und der Internationalisierung stehen in direktem Zusammenhang mit gesamtgesellschaftlichen Veränderungen [VGL. TÜRK, K. / LEMKE, T. / BRUCH, M. 2006 UND VGL. BOLINSKI, S. 2000]. Struktureller Wandel in der Gesellschaft führt aber zwangsläufig zu Strukturproblemen im Bildungsbereich und in der Wirtschaft. Bildungsprozesse charakterisieren somit auch die Unternehmensorganisationen als Aktionszentren der modernen Gesellschaft. Diese gegenseitige Einflussnahme von Bildung und Wirtschaft steht für eine kommunikationsbasierende Symbiose, welche auch die gesellschaftliche und ökonomische Entwicklung bis hin zur heutigen Wissensgesellschaft kennzeichnet und die folglich durch ein hohes Maß an Innovation, Forschung und Entwicklung geprägt ist. Arbeitskräfte der Zukunft benötigen theoretisches Wissen gekoppelt mit praktischem Können. Eine persönlichkeitsbildende Entwicklung erfordert somit eine Kompetenzorientiertheit für selbstständiges Handeln. Diese Fähigkeiten vermittelt lernende Tätigkeit in kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen (KMU) z.B. durch duale oder kooperative Aus- und Weiterbildungskonzepte. KMU sind die in der Europäischen Union wirtschaftlich und sozial vorherrschende Unternehmensform. Sie stellen nahezu 99% aller Betriebe und bieten Beschäftigung für fast 70 Millionen Menschen. Kleine und mittleren Unternehmen erwirtschaften in Deutschland ca. 50 Prozent der steuerpflichtigen Umsätze, beschäftigen ca. 66 Prozent der Arbeitnehmer und bilden ca. 85 Prozent der Lehrlinge aus [VGL. WIPPLER, A. 2013]. Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert für die Beschreibung komplexer Phänomene einer Unternehmenssoziologie einen exemplarischen Beitrag, der normativ und explizit für das Fallbeispiel kleiner und mittlerer Unternehmen (KMU) das Bedeutungspotenzial dieses Betriebstyps als Träger wissensbasierter Handlungskapazität in der marktwirtschaftlichen Wirtschaftsordnung hervorhebt. Kleine und mittlere Betriebe sind darüber hinaus Träger einer neuen expandierenden Dynamik wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisfindung mit Vorbildcharakter. [vgl. Roppe, K. 2014]. Um diesen wachsenden Anforderungen gerecht zu werden, bedarf es in den KMU neuer Perspektiven, Ansätze und Modelle. Das führt folglich zu der Frage, welche konkreten Konzepte notwendig und erfolgversprechend sind, um diesen ambitionierten Leitanspruch in innovativen KMU umzusetzen und weiterentwickeln. Es wird daher untersucht, wie der Ausbau individueller und organisationaler Kompetenzen, die Erhöhung des internen Bildungsniveaus sowie die Forschungs- und Entwicklungsintensität in den kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen als konjunkturbelebende Triebkräfte in hochentwickelten Industrieländern dienen. Zudem wird aufgezeigt, dass die erziehungswissenschaftliche berufliche Bildung dafür einen wichtigen Baustein darstellt und durch Prozesse geprägt ist, die Berufspädagogik auch mit Arbeitsorganisation, Technologie und Innovation verknüpft [VGL. BACHE, I. / GEORGE, S. / BULMER, S. 2011]. Daher besteht auch eine tiefe Verflechtung zwischen den beruflichen Aus-, Fort-, und Weiterbildungsprozessen und der Organisations- bzw. Unternehmenssoziologie in den KMU. Ein Individualisierungsprozess im modernen Arbeitsleben einer Wissensgesellschaft hat demnach neue organisationale Funktionsmuster. Man spricht heute davon, die Effizienz von Bildungsleistungen zu steigern, indem man mehr "Wirtschaftsorientierung" und "Markt" in die Pädagogik einbringt [VGL. FISCHER, A. 1954 UND VGL. GONON, P. 1992] Die Herausbildung und aktive Förderung interessenorientierter Netzwerke mit Hochschulen und Bildungseinrichtungen sind unverzichtbar für diesen Individualisierungsprozess, der neue Strategien für "Innnovationskanäle" konzeptualisiert [VGL. ICKS, A. / ISFAN, K. 2004]. Es zeigt sich, dass die komplementäre Kooperation zwischen KMU und fachspezifischen Universitäten besonders stark ausgeprägt ist und da vor allem durch den ingenieurwissenschaftlichen Sektor überdurchschnittlich repräsentiert wird. Somit sind die thematischen Schwerpunkte des technologieorientierten Wissenstransfers und der Innovationssynergien klar im Bereich ingenieurtechnischer Anwendungsforschung gesetzt. Man spricht in der Soziologie der Wissensgesellschaft auch von "Network Society", um in globalisierender Deutung die neuen Strukturierungen netzwerkförmiger ökonomischer, sozialer und politischer Kooperationen zu würdigen (VGL. AUER, T. / STURZ. W. 2007]. Synergien, Individualisierungsausprägungen und marktwirtschaftliche Innovationen in KMU, die durch komplementäre Kooperation mit Hochschulen, Bildungsträgern und weiteren Unternehmen in wissenschaftlichen Verbundprojekten entstehen, werden oft lediglich theoretisch gedeutet, ohne die wesentlichen praktischen Aspekte, den Qualifikations- und Kompetenzgewinn sowie die weitreichenden Vorteile konvergierender Geschäfts- und Kompetenzwelten zu untersuchen. Die Gesellschaftswissenschaften reflektieren nur unzureichend, dass die Wirtschafts- und Gesellschaftsordnung den Bestand an Kompetenzen (Fach,- Methoden,- Sozial,- Personalkompetenz) in entwicklungsfördernder Konsequenz insbesondere über KMU verbreitet und reproduziert. [VGL. COLE, T. 2010 UND SOM, O. / JÄGER, A. 2012]. Die Erwerbsorganisation KMU bietet quasi als überschaubares verkleinertes Abbild der Gesellschaft die wissenschaftliche Perspektive eines Mikrokosmos, der die entscheidenden Auswirkungen des Wandels in Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft verdeutlicht. An konkreten Beispielen wird aufgezeigt, wie Handlungsoptionen aktiv gestaltet werden können und sich die veränderten gesellschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen für den Unternehmenserfolg nutzen lassen. Dadurch sind die Untersuchungsergebnisse und gewonnenen Erkenntnisse authentisch, verifizierbar und reproduzierbar.:INHALTSVERZEICHNIS Inhaltsverzeichnis I Abbildungsverzeichnis II Tabellenverzeichnis III Abkürzungsverzeichnis IV 1. Einleitung 2. Transitionsprozesse in der Gesellschaft: Arbeit und berufliche Qualifikation im Umbruch: Pluralisierung, Fortschritt und internationale Vernetzung – Moderne Entwicklungen in der Industrie- und Unternehmenssoziologie 3. Aspekte und Herausforderungen der Wissensgesellschaft – Bildung und Fachkompetenzen als wesentliche Voraussetzungen für Handlungsmöglichkeiten in der modernen Wirtschaft: Auswirkungen auf die Gesellschaft und die Arbeitswelt / Sozialer und ökonomischer Strukturwandel 4. Erwerbswirtschaftliche Unternehmensorganisationen und ihre neuen konstitutiven Merkmale: Kleine und mittlere Unternehmen als zentrale Steuerorgane der Wissensgesellschaft und Motor der gesellschaftlichen Dynamik 5. Organisationsstruktur von KMU in Bezug zum Fallbeispiel bau msr GmbH, einem mittelständischen Betrieb für Automatisierungstechnik und Industriesteuerungen aus Leipzig: Individualisierung und Unternehmenssoziologie – Wechselwirkungen zwischen Innovation, Qualifikation, Kooperation, Wertschöpfung und Autonomiegewinn 6. Komplementäre Kooperation und Netzwerkausrichtung: Synergien und Win-win-Strategien durch Partnerschaften und Projektverbünde mit wissenschaftlichen Hochschulen und Bildungsorganisationen, Forschungseinrichtungen und Institutionen des Bundes und der Länder 7. Dynamik von Organisationsnetzwerken – interne und externe Dimensionen: Modell eines entwicklungspolitisch und erziehungswissenschaftlich ausgerichteten develoPPP.de-Kooperationsprojektes "Demonstrations- und Schulungsanlage für Energieeffizienz" am berufsbildenden ZCC – Zhejiang College of Construction in Hangzhou/Volksrepublik (VR) China mit didaktischem Lehrkonzept, Realisierungszeitraum 2011 bis 2014 8. Internationale Projektarbeit und komplementäre Kooperation mit Hochschulen und Bildungsträgern in wissenschaftlichen Verbundprojekten am Beispiel von zwei weiteren mittelständischen deutschen Unternehmen: Verbesserung der betrieblichen Leistungs- und Wettbewerbsfähigkeit mittels der Erschließung internationaler Märkte durch Auslandsprojekte mit Trainings- und Schulungsanteil – Analyse anhand zwei weiterer Fallbeispiele • Drechslertechnik GmbH aus Grimma, Bundesland Sachsen • ENERelektronik GmbH aus Leipzig, Bundesland Sachsen 9. Qualitäts- und stabilitätsorientierte Unternehmenskonzepte als betriebliche Entwicklungsinstrumente: Fortschritte bei der Qualifizierung und der Arbeitsorganisation unter Nutzung von Qualitätsmanagement nach DIN EN ISO 9001 und durch KVP – ständiger Prozess der kontinuierlichen organisatorischen Erneuerung und Verbesserung; Entwicklung und Gestaltung der Managementprozesse und Bildungsstrategien zur Modernisierung und Kompetenzentwicklung am Modell der bau msr GmbH, einem mittelständischen Betrieb für Energieeffizienz, Automatisierungstechnik und Industriesteuerungen aus Leipzig 10. Ergebnisse, Resümee und Ausblick Literaturverzeichnis Internetquellen Versicherung ; The business-related processes of individualization, of social structure transition, of technology development and of internationalization have direct connection with transition of society as a whole. [SEE TÜRK, K. / LEMKE, T. / BRUCH, M. 2006 AND SEE BOLINSKI, P. 2000] Structural change in society would inevitably lead to structural difficulties in education and in economy sectors. Thus, educational processes also characterize the business organizations as action centers in modern society. The influence of education and economy on each other sets measures in achieving the communication-based symbiosis, which also characterizes the social and economic development through to today's knowledge-based society and which also, as a result, is shaped by a high degree of innovation, research and development. The future workforce needs the theoretical knowledge together with practical skills. Personality development requests therefore the competence-oriented development for independent action. In small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs, German: KMU), this skill can be taught, for example, by dual and cooperative training and qualification concept. In economic and social aspects, the small and medium-sized enterprises are the leading enterprise form in European Union. They constitute almost 99% of all the enterprises and provide employment for nearly 70 million people. The small and medium-sized enterprises generate about 50 percent of taxable transactions, employ about 66 percent of employees and train around 85 percent of the trainees. [SEE WIPPLER, A. 2013]. The present paper aims to contribute to the exemplary description of the complicated phenomena in business sociology and for the case study to normatively and explicitly emphasize the potential importance of business type of small and medium-sized enterprises as purveyor of knowledge-based operational capacity in economic order under market economy conditions. Moreover, the small and medium-sized enterprises are supporters of a new expanding dynamic of scientific recognition with model character. [SEE Roppe, K. 2014]. In order to meet the increasing requirement, new perspectives, approaches and models are needed inside the small and medium-sized enterprises. As a result, this leads to the question which concrete concepts are so necessary and promising, that this ambitious rule can be implemented and further developed in innovative small and medium-sized enterprises. Therefore, it will be researched, how the expansion of individual and organizational competence as invigorating driving forces in highly developed industrial country helps increase the internal educational level as well as the intensity of research and development in small and medium-sized enterprises. Moreover, the paper demonstrates that the educational vocational training is an important component and influenced by the process, in which the vocational education, labor organization, technology and innovation are connected. [SEE BACHE, I. / GEORGE, S. / BULMER, P. 2011] As a result, a deep interconnection between vocational education and organizational or enterprise sociology exists in small and medium-sized enterprises. The process of individualization in modern working life in knowledge-based society has gained therefore new organizational functional models. People say, the efficiency of education service increases, because the pedagogy is more economy and market-oriented. [SEE FISCHER, A. 1954 AND SEE GONON, P. 1992] The development and active promotion of interest-oriented network with colleges and educational organizations are indispensable for this process of individualization, which conceptualize the new strategy for "innovative channel". [SEE ICKS, A. / ISFAN, K. 2004]. It is shown that the complementary cooperation between small and medium-sized enterprises and discipline-specific universities is particularly strong and by engineering science department it is representative above average. Therefore, the thematic priorities of technology-oriented knowledge transfer and the synergy of innovation fall clearly in the field of engineering science applied research. We also say "Network Society" in the sociology of knowledge-based society, in order to show recognition for new structure of network-like, economic, social and political cooperation in globalizing context. (SEE AUER, T. / STURZ, W. 2007). Synergy, forms of individualization and market economy oriented innovation in small and medium-sized enterprises, whose development is the result of complementary cooperation with universities, educational organizations and other enterprises in scientific joint projects, are usually only theoretical interpreted and without essential practical aspects, in which the gained qualification and competence as well as the extensive benefits of converging world of business and competence are researched. The reflection of social science is insufficient, that the economic and social order enlarges and reproduces the portfolio of competence (professional, methodical, social and personal competence) with development-enhancing consequence, especially about small and medium-sized enterprises [SEE COLE, T. 2010 AND SEE SOM, O. / JÄGER, A. 2012]. Small and medium-sized enterprises as business organization and as a clear and scale-reduced reflection of the society provide a scientific perspective of microcosm where the crucial impacts of economic and social transition are illustrated. Based on concrete examples, the paper shows how the options for action can be actively shaped and how the society's changing basic condition can be of use for business success. In this way, the research results and knowledge gained are authentic, verifiable and reproducible.:INHALTSVERZEICHNIS Inhaltsverzeichnis I Abbildungsverzeichnis II Tabellenverzeichnis III Abkürzungsverzeichnis IV 1. Einleitung 2. Transitionsprozesse in der Gesellschaft: Arbeit und berufliche Qualifikation im Umbruch: Pluralisierung, Fortschritt und internationale Vernetzung – Moderne Entwicklungen in der Industrie- und Unternehmenssoziologie 3. Aspekte und Herausforderungen der Wissensgesellschaft – Bildung und Fachkompetenzen als wesentliche Voraussetzungen für Handlungsmöglichkeiten in der modernen Wirtschaft: Auswirkungen auf die Gesellschaft und die Arbeitswelt / Sozialer und ökonomischer Strukturwandel 4. Erwerbswirtschaftliche Unternehmensorganisationen und ihre neuen konstitutiven Merkmale: Kleine und mittlere Unternehmen als zentrale Steuerorgane der Wissensgesellschaft und Motor der gesellschaftlichen Dynamik 5. Organisationsstruktur von KMU in Bezug zum Fallbeispiel bau msr GmbH, einem mittelständischen Betrieb für Automatisierungstechnik und Industriesteuerungen aus Leipzig: Individualisierung und Unternehmenssoziologie – Wechselwirkungen zwischen Innovation, Qualifikation, Kooperation, Wertschöpfung und Autonomiegewinn 6. Komplementäre Kooperation und Netzwerkausrichtung: Synergien und Win-win-Strategien durch Partnerschaften und Projektverbünde mit wissenschaftlichen Hochschulen und Bildungsorganisationen, Forschungseinrichtungen und Institutionen des Bundes und der Länder 7. Dynamik von Organisationsnetzwerken – interne und externe Dimensionen: Modell eines entwicklungspolitisch und erziehungswissenschaftlich ausgerichteten develoPPP.de-Kooperationsprojektes "Demonstrations- und Schulungsanlage für Energieeffizienz" am berufsbildenden ZCC – Zhejiang College of Construction in Hangzhou/Volksrepublik (VR) China mit didaktischem Lehrkonzept, Realisierungszeitraum 2011 bis 2014 8. Internationale Projektarbeit und komplementäre Kooperation mit Hochschulen und Bildungsträgern in wissenschaftlichen Verbundprojekten am Beispiel von zwei weiteren mittelständischen deutschen Unternehmen: Verbesserung der betrieblichen Leistungs- und Wettbewerbsfähigkeit mittels der Erschließung internationaler Märkte durch Auslandsprojekte mit Trainings- und Schulungsanteil – Analyse anhand zwei weiterer Fallbeispiele • Drechslertechnik GmbH aus Grimma, Bundesland Sachsen • ENERelektronik GmbH aus Leipzig, Bundesland Sachsen 9. Qualitäts- und stabilitätsorientierte Unternehmenskonzepte als betriebliche Entwicklungsinstrumente: Fortschritte bei der Qualifizierung und der Arbeitsorganisation unter Nutzung von Qualitätsmanagement nach DIN EN ISO 9001 und durch KVP – ständiger Prozess der kontinuierlichen organisatorischen Erneuerung und Verbesserung; Entwicklung und Gestaltung der Managementprozesse und Bildungsstrategien zur Modernisierung und Kompetenzentwicklung am Modell der bau msr GmbH, einem mittelständischen Betrieb für Energieeffizienz, Automatisierungstechnik und Industriesteuerungen aus Leipzig 10. Ergebnisse, Resümee und Ausblick Literaturverzeichnis Internetquellen Versicherung

Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; Bioenergy is a key resource to addressing challenges such as climate change (anthropogenic CO₂ emissions), pollution (suspended particles), energy security and human well-being. Currently, most of the biomass produced worldwide is consumed for cooking and space heating which has raised concerns among governments and policy-makers, especially due to threats to human health. The present thesis focuses on studying the technical and economic feasibility of energy systems based on biomass. It is considered that the main problems regarding the deployment of biomass-based energy systems are: (a) use of traditional biomass; (b) selection of a biomass-based technology; (c) low diversification of the biomass portfolio. With regards to the use of traditional biomass, the thesis evaluates the impact of switching from a system dependent on traditional biomass to a centralized system using low-carbon technologies. The outcome is a model capable of estimating the net reduction of CO₂ emissions that could be obtained by displacing fuelwood and introducing modern biomass taking into account the CO₂ released not only in the production, collection, transport, pre-treatment and conversion of biomass but also the anthropogenic CO₂ emissions caused by shifting to alternative fuels to meet basic energy needs. Results show that even when households have to use alternatives fuels, burning biomass in combustion and gasification power plants still provide a significant reduction in CO₂ emissions. With regards to the selection of a biomass-based technology, this thesis includes a methodology to identify, evaluate and select the best suited technology for the conditions of a given biomass value chain. As any system is affected by the conditions where it is developed, biomass-based energy systems are strongly dependent on region/local conditions such as weather, type of biomass resources, among others. Thus, each region demands its own detailed study. Given the lack of studies related to bioenergy in developing regions such as Central America (CA), this thesis entails a full study case presentation for CA where 84% of the biomass produced is used for domestic cooking and heating. In this context, the thesis aims at improving the bioenergy assessment methodology by using a resource-focused approach to determine the key biomass resources in the region and a Multi-Actor Multi-Criteria Decision- Making method to identify a portfolio of thermochemical conversion technologies appropriate for CA, considering parameters that range from technical, economic, environmental to socio-political aspects. Furthermore, it includes a discussion about the barriers that have stopped the progress of biomass technologies and the challenges to achieve modern bioenergy systems in the region. Results reveal that the main source of biomass in CA is in the agricultural sector and the most appropriate technologies to transform CA's biomass are improved cooking stoves and biomass combustion power plants. With respect to the diversification of the biomass portfolio, currently, sugarcane bagasse is the biomass mostly used in large scale applications for the production of combined heat and power (CHP) in developing countries. Using a demand-driven assessment this thesis aims to evaluate the potential for electricity and ethanol production in CA using sweet sorghum as an alternative sugar crop. Three scenarios were built to analyse sweet sorghum production in terms of the land where it can be cultivated: cropland, sugarcane land in fallow and land in continuous production (intercropping system). The land under permanent crops was not considered for this evaluation. It is estimated that sweet sorghum could supply around 10% of region's electricity demand or supply the ethanol required to implement a 5% ethanol blending programme. Following this assessment, the thesis studies the integration of sweet sorghum into Central American sugar mills by using the existing machinery to process it. The short growing period of sweet sorghum would allow the CHP plants and distilleries to operate during off-season using sorghum bagasse and molasses as raw materials. This thesis provides a techno-economic analysis of the production of electricity and ethanol from sweet sorghum in a sugar mill. The data on various parameters used for techno-economic assessment were collected from an existing sugar mill and distillery in Central America. Results indicate that modern energy carriers from sweet sorghum can be produced at a competitive price under CA conditions and crucial variables determining the cost of electricity and ethanol are the installed capacity of the plant and crop yield. ; La bioenergía es fundamental para hacer frente a retos como el cambio climático (emisiones antropogénicas de CO₂), contaminación (partículas en suspensión), seguridad energética y bienestar humano. Actualmente, la mayor parte de la biomasa que se produce a nivel global se utiliza para fines domésticos (calefacción y cocina) lo cual ha generado preocupación entre los gobiernos y responsables de establecer políticas energéticas, especialmente por los potenciales daños a la salud. La presente tesis doctoral se enfoca en el estudio técnico y económico de sistemas energéticos basados en biomasa. Se considera que los principales problemas con respecto al uso de sistemas basados en biomasa son: (a) uso de biomasa tradicional; (b) selección de la tecnología adecuada; (c) baja diversificación del portafolio de recursos biomásicos. Con respecto al uso de biomasa tradicional, esta tesis evalúa el impacto de cambiar de un sistema altamente dependiente en biomasa tradicional a un sistema centralizado utilizando tecnologías con bajas emisiones de carbón. El resultado es una modelo capaz de estimar la reducción neta en las emisiones de CO₂ que se podrían obtener debido al desplazamiento de leña y el incremento en el uso de biomasa moderna. Dicho modelo no solamente toma en cuenta el CO₂ emitido por la producción, recolección, transporte, pre-tratamiento y conversión de la biomasa sino que también considera las emisiones antropogénicas de CO₂ debidas al uso de combustibles modernos para satisfacer las necesidades energéticas básicas de los usuarios de leña. Los resultados indican que aún cuando los consumidores de biomasa tradicional cambian a combustibles alternativos, la conversión de biomasa en plantas de potencia basadas en combustión y gasificación, proporcionan una reducción en emisiones de CO₂ significativa. Con respecto a la selección de una tecnología para transformar los recursos biomásicos, la presente tesis incluye una metodología para identificar, evaluar y seleccionar la tecnología más apropiada bajo las condiciones de un sistema energético dado. Al igual que cualquier sistema que es afectado por sus alrededores y la interacción de las partes que lo conforman, los sistemas energéticos basados en biomasa son fuertemente influidos por condiciones regionales/locales como el clima o los tipos de recursos biomásicos entre otros. Por lo tanto, cada región exige la realización de un estudio detallado que incluya la influencia de variables locales. En este sentido, teniendo en cuenta los pocos estudios técnicos relacionados al uso de bioenergía en regiones en desarrollo como por ejemplo Centroamérica (CA), esta tesis realiza un estudio detallado para CA donde el 84% de la biomasa producida es usada para satisfacer necesidades energéticas básicas. En este contexto, la tesis tiene como objeto proponer soluciones que permitan la explotación de biomasa de manera eficiente utilizando un enfoque basado en los recursos disponibles para determinar las fuentes de biomasa con mayor potencial en la región. A su vez se emplea un análisis multicriterio impulsado por la participación de varios actores para identificar un portafolio de tecnologías apropiadas basadas en procesos termoquímicos para su implementación en CA considerando aspectos que varían desde lo técnico, económico, medioambiental hasta lo socio-político. Así también, discute las barreras que han detenido el progreso en el uso de tecnologías basadas en biomasa y los retos que se tienen que afrontar para incrementar el uso de biomasa moderna en dicha región. Los resultados muestran que la principal fuente de biomasa en CA proviene del sector agrario y que la tecnología más apropiada para transformar dicho recurso son las cocinas mejoradas y las plantas de potencia basadas en combustión. Con respecto a la diversificación del portafolio biomásico, actualmente el bagazo de la caña de azúcar es la biomasa más utilizada para la producción de vapor y electricidad a gran escala en regiones en desarrollo como Latinoamérica. Utilizando un enfoque impulsado por la demanda de electricidad y etanol, esta tesis tiene como objeto evaluar el potencial del uso de sorgo dulce en CA para la producción de vectores energéticos sostenibles. Tres escenarios han sido planteados para estudiar el potencial del sorgo dulce en función de dónde esta planta podría ser cultivada: tierra para cultivos, tierras potencialmente baldías dedicadas al cultivo de caña de azúcar y un sistema de intercultivo de sorgo dulce con caña de azúcar. La tierra dedicada al uso continuo de cultivos ha sido excluida del presente estudio. Se estima que la utilización de sorgo dulce como cultivo energético podría proveer alrededor del 10% de la demanda energética de la región o proveer el etanol necesario para implementar un programa de etanol al 5% en la gasolina. Así mismo, la presente tesis estudia la integración del sorgo dulce a los ingenios azucareros de CA utilizando la misma maquinaria que se emplea en la caña de azúcar para procesar dicho cultivo energético. El corto periodo de crecimiento del sorgo dulce permitiría a las plantas de potencia y destilerías operar fuera de la temporada de caña de azúcar utilizado el bagazo y miel final del sorgo dulce como materia prima. La presente tesis proporciona un análisis tecno-económico de la producción de electricidad y etanol a partir de sorgo dulce en ingenio azucarero. Los datos necesarios como parámetros de entrada para el análisis tecno-económico fueron obtenidos de una planta existente de producción de azúcar y destilería en CA. Los resultados indican que la producción de vectores energéticos con tecnologías modernas puede ser llevada a cabo a precios competitivos bajo las condiciones de CA y las variables que lo determinan, ya sea el costo de la electricidad o etanol a partir del sorgo dulce, son la capacidad instalada de las plantas y el rendimiento del cultivo energético. ; This work started as part of a project supported by the Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation (AECID). ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Ingeniería Mecánica y de Organización Industrial ; Presidente: Omar Raúl Masera Cerutti.- Secretario: Carolina Marugán Cruz.- Vocal: René M.J. Benders

Background Sustainable United Nations (SUN) is an initiative of UNEP that coordinates operational activities and supports different UN organizations in their efforts to implement the UN climate neutral strategy and environmental management systems (EMSs). The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Swedish EPA), with its long experience of working with international standards for EMS and coordinating and guiding 190 government agencies in their environmental management systems work, is supporting the work of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) by advising the SUN team and building the capacity of UN entities to establish and maintain EMSs. The Swedish EPA - UNEP partnership (2014-2018), funded by Sida, is laying the foundations for the future mainstreaming of environmental management in UN. These efforts are focusing on the environmental impacts of internal management offacilities and operations1. A broader process hosted by the UN Environment ManagementGroup (EMG) encompasses both environmental and social impacts and expands the scope beyond facilities and operations to include programmes and projects. Collaboration with the EMG Secretariat is therefore an integral part of the partnership. An important issue for the donor is the gender perceptive, which should also be taken into consideration whenever relevant, when implementing and maintaining an EMS. One of the main purposes of the United Nations (UN) is to help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, disease and illiteracy,and to encourage respect for each other's rights and freedoms2. For the UN tosucceed in its purposes and to be a credible organization, it needs to account for its environmental impact, reducing risks and unintended negative impacts and maximizing benefits to people and their environment. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were endorsed by the General Assembly in September 2015. These will function as a common basis for the work of all UN organizations. Implementing an EMS will provide UN agencies with a documented, systematic and transparent tool to motivate, track and report on progress over time, whilst working towards the internalisation of the environmental dimension of the SDGs in their management processes in a systematic manner. Purpose The purpose of the stocktaking exercise was to provide an overview of the current status of environmental management systems of different UN organizations, to make sure future activities in the Swedish EPA - UNEP partnership build on existing work, and to reach a better understanding of how to introduce EMSs to the UN system. Based on the findings made, the stocktaking exercise provides recommendations for improvements. Methodology The experts at the Swedish EPA, in collaboration with the SUN team and the sustainability focal points in the UN EMS Working Group, have conducted a stocktaking exercise on the stage of development and implementation of EMSs across the UN system. The stocktaking exercise report references EMS requirements under accepted international standards such as ISO 14001:2015, and is based on the Swedish EPA experts' experiences and findings in the field. Knowledge of the UN status quo on EMSs was obtained through reviews of documentation from a selection of UN organizations and UN bodies, and information from IMG focal points. Conclusions The stocktaking exercise shows that many UN organizations work actively on environmental issues both at corporate management level and in their programming. The results from a minor EMS survey conducted in April 2015 reflect that the majority of the responding organizations are in the initial stage of the EMS implementation. Given that the UN is governed by many Member States and driven by a political process, decision-making takes long time. There are a number of constraints under which the UN operates, particularly the many stakeholders with varied interests, which could make it difficult to secure a consensus around environmental measures. Implementing an EMS gives an opportunity for UN organizations to contribute to the One UN initiative for a more coherent and efficient delivery. The One UN reform is focused on more coherent programmes, strengthened accountability, monitoring and evaluation, and improved outcomes. An EMS directly supports this effort by providing a systematic and uniform approach to improved control, efficiency and reporting. EMS in UN organizations can bring many benefits. Implementing an EMS gives an opportunity for the UN organizations to demonstrate that they have relevant policiesand systems in place to satisfy the environmental requirements from stakeholders. The General Assembly has signalled expectations of the UN to walk the talk on sustainability measures, while environmental requirements are becoming a precondition for funding from donors such as the Global Environment Facility (GEF). EMS in UN organizations represents an opportunity to mainstream environmental considerations in policies, strategies, projects and programmes. Literature studies, experience from Swedish EPA's guidance to public agencies, and discussions with members if the EMS working group as part of the stocktaking exercise, confirms that it is very important for the implementation of any EMS to ensure that senior management and staff are all involved in its development and implementation. Experience from the work in guiding 190 public authorities in Sweden has shown that when organizations include both operations and facilitates, and programmes and projects in their EMS, it will engage the senior management and the staff to a greater extent, and the understanding of an EMS in the daily work will increase. A properly functioning environmental management system results in improved management of natural resources and identified cost efficiencies such as improved management of electricity, fuel and travel3, and could free up funding for applying the mandated objectives of the various missions of the United Nation organizations. Recommendations The main recommendations for creating proper institutional conditions to implement an EMS are described below. They are described according to best practice, with the purpose to limit the environmental impact, speed up the implementation of EMS and to reduce the costs for the implementing organizations. Each recommendation must be undertaken within a context of respect for the institutional obligations arising from other policies, such as policies on gender and indigenous peoples. These together may form the approach to internalising sustainable development principles in UN corporate management. The recommendations are not given in a specific order of priority since they are connected to each other. Literature, discussions with members of the EMS working group, and the earlier experience of the Swedish EPA experts, confirms that the leadership, the involvement of staff and the integration of the EMS in the existing management structure, is crucial for a successful EMS implementation within the UN. Certain core functions should be managed on a common UN-wide basis, to streamline and coordinate efforts, and to avoid duplication of efforts and costs. This brings advantages such as economies of scale and a coherent way of working with sustainability issues in the spirit of the One UN reform. According to best practice, the UN system is recommended to adopt the following activities, through a permanent central coordination:  Develop the existing central EMS support, by increasing the number of training activities, and the exchange of experience between the organizations, for achieving more powerful synergies  Identify how the Sustainable Development Goals, and also standards for best practice on social responsibility, can be tools and the next steps for the UN organizations for working in a systematic manner with both environmental and social issues.  Make sure that competence in environmental law is available to support UN organizations.  Provide and encourage the use of coherent and common EMS guidelines and voluntary templates customized for the UN, e.g. for initial environmental review and for developing internal environmental objectives.  Develop EMS indicators that the UN organizations should report on centrally and to their governing body, and accelerate the work with the four endorsed sustainability indicators (GHG gases, water use, waste management and environmental training).  Coordinate internal environmental audits between the UN organizations, by supporting the auditors with regards to training and sharing experience. The internal auditors could audit each other's organizations.  Consider how the EMS support may be extended from environmental aspects in operation and facilities to environmental aspects in policymaking, programming and projects. Develop how the gender perspective could be integrated in a logical structurefor an EMS based on the PDCA-cycle (Plan, Do, Check and Act). Through the work of SUN and the IMG on Environmental Sustainability, many of the above mentioned steps are already well underway. At the end of the stocktaking exercise report, a mapping of existing networks and teams working with environmental sustainability within the UN can be found. Also actions taken concerning internal environmental sustainability, such as strategic plans and major projects, are described, together with a timeline over internal commitments on environmental sustainability within the UN system. According to best practice, each UN organization is recommended to adopt the following activities:  Conduct a SWOT4 - or PESTLE5 - analysis, to reach a better understanding of the factors that impact the EMS and the environmental context in which the organization operates.  Show how the demands from relevant stakeholders have been internalized into the organization's own policy, strategic documents and at the operational level.  Include environmental objectives and environmental performance measures in the "Senior Manager's Compact".  Make the support from senior management visible, by sponsoring an initialenvironmental review, adopting an environmental policy, ensuring organization- wide communication of the environmental work and endorsing internal environmental objectives.  Integrate both environmental objectives and action plans in existing strategic documents and activity plans.  Make sure that the allocation of resources, not least human resources, for the EMS is an integrated part of the ordinary budget process already in place.  Improve the monitoring and management of significant environmental aspects.  Complement possible emergency management systems already in place, with procedures for environmental consideration.  Integrate environmental risks and opportunities considerations in existing risk management, and evaluate possible changes in the EMS, such as a revised list of significant environmental aspects.  Ensure appropriate competencies to be able to conduct regular evaluations of adherence to environmental compliance obligations.  Conduct regular environmental audits and environmental management reviews.  Include sustainability considerations in purchasing and procurement, which can have an impact on the enabling of a green economy.  Develop the work to continuously identify nonconformities and taking corrective action in the environmental work, and integrate it in the existing handling of nonconformities for other areas, such as quality, conformity with project procedures etc.  Describe the results of the monitoring and evaluation of the environmental performance in an annual sustainability report, used for communication with donors, UN staff, and other stakeholders, to ensure the mechanism for accountability and transparency within the UN.  Have a tolerant and encouraging culture, where identified nonconformities are found to represent opportunities for improvement, and have well- functioning communication channels for the exchange of experiences, all to accomplish continual improvement.

The main objective of this thesis is to develop a guide for the design of public policies and other tools to promote innovation that adapt to social and economic reality of regions in emerging countries. This guide should help increase the scientific activity and the development of new products and new technology in these regions. Two regional innovation models in Europe and one in Latin America have been studied to learn from their experience in the design and application of public policies to increase innovation and identify their best practices so they could be adapted and redesigned for regions in emerging countries. In Europe, the regions of Stockholm, Sweden and Catalonia, Spain, have been chosen and in Latin America Nuevo León, Mexico. In these selected regions key actions that have created a real in economy and culture impact have been identified for its possible application in other emerging countries regions. It is difficult to define public policies that can assure success in the development of a Regional Innovation System. There are many intervening factors in the innovation capacity of a region. The cultural, political and economic differences play a key role in the success or failure of R&D public policies. However several criteria have been defined for the development of innovation and R&D policies based in the lessons learned and conclusions obtained from the regions studied. These would be a good starting point for whatever region in an emerging country that wants to initiate their transformation to a more knowledge intensive region. Through the analysis of the information presented by the case studies of Stockholm, Sweden; Catalonia, Spain and Nuevo León, Mexico, 6 lines for the development of specific R&D policies have been identified in this thesis: An innovation plan development; new ways of financial support creation and promoting; a new innovation culture creation; a continuous and constant human resources education promotion; collaboration networks generation and finally a Regional Innovation System¿s evaluation system creation. From these 6 basic lines, a guide for the design of R&D public policies for the creation and support of Regional Innovation Systems in emerging countries has been developed. We hope this guide will help improve the economy and specially the quality of life for those regions that decide to use it and bet on innovation and technological development as a growing strategy. The guide intends to be an efficient support and professional material for the education of Regional Innovation System managers, offering specific lines for the development of R&D public policies besides offering formulas to suggest the optimal distribution of the resources managed in these policies. The guide will also help adding a structured methodology for public R&D policies based in the studied regions best practices. The guide could be applied in regions where until now these decisions have been made based only in local experience and can be useful during the first stages of the Regional Innovation System from its creation to the beginning of its maturation. ; La presente tesis ha tenido como objetivo primordial desarrollar una guía para el diseño de herramientas y políticas públicas de fomento a la innovación que se adapten a la realidad social y económica y que impulsen la actividad científica y tecnológica y el desarrollo de nuevos productos y de nuevas tecnologías en las regiones de países emergentes que deseen incorporar el conocimiento en su economía. El conocimiento es un factor clave para el desarrollo de las economías, hoy en día es uno de los factores que más influyen en el crecimiento de la economía de los países y las regiones. La innovación y el desarrollo tecnológico son fundamentales para el desempeño económico y la competitividad de las empresas. Este desarrollo tecnológico es el resultado de la compleja relación entre los individuos y organizaciones que generan, distribuyen, intercambian conocimiento y generan productos y servicios exitosos en el mercado. Las naciones desarrolladas han diseñado Sistemas de Innovación, es decir políticas, organizaciones e infraestructura orientada al fomento de la innovación en la sociedad en general. Países desarrollados como Finlandia, Suecia y Alemania tienen ya un par de décadas apostando por la innovación como ventaja competitiva. Los resultados hasta ahora muestran que en el diseño de las políticas de innovación y su implementación, algunos países han mejorado más y más rápido que otros y es claro que dentro de estos países hay regiones más innovadoras que otras. Es por esto que los sistemas regionales de innovación han cobrado gran importancia y han sido estudiados más a fondo en los últimos diez años. México, como otros países de economías emergentes empieza a generar sistemas regionales de innovación, intentando integrarse a la nueva economía del conocimiento. Los países emergentes como Brasil, India y México buscan mantenerse competitivos en el mercado mundial e incrementar el nivel de vida de sus habitantes. Estos países intentan imitar los modelos exitosos como los de Silicon Valley en los Estados Unidos, Estocolmo en Suecia y la región de Oberbayern en Alemania, los cuales llevan ya más de dos décadas de existir. En esta tesis se han estudiado 2 modelos de innovación regional en Europa y uno en América Latina para aprender de la experiencia en el diseño y aplicación de herramientas y políticas de fomento a la innovación y poder adaptar, rediseñar o crear Sistemas Regionales de Innovación que se adapten a las regiones de las economías emergentes, sobre todo latinoamericanas. En Europa se escogieron las regiones de Estocolmo en Suecia y Cataluña en España y en Latinoamérica se escogió a Nuevo León. En estas regiones seleccionadas se identificaron acciones clave que han causado un verdadero impacto en la economía y en la cultura para evaluar su posible adaptación y aplicación en regiones de países emergentes. La Comisión Europea estudia el rendimiento de las regiones en cuanto a innovación, utiliza encuestas de evaluación para obtener indicadores y poder clasificar así, las regiones más innovadoras en Europa. Según la clasificación europea, del Innovation Scoreboard, durante el 2006 la región más innovadora en Europa fue la región de Estocolmo, Suecia, razón por la cual fue escogida como región modelo o ideal a estudiar. A nivel nacional, Suecia, también es el país más exitoso en cuanto a innovación si tomamos como indicadores el gasto en I+D respecto al PIB o el número de investigadores por número de habitantes. La iniciativa privada es la fuerza que mueve el sistema de innovación en Estocolmo, ya que es la responsable del 68% del gasto en I+D. Como resultado, el número de patentes solicitadas a la Oficina Europea de Patentes es el doble del promedio europeo. Por todas estas razones es claro que uno de los casos de estudio debe ser el sistema regional de innovación de Estocolmo. Por otro lado, dentro del gran crecimiento económico de España a partir de su entrada en la Unión Europea en 1986 sobresale el crecimiento de la región de Cataluña. En el 2005 Cataluña era una región líder de España en cuanto a I+D. En 10 años logró alcanzar los niveles promedio de ingreso per cápita promedio de Europa. Sin embargo sus indicadores de innovación están todavía muy lejos de los líderes europeos, por esta razón el gobierno había realizado un gran esfuerzo en desarrollar políticas que fomenten la innovación. El gobierno regional de Cataluña dedicó gran cantidad de recursos a la I+D para desarrollar y consolidar su sistema regional de innovación. Por estas razones la región de Cataluña (España) resulta otro caso de estudio muy interesante, pues es un punto medio entre las regiones de las economías emergentes latinoamericanas y las regiones de los países líderes europeos. El tercer caso de estudio es el de la región de Nuevo León, México, la cual es una de las regiones más dinámicas e innovadoras en América Latina. Su gran capacidad industrial, altos niveles de ingreso per cápita y una gran infraestructura de educación superior la hacen una región con las características ideales para el desarrollo de un sistema regional de innovación. Hace menos de una década, el gobierno regional arrancó proyectos para empezar el desarrollo de un sistema regional de innovación. Por estas razones la región de Nuevo León, México fue un caso de estudio ideal para la adaptación e implantación de modelos de los sistemas regionales de innovación europeos. Es difícil definir políticas públicas que aseguren el éxito del desarrollo de un sistema regional de innovación porque son muchos los factores que intervienen en la capacidad innovadora de una región. Las diferencias culturales, políticas y económicas juegan un papel muy importante en el éxito o fracaso de la implantación de políticas públicas de fomento a la I+D. Sin embargo se han definido ciertos criterios para el desarrollo de políticas públicas de fomento a la innovación y a la I+D, basados en las lecciones aprendidas y conclusiones obtenidas de las regiones estudiadas, que pueden plantear un buen punto de inicio para las regiones de los países emergentes que quieran iniciar la transformación de sus regiones en áreas intensivas de conocimiento. A través del análisis de la información presentada por los casos de estudio de Estocolmo, Suecia; Cataluña, España y Nuevo León, México en esta tesis se han identificado 6 líneas para el desarrollo de políticas específicas para el fomento a la innovación: Desarrollar un plan de innovación y formalizar objetivos; fomentar y crear nuevas fuentes de apoyo financiero; crear una cultura de innovación; fomentar la formación constante y continua de recursos humanos; generar redes de colaboración y, finalmente, crear un sistema de evaluación al Sistema Regional de Innovación. Mediante estas 6 líneas se ha desarrollado una guía que esperamos ayudé a mejorar la economía y sobre todo la calidad de vida de las regiones que decidan utilizarla y apostar por la innovación y el desarrollo tecnológico como estrategia de crecimiento ; Postprint (published version)

The main objective of this thesis is to develop a guide for the design of public policies and other tools to promote innovation that adapt to social and economic reality of regions in emerging countries. This guide should help increase the scientific activity and the development of new products and new technology in these regions. Two regional innovation models in Europe and one in Latin America have been studied to learn from their experience in the design and application of public policies to increase innovation and identify their best practices so they could be adapted and redesigned for regions in emerging countries. In Europe, the regions of Stockholm, Sweden and Catalonia, Spain, have been chosen and in Latin America Nuevo León, Mexico. In these selected regions key actions that have created a real in economy and culture impact have been identified for its possible application in other emerging countries regions. It is difficult to define public policies that can assure success in the development of a Regional Innovation System. There are many intervening factors in the innovation capacity of a region. The cultural, political and economic differences play a key role in the success or failure of R&D public policies. However several criteria have been defined for the development of innovation and R&D policies based in the lessons learned and conclusions obtained from the regions studied. These would be a good starting point for whatever region in an emerging country that wants to initiate their transformation to a more knowledge intensive region. Through the analysis of the information presented by the case studies of Stockholm, Sweden; Catalonia, Spain and Nuevo León, Mexico, 6 lines for the development of specific R&D policies have been identified in this thesis: An innovation plan development; new ways of financial support creation and promoting; a new innovation culture creation; a continuous and constant human resources education promotion; collaboration networks generation and finally a Regional Innovation System¿s evaluation system creation. From these 6 basic lines, a guide for the design of R&D public policies for the creation and support of Regional Innovation Systems in emerging countries has been developed. We hope this guide will help improve the economy and specially the quality of life for those regions that decide to use it and bet on innovation and technological development as a growing strategy. The guide intends to be an efficient support and professional material for the education of Regional Innovation System managers, offering specific lines for the development of R&D public policies besides offering formulas to suggest the optimal distribution of the resources managed in these policies. The guide will also help adding a structured methodology for public R&D policies based in the studied regions best practices. The guide could be applied in regions where until now these decisions have been made based only in local experience and can be useful during the first stages of the Regional Innovation System from its creation to the beginning of its maturation. ; La presente tesis ha tenido como objetivo primordial desarrollar una guía para el diseño de herramientas y políticas públicas de fomento a la innovación que se adapten a la realidad social y económica y que impulsen la actividad científica y tecnológica y el desarrollo de nuevos productos y de nuevas tecnologías en las regiones de países emergentes que deseen incorporar el conocimiento en su economía. El conocimiento es un factor clave para el desarrollo de las economías, hoy en día es uno de los factores que más influyen en el crecimiento de la economía de los países y las regiones. La innovación y el desarrollo tecnológico son fundamentales para el desempeño económico y la competitividad de las empresas. Este desarrollo tecnológico es el resultado de la compleja relación entre los individuos y organizaciones que generan, distribuyen, intercambian conocimiento y generan productos y servicios exitosos en el mercado. Las naciones desarrolladas han diseñado Sistemas de Innovación, es decir políticas, organizaciones e infraestructura orientada al fomento de la innovación en la sociedad en general. Países desarrollados como Finlandia, Suecia y Alemania tienen ya un par de décadas apostando por la innovación como ventaja competitiva. Los resultados hasta ahora muestran que en el diseño de las políticas de innovación y su implementación, algunos países han mejorado más y más rápido que otros y es claro que dentro de estos países hay regiones más innovadoras que otras. Es por esto que los sistemas regionales de innovación han cobrado gran importancia y han sido estudiados más a fondo en los últimos diez años. México, como otros países de economías emergentes empieza a generar sistemas regionales de innovación, intentando integrarse a la nueva economía del conocimiento. Los países emergentes como Brasil, India y México buscan mantenerse competitivos en el mercado mundial e incrementar el nivel de vida de sus habitantes. Estos países intentan imitar los modelos exitosos como los de Silicon Valley en los Estados Unidos, Estocolmo en Suecia y la región de Oberbayern en Alemania, los cuales llevan ya más de dos décadas de existir. En esta tesis se han estudiado 2 modelos de innovación regional en Europa y uno en América Latina para aprender de la experiencia en el diseño y aplicación de herramientas y políticas de fomento a la innovación y poder adaptar, rediseñar o crear Sistemas Regionales de Innovación que se adapten a las regiones de las economías emergentes, sobre todo latinoamericanas. En Europa se escogieron las regiones de Estocolmo en Suecia y Cataluña en España y en Latinoamérica se escogió a Nuevo León. En estas regiones seleccionadas se identificaron acciones clave que han causado un verdadero impacto en la economía y en la cultura para evaluar su posible adaptación y aplicación en regiones de países emergentes. La Comisión Europea estudia el rendimiento de las regiones en cuanto a innovación, utiliza encuestas de evaluación para obtener indicadores y poder clasificar así, las regiones más innovadoras en Europa. Según la clasificación europea, del Innovation Scoreboard, durante el 2006 la región más innovadora en Europa fue la región de Estocolmo, Suecia, razón por la cual fue escogida como región modelo o ideal a estudiar. A nivel nacional, Suecia, también es el país más exitoso en cuanto a innovación si tomamos como indicadores el gasto en I+D respecto al PIB o el número de investigadores por número de habitantes. La iniciativa privada es la fuerza que mueve el sistema de innovación en Estocolmo, ya que es la responsable del 68% del gasto en I+D. Como resultado, el número de patentes solicitadas a la Oficina Europea de Patentes es el doble del promedio europeo. Por todas estas razones es claro que uno de los casos de estudio debe ser el sistema regional de innovación de Estocolmo. Por otro lado, dentro del gran crecimiento económico de España a partir de su entrada en la Unión Europea en 1986 sobresale el crecimiento de la región de Cataluña. En el 2005 Cataluña era una región líder de España en cuanto a I+D. En 10 años logró alcanzar los niveles promedio de ingreso per cápita promedio de Europa. Sin embargo sus indicadores de innovación están todavía muy lejos de los líderes europeos, por esta razón el gobierno había realizado un gran esfuerzo en desarrollar políticas que fomenten la innovación. El gobierno regional de Cataluña dedicó gran cantidad de recursos a la I+D para desarrollar y consolidar su sistema regional de innovación. Por estas razones la región de Cataluña (España) resulta otro caso de estudio muy interesante, pues es un punto medio entre las regiones de las economías emergentes latinoamericanas y las regiones de los países líderes europeos. El tercer caso de estudio es el de la región de Nuevo León, México, la cual es una de las regiones más dinámicas e innovadoras en América Latina. Su gran capacidad industrial, altos niveles de ingreso per cápita y una gran infraestructura de educación superior la hacen una región con las características ideales para el desarrollo de un sistema regional de innovación. Hace menos de una década, el gobierno regional arrancó proyectos para empezar el desarrollo de un sistema regional de innovación. Por estas razones la región de Nuevo León, México fue un caso de estudio ideal para la adaptación e implantación de modelos de los sistemas regionales de innovación europeos. Es difícil definir políticas públicas que aseguren el éxito del desarrollo de un sistema regional de innovación porque son muchos los factores que intervienen en la capacidad innovadora de una región. Las diferencias culturales, políticas y económicas juegan un papel muy importante en el éxito o fracaso de la implantación de políticas públicas de fomento a la I+D. Sin embargo se han definido ciertos criterios para el desarrollo de políticas públicas de fomento a la innovación y a la I+D, basados en las lecciones aprendidas y conclusiones obtenidas de las regiones estudiadas, que pueden plantear un buen punto de inicio para las regiones de los países emergentes que quieran iniciar la transformación de sus regiones en áreas intensivas de conocimiento. A través del análisis de la información presentada por los casos de estudio de Estocolmo, Suecia; Cataluña, España y Nuevo León, México en esta tesis se han identificado 6 líneas para el desarrollo de políticas específicas para el fomento a la innovación: Desarrollar un plan de innovación y formalizar objetivos; fomentar y crear nuevas fuentes de apoyo financiero; crear una cultura de innovación; fomentar la formación constante y continua de recursos humanos; generar redes de colaboración y, finalmente, crear un sistema de evaluación al Sistema Regional de Innovación. Mediante estas 6 líneas se ha desarrollado una guía que esperamos ayudé a mejorar la economía y sobre todo la calidad de vida de las regiones que decidan utilizarla y apostar por la innovación y el desarrollo tecnológico como estrategia de crecimiento ; Postprint (published version)

Premi extraordinari doctorat 2013-2014 ; This doctoral research explores the forms of modern collective housing accomplished in Portugal and in other territories of Portuguese language under Oliveira Salazar's dictatorship. lt seeks to highlight the indisputable values of modern architecture through the work by Portuguese architects in Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique and Macau, retaking the theme of Portuguese colonization as an imaginary of creative capacity, which enables both to get a vision of independence and the valuation of the territory. The period under investigation starts in 1948, heightens between the 50's and the 60's and finishes in 1974, the year of the April revolution. From this date on the architecture context has changed not only in Portugal - with the coming of the democracy - but also in the other Portuguese speaking countries. The guideline of this study is the Portuguese architectural culture as well as the utopía of the Modern Movement made real by collective inhabitation. lt is also meant to identify the strong influence of modern Brazilian architecture and how the later dissolves with the purpose of creating a possible continuity in the other territories. The research isn 't about the Portuguese perspective only and the international paradigmatic situations inevitably come along so as to justify the modern theory on collective Portuguese housing. The Modern generation born in the architecture schools in Lisbon and Oporto has found the devices to adapt the peculiarities of each work to the specificity of its space. The first systems developed between universality and adaptability, functionality and economy, the vecracity of the materials and sincerity of the structure, are aspects that characterize it and will try to demonstrate wtih the analysis of the selected objects. lt was from the 1950 decade onwards that the block of flats gained leading position as part of the construction process of the city / town. This period is directly related with Le Corbusier and the influential modern Brazilian architecture both obviously controlled by the dictatorial regime. lt was the Golden Age of the political strategies to define the colonial area. With it the processes for the planning and changing of the territory were started as well as the first guiding planes, which established what we now know as the town. While international style critical movement question exactly the universality that is the characteristic of modernity, in Portugal a question a position close to the themes of the latest CIAM congress around the binomial identity - modernity. To this effect in the l 960's the moment of the discipline crisis was put to publish the famous survey about the Popular Portuguese Architecture pursuing, however a vision proclaimed by the Estado Novo regime. This dissertation on the one hand makes public the modern Portuguese heritage in the residential scope, which was almost unknown internationally, and on the other hand documents the whole of those architectures with the aim of contributing not only to its disclosure but also to show the qualities inherent to the chosen selected projects. Thus it opens the discussion on the recovering and requalifying of these works. In order to do it, the modern specific grounds of the collective housing system from town to typology deepen in countries with a common architectural history. Through the study of form , when it is understood as a part of relations and meanings, the 20 th century architecture becomes better known and at the same time the historic and theoretical picture of this heritage in the 21 st century. ; Esta investigación doctoral explora las formas de la residencia moderna producida en Portugal y en otros países de expresión portuguesa, durante el régimen dictatorial de Oliveira Salazar. Se procura evidenciar los valores indudables de la arquitectura moderna, a través de la vivienda colectiva realizada por arquitectos lusos en Portugal, Brasil, Angola, Mozambique y Macao, retomando el tema de la colonización portuguesa como un imaginario de capacidad regenerativa, que permite simultáneamente adquirir una visión de independencia y valorar el territorio. El periodo considerado se inicia en 1948, se intensifica entre los años cincuenta y sesenta y finaliza en 1974, año de la Revolución de Abril, a partir del cual el contexto urbano-arquitectónico se transforma completamente no solo en Portugal –con la entrada de la democracia– sino también en el resto de países de expresión portuguesa. El hilo conductor de la investigación es la cultura arquitectónica portuguesa y la utopía del Movimiento Moderno transformada en realidad a través del habitar colectivo. Asimismo, se pretende identificar la fuerte influencia de la arquitectura moderna brasileña y el modo cómo se disuelve en Portugal, a fin de establecer una posible continuidad en los demás territorios. El estudio no se limita a la perspectiva portuguesa, pues tiene en cuenta además los casos pragmáticos internacionales, de modo a fundamentar el argumento moderno de la vivienda colectiva lusa. La generación moderna, formada en las escuelas de Arquitectura de Lisboa y Oporto, encontró los mecanismos para adecuarse a las particularidades de las obras en la especificidad de cada lugar. Los primeros sistemas desarrollados entre universalidad y adecuación, la funcionalidad y economía, la veracidad de los materiales y la sinceridad de la estructura, constituyen aspectos característicos y que se intentan poner de relieve con los análisis de los objetos seleccionados Fue a partir de la década de 1950 cuando se asistió al protagonismo del bloque de vivienda colectiva como elemento crucial en el proceso de construcción de ciudad. Este periodo está directamente relacionado con Le Corbusier y con la influyente arquitectura moderna brasileña, ambos naturalmente censurados por el régimen dictatorial. Se trató de la época de oro de las obras públicas y de las estrategias políticas para definir el espacio colonial; con ella se iniciaron los procesos de planeamiento y transformación del territorio y se elaboraron los primeros planes generales que definieron lo que hoy conocemos como ciudad. Cuando las corrientes críticas del estilo internacional cuestionaron precisamente la universalidad que caracteriza la modernidad, en Portugal se reconoció una actitud próxima al tema del último CIAM y al binomio, identidadmodernidad. En este sentido, en los años 60 se aprovechó el momento de la crisis disciplinar para publicar la famosa Encuesta a la Arquitectura Popular Portuguesa, siguiendo de todos modos, una visión contraria a la proclamada por el Estado Novo. La tesis agrega por una parte, el patrimonio moderno luso en el ámbito residencial, prácticamente desconocido a nivel internacional, y, por otra parte, documenta el conjunto de estas arquitecturas, a fin de contribuir no solo a su divulgación sino para realzar las cualidades inherentes a los proyectos seleccionados, abriendo, así, el debate sobre su recuperación y recualificación. Para tal, se identifican los fundamentos modernos específicos del sistema de la vivienda colectiva, desde la ciudad a la tipología, en países con una historia arquitectónica común. A través del estudio de la forma, entendida como un conjunto de relaciones y significados, se da a conocer la mejor arquitectura del siglo XX y a la vez se registra el marco histórico y teórico de este patrimonio en el siglo XXI. ; Esta investigação de doutoramento explora as formas da habitação coletiva moderna realizadas em Portugal e noutros territórios de expressão portuguesa, sob o sistema ditatorial de Oliveira Salazar. Procura evidenciar os valores indiscutíveis da arquitetura moderna, através de obras levadas a cabo por arquitetos lusos em Portugal, Brasil, Angola, Moçambique e Macau, retomando o tema da colonização portuguesa como um imaginário de capacidade criativa, que permite simultaneamente adquirir uma visão de independência e de valorização do território. O período considerado inicia-se em 1948, intensifica-se entre os anos cinquenta e sessenta e termina em 1974, o ano da Revolução de Abril. A partir deste data, o contexto urbano-arquitetónico mudou não só em Portugal –com o advento da democracia– como também nos demais territórios de expressão portuguesa. O fio condutor é justamente a cultura arquitetónica portuguesa e a utopia do Movimento Moderno transformada em realidade através do habitar coletivo. Igualmente, pretende-se identificar a forte influência da arquitetura moderna brasileira e a forma como esta se esbate em Portugal, com o fim de estabelecer uma possível continuidade nos outros territórios. O estudo não se limita à perspetiva portuguesa e associam-se inevitavelmente os casos paradigmáticos internacionais, de modo a fundamentar o argumento moderno sobre a habitação coletiva lusa. A geração moderna, formada nas escolas de Arquitectura de Lisboa e Porto, encontrou mecanismos para adaptar as particularidades de cada obra na especificidade do lugar onde se inserem. Os primeiros sistemas desenvolvidos entre universalidade e a adaptação, a funcionalidade e a economia, a veracidade dos materiais e a sinceridade da estrutura, são aspetos que se caracterizam e que se tentam demonstrar com as análises dos objetos selecionados. Foi a partir de 1950 que se assistiu ao protagonismo do bloco de apartamentos como interveniente no processo de construção da cidade. Este período está diretamente relacionado com Le Corbusier e com a influente arquitetura moderna brasileira, ambos naturalmente censurados pelo regime ditatorial. Era a idade de ouro das obras públicas e das estratégias políticas para definir o espaço colonial; com ela iniciaram-se os processos de planeamento e de transformação do território e elaboraram-se os primeiros planos diretores, que definiram o que hoje conhecemos por cidade. Quando as correntes críticas do estilo internacional põem em causa precisamente a universalidade que caracteriza a modernidade, em Portugal reconhece-se uma atitude próxima aos temas do último Congresso CIAM, em torno do binómio identidade-modernidade. Neste sentido, nos anos 60, aproveitou-se o momento da crise disciplinar para publicar o famoso Inquérito à Arquitetura Popular Portuguesa, seguindo no entanto, uma visão contrária à proclamada pelo Estado Novo. A tese agrega por um lado, o património moderno luso no âmbito residencial, praticamente desconhecido internacionalmente, e, por outro lado, documenta o conjunto destas arquiteturas, com o objetivo de contribuir não só para a sua divulgação como também para realçar as qualidades inerentes aos projetos selecionados, abrindo, assim, o debate sobre a sua recuperação e requalificação. Para isso, identificam-se os fundamentos modernos específicos do sistema de habitação coletiva, desde a cidade à tipologia, em países de história arquitetónica comum. Através do estudo da forma, entendida como um conjunto de relações e significados, dá-se a conhecer a melhor arquitetura do século XX e. ao mesmo tempo, regista-se o quadro histórico e teórico deste património no século XXI ; Award-winning ; Postprint (published version)

Livestock is an important source of income in most developing countries. In Africa, it often makes up 10% to 20% of the gross national product at level. One of the major constraints to the development of this sector is animal diseases, which sometimes generate significant economic losses with social consequences that are often very burdensome for farmers. They restrict trade between countries. Reducing the impact of these constraints necessarily involves the prevention and the control of diseases. For this purpose, an adequate knowledge of the epidemiology of the diseases is a prerequisite to define a strategy for their prevention and/or the design of appropriate monitoring measures. One of the essential tools of production remains the epidemiological information network for the surveillance of animal diseases. It is also a tool for decision in international trade involving livestock products. For this purpose, its effectiveness is a guarantee for its credibility. An effective network system must be well organized, meet scientific standards and satisfy the efficiency characteristics which are sensitivity, specificity, acceptability, responsiveness and cost. In west and central Africa, epidemiological surveillance networks of animal diseases are mostly created in the 1990s through the Pan African Program for the Control of Epizootics. A 2004 assessment carried out by this program revealed that these networks are at different stages and found weaknesses in their efficiency. To contribute to the improvement of these systems, an analysis of some performance parameters of these networks has been conducted and suggestions for improvement were made. To achieve this overall objective, the following specific objectives were listed: (i) analyze the technical and functional organization of epidemiological surveillance networks in West and Central Africa; (ii) compare the effectiveness of active surveillance and passive surveillance, the two main monitoring methods used by the networks in West and Central Africa using the case study of the epidemiological surveillance network, in Chad, namely REPIMAT; (iii) assess the sensitivity of an epidemiological surveillance network from an approach based on prevalence of a disease such as Foot and Mouth Disease; (iv) develop performance indicators for regular monitoring of the epidemiological surveillance network for animal diseases in West and Central Africa, again by taking the case of REPIMAT; and finally, (v) estimate the cost incurred by an epidemiological surveillance network in West and Central Africa, for example the REPIMAT. Each of these specific objectives leads to a specific study of which results are presented below: Organization of epidemiological surveillance networks in West and Central Africa The survey on technical and institutional organizations networks in west and central Africa was organised on the basis of a written questionnaire. It involved nine networks of which five were in West Africa (Senegal, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Togo, Guinea) and four in Central Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo and Chad). The results of this survey showed that the oldest epidemiological surveillance network is that of Chad, REPIMAT. There are more similarities than differences between these networks. In general, network monitoring of animal diseases in west and central Africa are technically and institutionally well formalized. The establishment and operation of the networks surveyed are mainly financed by foreign aid. In general, these are epidemiological surveillance networks that monitor several diseases. All countries surveyed have a central national laboratory for the analysis of samples collected. However, only four countries (Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Senegal) can make a diagnosis of all diseases selected for monitoring. The laboratories are considered as partners with surveillance networks in most of the countries surveyed. All networks use the PID/ARIS for data management. In addition to the latter, countries such as Guinea, DRC, Senegal and Chad use a national database developed with Access®. On average, 26% of veterinary stations on the total networks surveyed are involved in the monitoring. This proportion varies from 7% to 91%. However, insufficient diagnostic capacity of laboratories and inadequate operational steering committees are the two main weaknesses of the networks concerned with this survey. Comparison between active and passive surveillance within the network of epidemiological surveillance of animal diseases in Chad The comparison between active and passive surveillance involved 106 REPIMAT surveillance stations randomly divided into 52 active surveillance stations and 54 passive surveillance stations. Vaccination status of nine diseases and their respective prevalence levels are monitored by the network. A work plan was developed for each station. The stations of active surveillance make monthly visits to four herds (villages) to look for monitored diseases and also organise four information meetings with farmers how to react in case of suspicion of the monitored diseases. Passive surveillance stations only organise, monthly, four information meetings with farmers. Suspicions in each station are recorded on a specific form developed for each disease. The agent mentions if the suspicion is performed following a breeder call, a visit from herds or a sensitization meeting. Monitoring lasted 24 months. The results of this study showed that regardless of the type of surveillance, diseases monitored with the exception of rare diseases (Rinderpest, and Rift Valley fever) are reported by the monitoring agents. However, we note that the number of calls recorded following suspicions of farmers (41%) was significantly higher (p <0.05) than suspicions made during visits to herds (30%) or in meetings (29%). For moderately prevalent diseases, the suspicions are mainly calls farmers (77%) and regardless of the type of monitoring (73% for active surveillance and 84% for passive surveillance). On the other hand, for FMD, a disease with high prevalence, 37% of suspicions are recorded by visiting farms. Overall, no significant difference was observed between the types of surveillance because of a low rate of disease onset during sensitization meetings by the active surveillance stations. Passive surveillance stimulated by awareness meetings appears to be a mode for surveillance in the conditions of Chad and cheaper. However, for rare diseases, the specific methods of active surveillance (such as, for example, sentinel flocks) seems preferable. Evaluation of the sensitivity of the animal disease epidemiological surveillance network for Foot and Mouth Disease in Chad Evaluation of the sensitivity of the animal disease epidemiological surveillance network for Foot and Mouth Disease in Chad The study on the network sensitivity was carried out in REPIMAT by taking the surveillance of FMD as an example. FMD is the disease most frequently suspected by REPIMAT. However, the reporting of cases is limited to clinical suspicion. The samples for the purpose of laboratory diagnostic for confirmation of these suspicions are not made. In order to assess the sensitivity of REPIMAT for this disease, a serological survey was conducted in eight of the nine regional delegations with the highest cattle population of the country. The samples were analyzed by the National Reference Laboratory for FMD in Brescia (Italy) with the support of the European Commission action against FMD. The 3ABC and SP-ELISA tests were used for the detection of antibodies and the serotype of the virus. The number of FMD suspicions reported within the network was compared with the seroprevalence. Epidemiological information on the disease, including the circulating serotypes in Chad, was also provided. A total of 796 cattle sera were collected. The seroprevalence rate at individual level was 35.6% (95% CI: 32.2 to 39.0) and that at the herd level was 61.9% (95% CI: 51.9 to 71.2). A strong correlation was observed between the estimated prevalence and number of clinical suspicions reported within REPIMAT. The disease is present in all livestock regional delegations surveyed with a high prevalence in the delegations located in the south, the wettest area, and where cross-border movements are the most important. Serotypes A, O, SAT1and SAT2 were identified. Development of operating performance indicators of Chad epidemiological surveillance network for animal diseases: REPIMAT The maintenance and effectiveness of a disease monitoring system requires regular evaluation to identify timely deficiencies that may occur. For this purpose, the performance indicators are essential tools. One approach for developing performance indicators as well as their application in the operation of 43 monitoring stations REPIMAT was carried out. An analysis of the objectives and operation mechanism of REPIMAT allowed retaining three main components, namely the field workers, the animation cell and the laboratory. The activities of each of these components were listed. The analysis of the outcomes of these activities resulted in the development of the performance indicators that can be used in the operation of REPIMAT. The application of these indicators has highlighted the weaknesses of each component. Estimated cost of a network for animal diseases epidemiological surveillance in Central Africa: the case of Chad network In sub-Saharan Africa, most of the networks for epidemiological surveillance of animal diseases were temporarily financed by external aid. The sustainability of such decision support tools should have been insured by national public funds. The objective of this study was to estimate the costs involved in running an animal disease epidemiological surveillance network by taking the example of such network in Chad (REPIMAT) and its weight in the state budget. These costs were then compared to those of other epidemiological surveillance in West Africa networks. The results of this study showed that the total annual operating and implementing cost of REPIMAT is estimated at € 666 349 (437 096 291 FCFA) for the entire system comprising 106 monitoring stations constituting the local level, 26 livestock sectors, nine regional livestock delegations representing the intermediate level and an animation cell constituting the central level. This cost represents only 3% (2% of fixed costs and 1% of variable costs) of the budget allocated by the Chadian Ministry of Livestock. Fixed costs (72%) weighed more than variable costs (28%) regardless of the levels of intervention. This estimate is similar to the estimated costs of epidemiological surveillance networks in Benin, Ghana, Mauritania and Senegal. Considering only the variable costs (operation), the annual cost of operating a surveillance station, the most important entity in the system was only 932 € or 611 352 FCFA. The surveillance cost is mainly related at the local level (surveillance stations) and intermediate level (livestock sectors and regional livestock delegations) to the cost involved in health surveillance as well as the equipment it requires. This thesis allowed to analyze some parameters of effectiveness of a surveillance network for animal diseases including general organization, type of surveillance, sensitivity, cost and to develop a tool for continuous monitoring of operating a network. It is difficult to meet all the efficiency criteria of an animal disease surveillance network, however, the few parameters studied which are interrelated will help if they are used properly to improve the efficiency of an epidemiological surveillance system of animal diseases in sub-Saharan Africa.

Premi extraordinari doctorat 2013-2014 ; This doctoral research explores the forms of modern collective housing accomplished in Portugal and in other territories of Portuguese language under Oliveira Salazar's dictatorship. lt seeks to highlight the indisputable values of modern architecture through the work by Portuguese architects in Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique and Macau, retaking the theme of Portuguese colonization as an imaginary of creative capacity, which enables both to get a vision of independence and the valuation of the territory. The period under investigation starts in 1948, heightens between the 50's and the 60's and finishes in 1974, the year of the April revolution. From this date on the architecture context has changed not only in Portugal - with the coming of the democracy - but also in the other Portuguese speaking countries. The guideline of this study is the Portuguese architectural culture as well as the utopía of the Modern Movement made real by collective inhabitation. lt is also meant to identify the strong influence of modern Brazilian architecture and how the later dissolves with the purpose of creating a possible continuity in the other territories. The research isn 't about the Portuguese perspective only and the international paradigmatic situations inevitably come along so as to justify the modern theory on collective Portuguese housing. The Modern generation born in the architecture schools in Lisbon and Oporto has found the devices to adapt the peculiarities of each work to the specificity of its space. The first systems developed between universality and adaptability, functionality and economy, the vecracity of the materials and sincerity of the structure, are aspects that characterize it and will try to demonstrate wtih the analysis of the selected objects. lt was from the 1950 decade onwards that the block of flats gained leading position as part of the construction process of the city / town. This period is directly related with Le Corbusier and the influential modern Brazilian architecture both obviously controlled by the dictatorial regime. lt was the Golden Age of the political strategies to define the colonial area. With it the processes for the planning and changing of the territory were started as well as the first guiding planes, which established what we now know as the town. While international style critical movement question exactly the universality that is the characteristic of modernity, in Portugal a question a position close to the themes of the latest CIAM congress around the binomial identity - modernity. To this effect in the l 960's the moment of the discipline crisis was put to publish the famous survey about the Popular Portuguese Architecture pursuing, however a vision proclaimed by the Estado Novo regime. This dissertation on the one hand makes public the modern Portuguese heritage in the residential scope, which was almost unknown internationally, and on the other hand documents the whole of those architectures with the aim of contributing not only to its disclosure but also to show the qualities inherent to the chosen selected projects. Thus it opens the discussion on the recovering and requalifying of these works. In order to do it, the modern specific grounds of the collective housing system from town to typology deepen in countries with a common architectural history. Through the study of form , when it is understood as a part of relations and meanings, the 20 th century architecture becomes better known and at the same time the historic and theoretical picture of this heritage in the 21 st century. ; Esta investigación doctoral explora las formas de la residencia moderna producida en Portugal y en otros países de expresión portuguesa, durante el régimen dictatorial de Oliveira Salazar. Se procura evidenciar los valores indudables de la arquitectura moderna, a través de la vivienda colectiva realizada por arquitectos lusos en Portugal, Brasil, Angola, Mozambique y Macao, retomando el tema de la colonización portuguesa como un imaginario de capacidad regenerativa, que permite simultáneamente adquirir una visión de independencia y valorar el territorio. El periodo considerado se inicia en 1948, se intensifica entre los años cincuenta y sesenta y finaliza en 1974, año de la Revolución de Abril, a partir del cual el contexto urbano-arquitectónico se transforma completamente no solo en Portugal –con la entrada de la democracia– sino también en el resto de países de expresión portuguesa. El hilo conductor de la investigación es la cultura arquitectónica portuguesa y la utopía del Movimiento Moderno transformada en realidad a través del habitar colectivo. Asimismo, se pretende identificar la fuerte influencia de la arquitectura moderna brasileña y el modo cómo se disuelve en Portugal, a fin de establecer una posible continuidad en los demás territorios. El estudio no se limita a la perspectiva portuguesa, pues tiene en cuenta además los casos pragmáticos internacionales, de modo a fundamentar el argumento moderno de la vivienda colectiva lusa. La generación moderna, formada en las escuelas de Arquitectura de Lisboa y Oporto, encontró los mecanismos para adecuarse a las particularidades de las obras en la especificidad de cada lugar. Los primeros sistemas desarrollados entre universalidad y adecuación, la funcionalidad y economía, la veracidad de los materiales y la sinceridad de la estructura, constituyen aspectos característicos y que se intentan poner de relieve con los análisis de los objetos seleccionados Fue a partir de la década de 1950 cuando se asistió al protagonismo del bloque de vivienda colectiva como elemento crucial en el proceso de construcción de ciudad. Este periodo está directamente relacionado con Le Corbusier y con la influyente arquitectura moderna brasileña, ambos naturalmente censurados por el régimen dictatorial. Se trató de la época de oro de las obras públicas y de las estrategias políticas para definir el espacio colonial; con ella se iniciaron los procesos de planeamiento y transformación del territorio y se elaboraron los primeros planes generales que definieron lo que hoy conocemos como ciudad. Cuando las corrientes críticas del estilo internacional cuestionaron precisamente la universalidad que caracteriza la modernidad, en Portugal se reconoció una actitud próxima al tema del último CIAM y al binomio, identidadmodernidad. En este sentido, en los años 60 se aprovechó el momento de la crisis disciplinar para publicar la famosa Encuesta a la Arquitectura Popular Portuguesa, siguiendo de todos modos, una visión contraria a la proclamada por el Estado Novo. La tesis agrega por una parte, el patrimonio moderno luso en el ámbito residencial, prácticamente desconocido a nivel internacional, y, por otra parte, documenta el conjunto de estas arquitecturas, a fin de contribuir no solo a su divulgación sino para realzar las cualidades inherentes a los proyectos seleccionados, abriendo, así, el debate sobre su recuperación y recualificación. Para tal, se identifican los fundamentos modernos específicos del sistema de la vivienda colectiva, desde la ciudad a la tipología, en países con una historia arquitectónica común. A través del estudio de la forma, entendida como un conjunto de relaciones y significados, se da a conocer la mejor arquitectura del siglo XX y a la vez se registra el marco histórico y teórico de este patrimonio en el siglo XXI. ; Esta investigação de doutoramento explora as formas da habitação coletiva moderna realizadas em Portugal e noutros territórios de expressão portuguesa, sob o sistema ditatorial de Oliveira Salazar. Procura evidenciar os valores indiscutíveis da arquitetura moderna, através de obras levadas a cabo por arquitetos lusos em Portugal, Brasil, Angola, Moçambique e Macau, retomando o tema da colonização portuguesa como um imaginário de capacidade criativa, que permite simultaneamente adquirir uma visão de independência e de valorização do território. O período considerado inicia-se em 1948, intensifica-se entre os anos cinquenta e sessenta e termina em 1974, o ano da Revolução de Abril. A partir deste data, o contexto urbano-arquitetónico mudou não só em Portugal –com o advento da democracia– como também nos demais territórios de expressão portuguesa. O fio condutor é justamente a cultura arquitetónica portuguesa e a utopia do Movimento Moderno transformada em realidade através do habitar coletivo. Igualmente, pretende-se identificar a forte influência da arquitetura moderna brasileira e a forma como esta se esbate em Portugal, com o fim de estabelecer uma possível continuidade nos outros territórios. O estudo não se limita à perspetiva portuguesa e associam-se inevitavelmente os casos paradigmáticos internacionais, de modo a fundamentar o argumento moderno sobre a habitação coletiva lusa. A geração moderna, formada nas escolas de Arquitectura de Lisboa e Porto, encontrou mecanismos para adaptar as particularidades de cada obra na especificidade do lugar onde se inserem. Os primeiros sistemas desenvolvidos entre universalidade e a adaptação, a funcionalidade e a economia, a veracidade dos materiais e a sinceridade da estrutura, são aspetos que se caracterizam e que se tentam demonstrar com as análises dos objetos selecionados. Foi a partir de 1950 que se assistiu ao protagonismo do bloco de apartamentos como interveniente no processo de construção da cidade. Este período está diretamente relacionado com Le Corbusier e com a influente arquitetura moderna brasileira, ambos naturalmente censurados pelo regime ditatorial. Era a idade de ouro das obras públicas e das estratégias políticas para definir o espaço colonial; com ela iniciaram-se os processos de planeamento e de transformação do território e elaboraram-se os primeiros planos diretores, que definiram o que hoje conhecemos por cidade. Quando as correntes críticas do estilo internacional põem em causa precisamente a universalidade que caracteriza a modernidade, em Portugal reconhece-se uma atitude próxima aos temas do último Congresso CIAM, em torno do binómio identidade-modernidade. Neste sentido, nos anos 60, aproveitou-se o momento da crise disciplinar para publicar o famoso Inquérito à Arquitetura Popular Portuguesa, seguindo no entanto, uma visão contrária à proclamada pelo Estado Novo. A tese agrega por um lado, o património moderno luso no âmbito residencial, praticamente desconhecido internacionalmente, e, por outro lado, documenta o conjunto destas arquiteturas, com o objetivo de contribuir não só para a sua divulgação como também para realçar as qualidades inerentes aos projetos selecionados, abrindo, assim, o debate sobre a sua recuperação e requalificação. Para isso, identificam-se os fundamentos modernos específicos do sistema de habitação coletiva, desde a cidade à tipologia, em países de história arquitetónica comum. Através do estudo da forma, entendida como um conjunto de relações e significados, dá-se a conhecer a melhor arquitetura do século XX e. ao mesmo tempo, regista-se o quadro histórico e teórico deste património no século XXI ; Award-winning ; Postprint (published version)

In a previous note on these same pages, we made reference to Obama's unpredictable use of executive power and his tendency to overuse it for certain domestic policies, while deferring to the military and foreign policy establishmenton issues he is ambivalent about, such as the international use of force. We also alluded to his tendency to isolate himself and rely excessively on his own judgment in shaping policy, to the detriment of his relations with staff, cabinet and other leaders. The long-drawn decision to seek Congressional approval before striking Syria is a case study of these proclivities.After resisting calls for intervention in Syria by Senate Republican "hawks"and foreign policy specialists since 2011, a year ago Obama conceded that, in spite of his aversion to intervene in "sectarian struggles",certain actions such as the use of chemical weapons by the Syrian regime against the opposition would constitute a "red line" which, once crossed, would automatically bring about an armed response by the United States. This week he had to face the consequences of his own words.Whenrobust evidence of the use of sarin gas by Bashar Al Assad's forces in rebel occupied territory was produced, the President had no choice but to spendthelast week of the month of Augustfrantically building a case for immediate intervention. Acting simultaneously as Chief Executive, policy shaper and his own spokesman, he used several venues, including an NPR interview, to announce to the American people that the time had come to act.But while Secretary of State John Kerry made a compelling speech on the need to act swiftly to punish the "moral obscenity" committed by the Assad regime, Obama appeared much more circumspect in his appeals to the American people. His early words conveyed both his outrage at the disproportionate actions by Assad as well as his empathy with the war-weary American citizens. In private, he confided he had qualms both about the legality and the political legitimacy of military action. In public, his argument focused on the violation of an international convention prohibiting the use of chemical weapons and the absolutely unavoidable duty to enforce it. But the fact that UN inspectors had not completed their field report on the attack, coupled with the refusal of the UN Security Council to consider armed action, gave him pause and forced him to confront his own doubts once again.In the meantime, momentum was building in the United States where, according to press reports, it was all but certain there would be a military strike to "punish and deter" the Syrian regime, by Labor Day weekend. GOP Senators John McCain and Lindsey Graham were vocal in their support of intervention but demanded more than just a punitive strike and showed some impatience towards the President's pondering an action that should have been decided long ago.Abroad, Turkey, Israel and Saudi Arabia were in favor of the US action. As it is widely known, Russia was against it and that is why the US had to bypass the UN Security Council where Russia has veto power. While NATO allies all offered strong support (indeed, both France and Britain were the first to insist on support for the rebels a year ago), Prime Minister David Cameron was delivered a strong blow when he lost a vote in the House of Commons, with some of his own backbenchers voting against intervention. German Chancellor Angela Merkel, facing a coming election and against the perennial background of German Basic Law constraints, had already told the President that Germany would stand in the sidelines, while offering moral support. The long shadow cast by the Iraqi war around the world once again became evident. But the French President, not required by the Fifth Republic Constitution to consult the legislature, and encouraged by France's recent successful actions in Mali and Libya, remained firm.By Friday, Obama's tortured deliberations came to an end as he abruptly changed courses. Against the advice of his National Security and political advisors team, he made a dramatic announcement from the Rose Garden: his decision on the need for a narrow punitive action against Syria had been made, he said, but he had decided to ask for Congressional authorization first. As Commander in Chief, and in spite of the War Powers Resolution of 1973, he is not obligated to do this. He thus appears to be shifting responsibility onto the legislature while simultaneouslybuying some time to explore diplomatic solutions in the upcoming G-20 summer.The cerebral constitutional law professor and the risk- taking politician in him have made a Faustian bargain. If Congress authorizes the use of force, he will have both legal and political cover for his action while at the same time fulfilling his moral duty of punishing a violator of the Chemical Weapons Convention and of Humanitarian law. If they vote No, he can just blame them for his own lack of action and use all the power of the Presidency on his domestic agenda.It is, in any case, a big gamble, one that has the potential of weakening him and turning him into a lame duck for the rest of his Presidency. The GOP is internally divided on many issues, among them foreign policy, where conservative ideologies run the gamut from minimalist /isolationist to neo-cons/regime- change interventionists and all the shades in-between. And the far left in Obama's own party is against intervention. So there is no guarantee he will get Congressional approval. The cost of losing this vote is enormous: it may set a strong precedent in diminishing Presidential prerogatives.To be fair to the President and his vacillating stance, this is not an easy decision. None of the world leaders have made a compelling public case for a strategic need of intervention in Syria. The proposed limited "punitive" strike will most likely be inconclusive: it will not deter further extreme actions by Assad, who has now been given time to disperse his military assets and capabilities. The strike will not significantly degrade his capacity to fight, and there will be little change in his main goal, namely, to destroy the opposition and regain total control of the country.This is a fight to the end by both sides. If overthrown, Assad and his Alawite supporters (as well as the Christians who have traditionally been under his protection) will be massacred. There are no desirable outcomes in this conflict. The rebels are divided and the biggest group is that ofthe jihadists with strong support of Al Qaeda. While Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Israel are on the side of the United States and want a moderate alternative to the Assad regime, Iran, to an extent Iraq, and Hezbollah in Lebanon are on the dictator's side (as, incongruously, is Venezuela). The Palestinian group Hamas, previously favoring Assad has now changed sides and is supporting the rebels. So in many ways this is a war by proxy that could become a generalized regional war. There is no indication that the President or anyone else has a political plan or a diplomatic effort in mind for the post-strike scenario.However, US inaction at this time undermines the security of its allies, especially Israel. Even though Netanyahu has adopted a "no comment" stance and hasn't, accordingly, said a word on this issue, other Israeli politicians are worrying out loud about the implications the US lack of resolve will have on other "red lines": Will the United States act when Iran crosses the nuclear threshold? Or will Israel find itself facing Iran alone?They bitterly remind themselves of Obama's speech in Jerusalem, in March this year, when he said in Hebrew: "Atem lo levad" ("You are not alone"). They are very skeptical, now more than ever, that the President will match his lofty rhetoric with action.In the United States the momentum is gone, Congress won't reconvene until September 9, and the President is using the last week of summer to energetically lobby House and Senate leaders and persuade skeptics through intelligence briefings. Urgent issues in the domestic agenda will thus have to be postponed.What no one, either at home or abroad denies, is that the credibility of the Presidency and with it, that of the United States, is at stake. International support for the operation is unlikely to improve. A negative vote by Congress will further weaken the President and may complicate the White House legislative agenda, where he will have to spend all his political capital and still,perhaps, fall short.In a keynote speech to the National Defense University earlier this year, Obama expressed the need to chart a new way in American foreign policy, one that would end the "perpetual wartime footing" that characterized the post 9-11 era, after G.W. Bush got a virtual blank check from Congress in the use of military force and intelligence gathering. So far, Obama has ended two protracted unpopular wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and it is clear he will not engage in regime change. But a new foreign policy strategy has not crystallized yet. There is no Obama doctrine, no overall framework to guide his decisions and give predictability to his actions.His whole approach to the Middle East, the most explosive region in the planet today, is misconceived. His tepid reaction to the Egyptian situation had already given some approximation of how reluctant he is about taking sides in conflicts in the region. Syrian use of chemical weapons has confirmed his ambivalence and exposed his indecision. At the same time, it has provoked a collapse of American credibility abroad, anduncertainty about its reliability as an ally. Regardless of what follows after this week, his hesitancy will have dire consequences for American foreign policy into the future.The larger problem that looms over the heads of world leaders and that few seem to acknowledge is that this is not about Syria or Egypt or Libya or Yemen or Tunisia as separate conflicts; it is a regional conflagration that has to be addressedcomprehensively, within the larger regional and international context. All major actors, whether it is Europe, Russia, or China and of course the United States, have a stake in the region and it is in their interest to define the rules of the game and together find an overall solution to this predicament.

Space is a complex texture of signs, so that any landscape can be read as a history of symbols of Powers which have designed it. Many authors (Gregory, 1978; Massey and Jess, 2001) have argued that senses of space are inextricably linked to Power relations. The study of social structures could consist in analyzing the ways in which social relations accumulate on a space. Generally, there is a connection between Powers and Spaces. Powers tend to create a hierarchy of positions: the most authoritative is in the highest location, at the opposite the masses are relegated until the Lowest one. This hierarchy is naturally unstable, since the fights among different kinds of Powers and between the Power and the subjected masses are a constant in History. These fights design the landscape with the symbols of architecture so that to study a landscape actually means to read the History of Powers and also to write a Geography of Spatial Relationships of Powers. The signs of these fights are markers which can be detected in the landscapes; they reflect different positions deriving from the results of these never-ending struggles originated from democratic issues or from authoritarian decisions. Generally, who gains the decisional capacity tends to become authoritarian and occupy high positions; who is dominated is naturally relegated in a low position. Consequently, these contrasts spread out the landscape with high/low markers. It can be argued that who decides what place, actually decides who are the people that are supposed to live in it and imposes them what they should make into it and with it. A map cannot describe these political fluxes, so Geography needs new approaches to analyze both individual and collective actions shaping landscapes. There is a strict link between society and place. According to the literature of Social Geography, spatial theories are necessarily linked to social theories, because social structures (a result of the distribution of Power) derive from the accumulation of social actions. We could consider that spatiality is shaped by whole communities or by oligarchies which represent themselves and spread out their image through designed landscapes. Some of these can trigger forms of democracy if they include people, so that they can involve communities in the decision process. Other spaces can exclude them if they keep the dichotomy between rulers and dominated. In this paper we propose a new approach to grasp these different processes of landscape-making: we apply a semiotic model to several landscapes in Asia, Middle East, Europe. This model is built on two oppositions to study the high/low markers: 1- social welfare vs. oligarchic well-being; 2- democratic participation vs. authoritarian command-ship In this view, what people make of their places is closely connected to what they make of themselves as members of society and inhabitants of the Earth. We are the place-world we imagine and therefore space is the more significant dimension, structuring personal experience. Space rather tan time or history, should be studied to understand what kind of Power creates a landscape. ; El espacio es una textura compleja de signos , de modo que cualquier paisaje se puede leer como una historia de los símbolos de potencias que se hayan diseñado. Muchos autores ( Gregory , 1978 ; Massey y Jess , 2001 ) han argumentado que los sentidos del espacio están indisolublemente ligadas a las relaciones de poder . El estudio de las estructuras sociales podría consistir en el análisis de las formas en que las relaciones sociales se acumulan en un espacio . En general, existe una relación entre Poderes y Espacios . Poderes tienden a crear una jerarquía de posiciones: la más autorizada está en el lugar más alto , al frente de las masas son relegados hasta el más bajo. Esta jerarquía es naturalmente inestable , ya que las peleas entre diferentes tipos de poderes y entre el Poder y las masas sometidas son una constante en la historia . Estas peleas diseñar el paisaje con los símbolos de la arquitectura de modo que para estudiar un paisaje realmente significa leer la Historia de Poderes y también para escribir una geografía de las relaciones espaciales de las potencias . Los signos de estas peleas son marcadores que pueden ser detectado en los paisajes , sino que reflejan las diferentes posiciones que se derivan de los resultados de estas interminables luchas origen en cuestiones democráticas o de las decisiones autoritarias. Por lo general , quien gana la capacidad de decisión tiende a ser autoritaria y ocupar altos cargos , que está dominada es relegado de forma natural en una posición baja. En consecuencia, estos contrastes se extienden los paisajes con marcadores de altas / bajas. Se puede argumentar que quien decide qué lugar , en realidad decide quién es la gente que se supone que viven en ella y les impone lo que deben hacer en ella y con ella . Un mapa no puede describir los flujos políticos , así Geografía necesita nuevos enfoques para analizar tanto las acciones individuales y colectivas que conforman paisajes. Existe una relación estrecha entre la sociedad y el lugar. De acuerdo con la literatura de Geografía Social , las teorías espaciales están necesariamente vinculadas a las teorías sociales , porque las estructuras sociales (resultado de la distribución de energía ) se derivan de la acumulación de acciones sociales. Podríamos considerar que la espacialidad está conformado por comunidades enteras o por las oligarquías que representan a sí mismos y extienden su imagen a través de paisajes diseñados. Algunos de estos pueden desencadenar las formas de la democracia si se incluyen a las personas , para que puedan involucrar a las comunidades en el proceso de decisión. Otros espacios pueden excluirlos si mantienen la dicotomía entre los gobernantes y los dominados . En este trabajo se propone un nuevo enfoque para comprender los diferentes procesos de paisaje de decisiones: se aplica un modelo semiótico de varios paisajes de Asia, Oriente Medio y Europa. Este modelo se basa en dos oposiciones para estudiar las altas / bajas marcadores: 1 - el bienestar social frente oligárquico bienestar , 2 - participación democrática vs autoritaria de mando buque En este punto de vista , lo que las personas hacen de sus lugares está estrechamente relacionada con lo que hacen de sí mismos como miembros de la sociedad y de los habitantes de la Tierra . Somos el lugar en el mundo que imaginamos , por lo que el espacio es la dimensión más importante , la estructuración de la experiencia personal. Espacio más que el tiempo o la historia, debe ser estudiado para entender qué tipo de energía crea un paisaje. ; L'espace est une texture complexe de signes , de sorte que n'importe quel paysage peut être lu comme une histoire des symboles des puissances qui l'ont conçu . De nombreux auteurs ( Gregory , 1978; Massey et Jess , 2001) ont fait valoir que les sens de l'espace sont inextricablement liées aux relations de pouvoir . L'étude des structures sociales pourrait consister à analyser la façon dont les relations sociales s'accumulent sur un espace. En général, il existe un lien entre puissances et des espaces. Pouvoirs ont tendance à créer une hiérarchie des positions : le plus autorité est au plus haut lieu , à l'opposé des masses sont relégués jusqu'à ce que le plus bas. Cette hiérarchie est naturellement instable , car les combats entre les différentes sortes de pouvoirs et entre le pouvoir et les masses soumises sont une constante dans l'histoire . Ces combats concevoir le paysage avec les symboles de l'architecture ainsi que d'étudier un paysage signifie réellement pour lire l'histoire des pouvoirs et aussi d'écrire une géographie des relations spatiales des pouvoirs. Les signes de ces combats sont des marqueurs qui peuvent être détectés dans les paysages ; elles reflètent différentes positions découlant des résultats de ces luttes sans fin provenaient enjeux démocratiques ou des décisions autoritaires. En règle générale, qui gagne le pouvoir décisionnel tend à devenir autoritaire et d'occuper des postes élevés , qui est dominé est naturellement relégué dans une position basse . Par conséquent, ces contrastes répartis le paysage avec des marqueurs élevées / basses. On peut faire valoir que qui décide de ce lieu , décide réellement qui sont les gens qui sont censés vivre en elle et leur impose ce qu'ils doivent faire en elle et avec elle . Une carte ne peut pas décrire ces flux politiques , de sorte Géographie besoin de nouvelles approches pour analyser les actions individuelles et collectives qui façonnent les paysages. Il existe un lien étroit entre la société et le lieu. Selon la littérature de géographie sociale , les théories spatiales sont nécessairement liées à des théories sociales , parce que les structures sociales ( à la suite de la distribution de l'énergie ) proviennent de l' accumulation d'actions sociales . Nous pourrions considérer que la spatialité est façonnée par des communautés entières ou par des oligarchies qui se représentent et étalées leur image à travers des paysages conçus . Certains de ces éléments peuvent déclencher des formes de démocratie si elles incluent les personnes , afin qu'elles puissent impliquer les communautés dans le processus de décision. D'autres espaces peuvent les exclure s'ils gardent la dichotomie entre les gouvernants et les dominés . Dans cet article, nous proposons une nouvelle approche pour saisir ces différents processus de paysage de décision : nous appliquons un modèle sémiotique de plusieurs paysages d'Asie , du Moyen- Orient, en Europe . Ce modèle est construit sur deux oppositions pour étudier les hautes / basses marqueurs : 1 - La protection sociale contre oligarchique bien-être ; 2 - la participation démocratique vs autoritaire de commande envoie sous ce point de vue , ce que les gens font de leurs lieux est étroitement liée à ce qu'ils font d'euxmêmes en tant que membres de la société et des habitants de la Terre. Nous sommes l'endroit du monde que nous imaginons et donc l'espace est la dimension plus importante , la structuration de l'expérience personnelle. L'espace plutôt que le temps ou l'histoire, devrait être étudiée pour comprendre ce genre de pouvoir crée un paysage.