Suchergebnisse

Municipal solid waste (MSW) management strategies typically include a combination of three approaches, recycling, combustion, and landfill disposal. In the US approximately 54% of the generated MSW was landfilled in 2008, mainly because of its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. However, landfills remain a major concern due to potential landfill gas (LFG) emissions, generated from the chemical and biological processes occurring in the disposed waste. The main components of LFG are methane (50-60%) and carbon dioxide (40-50%). Although LFG poses a threat to the environment, if managed properly it is a valuable energy resource due to the methane content. Currently there are over 550 active LFG to energy (LFGTE) facilities in the US, producing renewable energy from LFG. A major challenge in designing/operating a LFGTE facility is the uncertainty in LFG generation rate predictions. LFG generation rates are currently estimated using models that are dependent upon the waste disposal history, moisture content, cover type, and gas collection system, which are associated with significant uncertainties. The objectives of this research were to: (1) Evaluate various approaches of estimating LFG generation and to quantify the uncertainty of the model outcomes based on case-study analysis, (2) Present a methodology to predict long-term LFGTE potential under various operating practices on a regional scale, and (3) Investigate costs and benefits of emitting vs. collecting LFG emissions with regards to operation strategies and regulations. The first-order empirical model appeared to be insensitive to the approach taken in quantifying the model parameters, suggesting that the model may be inadequate to accurately describe LFG generation and collection. The uncertainty values for the model were, in general, at their lowest within five years after waste placement ended. Because of the exponential nature, the uncertainty increased as LFG generation declined to low values decades after the end of waste placement. A methodology was presented to estimate LFGTE potential on a regional scale over a 25-year timeframe with consideration of modeling uncertainties. The methodology was demonstrated for the US state of Florida, and showed that Florida could increase the annual LFGTE production by more than threefold by 2035 through installation of LFGTE facilities at all landfills. Results showed that diverting food waste could significantly reduce fugitive LFG emissions, while having minimal effect on the LFGTE potential. Estimates showed that with enhanced landfill operation and energy production practices, LFGTE power density could be comparable to technologies such as wind, tidal, and geothermal. More aggressive operations must be considered to avoid fugitive LFG emissions, which could significantly affect the economic viability of landfills. With little economic motivation for US landfill owners to voluntarily reduce fugitive emissions, regulations are necessary to increase the cost of emitting GHGs. In light of the recent economic recession, it is not likely that a carbon tax will be established; while a carbon trading program will enforce emission caps and provide a tool to offset some costs and improve emission-reduction systems. Immediate action establishing a US carbon trading market with carbon credit pricing and trading supervised by the federal government may be the solution. Costs of achieving high lifetime LFG collection efficiencies are unlikely to be covered with revenues from tipping fee, electricity sales, tax credits, or carbon credit trading. Under scenarios of highly regulated LFG emissions, sustainable landfilling will require research, development, and application of technologies to reduce the marginal abatement cost, including: (1) Diverting rapidly decomposable waste to alternative treatment methods, (2) Reducing fugitive emissions through usage daily/intermediate covers with high oxidation potential, (3) Increasing the lifetime LFG collection efficiency, and (4) Increasing LFG energy value - for instance by producing high-methane gas through biologically altering the LFG generation pathway. ; 2011-08-01 ; Ph.D. ; Engineering and Computer Science, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering ; Doctorate ; This record was generated from author submitted information.

Problem statement. The modern stage in the development of science implies radical institutional changes in its social status and structure. The main differences from the classical stage are: first, the rejection of the principle of ethical neutrality of scientific knowledge and, second, the real revision of the content of the category "paradigm" as the central element of the organization of theoretical knowledge; its replacement by much more complex formations consisting of several heterogeneous components. There is an interpenetration of the public-axiological and descriptive-scientific forms of discourse, which create an inseparable unity in the content of the theoretical structure. Our research is devoted to the analysis of these two aspects of theoretical techno-science. According to the specifics of the subject, methods of quantitative discourse analysis and conceptual analysis of meta-theoretical and ontological knowledge, respectively, have been applied. There is a super-aim in our research, which is to determine the basic scheme of the relationship between the organization of the transdisciplinary matrix and the ontological level of theoretical techno-knowledge. In the ontological aspect, technoscience (postacademic science) is a theoretical and technological tools for managing the course of biological and sociocultural evolution. In the epistemological aspect, modern theories with a human dimension have a specific (trans)disciplinary matrix, which has not one but two paradigmatic cores: scientific-descriptive and humanitarian-axiological. According to our model, the principles of bioethics represent a social institution for regulating and controlling technological (biological and social) risk.Applied technological developments are represented by (1) genetic engineering as management tools of biological evolution and (2) socio-economic engineering as management tools of civilizational and socio-cultural development. This binary structure logically follows from the postulated three-module organization of the sustainable evolutionary strategy of the sentient human being. Naturphilosophy once again acquires the status of the basis of the theory of evolution in an explicit way. There is a system of metaphysical postulates and ontological categories derived from the anthropic principle of participation. For modern neoliberal political democracy, bio-power and biopolitics look like the most effective technology for stabilizing the scenarios and trends of the global evolutionary process that are optimal within this ideological system. Conclusions. Transbipolitics in our understanding is a political problematic related to the rationalization of the global evolutionary process. In the coming decades transbipolitics will become the carrier element of the global process of evolution of the noosphere with the consequent complication and increase of cohesion between the individual socio-cultural types that are part of the system of modern globalizing civilization. ; Постановка проблемы. Современный этап развития науки подразумевает радикальные институциональные изменения в ее социальном статусе и структуре. Основными отличиями от классического этапа являются: во-первых, отказ от принципа этической нейтральности научного знания и, во-вторых, реальный пересмотр содержания категории «парадигма» как центрального элемента организации теоретических знаний; ее замена значительно более сложными образованиями, состоящими из нескольких гетерогенных компонентов. Происходит взаимопроникновение публично-аксиологической и описательно-научной форм дискурса, создающих неразрывное единство в содержании теоретической структуры. Наша публикация посвящена анализу этих двух аспектов теоретической технонауки. В соответствии со спецификой предмета были применены методы количественного дискурсивного и концептуального анализа метатеоретических и онтологических знаний соответственно. В нашем исследовании есть супер-цель, которая заключается в определении базовой схемы взаимосвязи между организацией трансдисциплинарной матрицы и онтологическим уровнем теоретического технознания. В онтологическом аспекте технонаука (постакадемическая наука) представляет собой теоретический и технологический инструментарий для управления течением биологической и социокультурной эволюции. В эпистемологическом аспекте в современных теориях, имеющих человеческое измерение, есть специфическая (транс)дисциплинарная матрица, которая имеет не одно, а два парадигмальных ядра: научно-дескриптивное и гуманитарно-аксиологическое. Согласно нашей модели, принципы биоэтики представляют собой социальный институт регулирования и контроля технологического (биологического и социального) риска. Прикладные технологические разработки представлены (1) генной инженерией как инструментами управления биологической эволюцией и (2) социально-экономической инженерией как инструментами управления цивилизационным и социокультурным развитием. Эта бинарная структура логически вытекает из постулируемой нами трехмодульной организации устойчивой эволюционной стратегии человека разумного. Натурфилософия вновь приобретает статус основы теории эволюции в явном виде. Существует система метафизических постулатов и онтологических категорий, вытекающая из антропного принципа участия. Для современной неолиберальной политической демократии биовласть и биополитика выглядят наиболее эффективной технологией стабилизации сценариев и тенденций глобального эволюционного процесса, оптимальных в рамках этой идеологической системы. Выводы. Трансбиополитика в нашем понимании есть политическая проблематика, связанная с рационализацией глобального эволюционного процесса. В ближайшие десятилетия трансбиополитика станет несущим элементом глобального процесса эволюции ноосферы с последующим усложнением и увеличением когезии между отдельными социокультурными типами, входящими в систему современной глобализирующейся цивилизации. ; Постановка проблеми. Сучасний етап розвитку науки визначається радикальними інституційними змінами в її соціальному статусі та структурі. Основні відмінності від класичного етапу зводяться до: по-перше, відмови від принципу етичної нейтральності наукового знання і, по-друге, реального перегляду змісту категорії «парадигма» як центрального елементу організації теоретичних знань. Її замінюють значно більш складними конструкціями, що складаються з кількох гетерогенних компонентів. Відбувається взаємне проникнення публічно-аксіологічної та описово-наукової форм дискурсу, що створює нерозривну єдність щодо змісту теоретичної структури. Публікацію присвячено аналізу цих обидвох аспектів теоретичної технонауки. У відповідності до специфічності предмету дослідження було застосовано методи квантифікаційного дискурсивного та концептуального аналізу метатеоретичних і онтологічних знань відповідно. Надметою є визначення базової схеми взаємодії між організацією трансдисциплінарної матриці та онтологічним рівнем теоретичного технознання. У онтологічному аспекті технонаука (постакадемічна наука) є теоретичним і технологічним інструментарієм щодо управління напрямком біологічної та соціокультурної еволюції. У епістемологічному аспекті сучасні теорії, що мають людський вимір, містять специфічну (транс)дисциплінарну матрицю, що складається не з одного, а двох парадигмальних ядер: науково-дескриптивного та гуманітарно-аксіологічного. Згідно з нашою моделлю, принципи біоетики є соціальним інститутом регулювання та контролю технологічного (біологічного та соціального) ризику. Прикладні технологічні розробки представлені (1) генною інженерією як інструментом управління біологічною еволюцією та (2) соціально-економічною інженерією як засобом управління цивілізаційним і соціокультурним розвитком. Ця бінарна структура логічно походить з постульованої нами трьохмодульної організації стабільної еволюційної стратегії людини розумної. Натурфілософія знову набуває статусу основної теорії еволюції в експліцитному вигляді. Існує система метафізичних постулатів і онтологічних категорій, що походить з антропного принципу участі. Для сучасної неоліберальної політичної демократії біовлада та біополітика є найбільш ефективною технологією стабілізації сценаріїв і тенденцій глобального еволюційного процесу, оптимальними щодо цієї ідеологічної системи. Висновки. Трансбіополітика у нашому розумінні постає як політична проблематика, пов'язана з раціоналізацією глобального еволюційного процесу. Найближчими десятиліттями трансбіополітика стане несучим елементом глобального процесу еволюції ноосфери з подальшим ускладненням і збільшенням когезії між окремими соціокультурними типами, що входять до системи сучасної глобальної цивілізації.

The relevance of this study is explained by the need to find out the heuristic parameters of one of the segments of the institutional analysis of Ukrainian political science - sociological institutionalism. At the present stage of world development of institutional research in politics, it is no longer enough to turn to the formalized aspects of the essence of political institutions, which is still a fairly common approach - in contrast to the general theory of the new institutionalism. Also, there is a widespread view that the latest models of research strategies can be offered only by foreign political science and it is among its developments that the necessary analytical tools should be sought. Due to certain historical aspects of the political development of our country, political science research has not been able to develop synchronously with global trends for a long time, but it is possible to assume that today this situation is gradually changing. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to concretize in domestic political science the analytical field of such research areas of the new institutionalism as sociological institutionalism and systematize the main parameters of its research strategy. As a result of the study, it was found that the provisions of sociological institutionalism of political science are based on more normative-formalized approaches compared to other types of institutionalism because its formation was significantly influenced by the theory of organizations. Most Ukrainian scholars use the methodological tools of this area of institutionalism for a comprehensive analysis of the nature of the political institution as a research unit, which is close in its characteristics to the latest world examples and requires an appropriate research methodology. The group of specific issues considered by domestic scholars on the basis of the provisions of sociological institutionalism is opened by the normative aspects of the functioning of international politics (for example, humanization), which in this dimension is in the center of attention of foreign scholars as well. A more interesting area of research is the peculiarities of the process of European integration, the analysis of which also begins in the works of foreign scholars, but we are interested in this question given Ukraine's European ambitions - whether its regulatory Europeanization will have appropriate prospects. Another important aspect of research using the methodology of this area of institutional analysis, and again - important for our country, are the socio-political processes in transition societies, where democratization has begun, but the achievements in this way are difficult to call sustainable. ; Актуальность данного исследования объясняется необходимостью уточнения эвристических параметров одного из сегментов институционального анализа украинской политической науки – социологического институционализма. На современном этапе мирового развития институциональных исследований политики уже недостаточно обращаться к формализованным аспектам сущности политических институтов, что все еще является достаточно распространенным подходом – в отличие от общей теории нового институционализма. Также распространенным является мнение, что новейшие образцы исследовательских стратегий может предложить только зарубежная политическая наука и именно среди ее разработок следует искать необходимые аналитические инструменты. В силу определенных исторических аспектов политического развития нашей страны политологические исследования долгое время не имели возможности развиваться синхронно общемировым тенденциям, но теперь возможно предположить, что такая ситуация постепенно меняется. Поэтому целью данного исследования является конкретизация в отечественной политической науке аналитического поля такого направления исследований нового институционализма как социологический институционализм и систематизируем основные параметры его исследовательской стратегии.В результате проведения исследований было выявлено, что в основе положений социологического институционализма политической науки – более нормативно-формализованные подходы по сравнению с другими разновидностями институционализма, поскольку на его формирование значительное влияние оказала теория организаций. Большинство украинских ученых применяет методологический инструментарий этого направления институционализма для комплексного анализа природы политического института как исследовательской единицы, которая приближается в своих характеристикам к последними мировыми примерам и требует соответствующей методологии исследования. Группу конкретной проблематики, которая рассматривается отечественными учеными на основе положений социологического институционализма, открывают нормативные аспекты функционирования международной политики (например, гуманизация), которая в данном измерении находится в центре внимания и зарубежных ученых также. Более интересным направлением исследований являются особенности процесса европейской интеграции, анализ которого тоже берет начало в работах иностранных ученых, однако нас этот вопрос интересует, учитывая евроинтеграционные амбиции Украины – будет ли иметь соответствующие перспективы ее нормативная европеизация. Еще одним важным аспектом исследования с помощью методологии этого направления институционального анализа, и снова – значимым для нашей страны являются социально-политические процессы в переходных обществах, в которых демократизация началась, но достижения на этом пути трудно назвать устойчивыми. ; Актуальність даного дослідження пояснюється необхідністю уточнення евристичних параметрів одного із сегментів інституціонального аналізу української політичної науки – соціологічного інституціоналізму. На сучасному етапі світового розвитку інституціональних досліджень політики вже недостатньо звертатись до формалізованих аспектів сутності політичних інститутів, що все ще є досить розповсюдженим підходом – на відміну від загальної теорії нового інституціоналізму. Також поширеним є бачення, що новітні зразки дослідницьких стратегій може запропонувати лише зарубіжна політична наука і саме серед її розробок слід шукати необхідні аналітичні інструменти. Через певні історичні аспекти політичного розвитку нашої країни політологічні дослідження тривалий час не мали можливості розвиватися синхронно загальносвітовим тенденціям, але можливо припустити, що на сьогодні така ситуація поступово змінюється. Тому за мету нашого дослідження було взято конкретизацію у вітчизняній політичній науці аналітичного поля такого напряму досліджень нового інституціоналізму як соціологічний інституціоналізм та систематизуємо основні параметри його дослідницької стратегії. У результаті проведення дослідження було виявлено, що в основі положень соціологічного інституціоналізму політичної науки є більш нормативно-формалізовані підходи порівняно з іншими різновидами інституціоналізму оскільки на його формування вагомий вплив справила теорія організацій. Більшість українських вчених застосовує методологічний інструментарій цього напряму інституціоналізму для комплексного аналізу природи політичного інституту як дослідницької одиниці, яка наближається у свої характеристиках до останніх світових прикладів і потребує відповідної методології дослідження. Групу конкретної проблематики, яка розглядається вітчизняними вченими на основі положень соціологічного інституціоналізму, відкривають нормативні аспекти функціонування міжнародної політики (наприклад, гуманізація), яка в даному вимірі перебуває в центрі уваги і зарубіжних вчених також. Більш цікавим напрямом досліджень є особливості процесу європейської інтеграції, аналіз якого теж бере початок у роботах іноземних вчених, проте нас це питання цікавить з огляду на євроінтеграційні амбіції України – чи матиме відповідні перспективи її нормативна європеїзація. Ще одним важливим аспектом дослідження за допомогою методології цього напряму інституціонального аналізу, і знову – значущим для нашої країни є соціально-політичні процеси у перехідних суспільствах, в яких демократизація почалася, але досягнення на цьому шляху важко назвати стійкими.

The therapeutic effects of wetlands help to keep people mentally healthy. Especially in developing countries, health care prioritizes the treatment and prevention of physical illness before mental illness due to the high burden of physical and often fatal diseases. Wetlands are landscapes with important functions for the water cycle and the global climate by serving as water storages and CO2 sinks. Thus, the conservation of wetlands fulfils at least two functions: On the one hand, it contributes to the global climate regulation, on the other hand, it helps to prevent mental illness. The mental representation of places plays a role in short-term, mid-term and long-term actions. The research on this, however, requires an interdisciplinary approach since it combines medical, psychological and geographical complex of themes in analysing landscapes. The sensory perception of the body performs the window between human beings and nature. Landscapes contain places, which are evaluated cognitively and emotionally. Those places influence the individual and societal well-being. In this study, the impact of wetlands on mental well-being was assessed by the approach of therapeutic landscapes. This concept regards landscapes from a natural, structuralistic and humanistic view. It broadens the environmentalist perspective on landscapes by a humanistic one and aims to assess holistically the therapeutical effects of a landscape. The social-ecological perspective of medical geography forms the scientific background of this concept. The focus is on social and societal constructions of landscapes in order to assess positive impacts on mental well-being. A wetland in Uganda was investigated by its symbolic and social space as well as by its activity and experienced space. A qualitative study contained seven in-depth interviews with different stakeholders. The historical development of the wetland was assessed. Another six group interviews with 48 participants in total were conducted by applying PRA-methods. The results underpinned the results of a quantitative study of different psychometric scales assessing the functional and emotional bonding to the wetland, life satisfaction, emotional well-being, stress perception and self-esteem of the wetland's residents (n=235). The study shows that the residents strongly identify with the wetland due to the provision of livelihood by the wetland. Additionally, the recreational value and the cultural heritage of this ecosystem play a role. Place identity develops with personal biography and also with the societal and social biography of the wetland. The biological diversity and the constant provision of resources result in an ecological identification and secondly in an ecological pride of the residents on the wetland. Those feelings, however, decrease with the increasing degradation of the ecosystem. The change of symbolic meanings of the wetland mirrors the historical development of the country. The sense of place of Uganda's wetlands went through certain opposite states from wastelands via the land of fortune to sadlands. Environmental changes of wetlands and the development of the country stay in a close dialectical relationship. The social fabric in wetlands is highly complex since these landscapes provide many resources in which various stakeholders claim their interest. The hierarchical structure of the social space and the distribution of resources contain high conflict potentials, which may negatively impact perception of the landscape. The social space of wetlands is decisive for mental well-being. The sense of place can be influenced by governmental incentives. This provides an opportunity to highlight wetlands as areas worth of protection. Nevertheless, in terms of a sustainable environmental protection, farmers only have a restricted scope of action. This task must be delegated to higher governmental and social levels, while the involvement and say of locals must be guaranteed. Wetlands are landscapes positively impacting on mental well-being due to their regulatory and provisional functions as well as due to their aesthetic and cultural values. The study shows, however, that health-promoting effects of wetlands are linked to certain conditions in the symbolic, social, action and experienced space. ; Therapeutische Effekte von Feuchtgebieten auf das mentale Wohlbefinden - Das Konzept der therapeutischen Landschaften angewandt auf ein Ökosystem in Uganda Therapeutische Effekte von Feuchtgebieten helfen dabei Menschen psychisch und damit auch physisch gesund zu erhalten. Insbesondere in Entwicklungsländern wird die medizinische Versorgung von psychisch Erkrankten aufgrund der besonderen Krankheitslast lebensbedrohlicher physischer Erkrankungen häufig als zweitrangig betrachtet. Feuchtgebiete sind Landschaften, die Wasser speichern und als CO2-Senken fungieren. Sie erfüllen dadurch eine zentrale Rolle in Bezug auf die globale Klimaregulierung und den Wasserhaushalt. Der Schutz von Feuchtgebieten trägt somit zum einen zum globalen Klimaschutz und zum anderen zur Prävention mentaler Erkrankungen bei. Die Repräsentation von Orten in der menschlichen Psyche spielt eine Rolle für kurz- mittel und langfristiges Handeln. Die Erforschung dieser Thematik bedarf einer interdisziplinären Perspektive, da sie medizinische, psychologische und geographische Themenkomplexe miteinander kombiniert und Landschaften danach analysiert. Die sensorische Wahrnehmung des Körpers ist das Fenster zwischen Mensch und Natur. Landschaften beinhalten Orte, die kognitiv und emotional bewertet werden, diese haben Einfluss auf das individuelle und gesellschaftliche Wohlbefinden. Der Einfluss von Feuchtgebieten auf das mentale Wohlbefinden seiner Bewohner wurde mittels des Konzepts der Therapeutischen Landschaften ermittelt. Dieses Konzept betrachtet Landschaften auf einer humanistischen, natürlichen und strukturalistischen Ebene. Das Konzept erweitert die naturwissenschaftliche um eine humanistische Perspektive und verfolgt einen holistischen Ansatz in der Darstellung therapeutischer Effekte einer Landschaft. Dem Konzept liegt die sozial-ökologische Perspektive aus der medizinischen Geographie zu Grunde. Es geht nicht um die Darstellung naturwissenschaftlicher Prozesse, sondern darum das soziale und gesellschaftliche Landschaftskonstrukt zu begreifen um dessen positive Einflüsse auf das mentale Wohlbefinden zu erfassen. Ein Feuchtgebiet in Uganda wurde als Untersuchungsgebiet herangezogen. Es wurde als symbolischer, sozialer Raum sowie als Erfahrungs- und Aktionsraum untersucht. Eine qualitative Teilstudie beinhaltete sieben Tiefeninterviews mit unterschiedlichen Interessensvertretern des Feuchtgebietes in denen die historische Entwicklung des Feuchtgebietes erfasst wurde. Sechs Gruppeninterviews mit insgesamt 48 Teilnehmern wurden mit PRA-Methoden durchgeführt, die hermeneutisch zu den Ergebnissen einer Umfrage herangezogen wurden. Verschiedenen psychometrischen Skalen erfassten die funktionale und emotionale Bindung zum Feuchtgebiet sowie emotionales Wohlbefinden, Lebenszufriedenheit, Stressempfinden sowie Selbstwertgefühl der Bewohner des Feuchtgebietes (n=235). Die Studie zeigt, dass die Bewohner sich mit dem Feuchtgebiet stark identifizieren. Hierbei spielt die Sicherstellung des eigenen Lebensunterhalts durch das Feuchtgebiet eine zentrale Rolle. Außerdem sind der Erholungswert und das kulturelle Erbe dieses Ökosystems von Bedeutung. Place Identity entwickelt sich mit der persönlichen Entwicklung aber auch mit der gesellschaftlichen und sozialen Entwicklung des Feuchtgebietes. Ökologische Vielfalt und die konstante Bereitstellung von Ressourcen führen zur ökologischen Identifikation und sekundär zu einem ökologischen Stolz der Bewohner über das Feuchtgebiet. Diese Gefühle gehen jedoch mit zunehmender Degradation des Ökosystems verloren. Der symbolische Wandel des Feuchtgebietes spiegelt die historische Entwicklung des Landes wider. Der Sense of Place der Feuchtgebiete Ugandas hat im Laufe der Geschichte des Landes einen starken Wandel von Wastelands über das Land of Fortune hin zu Sadlands durchlaufen. Veränderungen der Feuchtgebiete und Entwicklungen der Gesellschaft stehen in einem dialektischen Zusammenhang. Die soziale Struktur in Feuchtgebieten ist sehr komplex, da diese Landstriche viele Ressourcen liefern an die diverse Interessen geknüpft sind. Die hierarchische Struktur des sozialen Raums und die Verteilung von Ressourcen bieten Konfliktpotenziale, die einen stark negativen Einfluss auf die Wahrnehmung der Landschaft haben. Der soziale Raum in Feuchtgebieten erweist sich in Uganda als entscheidend für das mentalen Wohlbefinden. Der Sense of Place kann durch staatliche Anreize verändert werden, was Möglichkeiten bietet, Feuchtgebiete zu schützenswerten Gegenständen zu deklarieren. Der Handlungsrahmen des einzelnen Bewohners jedoch ist im Sinne des langfristigen und nachhaltigen Umweltschutzes sehr begrenzt. Diese Aufgabe muss an höhere staatliche und soziale Ebenen weitergegeben werden, wobei Einbezug und Mitspracherecht der lokalen Bevölkerung garantiert sein muss. Feuchtgebiete sind Landschaften, die durch ihre regulatorischen und versorgenden Ressourcen, sowie ihren ästhetischen und kulturellen Wert positiv auf den Menschen wirken. Die Studie zeigt jedoch, dass gesundheitsfördernde Effekte von Feuchtgebieten an grundsätzliche Bedingungen im symbolischen, sozialen sowie Erfahrungs- und Aktionsraum gebunden sind.

Hallintouudistus Etiopian korkeakoulujärjestelmässä:Tapaustutkimus Business Management Tool -välineiden käytöstä Mekellen yliopistossa Muutokset sosioekonomisessa ja poliittisessa kehityksessä ovat monissa maissa johtaneet usein myös korkeakoulujen johtamisen ja hallinnon mallien muutoksiin. Ulkoisen toimintaympäristön muutoksista johtuva tehokkuuden, tilivelvollisuuden ja läpinäkyvyyden tavoittelu on pakottanut yliopistot ottamaan käyttöön yritysmaailmassa suosittuja toimintastrategioita ja johtamismalleja. Tämä kehitys on tuonut suuria paineita yliopistoille niiden etsiessä tasapainoa näiden liike-elämässä kehitettyjen menetelmien ja yliopistojen omien sisäisten arvojen, uskomusten, normien ja toimintatapojen välillä. Yliopistojen akateemisten perusyksikköjen reaktiot ja niiden jäsenten käsitysten muutokset ovat sen muutoksen ytimessä, johon ulkoapäin tuotujen, alun perin yritysjohdon tarpeisiin suunnitelluilla johtamisen välineillä (Business Management Tools, BMT) pyritään vaikuttamaan. Tätä taustaa vasten tämä tutkimus pyrkii ymmärtämään ja tulkitsemaan Mekellen yliopiston ja sen akateemisten perusyksikköjen käsityksiä ja vastauksia BMT-välineiden käyttöönoton tuomiin paineisiin ja vaatimuksiin. Tutkimuksessa käytetään resurssiriippuvuusteoriaa ja uusinstitutionaalista teoriaa tapausyliopiston organisatoristen reaktioiden ymmärtämiseksi. Tutkimuksen aineisto on laadullinen ja se koostuu puolistrukturoidusta, organisaatio- ja yksikkötason avainhenkilöiden haastatteluista, tapausyliopiston dokumentti- ja arkistoaineistosta sekä muiden merkittävien sidosryhmien politiikkadokumenteista. Kerätty aineisto kokonaisuudessaan on analysoitu temaattisesti. Analyysin tulokset osoittavat, että BMT-välineet on otettu käyttöön ulkoapäin annettuina ja että akateeminen henkilöstö pitää niitä pääosin yliopiston ja sen akateemisten yksiköiden kulttuuriin ja toimintamalleihin sopimattomina. Koska Etiopian valtio on julkisten yliopistojen ainoana rahoittajana ottanut nämä välineet valtionohjauksen instrumenteiksi,Mekellen yliopisto on mukautunut paineisiin ja vaatimuksiin ottamalla nämä välineet myös sisäisesti käyttöönsä. Kuitenkin, koska valtionohjaus BMT-välineiden käyttöönottamiseksi voidaan tulkita prosessiltaan pakottavaksi toimenpiteeksi, yliopisto ja sen perusyksiköt suostuivat symbolisella tasolla ottamaan välineistön käyttöönsä varmistaakseen näin legitimiteettinsä ja selviytymisensä eikä niinkään lisätäkseen tehokkuuttaan ja vaikuttavuuttaan kuten valtio oli olettanut. Tämä tutkimus osoittaa lisäksi, että valtaosa BMT-välineiden käyttöönottoon tähtäävien ohjelmien ja toimintojen kehittämisestä ei ole rakenteellisesti integroitunut yliopiston ja sen akateemisten yksikköjen arvoihin, normeihin ja toimintamalleihin. Toisin sanoen,tämä tutkimus ei anna tukea väitteille siitä, että BMT-välineiden käyttöönotto olisi saanut aikaan merkittäviä organisatorisia muutoksia yliopiston ja sen yksiköiden työprosesseissa. Ylipäänsä yliopiston johdon voidaan havaita olevan eräänlaisessa tienhaarassa etsiessään tasapainoa akateemisten arvojen ja normien sekä BMT-välineiden käyttöönoton aiheuttamien ulkoisten paineiden välillä. Näiden havaintojen pohjalta voidaan suositella, että onnistuakseen akateemiseen toimintaan vaikuttavien merkittävien reformien tulisi olla mieluummin sisäsyntyisiä kuin ulkoapäin ja määräyksillä toteutettuja. Yliopiston autonomian tulisi olla tarpeeksi vahva, että ne pystyisivät ulkoisen ja sisäisen tilannearvionsa pohjalta kehittämään organisatoristen ominaispiirteidensä ja toimintaympäristönsä vaatimusten mukaisia uudistumisohjelmia. Lisäksi tutkimustulokset tukevat suositusta yliopiston sisäisen johtamis- ja hallintokapasiteetin vahvistamiseen tähtäävän koulutuksen käynnistämisestä yliopiston vakaan kehityksen takaamiseksi. Kansallisen korkeakoulututkimuksen keskuksen perustaminen ja toiminta auttaisivat yliopistojen johtoa yliopisto-organisaation erityislaatuisen dynamiikan ymmärtämisessä. Kaiken kaikkiaan, tutkimustulokset korostavat tarvetta jonka mukaan kaikkien sidosryhmien tulisi syvällisemmin ymmärtää yliopistoille ominaista muutosten dynamiikkaa pystyäkseen saamaan aikaan tavoittelemiaan muutoksia. ; Governance Reform in the Ethiopian Higher Education System: Organisational responses to business management tools in the Case of Mekelle University Changes in the socio-economic and political development of many countries have often resulted in changes in the governance arrangements of higher education institutions. The quest for efficiency, accountability, and transparency, which are the results of the changes in the external environment, have forced universities to adopt organisational strategies and management structures that are popular in business organisations. This development has brought enormous pressures to universities in their efforts to balance the pressures and requirements of business management tools with the internal values, beliefs, norms and practices of the universities. At the core of the process of adopting externally-driven business management tools are the perceptions and responses of universities and their academic units towards these tools. This study thus sought to understand and interpret the perceptions and responses of Mekelle University and its basic academic units to the pressures and requirements of BMTs. The study was guided by resource dependence and neo-institutional theories for understanding the organisational response of the case university. Qualitative data were used, including semi-structured interviews with key informants at the organisational level and members of the academic units, documents and archival data found in the university and from other major stakeholders. All the collected data were analysed thematically. The findings show that the BMTs are externally initiated and largely perceived as inappropriate tools for the culture and practices of the university and its basic academic units. As BMTs are initiated by the government, which is the sole funder of the public universities in Ethiopia, MU complied with the pressures, requirements and demands of the government to adopt these tools. However, as BMTs are largely perceived as inappropriate by the academic community to the university's values and norms, and their adoption is felt to be accompanied by an absence of quality and committed leadership at all levels of the university, MU and its basic academic units symbolically complied with the reform tools in order to insure survival and legitimacy not to improve efficiency and effectiveness as is envisaged by those who mandated the implementation of the tools. Moreover, this study indicates that most of the interventions and programmes crated by the university following the adoption of BMTs are not structurally integrated with the values, norms, practices and policies of the university and its academic units. In other words, the results demonstrate that there is little evidence to support the government and the university's claims that the adoption of these BMTs brought radical organisational changes in the university's and basic academic units' work processes. In general, the leadership of the university is in a crossroad keeping the right balance between the values and norms of the academics, and the external pressures to adopt BMTs as tools for radical organisational change in general and instruments for efficiency and effectiveness in particular. Therefore, the study recommends that major academic reform initiatives should be internally driven rather than imposed from outside. The university should have meaningful institutional autonomy to assess its internal and external situations and to come up with relevant reform agendas that take into account the basic characteristics of the university and the external environment's demands. Moreover, the findings of this study suggest that the university needs to introduce sustainable internal capacity development programmes and due focuses on establishing higher education study centre to have comprehensive understanding about the dynamics of change in universities. In general, the study call for much more nuanced approach by all stakeholders if reforms have to serve their purposes.

These last years, the West Bank cities knew a very dynamic urban development but this urbanization is framed(supervised) by legislative and technical devices(plans) inherited from the successive periods of colonization today which are not any more adapted to the contemporary city. This anarchy urban development joined little by little in the ways of thinking of the actors local as a necessity justified by the geopolitical situation and the economic development of the country. The market of the accommodation(housing) increased in the point of future today an essential component of the transformation(processing) of the West Bank cities. Our research work of six years, the conclusions of which are exposed(explained) in this thesis, consisted in describing then in analyzing the reality of this market which raises at present of numerous questions. Indeed, steady rhythm of the homebuilding left aside problems which we wished to put in perspective here. These processes question first of all the reality and the coherence of this market with an offer which has to correspond to the demand(request) both on the plan quantitative and qualitative. The situation of the accommodation(housing) in the West Bank also asks the question of the structuring of the urban fabric which transcends from now on the municipal limits, the land(basic) logics and the high-risk areas. Finally, asks itself the question of the living environment for the populations, the townscape to become and the disappearance of an identity to there there passed on(transmitted) partially by the traditional housing environment. This research work rested(supported) by conversations(maintenances) and by construction of a real system of geographical information allowed to verify the adequacy enter on one side, the process of production of the accommodation(housing) and the wills which are associated with it, and of the other one, the reality of the ground and the real stakes in the Palestinian accommodation(housing).The absence of geographical and statistical data on this territory urged to us to build a complete tool of cartographic and demographic analysis allowing to describe the past phenomena, to analyze the present situation and especially to create a forward-looking model for horizons 2025 and 2050. Through, the case of the city of Nablus, it seems that actors' games(sets) noticed today, are justified by no geographical or demographic coherence. On the contrary, we show here that interested logics of market are at work, presenting a fait accompli a failing legal and technical framework. The consequences, from today visible, noticed on the ground and mapped here, question seriously the long-lasting(sustainable) character of the West Bank cities. These results(profits) highlight a destructive process for the whole urban armature of Palestine and require an answer. The geopolitical situation and the gravity of the identified risks urge us to propose recommendations for the implementation of a real local politics(policy) of the housing environment which has to condition(package) the emergence of an urban control(master's degree). Carried(Worn) by an intermunicipal governance on the scale of the urban area, we describe a tool of planning and programming allowing urban project to depasser of the market of the accommodation(housing) in the construction of a real housing environment ; Ces dernières années, les villes Cisjordaniennes ont connu un développement urbain très dynamique mais cette urbanisation est aujourd'hui encadrée par des dispositifs législatifs et techniques hérités des périodes successives de colonisation qui ne sont plus adaptés à la ville contemporaine. Ce développement urbain anarchique s'est peu à peu inscrit dans les modes de pensée des acteurs locaux comme une nécessité justifiée par la situation géopolitique et ledéveloppement économique du pays. Le marché du logement s'est accru au point de devenir aujourd'hui une composante essentielle de la transformation des villes cisjordaniennes. Notre travail de recherche de six ans, dont les conclusions sont exposées dans cette thèse, a consisté à décrire puis analyser la réalité de ce marché qui soulève actuellement de nombreuses questions. En effet, le rythme soutenu de la construction de logements a laissé de côté des problématiques que nous avons souhaitées mettre en perspective ici. Ces processus interrogent tout d'abord la réalité et la cohérence de ce marché avec une offre qui doit correspondre à la demande tant sur le plan quantitatif que qualitatif. La situation du logement en Cisjordanie pose aussi la question de la structuration du tissu urbain qui transcende désormais les limites communales, les logiques foncières et les zones à risques. Enfin, se pose la question du cadre de vie pour les populations, le paysage urbain en devenir et la disparition d'une identité jusque là transmise en partie par l'habitat traditionnel. Ce travail de recherche appuyé par des entretiens et par la construction d'un véritable système d'informationsgéographiques a permis de vérifier l'adéquation entre d'un côté, le processus de production du logement et les volontés qui y sont associées, et de l'autre, la réalité du terrain et les enjeux réels du logement palestinien. L'absence de données géographiques et statistiques sur ce territoire nous a poussé à construire un outil complet d'analyse cartographique etdémographique permettant de décrire les phénomènes passés, d'analyser la situation présente et surtout de créer un modèle prospectif pour les horizons 2025 et 2050. A travers, le cas de la ville de Naplouse, il apparaît que les jeux d'acteurs constatés aujourd'hui, ne sont justifiés par aucune cohérence géographique ou démographique. A l'inverse, nous montrons ici que des logiques de marché intéressées sont à l'oeuvre, plaçant devant le fait accompli un cadrelégislatif et technique défaillant. Les conséquences, dès aujourd'hui visibles, constatées sur le terrain et cartographiées ici, interrogent sérieusement le caractère durable des villes cisjordaniennes. Ces résultats mettent en évidence un processus destructeur pour l'ensemble de l'armature urbaine de la Palestine et nécessite une réponse. La situation géopolitique et lagravité des risques identifiés nous poussent à proposer des préconisations pour la mise en place d'une véritable politique locale de l'habitat qui doit conditionner l'émergence d'une maîtrise urbaine. Portés par une gouvernance intercommunale à l'échelle de l'aire urbaine, nous décrivons un outil de planification et de programmation permettant à projet urbain depasser du marché du logement à la construction d'un véritable habitat

The external conditions facing the transition economies slightly improved on balance during the year 2004. The eight new EU member states of Central and Eastern Europe (NMS-8) recorded higher GDP growth (5% on average) than in the previous year, largely thanks to expanding domestic demand - in particular of investment (Czech Republic, Hungary and Latvia) and of private consumption (Poland, Slovakia, Estonia and Lithuania). Growth accelerated also in Southeast Europe (except Croatia and Macedonia), as well as in Belarus and Ukraine (Russia's GDP grew by 7% again). The transition economies have thus been one of the most dynamic regions in the world. The NMS have been growing more than 2 percentage points faster than the 'old' EU-15. These countries not only add a certain dynamism to the European economy but put some pressure on the EU reform agenda as well. On the downside, the situation on the labour market remains precarious, robust economic growth notwithstanding. The average rate of unemployment in the NMS is nearly twice as high as in the EU-15 (mainly on account of Poland and Slovakia); in most of Southeast Europe it is even higher, with little prospect for marked improvements any time soon. The latter refers to industry in particular, which - despite a remarkable acceleration of output growth (10% on NMS average in 2004) - continues to shed labour. This implies impressive gains in labour productivity and, given the general wage restraint, in unit labour costs as well. The improving international costs competitiveness of NMS has recently been eroded by appreciating domestic currencies (Hungary, Poland and Slovakia). After a temporary increase in 2004 (largely caused by tax adjustments prior to EU accession and rising energy prices), inflation resumed its downward trend, reaching low single digits in most NMS (except Slovakia) and in the remaining transition countries as well (except Romania, Serbia and Ukraine). Russian inflation has been stubbornly high, fuelled by large inflows of foreign currency, tariff hikes and galloping producer prices. The remaining inflation differential with respect to the eurozone, magnified by a natural appreciation tendency of NMS currencies (frequently stimulated by short-term capital inflows) may lead to competitiveness losses in the future. Given the ongoing productivity and quality improvements this danger is not imminent in most NMS yet. Still the exchange rate developments should be watched closely, not least in the period prior to EMU accession, which in several NMS will probably extend beyond 2010. The need to reduce excessive budget deficits represents another challenge facing several NMS in the coming years. The outstanding feature of last year's economic developments was a boost in foreign trade (or of intra-EU dispatches and arrivals in the case of NMS). NMS exports jumped by more than 20% in current euro terms, somewhat faster than imports (+18%), yet their aggregate trade balance slightly deteriorated (in fact foreign trade contributed positively to GDP growth in Poland only). Nonetheless, the export sector of NMS is strengthening - not least thanks to sustained reforms and large FDI inflows in the past few years - and their integration in the European and world economy is increasing. Today, 86% of NMS exports and 72% of imports represent intra-EU trade. Given the high (and rising) export surpluses of Russia and Ukraine - in both cases swelled by rising world market commodity prices - the trade contribution to growth has been positive in these countries as well. After the takeover of EU external trade policies upon accession, especially intra-NMS trade (preliminary estimates suggest an increase by 30% in 2004) and extra-EU trade are booming. Altogether, the NMS enjoy a surplus in trade transactions with the EU, an achievement attributable largely to the high and growing surpluses of the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia (and to a lower deficit in Poland); the separate effect of trade with the EU on GDP growth was most likely positive. In Southeast Europe, trade integration is (with few exceptions such as Bulgaria) still rather low and many countries in the region suffer from huge trade and current account deficits which may not be sustainable (particularly in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia). The EU accession of eight Central and East European countries on 1 May 2004 has brought few surprises and may generally be considered a success. The accession was well prepared and managed. The direct economic effects of accession on the NMS are difficult to identify economic growth, especially of industry, had speeded up already before May 2004, a temporary increase of inflation was soon successfully contained and domestic currencies strengthened. Net transfers from the EU budget were negligible (less than 1% of NMS GDP), yet inflows of FDI picked up in 2004 again - albeit remaining below the peak of 2000-2002. The GDP growth outlook is fairly robust barring major external shocks, the NMS are expected to grow by 4-5% annually in the coming years (the Baltic States will continue to enjoy even somewhat higher growth) thus maintaining their speed of nominal and real convergence to the 'old' EU. Inflation is converging to eurozone levels as well. The shadow side of this fairly upbeat forecast is the labour market where no substantial reduction of unemployment is expected. Estonia, Lithuania and Slovenia (all already participating in the ERM II) may adopt the euro in late 2006 or early 2007, with the remaining 'high-deficit' NMS following suit during 2008-2010. Also the economic outlook for Southeast Europe is more encouraging now than in the recent past GDP growth will accelerate in most countries (without recurring inflation), but unemployment will remain high. As far as the integration prospects of this region are concerned, Bulgaria and Romania will become EU members in 2007, followed by Croatia in 2008 and with Macedonia the next candidate. The coming two years will be crucial also for the remaining countries of the Western Balkans as a number of exceptionally difficult issues will have to be solved (in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo). If everything goes well (and there are a lot of caveats) the whole region could be in the EU around 2015. However, by that time the issue of Turkey's EU membership will have to be finally decided and a possible application of Ukraine (as well as Moldova) for EU membership will have to be dealt with. In addition, the enlarged EU will simultaneously have to clarify its relations with Russia. These challenging developments will doubtlessly require a new (and this time much more radical) reform of the whole system of EU institutions.

ABSTRAKSaat ini wisata syariah yang biasa dikenal dengan wisata religi sedang menjamur, khususnya di Jawa Timur. Sosok yang dianggap wali oleh sebagian orang itu berada di Surabaya, Gresik, dan Tuban, namun saat ini berkembang di kabupaten Jombang, yakni makam Presiden ke-4 Abdurrahman Wahid yang disebut Gus Dur. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pemahaman masyarakat dalam memanfaatkan peluang wisata religi makam Gus Dur dalam meningkatkan perekonomian masyarakat sekitar pondok pesantren Tebuireng khususnya di dusun Jalan Seblak gang III. Penelitian ini dapat dicermati melalui perubahan kehidupan ekonomi, pemanfaatan peluang usaha dan faktor penghambat bagi kepentingan usaha. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif dengan teknik pengumpulan data wawancara dan dokumentasi. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa masyarakat setempat mengalami perubahan ekonomi dengan memanfaatkan peluang untuk membangun warung di atas tanah mereka dan menyewakannya kepada pedagang luar. Ini memberikan nilai ekonomi tambahan. Namun, penjualan warung-warung tersebut dinilai tidak mencukupi, sehingga mengharuskan mereka untuk membuka usaha sampingan. Terdapat peluang yang sangat baik bagi masyarakat untuk memilih menyewakan lapaknya karena faktor penghambat yaitu keluarga, tenaga kerja, permodalan, dan rasa empati yang tinggi terhadap pedagang pendatang. Saran bagi Pemerintah Kabupaten Jombang adalah memfasilitasi masyarakat dengan pengetahuan kewirausahaan dengan mengadakan seminar agar memiliki pengetahuan dan motivasi yang tinggi untuk menjalankan bisnis.Kata Kunci: Wisata Religi Makam Gus Dur, Peningkatan Ekonomi, Peluang Usaha. ABSTRACTCurrently, sharia tourism, commonly known as religious-friendly tourism is proliferating, especially in East Java. The figure, who is considered a guardian by some people, is located in Surabaya, Gresik, and Tuban but currently developing in the Jombang district, namely the tomb of the 4th President Abdurrahman Wahid, who is called Gus Dur. This study aims to determine the understanding of the community in taking advantage of religious tourism opportunities in Gus Dur's tomb in improving the community's economy around the Tebuireng Islamic boarding school, especially in the hamlet of Street Seblak street alley III. This study can be observed through changes in economic life, utilization of business opportunities and inhibiting factors for business interests. This study uses a qualitative descriptive method with interview and documentation data collection techniques. The results of this study show that the local community is experiencing economic changes by taking advantage of the opportunity to build a warung on their land and rent it out to outside traders. It provides added economic value. However, the sales of the stalls are considered insufficient, so they require them to open a side business. There is an excellent opportunity for the community to choose to rent out their stalls because of the inhibiting factors, namely family, labour, capital, and a high sense of empathy for migrant traders. The suggestion for the Jombang Regency Government is to facilitate the community with entrepreneurial knowledge by holding seminars to have high knowledge and motivation for business interests.Keywords: Religion Tourism of Gus Dur Tomb, Economic Improvement, Business Opportunity. REFERENCESAbdi, M. K., & Febriyanti, N. (2020). Penyusunan strategi pemasaran islam dalam berwirausaha di sektor ekonomi kreatif pada masa pandemi covid-19. El Qist - Journal of Islamic Economics and Business, 10(2), 160–179.Abduh, M. (2019). The role of Islamic social finance in achieving SDG Number 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. 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ÖZET Ülkelerin de bireyler gibi farklılıkları vardır. Bu vaka da ise bunlar doğal kaynaklar, emek, sermaye, teknoloji gibi farklılıklardır. Ancak, bu ülkeler mal ve hizmet ticareti için bir anlaşmaya vararak farklılıklarından önemli ölçüde yararlanabilirler. Bu anlaşmalar yıllar boyunca dünya genelinde Uluslararası ticarette ve Yatırımda hızlı bir büyüme ile sonuçlanmıştır. Doğrudan yabancı yatırım (DYY), uzun vadeli bir ilişkiyi içeren ve bir ekonomideki yerleşik bir kuruluş tarafından uzun vadeli bir ilgiyi ve kontrolü, bir ekonomideki (yabancı doğrudan yatırımcı veya ana girişim) uzun süren bir ilgiyi ve kontrolü yansıtan doğrudan yabancı yatırımcı haricindeki bir yatırım olarak tanımlamaktadır. İlk olarak, Uluslararası ticari bankalar, bu ülkelere bir finans kaynağı olarak hizmet verdi ancak küresel kredi krizlerinin bir sonucu olarak 1990'lı yıllarda banka kredileri bozulduğunda, bölgedeki çok sayıda ülkenin, yabancı kaynakları elde etmek için yatırım stratejileri ve planlarını değiştirmesi gerekti ve bu şekilde kredilerle alakalı sıkıntılar hafifletildi. Son zamanlarda, Sahra Altı Afrika ekonomileri kademeli olarak büyümektedir, ancak tespit edilen en büyük zorluklardan biri, tasarruflarının yatırım projeleri yürütmek için nispeten düşük olmasıdır. Bu nedenle, büyük ölçüde, doğrudan yatırımlar şeklindeki yabancı sermayeye bağımlıdırlar. Küreselleşme ve uluslararası ticaret, yatırım kaynaklarının, dünyada bir takım ülkeler için dış sermayenin ana akışı haline gelen Çok Uluslu Ticari Kümeler tarafından dünyada akışına kapılar açtı. Belirgin bir şekilde, son zamanlarda gelişmekte olan ve gelişmiş uluslarda yabancı doğrudan yatırımın işlevi daha yoğun hale geldi. Birleşmiş Milletler Ticaret ve Kalkınma Konferansına (UNCTAD) göre, küresel anlamda hareket eden toplam Yabancı Doğrudan Yatırım (FDI) miktarı, 1980'de 51,464 Milyar Dolardan 2016'da 2,3 Trilyon Dolara çok büyük bir artış sergilemiştir. Genel olarak Sahra Altı Afrikası'nda, brüt gelen FDI stoku, 1980'de 251,67 Milyon Dolardan 2016'da 38,364 Milyar Dolara yükselmiştir, bu artış, dünyanın diğer bölgeleri ile kıyaslandığında daha düşük bir artıştır. Bunun anlamı, FDI çekimi ile alakalı olarak Sahra Altı Afrika'nın (SSA) dünyanın diğer bölgelerinden farklı olarak etkin olmadığıdır. 2001 yılında kıtanın önde gelen ülkelerinden oluşan bir grup tarafından oluşturulmuş bir ortaklık programı olan Afrika'nın Kalkınması için Yeni Ortaklık (NEPAD), "IDG'lere (Uluslar arası Kalkınma Hedefleri) ulaşmak için gerekli olan tahmini yıllık yüzde 7'lik büyümeyi elde etmek için – özellikle, 2020 yılına kadar fakirlik içinde yaşayan Afrikalıların oranının yarıya düşürülmesi hedefi – Afrika'nın GSYİH'sinin yüzde 12'si ya da 64 Milyar Dolar değerinde bir yıllık kaynak boşluğunu doldurması gerektiğini ifade etti. Ekonomik İşbirliği ve Kalkınma Örgütü (OECD), bölgedeki yıllık kaynak boşluğunun, GSYİH'in -15'i civarında olduğunu (60-65 Milyar Dolar), bölgedeki ülkelerin, ekonomik sorunları çözmek ve vatandaşlarının yaşam koşullarını iyileştirmek için önemli kaynaklara ihtiyaç duydukları için güçlerini artırmaları gerektiğini ifade etmiştir. Son yıllarda, SSA ülkeleri, vergi kesintileri, belirli ürünlerde ithalat vergisi muafiyeti ve yabancı şirketlere bağışların verilmesi gibi teşvikler vererek yabancı doğrudan yatırımı çekmek için yoğun çabalar harcamaktadır. Yabancı doğrudan yatırım adına SSA'ya hücum dikkate alındığında, FDI'nın bugüne kadar alandaki ticaret ve büyümeye gerçek etkisine daha derin bir bakışa sahip olması gerektiğinden bahsedilmelidir. Politika yapıcıların, FDI girişlerinin, geçmişte kalkınma ve büyümeye neden olmadığını, bu yüzden ani bir yükselişin dikkatli bir şekilde beklendiği gerçeği etrafında toplanmak hayati önem taşımaktadır. Diğer açılardan, doğrudan yabancı yatırımın büyüme üzerinde olumlu bir etkisi olduğunu varsayıldığında, politika yapıcıların sürdürülebilir ekonomik gelişme için bekledikleri gibi doğrudan yabancı yatırım çekmeye yönelik fikir arayışında olmaları gerekmektedir. Bu değerlendirme tam olarak bu tezin başarmayı hedeflediği şeydir. Bu tez için bir vaka çalışması olarak Sahra Altı Afrika'yı seçmek özellikle önemlidir çünkü bölgeden geliyorum ve ayrıca SSA'ya özel bir vurgu yapan FDI hakkında çok az makale var ya da hiç yok. Bölge ile ilgili mevcut makalelerin bir kısmından geçtikten sonra, pek çok kişi FDI'nin SSA'ya belirleyicilerini veya FDI'nin belirli ülkelerde ne kadar iyi çalıştığının referanslarını tartıştı. Bu konuyla ilgili araştırma makalelerinin bulunmaması, bölgedeki doğrudan yabancı yatırımın etkisine girme fırsatı vermektedir ve bu şekilde bölge hakkında halihazırda mevcut olan literatürü sağlamaktadır. --- Countries just like Individuals have differences, in this case, in terms of natural resources, labor, capital, technology etc. However, these countries can significantly benefit from their differences by reaching an agreement to trade goods and services. These agreements have resulted in a rapid growth in International trade and Investment across the world over the years. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is defined as an investment involving a long-term relationship and reflecting a lasting interest and control by a resident entity in one economy (foreign direct investor or parent enterprise) in an enterprise resident in an economy other than that of the foreign direct investor. Recently, Sub-Saharan African economies have been growing gradually, however, one of their biggest challenges that have been identified is that their savings are relatively low to undertake investment projects. Because of this reason, they, to a very large extent depend on foreign capital in the form of direct investments. At first, International commercial banks served as a source of finance to these countries, but as bank lending deteriorated in the 1990s, as a result of the global credit crises, which compelled a large number of countries in the region to modify their investment strategies and plans to obtain foreign funds, this in a way mitigated the burden associated with loans. Globalization and international trade have opened doors to the flow of investment funds across the global by Multinational business conglomerates that has become the main stream of outside capital for a number of countries all across the world. Apparently, in recent times the function of foreign direct investment in developing and developed nations have been immense. According to the United Nation Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), sum total Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows globally have grown on a large scale, from $51.464 billion in 1980 to $2.3 trillion in 2016. In Sub-Saharan Africa overall, gross inward FDI stock has increased from $251.67 million in 1980 to $38.364 billion in 2016, a relatively smaller increase as compared to other regions in the world. This simply means that with regards to FDI attraction Sub Sahara Africa (SSA) has not been effective unlike other regions in the globe. The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), which is a partnership program established by a group of heads-of-state from all over the continent in 2001, states that in order to "achieve the estimated 7 per cent annual growth rate needed to meet the IDGs (International Development Goals) - particularly, the goal of reducing by half the proportion of Africans living in poverty by the year 2020 – Africa needs to fill an annual resource gap of 12 per cent of its GDP, or US $64 billion". The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has stated that the yearly fund gap in the region, which is around 12-15% of Gross Domestic Product ($60-$65 billion), countries in the region have to step up as they require substantial funds to ameliorate the economic problems and improve living conditions for its citizens. In recent years, SSA countries have been making immense strides to attract foreign direct investment by providing incentives such as income tax breaks, import duty exclusion on certain products and the provision of handouts to foreign companies. Taking into consideration the rush into SSA in the name of foreign direct investment, it would be worthwhile if we took a deeper look at the real impact of FDI on business and growth in the area thus far. It is absolutely vital for policymakers to reckon that the fact that FDI inflows have not resulted to growth and development in the historic past, so a sudden upturn should be cautiously anticipated. In other respects, supposing that FDI has had a favorable impact on growth, that being so, policy makers have a case in seeking ideas to draw FDI as they anticipate for sustainable economic advancement. This assessment is exactly what this thesis aims to achieve. Choosing Sub-Saharan Africa as a case study for this thesis is particularly important because I hail from the region and furthermore there are little or no papers on FDI with an exclusive emphasis on SSA. After going through some of the available papers that deals with the region, a great number of them discussed the determinants of FDI to SSA or references of how well FDI is doing in specific countries. The lack of research papers on this topic gives me an opportunity to delve into the effect of foreign direct investment in the region, by this way provide to the already available literature on the region.

ÖZETÜlkelerin de bireyler gibi farklılıkları vardır. Bu vaka da ise bunlar doğal kaynaklar, emek, sermaye, teknoloji gibi farklılıklardır. Ancak, bu ülkeler mal ve hizmet ticareti için bir anlaşmaya vararak farklılıklarından önemli ölçüde yararlanabilirler. Bu anlaşmalar yıllar boyunca dünya genelinde Uluslararası ticarette ve Yatırımda hızlı bir büyüme ile sonuçlanmıştır.Doğrudan yabancı yatırım (DYY), uzun vadeli bir ilişkiyi içeren ve bir ekonomideki yerleşik bir kuruluş tarafından uzun vadeli bir ilgiyi ve kontrolü, bir ekonomideki (yabancı doğrudan yatırımcı veya ana girişim) uzun süren bir ilgiyi ve kontrolü yansıtan doğrudan yabancı yatırımcı haricindeki bir yatırım olarak tanımlamaktadır. İlk olarak, Uluslararası ticari bankalar, bu ülkelere bir finans kaynağı olarak hizmet verdi ancak küresel kredi krizlerinin bir sonucu olarak 1990'lı yıllarda banka kredileri bozulduğunda, bölgedeki çok sayıda ülkenin, yabancı kaynakları elde etmek için yatırım stratejileri ve planlarını değiştirmesi gerekti ve bu şekilde kredilerle alakalı sıkıntılar hafifletildi. Son zamanlarda, Sahra Altı Afrika ekonomileri kademeli olarak büyümektedir, ancak tespit edilen en büyük zorluklardan biri, tasarruflarının yatırım projeleri yürütmek için nispeten düşük olmasıdır. Bu nedenle, büyük ölçüde, doğrudan yatırımlar şeklindeki yabancı sermayeye bağımlıdırlar.Küreselleşme ve uluslararası ticaret, yatırım kaynaklarının, dünyada bir takım ülkeler için dış sermayenin ana akışı haline gelen Çok Uluslu Ticari Kümeler tarafından dünyada akışına kapılar açtı. Belirgin bir şekilde, son zamanlarda gelişmekte olan ve gelişmiş uluslarda yabancı doğrudan yatırımın işlevi daha yoğun hale geldi. Birleşmiş Milletler Ticaret ve Kalkınma Konferansına (UNCTAD) göre, küresel anlamda hareket eden toplam Yabancı Doğrudan Yatırım (FDI) miktarı, 1980'de 51,464 Milyar Dolardan 2016'da 2,3 Trilyon Dolara çok büyük bir artış sergilemiştir.Genel olarak Sahra Altı Afrikası'nda, brüt gelen FDI stoku, 1980'de 251,67 Milyon Dolardan 2016'da 38,364 Milyar Dolara yükselmiştir, bu artış, dünyanın diğer bölgeleri ile kıyaslandığında daha düşük bir artıştır. Bunun anlamı, FDI çekimi ile alakalı olarak Sahra Altı Afrika'nın (SSA) dünyanın diğer bölgelerinden farklı olarak etkin olmadığıdır. 2001 yılında kıtanın önde gelen ülkelerinden oluşan bir grup tarafından oluşturulmuş bir ortaklık programı olan Afrika'nın Kalkınması için Yeni Ortaklık (NEPAD), "IDG'lere (Uluslar arası Kalkınma Hedefleri) ulaşmak için gerekli olan tahmini yıllık yüzde 7'lik büyümeyi elde etmek için – özellikle, 2020 yılına kadar fakirlik içinde yaşayan Afrikalıların oranının yarıya düşürülmesi hedefi – Afrika'nın GSYİH'sinin yüzde 12'si ya da 64 Milyar Dolar değerinde bir yıllık kaynak boşluğunu doldurması gerektiğini ifade etti.Ekonomik İşbirliği ve Kalkınma Örgütü (OECD), bölgedeki yıllık kaynak boşluğunun, GSYİH'in -15'i civarında olduğunu (60-65 Milyar Dolar), bölgedeki ülkelerin, ekonomik sorunları çözmek ve vatandaşlarının yaşam koşullarını iyileştirmek için önemli kaynaklara ihtiyaç duydukları için güçlerini artırmaları gerektiğini ifade etmiştir.Son yıllarda, SSA ülkeleri, vergi kesintileri, belirli ürünlerde ithalat vergisi muafiyeti ve yabancı şirketlere bağışların verilmesi gibi teşvikler vererek yabancı doğrudan yatırımı çekmek için yoğun çabalar harcamaktadır.Yabancı doğrudan yatırım adına SSA'ya hücum dikkate alındığında, FDI'nın bugüne kadar alandaki ticaret ve büyümeye gerçek etkisine daha derin bir bakışa sahip olması gerektiğinden bahsedilmelidir. Politika yapıcıların, FDI girişlerinin, geçmişte kalkınma ve büyümeye neden olmadığını, bu yüzden ani bir yükselişin dikkatli bir şekilde beklendiği gerçeği etrafında toplanmak hayati önem taşımaktadır. Diğer açılardan, doğrudan yabancı yatırımın büyüme üzerinde olumlu bir etkisi olduğunu varsayıldığında, politika yapıcıların sürdürülebilir ekonomik gelişme için bekledikleri gibi doğrudan yabancı yatırım çekmeye yönelik fikir arayışında olmaları gerekmektedir.Bu değerlendirme tam olarak bu tezin başarmayı hedeflediği şeydir. Bu tez için bir vaka çalışması olarak Sahra Altı Afrika'yı seçmek özellikle önemlidir çünkü bölgeden geliyorum ve ayrıca SSA'ya özel bir vurgu yapan FDI hakkında çok az makale var ya da hiç yok. Bölge ile ilgili mevcut makalelerin bir kısmından geçtikten sonra, pek çok kişi FDI'nin SSA'ya belirleyicilerini veya FDI'nin belirli ülkelerde ne kadar iyi çalıştığının referanslarını tartıştı. Bu konuyla ilgili araştırma makalelerinin bulunmaması, bölgedeki doğrudan yabancı yatırımın etkisine girme fırsatı vermektedir ve bu şekilde bölge hakkında halihazırda mevcut olan literatürü sağlamaktadır. --- Countries just like Individuals have differences, in this case, in terms of natural resources, labor, capital, technology etc. However, these countries can significantly benefit from their differences by reaching an agreement to trade goods and services. These agreements have resulted in a rapid growth in International trade and Investment across the world over the years. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is defined as an investment involving a long-term relationship and reflecting a lasting interest and control by a resident entity in one economy (foreign direct investor or parent enterprise) in an enterprise resident in an economy other than that of the foreign direct investor. Recently, Sub-Saharan African economies have been growing gradually, however, one of their biggest challenges that have been identified is that their savings are relatively low to undertake investment projects. Because of this reason, they, to a very large extent depend on foreign capital in the form of direct investments. At first, International commercial banks served as a source of finance to these countries, but as bank lending deteriorated in the 1990s, as a result of the global credit crises, which compelled a large number of countries in the region to modify their investment strategies and plans to obtain foreign funds, this in a way mitigated the burden associated with loans.Globalization and international trade have opened doors to the flow of investment funds across the global by Multinational business conglomerates that has become the main stream of outside capital for a number of countries all across the world.Apparently, in recent times the function of foreign direct investment in developing and developed nations have been immense. According to the United Nation Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), sum total Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows globally have grown on a large scale, from $51.464 billion in 1980 to $2.3 trillion in 2016.In Sub-Saharan Africa overall, gross inward FDI stock has increased from $251.67 million in 1980 to $38.364 billion in 2016, a relatively smaller increase as compared to other regions in the world. This simply means that with regards to FDI attraction Sub Sahara Africa (SSA) has not been effective unlike other regions in the globe.The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), which is a partnership programestablished by a group of heads-of-state from all over the continent in 2001, states that in order to "achieve the estimated 7 per cent annual growth rate needed to meet the IDGs (International Development Goals) - particularly, the goal of reducing by half the proportion of Africans living in poverty by the year 2020 – Africa needs to fill an annual resource gap of 12 per cent of its GDP, or US $64 billion".The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has stated that the yearly fund gap in the region, which is around 12-15% of Gross Domestic Product ($60-$65 billion), countries in the region have to step up as they require substantial funds to ameliorate the economic problems and improve living conditions for its citizens.In recent years, SSA countries have been making immense strides to attract foreign direct investment by providing incentives such as income tax breaks, import duty exclusion on certain products and the provision of handouts to foreign companies.Taking into consideration the rush into SSA in the name of foreign direct investment, it would be worthwhile if we took a deeper look at the real impact of FDI on business and growth in the area thus far. It is absolutely vital for policymakers to reckon that the fact that FDI inflows have not resulted to growth and development in the historic past, so a sudden upturn should be cautiously anticipated. In other respects, supposing that FDI has had a favorable impact on growth, that being so, policy makers have a case in seeking ideas to draw FDI as they anticipate for sustainable economic advancement. This assessment is exactly what this thesis aims to achieve. Choosing Sub-Saharan Africa as a case study for this thesis is particularly important because I hail from the region and furthermore there are little or no papers on FDI with an exclusive emphasis on SSA. After going through some of the available papers that deals with the region, a great number of them discussed the determinants of FDI to SSA or references of how well FDI is doing in specific countries. The lack of research papers on this topic gives me an opportunity to delve into the effect of foreign direct investment in the region, by this way provide to the already available literature on the region.

Using recent estimates of industry assistance rates, the effects of trade liberalization in the rest of the world and in Pakistan alone are analyzed using a global and a Pakistan computable general equilibrium (CGE) model under two tax replacement schemes: a direct income tax and an indirect tax replacement. The results indicate that the distributional and poverty effects in Pakistan of a unilateral liberalization of all traded goods are significantly greater than the effects of trade liberalization in the rest of the world. There is relatively higher increase in real income and larger decline in poverty incidence in poor households both in rural and urban areas. The effects of agricultural trade liberalization alone in both the rest of the world and in Pakistan are considerably smaller than those from trade liberalization involving all goods. In both the agricultural and all-goods trade liberalization scenarios involving direct income tax replacement, real household income is raised and the poverty incidence is lowered at varied rates across all household groups except for the urban non-poor. When an indirect tax replacement is used, where the burden of replacing tariff revenue is shared by all household groups depending on their consumption structure, there is reduction in household income for most of the groups and less reduction of poverty.

International audience The Korean construction industry has long provided a stable and strong power to the growth of the country's economy since the 1970's. The Korean construction activity continues to prosper nowadays as it is expected to rebound by 2.5% between 2015 and 2019. The government also continues to have high economic interest in all industry sector projects related to property investments in residential, commercial and infrastructure projects. However, analysts consider that the Korean economy is increasingly being over dependent on its construction industry. Many residential properties were designed, and for the most part still are, for single or young families. This may result in an unwelcome oversupply in the future especially with the ageing population. South Korea, with already 13.80% of eldery citizens, is expecting an eldery population rise up to 24.50% in 2030. This means that soon there will be a great demand on architects with design skills for senior citizens. This paper calls for addressing this critical demographic problem via the process of architectural constructions. The paper also suggests to work on a wide range of new and creative architectural models and gives a few recommendation to face all the contemporary and near future problems.

Public interest litigation is a mechanism of intervention in a matter that concerns the public. It could be about human rights, government policy, or some other issue that could present a challenge to public life. Public interest litigation is important because it presents hope to the powerless and offers justice where there might not previously have been the opportunity. The aim of public interest litigation is to recognise injustice and give a voice to the concerns of members of society who might not have the means to articulate them. In Nigeria there is a high tendency for people of low socioeconomic status to experience police brutality, or even become victims of extra-judicial killing. In this article, it was argued that although public interest litigation is a good strategy to engage the injustice of extra-judicial killings, the recurrence shows that the solution lies more in addressing a systemic problem. ; Dorcas A. 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The article is an extended and revised version of the report published in April 2020 in Russian: E. Puchkov, N. Knyaginina, I. Novoselov, Sz. Jankiewicz, Covid-19 and GIA-2020: strategies for conducting final exams in foreign and Russian universities // Modern Education Analytics. Express edition No. 4. April 20, 2020. URL: https://ioe.hse.ru/mirror/pubs/share/359132748 (15.06.2020). ; COVID-19 pandemic has changed the functioning of all levels of education systems. Schools and universities had to quickly adapt and change their procedures according to conditions created by the epidemic. Long perceived as additional and backup solutions, different distance learning technologies, particularly internet-based, became the main solution for the continuation of education on all levels. Several issues have stood out particularly with this seismic change – one of those is the issue of final examinations in universities. This issue is especially crucial in Russia, where the successful passing of a state final examination, which combines majority of the topics from the study program, is a prerequisite for graduation. This paper aims to analyze and present different strategies which were used for final university examinations in different countries and universities of the world and compare it with the Russian practices. ; Evgenii Puchkov: epuchkov@hse.ru ; Nadezhda Knyaginina: nknyaginina@hse.ru ; Ivan Novoselov: inovoselov@hse.ru ; Szymon Jankiewicz: syankevich@hse.ru ; Evgenii Puchkov – analityk Laboratorium Prawa Edukacji Instytutu Edukacji Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej w Moskwie (Rosja), doktorant w Instytucie Edukacji Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej. Jego zainteresowania badawcze obejmują zagadnienia relacji pomiędzy polityką edukacyjną a prawodawstwem w zakresie zrównoważonego rozwoju, umiędzynarodowienie edukacji oraz badania porównawcze prawodawstwa edukacyjnego. ; Evgenii Puchkov – Analyst of the Education Law Laboratory of the Institute of Education, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia, Ph.D. student in the Institute of Education of Higher School of Economics. His research interests include issues of relationship between educational policy and legislation with sustainable development, internationalization of education and comparative study of educational legislation. ; Nadezhda Knyaginina – pracownik badawczy Laboratorium Prawa Edukacji Instytutu Edukacji w Wyższej Szkole Ekonomicznej w Moskwie (Rosja). Posiada tytuł specjalisty w dziedzinie prawa na Wydziale Prawa Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej. Jej zainteresowania badawcze obejmują zagadnienia prawa edukacyjnego, praw językowych, polityki językowej w działalności edukacyjnej, federalizmu w edukacji, jakości edukacji, standardów edukacyjnych i regulacji zapewniania jakości edukacji. ; Nadezhda Knyaginina – Research Fellow of the Education Law Laboratory of the Institute of Education, Higher School of Economics, Moscowholding Specialist Degree in Law from Faculty of Law of Higher School of Economics. Her research interests include issues of educational law, language rights, language policy in educational activities, federalism in education, quality of education, education standards and regulation of quality assurance of education. ; Ivan Novoselov – asystent badawczy Laboratorium Prawa Edukacji Instytutu Edukacji w Wyższej Szkole Ekonomicznej w Moskwie (Rosja). Posiada tytuł magistra prawa finansowego, podatkowego i celnego, uzyskany na Wydziale Prawa Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej. Jego zainteresowania badawcze obejmują zagadnienia z zakresu prawa edukacyjnego, finansowego i budżetowego oraz studiów porównawczych z zakresu prawa edukacyjnego i finansowego. ; Ivan Novoselov – Research Assistant of the Education Law Laboratory of the Institute of Education, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russiaholding Master Degree in Financial, Tax and Customs Law from Faculty of Law of Higher School of Economics. His research interests include issues of educational law, financial and budgetary law and comparative studies of educational and financial legislation. ; Szymon Jankiewicz – doktor, prodziekan Wydziału Prawa, kierownik Laboratorium Prawa Edukacji Instytutu Edukacji w Wyższej Szkole Ekonomicznej w Moskwie (Rosja), doktor (kandydat nauk) prawa finansowego Instytutu Prawodawstwa i Prawa Porównawczego przy Rządzie Federacji Rosyjskiej oraz magister prawa finansowego, podatkowego i celnego na Wydziale Prawa Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej. Jego zainteresowania badawcze obejmują zagadnienia prawa edukacyjnego, prawa finansowego, regulacji finansowych i budżetowych działalności edukacyjnej i instytucji edukacyjnych oraz regulacji zapewniania jakości kształcenia. ; Szymon Jankiewicz – Ph.D. Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Law, Head of the Education Law Laboratory of the Institute of Education, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia with Ph.D. (Candidate of Sciences) in Financial Law from The Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation as well as Master Degree in Financial, Tax and Customs Law from Faculty of Law of Higher School of Economics. His research interests include issues of educational law, financial law, financial and budgetary regulation of educational activities and educational institutions and regulation of quality assurance of education. ; Evgenii Puchkov - Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia ; Nadezhda Knyaginina - Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia ; Ivan Novoselov - Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia ; Szymon Jankiewicz - Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia ; 7News. Coronavirus in Australia: Several universities won't record students' failed units during crisis, https://7news.com.au/lifestyle/health-wellbeing/coronavirus-in-australia-several-universities-wont-record-students-failed-units-during-crisis-c-949545. ; Bristol University. Assessment Options When Teaching Online. https://www.bristol.ac.uk/digital-education/guides/coronavirus/assessment/. ; Catholic University of Leuven. 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The article pursues two objectives: a) to comparatively trace the debates on the relationship between armed conflicts or direct violence and situations of stress / water shortage or distributive confrontations (resources or shared basins, for example) surrounding water, and in doing so add to the systematization of recent approaches; and b) based on the results of the aforementioned, propose new tools for the analysis and intervention in these conflicts, taking advantage, by way of example and not of detailed analysis, of ten current and heterogeneous cases of distributive conflicts over water. This issue became popular in the nineties of the twentieth century with striking statements that proclaimed: "the next wars would not be for oil or mineral resources but for access to drinking water." In this sense, the current paper focuses on examining the debate between 1985 and 1995, where the dominant issue was on whether water scarcity or water competition could be a direct causal factor of violent conflicts, or if it was simply a multiplier or accelerating factor linked to other causes. These contributions, while previously dominated by the omnipresence of approaches and texts based on security studies and the then so called "ecological security", are now based on contributions from studies of the analysis, resolution and transformation of conflicts. Meanwhile, new epistemological reflections respectful of cultural and gender bias are also present, along with non-western-centric approaches. Thirty years after the end of the Cold War, factual changes, new narratives, and novel guidelines for analysis have urged scholars to revisit the debate on the present and future relationships between armed conflict -or direct violence- and the scarcity or competition for water resources. I have just mentioned factual changes, among which I will highlight the following: significant ongoing changes in geopolitics and geo-economics; changes in the location and nature of direct violence, given that 80% of homicide deaths in the world are not related to direct violence of a clearly political nature (that is, armed conflict and terrorism), something that is linked with the strong growth of private security actors (legal and illegal) and a partial loss of the state's monopoly on the massive instruments of violence; ongoing mutations in the nature and spread of power; a progressive de-westernization of the international system and of the ways of analyzing it (international theory); the emergence of climate change and the climate emergency agenda and, in addition, the pandemics linked to recurrent zoonosis processes; and, to close this list, and returning to the topic being studies in this issue of the journal, the central position that water occupies in the 2030 agenda and in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Hence, we need new tools that allow us to analyze and better understand these conflicts related to water, in general, and also their occurrences in the major geopolitical areas of the world in the coming decades (Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean). Regarding the new narratives and analysis guidelines, the paper focuses on the new approaches in the area of analysis, resolution and transformation of conflicts that have emerged from the consensus on liberal peace, along with contributions from political ecology specialized in distributive environmental conflicts and environmental justice. Taking into account these new epistemological reflections, including those related to identity, is important as it allows one to focus on causality, and the tools that facilitate its analysis In addition to its introduction and conclusions, this article has three sections. The first establishes a factual starting point, summarizing the data related to fresh drinking water. Through a succinct description of ten conflicts, both intra and international, and from various continents and regions, this establishes a central thesis: the most significant conflict causation factor is not so much the lack of water, but the management and governance of water in general and its shortages. Secondly, it summarizes the analysis and the results of the debate on water conflicts, in particular on the causation links between water use and scarcity and direct violence from the late 1980s to the mid-1990s of the last century. The third section presents new perspectives, based not on security studies or ecological security, as before, but on the consolidated works of peace research, and studies on conflict analysis and transformation. Specifically, the main contributions and findings are displayed, and, also, a seminal framework to apply them to water conflicts, through three assumptions and seven theses. Finally, the conclusions insist on the need to treat these conflicts as social conflicts, showing that their specificity is linked to the management and governance of the resource rather than the scarcity itself. In the concluding remarks, the paper highlights that the most pertinent features of any analysis and intervention in environmental conflicts, especially those that are persistent and difficult to resolve (what American literature usually calls "intractable" conflicts) do not reside in the adjective "environmental", or "hydric", as the mainstream suggested in the first half of the 1990s. What is really meaningful is that they are social conflicts, basically distributive conflicts, and linked to the search for fairer solutions; that is, related to the allocation, use and / or management of environmental goods. The specificity provided by the adjective "environmental" or "hydric" exists, of course, beyond its growing importance for the contextual reasons already mentioned -such as demographic pressure, climate change or pollution and destruction of resources. However, this does not justify a differentiated treatment for these conflicts, as was the case previously. They are social conflicts, and therefore marked by cultural and contextual differences. Therefore, this means that they must be analyzed and intervened upon, in order to manage, resolve and transform them, with the same tools and techniques used for all the social distributive conflicts. We can call them "environmental", or "hydric" if that is the case, but only if this means that we do not stop dealing with them as social conflicts. And moreover, we must not forget that like most of these conflicts, it is necessary to apply "analytical filters" to them based on knowledge of the logic of collective action, public goods and collective goods Finally, the paper argues that these conflicts and the new analytical and resolutions framework force us to modify the famous formula of "thinking globally, acting locally". Today, to tackle them, you also have to think in a multidimensional way, and, in many cases, act globally. In doing so, the paper emphasizes the governance and governance challenges that need to be addressed. ; El artículo busca dos objetivos: a) exponer, en clave comparativa y treinta años más tarde del momento inicial y candente, los debates sobre la relación entre conflictos armados o violencia directa y situaciones de estrés/ carencia hídrica o enfrentamientos distributivos (recursos o cuencas compartidas, por ejemplo) por el agua. Al hacerlo, se añadirán a la sistematización los nuevos y más recientes enfoques; y b) a partir de los resultados del punto anterior, proponer nuevas herramientas para el análisis y la intervención en dichos conflictos, aprovechando, a modo de ejemplo y no de análisis detallado, diez casos heterogéneos activos en el presente de conflictos distributivos con el agua como incompatibilidad crucial. Los temas mencionados se popularizaron en los años noventa del siglo XX con afirmaciones impactantes que sostenían que "las próximas guerras no serían por petróleo o recursos minerales sino por el acceso al agua potable". En ese sentido, la comparación se centra en examinar el debate entre 1985 y 1995, donde el tema dominante fue si la escasez/concurrencia por el agua podía o no ser factor causal directo de conflictos violentos o si era simplemente un factor multiplicador o acelerador vinculado a otras causas, con las aportaciones y enfoques actuales. Estas aportaciones, frente a la omnipresencia en los años noventa de enfoques y textos basados en estudios de seguridad y la entonces llamada "seguridad ecológica", se centran actualmente en las herramientas que proporcionan los estudios sobre análisis, resolución y transformación de conflictos y en nuevas reflexiones epistemológicas respetuosas del sesgo cultural y de género y no occidentalocéntricas. El texto, además de introducción y conclusiones, tiene tres apartados. El primero establece un punto de partida fáctico, resumiendo los datos relativos al agua dulce y potable, para establecer, mediante una sucinta descripción de diez conflictos, internos e internacionales, de varios continentes, una tesis central: la conflictividad más caliente, incluyendo conductas violentas, no es tanto por la carencia de agua en sí, sino por la gestión y gobernanza del agua, en general y en casos de escases de la misma. En segundo lugar, se resume las claves analíticas y los resultados del debate sobre los conflictos hídricos, en particular sobre los vínculos entre uso y escasez de agua y violencia directa desde finales de los años ochenta a mediados de los años noventa del siglo pasado. La tercera sección presenta nuevas miradas, basadas no en los estudios de seguridad o la seguridad ecológica, como antes, sino en los trabajos, consolidados, de la investigación para la paz y los estudios sobre análisis y transformación de conflictos. Concretamente, se exponen las aportaciones, y se propone como aplicarlas a los conflictos hídricos, mediante tres asunciones y siete tesis. Finalmente, las conclusiones insisten en la necesidad de tratar estos conflictos como conflictos sociales, mostrando que su especificidad está vinculada a la gestión y gobernanza del recurso más que a la escasez en sí y, al hacerlo, ponen el acento, en las dificultades de gobernabilidad y gobernanza que hay que abordar.