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For the second time the United States Senate, on March 19, 1920, refused its advice and consent to the ratification of the Treaty of Peace with Germany, signed at Versailles on June 28, 1919. The first rejection took place exactly four months before, namely, on November 19, 1919. The vote on the treaty in November was 39 for and 55 against, and in March 49 for and 35 against. Both votes were upon resolutions of ratification containing reservations and understandings the acceptance of which by the Allied and Associated Powers was made a condition precedent to the going into effect of the ratification of the United States. A resolution of ratification without reservations or conditions of any kind was presented to the Senate on November 19, 1919, and defeated by a vote of 38 for to 53 against. No resolution of this kind was offered or voted upon in March. The treaty has thus failed to receive in either form the concurrence of two-thirds of the Senators present as required by the Constitution for the making of treaties by the President.

O "e-government" pelo uso que faz das tecnologias da informação e da comunicação (TIC) tem um importante papel a desempenhar na modernização dos municípios portugueses. As câmaras municipais portuguesas, quer pela sua natureza quer pela quantidade e diversidade de serviços que prestam ao cidadão, às empresas e a outros organismos públicos, muito têm a ganhar com a utilização racional das TIC para suporte aos seus modelos de negócio. A utilização das TIC, especialmente da Internet, pode contribuir para a prestação de melhores serviços ao cidadão e para o aprofundamento da democracia. O aumento da participação do cidadão nas decisões locais pode ser conseguido através do suporte à sua participação interactiva ou através de grupos comunitários e de decisores. Todos estes mecanismos assentes na participação e suportados por novas formas de comunicação de massas podem contribuir para melhorar a tomada de decisão. Saber como é que os municípios têm utilizado as TIC, principalmente a Internet, para que fins, e qual tem sido a sua evolução, são alguns dos objectivos de um conjunto de trabalhos que têm vindo a ser realizados nos últimos anos no âmbito do Gávea - Observatório de Tecnologias e Sistemas de Informação e cujos resultados estão publicados em [Santos e Amaral 2002] e [Santos e Amaral 2000], sendo aqui apresentada uma síntese da sua ...

The internationalization of corporate research and development (R&D) is an increasing trend with implications for both R&D managers and policy makers. In this research, 62 foreign-owned R&D facilities from information and communication technology (ICT) industries as well as life sciences industries are examined at five locations throughout the world to find global and regional trends in the internationalization of R&D. More specifically, models are identified based on how foreign R&D facilities select locations, enter the selected locations, and integrate with the environment at these locations. The increasing speed of global technological change, the increasing complexity of knowledge, and shortening product lifecycles are leading to intensified competition between technology companies on the one hand, but also between technology regions on the other hand. Increasing understanding of the entry and integration processes of foreign-owned R&D facilities as the internationalization of R&D progresses can thus be of value to both R&D managers and policy makers. This research shows how the "diversity of modern capitalism" (Amable, 2003; Hall and Soskice, 2001), especially relating to institutions in different regional environments, impacts the entry and integration behavior of foreign-owned R&D facilities that set up operations abroad. The internationalization of R&D is an especially interesting field of research as it is inextricably connected with both business- and economics-driven dimensions of innovation. In fact, the phenomenon of a foreign-owned R&D facility implies that a company innovation system must in some way integrate with a regional innovation system. A "micro meets macro" approach is especially interesting taking into account regional governments ongoing efforts to make their regions more attractive to international R&D investment, while global companies at the same time actively seek to gain access to leading knowledge resources, which in turn are asymmetrically and globally dispersed throughout leading regions around the world. Which factors determine companies R&D location decisions, entry behavior, and integration behavior in such complex global environments? How does entry and integration behavior vary between different regions of the world? The existing theory does not provide the answers. The starting point to gain a structured insight into this field of research was to identify some leading locations for foreign-owned R&D around the world, and to generate some sort of generic conceptual model enabling a comparison of these innovation environments. The second step was to examine the characteristics of the foreign-owned R&D going on at these locations. Next, in order to gain insight into the entry and integration behavior as indicated by the title of this research, foreign-owned facilities in each of the regions were examined in terms of (1) why they came to conduct R&D in the region, (2) how they entered the region to set up R&D activities, and (3) how they used different kinds of human resources and networks to become integral players in the local R&D environment. The result of the research is a collection of detailed case studies based on quantitative data comparing how the phenomenon of R&D internationalization manifests itself in each of the five presented regional environments. This research can be used as a work of reference to gain insight into which factors can play a role in determining location, entry, and integration behavior in the internationalization of R&D. Once again it must be added however, that due to the relatively small size of the international population of foreign-owned R&D facilities and the high levels of its heterogeneity, the insight gained in this study cannot claim to be globally representative. The research takes an explorative and deductive approach to enable a basic understanding of the highly heterogeneous field. Face-to-face interviews using structured and semi-structured questionnaires lead to the identification of five generic types of regions for foreign R&D. Each of these region-types is specific in terms of the entry- and integration-behavior of foreign-owned R&D facilities located there. In addition, the empirical study formulates several generic dimensions by which different types of foreign-owned R&D facilities can be characterized. Understanding different region- and facility-types as they relate to location selection, entry, and integration may enable R&D managers to improve the competitiveness of their global R&D efforts, while enabling regional policy makers to improve the competitiveness of their regions as recipients of foreign direct investment (FDI) in technology-related sectors. ; Die Arbeit untersucht F&E Zentren ausländischer Eigentümer ("foreign-owned R&D facilities") in Cambridge, London, München, Peking und Stockholm. Die empirische Forschung wird anhand von insgesamt 62 Interviews mit Forschungsleitern ausländischer F&E Zentren an diesen Standorten durchgeführt. Ziel der Forschung ist es, Einblick in das Internationalisierungsverhalten der F&E großer Unternehmen zu gewinnen. Im Zentrum der Untersuchung stehen der Prozeß des Errichtens ausländischer F&E Zentren und die anschließende Integration dieser Zentren mit dem ausländischen Forschungs- und Entwicklungsumfeld ("regional entry and integration behavior"). Neben den theoretischen Einführungen umfaßt die empirische Betrachtung vier Bereiche. (1) Theoretische Einführungen. Die Forschung basiert einerseits auf dem Feld der Innovationsökonomik und andererseits auf dem des internationalen F&E Managements. Die weltweite Studie erfüllt unter anderem den Zweck, die Auswirkungen vielfältiger Typen kapitalistischer Umfelder auf die Ansiedlung ausländischer Forschung und Entwicklung zu untersuchen. Der Innovationsbegriff wird zunächst mit Bezug auf den technologischen Wandel und die Forschung und Entwicklung in Unternehmen erläutert. Danach wird seine Bedeutung im Kontext globalisierter Forschung und Entwicklung und weltweit führender regionaler Wissenszentren ausgeweitet. Das Ergebnis der theoretischen Betrachtungen ist die Formulierung des Konzeptes von "compatibility between corporate and regional innovation systems". Das Konzept besagt, dass Unternehmen nur dann F&E im Ausland ansiedeln, wenn Kompatibilität zwischen den regionalen und unternehmenseigenen Innovationssystemen besteht oder hergestellt werden kann. (2) Regionale Profile und generische Charakterisierung der Zentren. Die fünf Standorte werden vorgestellt, charakterisiert und mit einander verglichen. Für jeden Standort wird als Basis der darauf folgenden Analysen ausgehend von einem generischen Modell für regionale Innovationssysteme ein regionales Profil ("government-centric, urban-centric, university-centric, key-company-centric oder triple-helix-centric") erstellt. Die Betrachtung hebt die Unterschiedlichkeit der fünf Standorte hervor und zeigt somit, dass die Internationalisierung von F&E zwar ein globales Phänomen ist, das jedoch starke regionale Spezifika aufweist. Um die ausländischen F&E Zentren im regionalen Kontext besprechen und vergleichen zu können, wird außerdem ein Modell ("Mission-Motive-Behavior Model") zu deren Charakterisierung entwickelt. (3) Spezifische Charakteristika der F&E Zentren. Anschließend werden die ausländischen F&E Zentren an den fünf Standorten näher untersucht und charakterisiert. Festgehalten werden unter anderem der F&E Auftrag ("R&D mission"), die Größe, das Alter und die Wachstumsrate der ausländischen Zentren. Die Ergebnisse werden in den Kontext der regionalen Profile und in den des MMB Modells eingebettet und diskutiert. Die Daten festigen sowohl die Aussagekraft der erstellten regionalen Modelle, als auch die des MMB Modells und vervollständigen diese. (4) Spezifische Verhaltensweisen beim Errichten der ausländischen F&E Zentren. Es wird untersucht, welche Faktoren an den jeweiligen Standorten für die Standortauswahl der ausländischen F&E Zentren ausschlaggebend waren. Dabei wird zwischen Schlüsselfaktoren und unterstützenden Faktoren unterschieden. Die Entscheidungskriterien werden wiederum jeweils in den Kontext der regionalen Profile und in den des MMB Modells eingebettet und diskutiert. Die Daten zeigen, dass die identifizierten Faktoren bei der Standortauswahl in hohem Maße mit den regionalen Charakteristika der anfänglich erstellten regionalen Profile übereinstimmen und das sich die regional bedingten Unterschiede zwischen den ausländischen F&E Zentren anhand des MMB Modells erklären lassen. Ferner wird untersucht, welche Organisationsform ("entry mode") für das Errichten der Zentren genutzt wird, und wie viele F&E Mitarbeiter im ersten Jahr in den jeweiligen Zentren beschäftigt waren. Diese Untersuchungen gewähren Einblick in die Art und Weise, mit der die ausländischen Unternehmen Zugang zu regionalen Wissensressourcen zu gewinnen versuchen. (5) Integration mit dem ausländischen Forschungs- und Entwicklungsumfeld. Untersucht werden die externen Kollaborationspartner und ihre physische Distanz zu den ausländischen Zentren. Die Daten zeigen, dass die Kollaborationspartner sich von Region zu Region unterscheiden. Physische Nähe zu Kollaborationspartnern spielt teilweise eine wichtige Rolle, während sie in anderen Fällen irrelevant erscheint. Dieses Phänomen wird in der Arbeit diskutiert und erklärt. Ausserdem wird erhoben, welche regionalen und lokalen Netzwerke genutzt werden, um Zugang zu örtlichen Wissensressourcen zu finden. Unterschieden wird zwischen internen und externen Netzwerken.

Research has provided insight into ideas, agents and patterns of inequality associated with Islamophobia. Yet, we know less about why anti-Muslim racism is so virulent and persistent today. Focusing on post-unification Germany, we explore the broader function Islamophobia fulfils for society. We draw on a discourse analysis of statements by four public figures, the publicists Monika Maron and Alice Schwarzer, and the politicians Vera Lengsfeld and Beatrix von Storch; two of them are from Germany's former East, and the other two from the former West. We found little evidence of regionally specific regional 'flavours' of anti-Muslim racism, but noted that the speakers' diverging positionality in re-unified Germany shapes their Islamophobic agitation. Our analysis shows how 'old' and 'new' Germans distinctly participate in re-creating western identities as unmarked norm. Anti-Muslim racism, we argue, plays an important role in everyday discursive acts of nation-building, and assists in justifying multi-layered patterns of stratification. Outward projections onto an 'Other', the 'enemy within', fulfil a key function: the integration of a highly polarized society, at least on the symbolic level. The collective in need of integration, our analysis suggests, may therefore not necessarily be the one that is the main target of such efforts.

By now we are familiar with studies which tie being 'left behind' to voter support for populist or other extreme views. In the UK case, this is seen in support for Brexit but can also apply to support of parties such as UKIP (e.g. Bolet, 2021; Ford and Goodwin, 2014). Comparative studies show that electoral support for populist parties in part reflects lowered trust in mainstream politics (e.g. Geurkink et al., 2020; Keefer et al., 2021; Mauk, 2020), which is seen as a behavioural indicator of slipping legitimacy. Political support for populist movements is interpreted as declining legitimacy of existing governments, and that decline is seen as being tied to economic stress and the 'left behind' areas. In this article, we ask whether economics stresses also have impact upon another and possibly more direct measure of government legitimacy – tax morale.

Part 1: Research Directions ; International audience ; Using data from national surveys conducted in 2006 and 2011, we examine whether local governments in the United States have adopted e-participation (a.k.a. e-democracy). The results show that few American local governments have done so. These results are highly inconsistent with the claims of e-democracy advocates. Two important factors account for the lack of e-democracy at the American grassroots: lack of funding and lack of perceived demand. Another reason may be that early predictions were incorrect. Based on these findings, we would expect that e-democracy among US local governments will not be substantially different in the foreseeable future than it is now.

The 'epistemic' violence that has beset gender discourses in education refutes the claim that progress is measured by figures and numbers of Jordanian women in schools and the workplace. While such discourses demand to be contextualized, deconstructed and resisted, they also necessitate creating a link between political praxis and gender politics. My argument centres on the indispensable role critical discourse can play in locating these instances of 'epistemic' violence and revealing the manner in which the themes of constructed gender knowledge have been subjugated to the political praxis of each context. Interventions by donors and NGOs have more often than not been emasculated by the political considerations of governments and establishments. The result has been 'disciplined' gender politics in education, perpetuating traditional discursive practices, roles and stereotypes instead of acting as an emancipatory power. Human development reports and traditional literature on gender bias in education have failed to account for such discursive/power practices. In this paper, I shed light on the national, the international and the textual 'knowledge' that surrounds gender bias in education in a context like Jordan. I conclude by demonstrating the importance of the national and its discursive practices in reformulating approaches based on the international (human development reports) and the textual (literature on gender bias and stereotypes in education).

ALTHOUGH CITY GOVERNMENTS ARE INFLUENCED BY NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL TRENDS, SEVERAL DEVELOPMENTS ARE EMERGING THAT WILL MORE DIRECTLY SHAPE LOCAL GOVERNMENT INTO THE 1990S. KEY ISSUES INCLUDE REVERSALS IN FEDERAL FUNDING, THE COMPUTER IMPLOSION AND INFORMATION EXPLOSION, INCREASING CITIZEN ACTIVISM, EXPANDED INTEREST BY CITY COUNCILS IN PUBLIC RELATIONS, AND CITY EMPLOYEES BRINGING PERSONAL PROBLEMS TO WORK. AS A RESULT, SUCCESSFUL PUBLIC MANAGERS ARE REQUIRED TO FOCUS MORE ON MANAGING STRATEGIC INFORMATION, MANAGING THE CITY'S IMAGE, AND MANAGING INTERSECTORAL RELATIONS.

Over the past decade, Jacques Rancière's writings have increasingly provoked and inspired political theorists who wish to avoid both the abstraction of so-called normative theories and the philosophical platitudes of so-called postmodernism. Rancière offers a new and unique definition of politics, la politique, as that which opposes, thwarts and interrupts what Rancière calls the police order, la police — a term that encapsulates most of what we normally think of as politics (the actions of bureaucracies, parliaments, and courts). Interpreters have been tempted to read Rancière as proffering a formally pure conception of politics, wherein politics is ultimately separate from and in utter opposition to all police orders. Here I provide a different account of Rancière's thinking of politics: for Rancière politics goes on within police orders and for this reason he strongly rejects the very idea of a pure politics. Politics is precisely that which could never be pure; politics is an act of impurity, a process that resists purification. In carefully delineating the politique— police relation I show that the terms of Rancière's political writings are multiple and multiplied. Rancière consistently undermines any effort to render politics pure, and therein lies his potential contribution to contemporary political theory.

"GAO/GGD-92-21FS." ; "B-241053"--P. [1]. ; Cover title. ; "December 1991." ; Includes bibliographical references. ; Mode of access: Internet.

"July 1990." ; Cover title. ; "B-233809." ; GAO/IMTEC-90-69 ; Mode of access: Internet.

This paper is an attempt to historicize Frank Plumpton Ramsey's Apostle talks delivered from 1923 to 1925 within the social and political context of the time. In his talks, Ramsey discusses socialism, psychoanalysis, and feminism. Ramsey's views on these three intellectual movements were interconnected, and they all contributed to his take on the policy debates occurring then on the role of women in economy. Drawing on archival materials, biographical facts, and the historiographical literature on the early interwar politics of motherhood, I show that Ramsey held a positive view of the feminist campaign for family endowment. He demanded government financial support for motherhood in recognition of the economic significance of women's domestic works, which, as such, could bring economic independence to them. In addition, he found such an economic scheme compatible with the kind of maternalism endorsed by Freudian psychoanalysis—his favorite theory of psychology.