Suchergebnisse

Máster Universitario en Ingeniería Industrial ; Los deportes extremos, cada día más comunes en la dedicación lúdica del usuario medio, generalmente se caracterizan por aprovechar distintos tipos de energía – como la potencial almacenada en cotas altas de montaña o la energía de las olas – en energía cinética para el disfrute de la sensación de velocidad y adrenalina que, por norma general, transmiten. La necesidad del estudio hacia la innovación de este proyecto surge de las limitaciones actuales de los medios empleados en deportes de deslizamiento como el esquí – similares como el surf, wakeboard, kitesurf, sandboard -. En el caso concreto del esquí, seleccionado como dedicación especial de este estudio el 99,6% la de esquí internacional se distribuye tan solo en 56 países. España se sitúa muy cerca de uno de los principales núcleos de este deporte con más del 45% de afluencia, los Alpes, y además cuenta común importante mercado interior, sin embargo, la cifre de visitantes media en los últimos años a las estaciones españolas no ha superado los 5,5 millones de usuarios – muy lejos de los 56 de Francia o los 28 de Italia -. Tras adquirir los conocimientos sobre patentes, vías para adquirir la protección, su legislación y el procedimiento de solicitud; el estudio se encamina a lograr un salto creativo en la técnica del campo de interés. Este proceso contempla distintas fases de estudio y diseño. Las fases – definidas en el Capítulo 3 de la memoria – siguen el principio de la ingeniería concurrente empleando la sinergia entre metodologías tradicionales de estudio de patentes TRIZ, la valoración cuantitativa de diseños funcionales mediante QFD y el empleo de técnicas modernas de la industria para la síntesis de conceptos a partir de la patentometría (Método de los Escenarios Ponderados). La primera fase, la vigilancia tecnológica, elaborará una base de conocimiento con 367 patentes relacionadas con el campo de la técnica que se pretende desarrollar – en concreto los campos A63C10/11 y A63C5/08 dentro de la clasificación IPC- que son los medios de asistencia motorizados al deporte del esquí. Las patentes se clasificaron de manera cronológica de manera que el proceso permite adquirir una noción de los saltos evolutivos de las soluciones propuestas lo largo de la historia. Se pueden identificar de los estudios extraídos una tendencia creciente en este campo. La reciente influencia de las cámaras de acción y las redes sociales ha generado un boom por la práctica de nuevas actividades y deportes extremos; como consecuencia la acción inventiva recibe un gran impulso. También se analiza los datos geopolíticos de las patentes. determinar el ámbito de protección es un hito clave de la fase de vigilancia. Los resultados del análisis muestran que los principales países donde se busca proteger este tipo de invenciones son EEUU, Alemania, Francia, Japón y en una proporción no tan comparable Canadá y el resto de países europeos. Es cierto que gran parte de las patentes apuntan a un marco mundial o europeo desde un principio, lo que indica que es un mercado muy extenso en cuanto a geografía. Un 15% de las solicitudes proviene de fabricantes mientras que el 85% restante ha sido explotado por el propio inventor o probablemente licenciado a posteriori al mejor postor. Los fabricantes con más solicitudes son Atomic Gmbh, Saroy Engineering, Bibollet SA, Yamaha y Head Sport. Todos ellos son fabricantes con un gran catálogo de productos dedicados al deporte del esquí o similares, y que probablemente puedan verse interesados en la adquisición de una patente como la que se propone en caso de suponer un éxito de mercado. Esto enmarca el proyecto en un escenario ideal para buscar la inversión particular en este tipo de invención. Además, el análisis particular de los productos de estos fabricantes no lleva a ver la magnitud que realizan en I+D, la clase de productos que buscan y las posibilidades de mejora que se pueden incluir en el diseño. Todas las patentes se clasifican en problemas y sub-problemas. El objetivo es centrarse en uno de ellos para el diseño enfocado. Los problemas identificados como principales son: medios de propulsión, maniobrabilidad, versatilidad, seguridad y entrenamiento, estructura y forma y reducción del coste. La conclusión del análisis muestra que un campo que aún presenta capacidad de mejora, la versatilidad de las invenciones en distintos medios – agua, nieve, tierra -. Una vez focalizado el problema se pasa al diseño funcional. Este inicio ya parte de la opinión de usuarios potenciales en cuanto a qué conceptos entienden como funcionalidades necesarias en la invención y su importancia relativa. En base a esto, se construye un modelo de calidad con evaluaciones cuantitativas (QFD) para proponer la mejor estructura funcional. Mediante los métodos TRIZ de descomponen los elementos esenciales de las soluciones. De la descomposición de las soluciones, empleando el Métodos de Escenarios Ponderados para una síntesis de elementos a modo de rompecabezas, se conforman varias soluciones que mejoran las patentes existentes hasta la fecha. La valoración cuantitativa de estas soluciones nos lleva a la toma de decisión por una de ellas. La invención será un sistema de tracción formado por un elemento tractor dron multirrotor, de seis o más rotores accionados por motores de DC; una línea de arrastre y un sistema de control. Dicho sistema de control está conformado por un manillar de dirección, donde se alojan los controles electrónicos a distancia del vuelo del dron y los dispositivos de visualización digital del estatus de la marcha; y por un arnés, unido a la línea de arrastre principal mediante un sistema de liberación rápida en caso de caída o peligro. La línea principal pasa a través de un orificio en el manillar y está anclada a otros dos puntos en los extremos de la barra mediante un sistema regulable en longitud. El paso posterior es adecuar el diseño a un concepto visualmente atractivo y convincente para el usuario. En concreto el elemento de mayor influencia es el mencionado manillar de control. Se emplea el método Kansei para validar un diseño visual a través de síntesis de propiedades físicas y emociones del usuario. Los datos se toman mediante una encuesta en formato electrónico y sobre un set de muestras conceptuales compuesto de bocetos digitales y fotografías. a. Los resultados indican que la inclusión del arnés en el sistema es fundamental para garantizar seguridad. Asimismo, un manillar amplio y horizontal proporciona al usuario sensación de maniobrabilidad y comodidad que otras configuraciones no aportan. El contorneado del agarre, la inclusión de muchos materiales y un acabado cuidado presentan un diseño más atractivo a todos los públicos. Dicha invención fue dimensionada y validada en el Capítulo 7 de la memoria. En éste se calculó la potencia necesaria a desarrollar por un multirrotor de arrastre para tirar de un esquiador en el ascenso de una pendiente a velocidad constante. EL planteamiento estático del problema permite un primer dimensionamiento de los principales componentes del multirrotor, así como una especificación de sus capacidades de carga. En concreto, para el arrastre de un esquiador a una velocidad constante de 5 m/s y en unas condiciones de pendiente y viento desfavorables el empuje necesario en los impulsores se sitúa en torno a los 16kg de fuerza por rotor – con un número mínimo de 8 rotores para aportar redundancia – y una potencia total de 26 KW. El multirrotor tendrá una envergadura aproximada de 2,2m y sus rotores, un diámetro de 85 cm (23 pulgadas). Todo ello teniendo en cuenta un factor de sobredimensionamiento para efectos dinámicos transitorios. La selección de componentes permite elaborar el presupuesto para el prototipo inicial a construir. El prototipo inicial se sitúa en un intervalo de coste entre los 20.000€ y los 30.000€. Valor razonable al compararlo con productos de aplicación similar y prototipos de competidores directos. El cliente al que se enfoca la invención queda muy por encima del gasto medio del usuario (español) en ocio y deporte. El nicho de mercado por tanto deberán ser las grandes corporaciones que gestionan los resorts de esquí y sus actividades, de manera que la innovación pueda introducirse como valor añadido en su modelo de negocio y éstos saquen rentabilidad de la patente a través de su alquiler al usuario final como actividad. Al conocer los costes y el enfoque de ventas, junto con la inversión en la propiedad industrial se puede elaborar un estudio de viabilidad económica para la inversión en el desarrollo de esta patente. En el capítulo 8 se detalla el marco económico propicio para el desarrollo de esta inversión. El método de valoración escogido es un descuento de flujos libres de caja. Los resultados, para la estimación de crecimiento y ventas, ofrecen un VAN por encima de los 100.000 €, una tasa de rentabilidad del 17% superior al retorno exigido por el mercado (11,5%). Teniendo en cuenta que la inversión se realiza hasta el fin de la protección industrial (20 años) el periodo de retorno son 13 años. Con todo ello la solicitud de patente se realizó el día 27 de Enero de 2017se realizó siguiendo las pautas establecidas por la Ley, como se puede observar en el Documento 2 de este proyecto. Se obtuvo el número de solicitud P201700061 para la patente "Sistema de remolque por multirrotor para deportes de deslizamiento". ; Extreme sports, more and more common in the leisure time of the average user, are usually characterized by taking advantage of different types of energy - such as the potential energy stored at high mountain heights or wave energy - in kinetic energy to enjoy the sensation of speed and adrenaline that, as a general rule, these kind of sports transmit. The need for study towards innovation of this project arises from the current limitations of the means employed in sliding sports such as skiing - similar to surfing, wakeboarding, kitesurfing, sandboarding. In the specific case of skiing, selected as the special dedication of this study, 99.6% of international skiing is distributed in only 56 countries. Spain is situated very close to one of the main centers of this sport with more than 45% of influx, the Alps, and also counts with an important domestic market, however the average number of visitors in recent years to the Spanish resorts has not exceeded 5.5 million users - far from the 56 in France or 28 in Italy. After gaining knowledge about patents, ways to acquire protection, its legislation and the application procedure; the study aims to achieve a creative leap in the technique on the field of interest. This process contemplates different phases of study and design. The phases - defined in Chapter 3 of the report - follow the principle of concurrent engineering using the synergy between traditional patent study methodologies TRIZ, the quantitative valuation of functional designs using QFD and the use of modern industry techniques for synthesis of concepts from the patentometry (Method of Weighted Scenarios). The first phase, technological surveillance, will develop a knowledge base with 367 patents related to the field of the technology that is intended to be developed - specifically fields A63C10/11 and A63C5/08 within the IPC classification - which are the means of motorized assistance to skiing. The patents were classified in a chronological way so that the process allows acquiring a notion of the evolution of the solutions proposed throughout the history. A growing trend in this field can be identified from the studies extracted. The recent influence of action cameras and social networks has generated a boom for the practice of new activities and extreme sports; as a result the inventive action receives a great impulse. The geopolitical data of patents is also analyzed. Determining the scope of protection is a key milestone of the monitoring phase. The results of the analysis show that the main countries who seek to protect this type of inventions are the USA, Germany, France, Japan and in a proportion not so comparable Canada and the rest of European countries. It's true that most patents point to a global or European framework from the outset, indicating that it's a very extensive market, geographically. 15% of the applications come from manufacturers while the remaining 85% has been exploited by the inventor himself or probably licensed after the highest bidder. Manufacturers with more applications are Atomic Gmbh, Saroy Engineering, Bibollet SA, Yamaha and Head Sport. All of them are manufacturers with a large catalog of products dedicated to the sport of skiing or similar, and may probably be interested in acquiring a patent like the one proposed, in the case of a market success. This frames the project in an ideal scenario to look for the particular investment in this type of invention. In addition, the particular analysis of the products of these manufacturers does not lead to seeing the magnitude they invest in R&D, the kind of products they are looking for and the possibilities of improvement that can be included in the design. All patents are classified into problems and sub-problems. The goal is to focus on one of them for the focused design. The problems identified as main are: means of propulsion, maneuverability, versatility, safety and training, structure and shape and cost reduction. The conclusion of the analysis shows that a field that still presents capacity for improvement, the versatility of inventions in different media - water, snow, earth. Once focused the problem we move on to functional design. This beginning already derives from part of the opinion of potential users as to what concepts they understand as necessary functionalities in the invention and its relative importance. Based on this, a quality model is constructed with quantitative evaluations (QFD) to propose the best functional structure. Through the TRIZ methods the essential elements of the solutions are decomposed. From the decomposition of the solutions, using the Weighted Scenario Methods for a synthesis of elements as a puzzle, several solutions are formed that improve the existing patents to date. The quantitative evaluation of these solutions leads us to the decision-making of one of them. The invention will be a traction system formed by a multi-rotor driving element, of six or more rotors driven by DC motors; a drag line and a control system. This control system is made up of a steering handle, which houses the remote electronic controls of the flight of the drone and the devices of digital display of the status of the march; and by a harness, attached to the main drag line by means of a quick release system in case of fall or danger. The main line passes through a hole in the handlebar and is anchored to two other points at the ends of the bar by a system adjustable in length. The next step is to adapt the design to a visually attractive and convincing concept for the user. In particular, the most influential element is the mentioned control handlebar. The Kansei method is used to validate a visual design through the synthesis of physical properties and emotions of the user. The data are taken through a survey in electronic format and on a set of conceptual samples composed of digital sketches and photographs. The results indicate that the inclusion of the harness in the system is fundamental to guarantee safety. Also, a wide horizontal handlebar gives the user a feeling of maneuverability and comfort that other configurations do not provide. The contouring of the grip, the inclusion of many materials and a careful finish present a design more attractive to all audiences. The mentioned invention was dimensioned and validated in Chapter 7 of the report. Here was calculated the power the dragging multi-rotor has to develop to pull a skier in the ascent of a slope at constant speed. The static approach of the problem allows a first dimensioning of the main components of the multi-rotor as well as a specification of its load capacities. Specifically, to drag a skier at a constant speed of 5 m/s and under unfavorable slope and wind conditions, the necessary thrust in the impellers is around 16 kg of force per rotor - with a minimum number of 8 Rotors to provide redundancy - and a total power of 26 KW. The multi-rotor will have an approximate span of 2.2m and its rotors, a diameter of 85cm (23 inches). All this taking into account an oversizing factor for transient dynamic effects. The selection of components allows the budget for the initial prototype to be constructed. The initial prototype is in a cost range between €20,000 and €30,000. Fair value when compared to products of similar application and prototypes of direct competitors. The customer to whom the invention is focused is well above the average expenditure of the user (Spanish) in leisure and sports. The market niche should therefore be the large corporations that manage the ski resorts and their activities, so that the innovation can be introduced as added value for their business model and these will make profitability of the patent through their rent to the final user as an activity. By knowing the costs and the approach of sales, together with the investment in the industrial property an economic feasibility study for the investment in the development of this patent can be elaborated. Chapter 8 details the economic framework conducive to the development of this investment. The valuation method chosen is a discount of free cash flows. The results, for the estimation of growth and sales, offer a NPV above 100,000 €, a rate of return of 17% higher than the return demanded by the market (11.5%). Considering that the investment is made until the end of industrial protection (20 years) the return period is 13 years. With all of this, the patent application was made on the 27th of January 2017, and was done following the guidelines established by the Law, as can be seen in Document 2 of this project. Application number P201700061 was obtained for the patent "Sistema de remolque por multirrotor para deportes de deslizamiento".

Full list of authors: Kankare, E.; Efstathiou, A.; Kotak, R ; Kool, E. C.; Kangas, T.; O'Neill, D.; Mattila, S.; Väisänen, P.; Ramphul, R.; Mogotsi, M.; Ryder, S. D.; Parker, S.; Reynolds, T.; Fraser, M.; Pastorello, A.; Cappellaro, E.; Mazzali, P. A.; Ochner, P.; Tomasella, L.; Turatto, M.; Kotilainen, J.; Kuncarayakti, H.; Pérez-Torres, M. A.; Randriamanakoto, Z.; Romero-Cañizales, C.; Berton, M.; Cartier, R.; Chen, T. -W.; Galbany, L.; Gromadzki, M.; Inserra, C.; Maguire, K.; Moran, S.; Müller-Bravo, T. E.; Nicholl, M.; Reguitti, A.; Young, D. R. ; The fraction of core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe) occurring in the central regions of galaxies is not well constrained at present. This is partly because large-scale transient surveys operate at optical wavelengths, making it challenging to detect transient sources that occur in regions susceptible to high extinction factors. Here we present the discovery and follow-up observations of two CCSNe that occurred in the luminous infrared galaxy (LIRG) NGC 3256. The first, SN 2018ec, was discovered using the ESO HAWK-I/GRAAL adaptive optics seeing enhancer, and was classified as a Type Ic with a host galaxy extinction of AV = 2.1-0.1+0.3 mag. The second, AT 2018cux, was discovered during the course of follow-up observations of SN 2018ec, and is consistent with a subluminous Type IIP classification with an AV = 2.1 ± 0.4 mag of host extinction. A third CCSN, PSN J10275082-4354034 in NGC 3256, was previously reported in 2014, and we recovered the source in late-time archival Hubble Space Telescope imaging. Based on template light curve fitting, we favour a Type IIn classification for it with modest host galaxy extinction of AV = 0.3-0.3+0.4 mag. We also extend our study with follow-up data of the recent Type IIb SN 2019lqo and Type Ib SN 2020fkb that occurred in the LIRG system Arp 299 with host extinctions of AV = 2.1-0.3+0.1 and AV = 0.4-0.2+0.1 mag, respectively. Motivated by the above, we inspected, for the first time, a sample of 29 CCSNe located within a projected distance of 2.5 kpc from the host galaxy nuclei in a sample of 16 LIRGs. We find, if star formation within these galaxies is modelled assuming a global starburst episode and normal IMF, that there is evidence of a correlation between the starburst age and the CCSN subtype. We infer that the two subgroups of 14 H-poor (Type IIb/Ib/Ic/Ibn) and 15 H-rich (Type II/IIn) CCSNe have different underlying progenitor age distributions, with the H-poor progenitors being younger at 3σ significance. However, we note that the currently available sample sizes of CCSNe and host LIRGs are small, and the statistical comparisons between subgroups do not take into account possible systematic or model errors related to the estimated starburst ages. © ESO 2021. ; EK is supported by the Turku Collegium of Science, Medicine and Technology. EK also acknowledge support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC; ST/P000312/1). ECK acknowledges support from the G.R.E.A.T. research environment and support from The Wenner-Gren Foundations. MF is supported by a Royal Society – Science Foundation Ireland University Research Fellowship. EC, LT, AP, and MT are partially supported by the PRIN-INAF 2017 with the project "Towards the SKA and CTA era: discovery, localization, and physics of transient objects". HK was funded by the Academy of Finland projects 324504 and 328898. TWC acknowledges the EU Funding under Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 842471. LG was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 839090. This work has been partially supported by the Spanish grant PGC2018-095317-B-C21 within the European Funds for Regional Development (FEDER). MG is supported by the Polish NCN MAESTRO grant 2014/14/A/ST9/00121. KM acknowledges support from EU H2020 ERC grant no. 758638. TMB was funded by the CONICYT PFCHA / DOCTORADOBECAS CHILE/2017-72180113. MN is supported by a Royal Astronomical Society Research Fellowship. Based on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programmes 67.D-0438, 60.A-9475, 199.D-0143, and 1103.D-0328. Some of the observations reported in this paper were obtained with the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) under programme 2018-1-DDT-003 (PI: Kankare). Polish participation in SALT is funded by grant No. MNiSW DIR/WK/2016/07. Based on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope, operated by the Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The data presented here were obtained in part with ALFOSC, which is provided by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) under a joint agreement with the University of Copenhagen and NOTSA. This work is partly based on the NUTS2 programme carried out at the NOT. NUTS2 is funded in part by the Instrument Center for Danish Astrophysics (IDA). The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This paper is also based on observations collected at the Copernico 1.82 m and Schmidt 67/92 Telescopes operated by INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova at Asiago, Italy. Based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil). Observations were carried out under programme GS-2017A-C-1. This project used data obtained with the Dark Energy Camera (DECam), which was constructed by the Dark Energy Survey (DES) collaboration. Funding for the DES Projects has been provided by the DOE and NSF (USA), MISE (Spain), STFC (UK), HEFCE (UK), NCSA (UIUC), KICP (U. Chicago), CCAPP (Ohio State), MIFPA (Texas A&M University), CNPQ, FAPERJ, FINEP (Brazil), MINECO (Spain), DFG (Germany) and the collaborating institutions in the Dark Energy Survey, which are Argonne Lab, UC Santa Cruz, University of Cambridge, CIEMAT-Madrid, University of Chicago, University College London, DES-Brazil Consortium, University of Edinburgh, ETH Zürich, Fermilab, University of Illinois, ICE (IEEC-CSIC), IFAE Barcelona, Lawrence Berkeley Lab, LMU München and the associated Excellence Cluster Universe, University of Michigan, NOAO, University of Nottingham, Ohio State University, OzDES Membership Consortium, University of Pennsylvania, University of Portsmouth, SLAC National Lab, Stanford University, University of Sussex, and Texas A&M University. Based on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin 48-inch Telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility project. ZTF is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-1440341 and a collaboration including Caltech, IPAC, the Weizmann Institute for Science, the Oskar Klein Center at Stockholm University, the University of Maryland, the University of Washington, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron and Humboldt University, Los Alamos National Laboratories, the TANGO Consortium of Taiwan, the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories. Operations are conducted by COO, IPAC, and UW. Based on observations at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO Prop. ID 2017A-0260; and PI: Soares-Santos), which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen's University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. This work is based in part on archival data obtained with the Spitzer Space Telescope, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. This research has made use of NED which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We have made use of the Weizmann Interactive Supernova Data Repository (Yaron & Gal-Yam 2012, https://wiserep.weizmann.ac.il). ; With funding from the Spanish government through the 'Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence' accreditation (SEV-2017-0709). ; Peer reviewed

Funding Information: Acknowledgements. We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments. We thank Marco Fiaschi for carrying out some of the Asiago observations. EK is supported by the Turku Collegium of Science, Medicine and Technology. EK also acknowledge support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC; ST/P000312/1). ECK acknowledges support from the G.R.E.A.T. research environment and support from The Wenner-Gren Foundations. MF is supported by a Royal Society – Science Foundation Ireland University Research Fellowship. EC, LT, AP, and MT are partially supported by the PRIN-INAF 2017 with the project "Towards the SKA and CTA era: discovery, localization, and physics of transient objects". HK was funded by the Academy of Finland projects 324504 and 328898. TWC acknowledges the EU Funding under Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 842471. LG was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 839090.This work has been partially supported by the Spanish grant PGC2018-095317-B-C21 within the European Funds for Regional Development (FEDER). MG is supported by the Polish NCN MAESTRO grant 2014/14/A/ST9/00121. KM acknowledges support from EU H2020 ERC grant no. 758638. TMB was funded by the CONICYT PFCHA / DOCTORADOBECAS CHILE/2017-72180113. MN is supported by a Royal Astronomical Society Research Fellowship. Based on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programmes 67.D-0438, 60.A-9475, 199.D-0143, and 1103.D-0328. Some of the observations reported in this paper were obtained with the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) under programme 2018-1-DDT-003 (PI: Kankare). Polish participation in SALT is funded by grant No. MNiSW DIR/WK/2016/07. Based on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope, operated by the Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, ofthe Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The data presented here were obtained in part with ALFOSC, which is provided by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) under a joint agreement with the University of Copenhagen and NOTSA. This work is partly based on the NUTS2 programme carried out at the NOT. NUTS2 is funded in part by the Instrument Center for Danish Astrophysics (IDA). The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This paper is also based on observations collected at the Copernico 1.82 m and Schmidt 67/92 Telescopes operated by INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova at Asiago, Italy. Based on observations obtained at the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil). Observations were carried out under programme GS-2017A-C-1. This project used data obtained with the Dark Energy Camera (DECam), which was constructed by the Dark Energy Survey (DES) collaboration. Funding for the DES Projects has been provided by the DOE and NSF (USA), MISE (Spain), STFC (UK), HEFCE (UK), NCSA (UIUC), KICP (U. Chicago), CCAPP (Ohio State), MIFPA (Texas A&M University), CNPQ, FAPERJ, FINEP (Brazil), MINECO (Spain), DFG (Germany) and the collaborating institutions in the Dark Energy Survey, which are Argonne Lab, UC Santa Cruz, University of Cambridge, CIEMAT-Madrid, University of Chicago, University College London, DES-Brazil Consortium, University of Edinburgh, ETH Zürich, Fermilab, University of Illinois, ICE (IEEC-CSIC), IFAE Barcelona, Lawrence Berkeley Lab, LMU München and the associated Excellence Cluster Universe, University of Michigan, NOAO, University of Nottingham, Ohio State University, OzDES Membership Consortium, University of Pennsylvania, University of Portsmouth, SLAC National Lab, Stanford University, University of Sussex, and Texas A&M University. Based on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin 48-inch Telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility project. ZTF is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-1440341 and a collaboration including Caltech, IPAC, the Weizmann Institute for Science, the Oskar Klein Center at Stockholm University, the University of Maryland, the University of Washington, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron and Humboldt University, Los Alamos National Laboratories, the TANGO Consortium of Taiwan, the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories. Operations are conducted by COO, IPAC, and UW. Based on observations at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO Prop. ID 2017A-0260; and PI: Soares-Santos), which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen's University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. Some of the data presented in this paper were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST). STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. This work is based in part on archival data obtained with the Spitzer Space Telescope, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. This research has made use of NED which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We have made use of the Weizmann Interactive Supernova Data Repository (Yaron & Gal-Yam 2012, https://wiserep.weizmann.ac.il). Funding Information: 1 iraf is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Publisher Copyright: © ESO 2021. ; The fraction of core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe) occurring in the central regions of galaxies is not well constrained at present. This is partly because large-scale transient surveys operate at optical wavelengths, making it challenging to detect transient sources that occur in regions susceptible to high extinction factors. Here we present the discovery and follow-up observations of two CCSNe that occurred in the luminous infrared galaxy (LIRG) NGC 3256. The first, SN 2018ec, was discovered using the ESO HAWK-I/GRAAL adaptive optics seeing enhancer, and was classified as a Type Ic with a host galaxy extinction of AV = 2.1-0.1+0.3 mag. The second, AT 2018cux, was discovered during the course of follow-up observations of SN 2018ec, and is consistent with a subluminous Type IIP classification with an AV = 2.1 ± 0.4 mag of host extinction. A third CCSN, PSN J10275082-4354034 in NGC 3256, was previously reported in 2014, and we recovered the source in late-time archival Hubble Space Telescope imaging. Based on template light curve fitting, we favour a Type IIn classification for it with modest host galaxy extinction of AV = 0.3-0.3+0.4 mag. We also extend our study with follow-up data of the recent Type IIb SN 2019lqo and Type Ib SN 2020fkb that occurred in the LIRG system Arp 299 with host extinctions of AV = 2.1-0.3+0.1 and AV = 0.4-0.2+0.1 mag, respectively. Motivated by the above, we inspected, for the first time, a sample of 29 CCSNe located within a projected distance of 2.5 kpc from the host galaxy nuclei in a sample of 16 LIRGs. We find, if star formation within these galaxies is modelled assuming a global starburst episode and normal IMF, that there is evidence of a correlation between the starburst age and the CCSN subtype. We infer that the two subgroups of 14 H-poor (Type IIb/Ib/Ic/Ibn) and 15 H-rich (Type II/IIn) CCSNe have different underlying progenitor age distributions, with the H-poor progenitors being younger at 3σ significance. However, we note that the currently available sample sizes of CCSNe and host LIRGs are small, and the statistical comparisons between subgroups do not take into account possible systematic or model errors related to the estimated starburst ages. ; Peer reviewed

Background. Health is the highest value not only in the context of the perception of a person, but also society and the state as a whole. According to the content of international documents approved by the UN General Assembly, the WHO, the World Medical Association, governments should be responsible for the health of the population, ensure the implementation of the human right to life and health. Previously, the state of affairs in Ukraine regarding the pharmaceutical provision of privileged categories of citizens was studied. However, for forming a powerful and effective health care system in Ukraine for the pharmaceutical provision of privileged categories of citizens, it is useful to analyze the experience of providing health care in economically developed countries. The purpose of the research was to study the Great Britain experience with the organization of a healthcare system for the pharmaceutical provision of medicines to privileged population groups. Materials and methods. Common methods of normative legal, documentary, retrospective and comparative analysis used to gain that purpose. Results. The system of financing health care in the Great Britain provides getting finances mainly from the state budget, while the division takes place on the management vertical from the highest level to the lower one. The taxes that make up about 90% of the health care system budget are the financial basis of the national health system of the Great Britain. For comparison, only 7.5% comes from employers. Therefore, can argue that the healthcare system of the Great Britain in fact completely financed by financial contributions from taxpayers and by the government. There are three main models of financing health care allocated in the world practice: private, budget (model Beveridge), mixed (Bismarck model). A private financing model exists through the creation of sustainable competition between healthcare facilities. The part of private insurance is about 40% of total costs, and the patient himself covers the cost of pharmaceutical provision. A private financing model is typical for such developed countries as the United States of America and Japan. The budget model of funding or the Beveridge model means covering a large part of the costs of pharmaceutical provision by state institutions. This model is also typical for Great Britain. A mixed financing model or Bismarck model based on the three foundations: the state, enterprises and personal funds of a citizen. This system of insurance financing is typical for Germany, Austria and France. Private medicine in the Great Britain is one of the most advanced and most expensive in the world. There are about 300 non-state hospitals in the country, that receive a license at a local the National Health Service unit and tested twice a year. There are no queues here and medical care provided in full and to the extent necessary. The services of pay-doctors and cabinets paid either by insurance companies or by patients themselves. Large companies in Britain have health insurance as an additional paycheck bonus. Conclusions. According to the Great Britain experience, compulsory medical insurance takes place in countries with predominantly state funding. The Beveridge model is widespread in many countries where the state provides coverage of 80% or more of health care costs (Canada, Australia, Greece, Sweden, and Spain). Despite significant changes in the health care system of the Great Britain, the opportunity to choose the type of insurance and to take advantage of the benefits for the purchase of medicines and medical products, that allowed to increase competition between health facilities and, accordingly, to improve the quality and speed of pharmaceutical provision of patients. Thus, budget medicine of Great Britain is a priority for many world countries and a guarantee of state financing of pharmaceutical provision for privileged categories of citizens, regardless of income level and social status. ; Актуальность. Здоровье – найвысшая ценность не просто в контексте восприятия конкретным лицом, но и общества и государства в целом. Согласно содержания международных документов, утвержденных Генеральной Ассамблеей ООН, ВОЗ, Всемирной медицинской ассоциацией правительства несут ответственность за здоровье населения, обеспечивют реализацию права человека на жизнь и здоровье. Однако, для формирования мощной и действенной системы здравоохранения в Украине для фармацевтического обеспечения льготных категорий граждан полезным является опыт организации обеспечения здравоохранения в экономически развитых странах. Цель работы заключалась в изучении опыта Великобритании по организации организации системы здравоохранения для фармацевтического обеспечения лекарственными средствами льготных категорий населения. Материалы и методы. Для достижения поставленной цели были использованы общепринятые методы нормативно-правового, документального, ретроспективного и сравнительного анализа. Результаты. Система финансирования здравоохранения Великобритании предусматривает поступление преобладающей части средств из государственного бюджета, при этом распределение осуществляется по управленческой вертикали от высшего звена к низшему. Именно галоги, которые составляют около 90% бюджета здравоохранения, являются финансовым основанием национальной системы здравоохранения Великобритании. Для сравнения, только 7,5% средств поступают от работодателей. Поэтому можно утверждать, что система здравоохранения Великобритании фактически полностью обеспечивается за счет финансовых платежей со стороны плательщиков налогов и собственно государственного обеспечения. В мировой практике принято выделять три основные модели финансирования сферы здравоохранения: частная, бюджетная (модель Бевериджа), смешанная (модель Бисмарка). Частная модель финансирования существует за счет создания устойчивой конкуренции между заведениями здравоохранения. Частное страхование составляет около 40% от общих затрат, а остаток стоимости фармацевтического обеспечения покрывает сам пациент. Частная модель финансирования характерна для таких развитых стран как США и Япония. Бюджетная модель финансирования или модель Бевериджа предусматривает покрытие значительной части затрат на фармацевтическое обеспечение государственными учреждениями. Такая модель характерна и для Великобритании. Смешанная модель финансирования или модель Бисмарка базируется на «трех китах»: государство, предприятия и личные средства гражданина. Данная система финансирования на страховой основе характерна для Германии, Австрии и Франции. Частная медицина Великобритании — одна из наиболее передовых и наиболее дорогих в мире. В этой стране около 300 негосударственных госпиталей, каждый из которых получает лицензию в местном подразделении Национальной системы здравохранения и проходит проверку дважды в год. Здесь отсутствуют очереди, а медицинскую помошь предоставляют в полном и необходимом объеме. Платные услуги врачей и кабинетов оплачивают или страховые компании, или пациенты самостоятельно. В крупных компаниях Великобритании распространено медицинское страхование как дополнительный бонус к зарплате. Выводы. Опыт Великобритании по обязательному мединскому страхованию распространен в странах с преимущественным государственным финансированием. Модель Бевериджа распространена во многих странах, в которых государство обеспечивает компенсацию 80% и более затрат на здравоохранение (Канада, Австралия, Греция, Швеция, Испания). Значительные подвижки в системе здравоохранения Великобритании, возможность выбрать вид страхования и воспользоваться льготами на получение лекарственных средств позволила искусственно повысить конкуренцию между учреждениями здравоохранения, а соответственно – улучшить качество и скорость фармацевтического обеспечения пациентов. Таким образом, бюджетная медицина Великобритании – приоритет для многих стран мира и залог государственного финансирования фармацевтического обеспечения льготных категорий населения, независимо от уровня доходов и социального статуса. ; Актуальність. Здоров'я – найвища цінність не просто в контексті сприйняття певної особи, але й суспільства та держави загалом. Згідно до змісту міжнародних документів, затверджених Генеральною Асамблеєю ООН, ВООЗ, Всесвітньою медичною асоціацією уряди мають нести відповідальність за здоров'я населення, забезпечити реалізацію права людини на життя і здоров'я. Однак, для формування потужної та дієвої системи охорони здоров'я в Україні для фармацевтичного забезпечення пільгових категорій громадян корисним є аналіз досвіду організації забезпечення охорони здоров'я в економічно розвинених країнах. Мета роботи полягала у вивченні досвіду Великої Британії щодо організації системи охорони здоров'я для фармацевтичного забезпечення лікарськими засобами пільгових категорій населення. Матеріали та методи. Для досягнення поставленої мети було використано загальноприйняті методи нормативно-правового, документального, ретроспективного та порівняльного аналізу. Результати. Система фінансування охорони здоров'я у Великій Британії передбачає надходження переважної частини коштів з державного бюджету, при цьому розподіл відбувається по управлінській вертикалі від вищої ланки до нижчої. Саме податки, які складають близько 90% бюджету охорони здоров'я, є фінансовим підґрунтям національної системи охорони здоров'я Великої Британії. Для порівняння, лише 7,5% коштів надходять від роботодавців. Тому можна стверджувати, що система охорони здоров'я Великої Британії фактично повністю забезпечується за рахунок фінансових внесків із боку платників податків та власне державного забезпечення. У світовій практиці прийнято виділяти три головні моделі фінансування сфери охорони здоров'я: приватна, бюджетна (модель Беверіджа), змішана (модель Бісмарка). Приватна модель фінансування існує за рахунок створення стійкої конкуренції між закладами охорони здоров'я. Частка приватного страхування складає близько 40% від загальних видатків, а залишок вартості фармацевтичного забезпечення покриває сам пацієнт. Приватна модель фінансування характерна для таких розвинених країн як США та Японія. Бюджетна модель фінансування або модель Беверіджа передбачає покриття значної частини витрат на фармацевтичне забезпечення державними установами. Така модель характерна і для Великої Британії. Змішана модель фінансування або модель Бісмарка базується на «трьох китах»: держава, підприємства та особисті кошти громадянина. Дана система фінансування на страхових засадах характерна для Німеччини, Австрії та Франції. Приватна медицина у Великій Британії — одна з найбільш передових і найдорожчих у світі. У цій країні близько 300 недержавних госпіталів, кожен з яких отримує ліцензію в місцевому підрозділі Національної системи охорони здоров'я Великої Британії і проходить перевірку два рази на рік. Тут немає ніяких черг, а медичну допомогу надають у повному та необхідному обсязі. Послуги платних лікарів і кабінетів оплачують або страхові компанії, або пацієнти самостійно. У великих компаніях Британії поширено медичне страхування як додатковий бонус до зарплати. Висновки. За досвідом Великої Британії обов'язкове медичне страхування має місце у країнах із переважним державним фінансуванням. Модель Беверіджа поширена у багатьох країнах, де держава забезпечує компенсацію 80% і більше витрат на охорону здоров'я (Канада, Австралія, Греція, Швеція, Іспанія). Значні зрушення у системі охорони здоров'я Великої Британії, можливість обрати вид страхування та скористатися пільгами на придбання лікарських засобів дозволила штучно підвищити конкуренцію між закладами охорони здоров'я, а відповідно – і покращити якість та швидкість фармацевтичного забезпечення пацієнтів. Отож, бюджетна медицина Великої Британії – пріоритет для багатьох країн світу та запорука державного фінансування фармацевтичного забезпечення пільгових категорій населення, незалежно від рівня доходів та соціального статусу.

Climate change, air pollution, water stress, and biodiversity loss are the most important global environmental impacts that need to be addressed in the coming decades. This thesis shows that most of these impacts are caused by the extraction and processing of materials, food, and fuels, summarized as "materials" here. With the demand for materials expected to double by 2050, improved sustainability policies are critical. As many materials are produced in another country than ultimately consumed, such policies require detailed information on global value chains and their environmental impacts. Multi-regional input-output (MRIO) analysis plays a key role in providing this information, but several research gaps exist. One gap is the lack of an accurate method for assessing scope 3 impacts of materials, industries, and nations, including cumulative upstream and direct impacts (for any impact category). Also, no method exists for analyzing downstream impacts, which is a particular issue for greenhouse gas (GHG) and particulate matter (PM) emissions of fuels, such as coal. Another gap is the limited spatial and sectoral resolution and the incomplete coverage of sustainability indicators in current MRIO databases. This includes the lack of regionalized assessment of water and land use impacts. Due to these gaps, an accurate and extensive environmental assessment of materials is missing both globally and nationally. The objective of this thesis was to provide an improved MRIO method and database for creating transparency in global value chains and their impacts, to support sustainable policy-making. For this purpose, a method was developed that allows assessing the scope 3 impacts of any sector and region of an MRIO database (Chapter 2), tracking them along the global value chain (for GHG emissions and any other impact category), and analyzing downstream impacts (for GHG and PM emissions of fuels, Chapter 4 and 5). Furthermore, an automated, transparent, and time-efficient approach was developed to improve the resolution and quality of an existing MRIO database (Chapter 3). It was applied to merge the global MRIO databases EXIOBASE3 and Eora26 and add data from FAOSTAT and previous studies to create an MRIO database with high spatial (189 countries), sectoral (163 sectors), and temporal resolution (year 1995–2015). Finally, a set of sustainability indicators was implemented into the database: Climate change from GHG emissions, health impacts from PM emissions (primary and secondary particles), water stress and land-use-related biodiversity loss (both regionalized), value added, and number of workers (Chapter 2–5). The importance, versatility, and broad applicability of the improved method and database was illustrated by several application examples. These include a case study on material production globally (Chapter 2) and for the G20 (Chapter 4). An in-depth analysis of the role of coal combustion is provided in Chapter 4 for the production of metals and construction materials, and in Chapter 5 for global plastics production. A detailed analysis of the food supply chain and the related water and land footprint is shown in Chapter 3 for the European Union (EU). The case study on global material production (Chapter 2) showed that previous MRIO methods either underestimated or overestimated the environmental impacts of material production by 20–60%. The improved method found that material production causes half of global GHG emissions, one-third of global PM health impacts, and, because of biomass production, more than 90% of global water stress and land-use related biodiversity loss. Since 1995, global material-related impacts have increased by 52% (GHG emissions), 56% (PM health impacts), and 22% (water stress). While high-income regions mainly use materials for private consumption, emerging economies use a large share of materials for infrastructure build-up. Although the latter was the main driver of the rising material-related GHG emissions, material-related carbon footprints of high-income regions are still several times higher than those of emerging economies on a per-capita level (year 2015). This underscores the need to decouple environmental impacts from economic growth and to promote sufficiency measures. Material production for building infrastructure in emerging economies, mainly China, has also driven the increase in the G20's overall carbon footprint (Chapter 4). Since 1995, China's carbon footprint of metals and construction materials has quadrupled, causing more than 10% of global GHG emissions in 2015. Similarly, the case study on plastics (Chapter 5) showed that plastics-related carbon footprints of China's transportation, Indonesia's electronics industry, and India's construction sector have increased more than 50-fold. Thus, measures to reduce, reuse, recycle, and substitute high-impact materials are critical to mitigate the environmental impacts of the expected economic growth in developing countries. Reliance on coal to produce materials has been another key driver of the G20's rising carbon footprint (Chapter 4). In 2015, half of global coal was used for the G20's production of metals and construction materials, the majority in China and India. Thus, 85% of India's total domestic coal was used for the production of these materials in 2015. This points to the need for a rapid phase-out of coal and a shift to renewables in the G20's material production chain. Similarly, it was found that due to the growth in plastics production in coal-based economies, the carbon and PM health footprint of plastics has doubled since 1995 (Chapter 5). In 2015, 6% of global coal electricity was used for plastics production. Moreover, plastics accounted for 4.5% of global GHG emissions. This is higher than expected, as previous studies did not account for the increased reliance on coal energy in the plastics sector. It was also assumed that equal amounts of oil were used as fuel and feedstock in plastics production, while this thesis shows that twice as much fossil carbon is combusted as fuel than contained as feedstock. Even in a worst-case scenario where all plastics were incinerated, the production stage would still contribute most to plastics-related GHG and PM emissions. This means that previous studies have underestimated the relative significance of the production versus the disposal phase, and thus the enormous potential to reduce the carbon and PM health footprint of plastics by renewable energy investments. High-income regions have significantly contributed to the rising environmental impacts by outsourcing the extraction of resources and processing into materials to lower-income regions with less stringent environmental policies, more water stress, and high biodiversity (Chapter 2–5). Due to increasing imports of plastics from coal-based economies, the share of the plastic-related carbon footprint generated abroad increased to 67% in the EU, 79% in the USA, 90% in Canada, and 95% in Australia in 2015 (Chapter 5). Similarly, the case study on the EU's water-stress and land-use related biodiversity loss footprint found that most of the associated impacts are caused abroad (Chapter 3). This is mainly attributed to food imports from emerging and developing countries where water is scarce (e.g. Egypt) and biodiversity is high (e.g. Madagascar). The improved spatial resolution (189 countries instead of 49 regions) and regionalized impact assessment led to a significant increase in the EU's water and land impact footprint induced abroad. These results highlight the need for expanding environmental policy initiatives (e.g., the Paris Agreement and the EU's Green Deal) from production-based to consumption-based accounting to foster improved supply chain management. This includes the investment in clean energy production throughout the supply chain and the use of regional comparative advantage for reducing water stress and biodiversity loss. In addition to environmental impacts, the value added and workforce associated with material production are also unequally distributed around the world. Trade in materials reinforces this imbalance (Chapter 2–5). It was shown that although high-income regions strongly rely on low-paid work abroad due to material imports (mainly food), they generate most of the associated value added inland (e.g., due to food processing). The extent of this imbalance was highlighted, e.g., in the G20 case study: Since 2011, the number of workers employed globally to meet Australia's material demand is greater than the number of workers employed in the entire Australian economy (Chapter 4). Similarly, the plastics case study found that although 70% of the workforce required for plastics consumption in the EU was employed abroad, 80% of the associated value added was generated domestically (year 2015), as only the low-paid steps in the plastics value chain have been outsourced (Chapter 5). The method and database of this thesis are open access and can be applied by researchers, industries, and policy makers for a more accurate impact assessment of various materials, commodities, industries, and nations. The method is available as a software tool that can be used to track the scope 3 impacts of industries and nations for a range of sustainability indicators along the global value chain (Chapter 2). Future work can apply the approach of Chapter 3 to improve the spatial, sectoral, and temporal resolution and quality of the database by integrating further MRIO databases and data sources. Also, future work is needed to incorporate detailed bottom-up inventories and use remote sensing data to improve the resolution and coverage of life-cycle inventories.

"Thèse en cotutelle : Université Laval, Québec, Canada, Philosophiæ doctor (Ph. D.) et Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France" ; Ravagée par la guerre et occupée pendant plusieurs années, la France a été le théâtre de changements majeurs dans la manière dont ses dirigeants ont appréhendé son avenir au sein du Concert des Nations. Ces derniers étaient conscients de l'importance qu'a eue l'empire entre 1940 et 1945 et le rôle central qu'il avait pour le rétablissement de la légitimité du pays en tant que Puissance mondiale. Dans le domaine économique, les colonies étaient conçues comme un apport essentiel au relèvement de la France et pour sa prospérité. Les décideurs français ont ainsi consolidé les liens entre la métropole française et ses colonies pour fonder une politique impériale sur les principes du républicanisme selon lesquels la République était « une et indivisible ». Les hommes politiques français ont raffermi l'emprise de la France sur leurs territoires d'outre-mer par la création de l'Union française et ont donné un second souffle à la constitution d'un État-Empire, un projet entamé dans les années 1930. La dernière phase d'expansion de l'empire du dix-neuvième siècle faisait place alors depuis les années 1920 et 1930 à une logique de développement et de mise en branle des projets coloniaux de manière à créer un empire qui pouvait constituer un ensemble cohérent. La poursuite de cette logique du mythe colonial français après 1945 a eu pour effet de modifier l'identité de la France en tant qu'acteur du système international. La France n'était plus perçue par ses agents sub-étatiques comme un simple État possédant des colonies, mais bien comme une nouvelle entité dans laquelle ses excroissances dans l'outre-mer faisaient dorénavant partie intégrante de l'État et contribuaient à forger un avenir, qui était dès lors inextricablement partagé. Le bien-fondé de la mission civilisatrice de la France se traduisait dans cette période par un sentiment de devoir envers les territoires d'outre-mer ; le devoir de les amener au développement économique moderne et à un stade civilisationnel supérieur. Ces mêmes convictions ont conduit les gouvernements français à envisager une autre issue à cette relation que celle de l'indépendance totale, encouragée par les mouvements de décolonisation. Cette nouvelle identité a des effets tangibles sur la conception et l'engagement des décideurs et les haut-fonctionnaires français dans les projets destinés à rapprocher les économies européennes et dans la poursuite de l'intégration européenne. Dans le cas de la CECA, puisque cette institution sectorielle avait peu d'impacts sur la production d'outre-mer, on envisageait les bénéfices à une association entre les continents européen et africain comme marginaux. Cependant, le facteur colonial devenait de plus en plus influent dans les prises de décisions effectuées par les haut-fonctionnaires et analystes français du ministère des Affaires étrangères. Il a d'ailleurs constitué l'un des points d'achoppement dans les négociations de la mise en place d'une armée européenne, car l'article 38 du Traité instituant la CED ne prévoyait pas de mesures permettant à la France de conserver les moyens de poursuivre ses opérations de pacification dans l'empire ainsi que la guerre d'Indochine. C'est en ce sens qu'après l'échec de la CED le gouvernement français sous le leadership d'Edgar Faure a entrepris de mener des réformes de manière à trouver une solution durable au dilemme de la vocation européenne ou mondiale de la France. Des réformes politiques et économiques majeures étaient envisagées afin de transformer l'Union française en une association fédérale franco-africaine librement consentie. L'ensemble français ne pouvait donc plus être intégré partiellement à des initiatives européennes, car cela contreviendrait aux principes républicains renforcés par les réformes. Dans le contexte de la « relance européenne », le gouvernement sous Guy Mollet proposait de lier le marché commun européen aux territoires d'outre-mer, ce qui aurait permis l'ouverture des marchés africains aux échanges européens. Intégrées dans cette Eurafrique, les colonies auraient ainsi vu les bénéfices de conserver le lien politique avec la France. Cette thèse analyse la manière dont la souveraineté était comprise et imaginée par les dirigeants français pendant la construction européenne et lors du remodelage de leurs liens avec les anciennes colonies. Sans nier la portée de la souveraineté dans le cadre de l'existence d'un État, elle fut appelée à être modifiée ; ses éléments constitutifs furent repensés au profit d'une forme étatique supranationale. L'étude de ce nouveau modèle des relations internationales sera étendue aux alternatives que les dirigeants français ont proposées aux colonies africaines. Ces derniers les poussaient à dépasser le stade du nationalisme pour adhérer à un modèle étatique jugé supérieur : un stade post-westphalien dans lequel leurs revendications indépendantistes seraient caduques. ; Ravaged by years of occupation, France witnessed major changes in policymakers' vision of the country's future and of French interests and aims. They were aware of the importance of the empire during the war and the role it would play after the war in the restoration of France's international legitimacy as a Great Power. Colonies were also conceived as an essential element of France's revival and of its long-term prosperity. French decision-makers thus sought to strengthen links between the French metropole and its colonies in order to reassess its imperial identity, which was founded on republican principles. These politicians stiffened France's hold on its overseas territories with the implementation of the Union française and gave a second wind to the achievement of a State-Empire. The nineteenth century expansionary phase of the French empire had given way to another phase of imperialism in which development and progress of the overseas territories were at its core. The continuation of the colonial myth had profoundly modified French identity as a key player of the international system. France was no longer seen by its sub-national agents as a simple State holding colonies, but as a new form of statehood; an entity in which its overseas territories was now a constituent part of it and contributed to forging new perspective for their shared future. This new identity had a significant influence on how interests within the international system and particularly in Europe were pursued, especially within the European integration projects. Decisions makers in the French Fourth Republic evaluated their potential gains and preferences, first of all, through the lens of an Imperial Power. In other words, France's political and economic elite had first examined the inherent implications of the upholding of their pre-1940 empire on France's economic and geo-strategic needs, in the shifting context of early Cold War. Pro-European projects were therefore analyzed and weighed in regard to their costs and benefits, in the light of a new grid. Decision makers were influenced by the bien-fondé of French colonialism, based on the sentiment that France had a duty towards overseas territories; a duty of guiding them towards progress and civilization. It is with those considerations in mind that the French governments envisaged another solution to the question of its relationship with its colonies than total independence. The French stance on the European federal project was thus influenced by the introduction of a new variable in the equation of early European integration: the facteur colonial. In the early European integration process, it was considered marginal because of the sectoral approach of the ECSC. Although, the imperial identity was more and more apparent in the interests and policies pursued by the French government during the EDC debate. The introduction of a European army did not ensure France either the possibility of pursuing its peacekeeping operations in the overseas territories or the Indochina War. After the defeat of the EDC project in the French parliament, the government under the leadership of Edgar Faure envisioned a new set of reforms (political, administrative, and economic), which would transform the Union française into a consensual Franco-African federal political association. From this perspective, the ensemble français could not anymore be introduced partially within the European projects promoted in the wake of the « European revival ». Under Guy Mollet's government, a plan to establish supranational structures in their former colonies and in Europe was formulated so that free trade between the two continents could be established. With the economic benefits anticipated for the overseas territories, this Eurafrican project would have proved to African representatives that their interests lay in maintaining the political link between their territories and France. Accordingly, this thesis argues that French leaders questioned the international relations framework based on the nation-state as the central entity of the international system in order to conciliate their ambitions in Europe and as a State-Empire. These two projects – Franco- African association and European integration ̶ shared common characteristics and conceptual origins: supranationalism. French officials and policy-makers promoted a federal Eurafrican project to avoid the process of decolonization and create a political structure that would defuse difficult and pressing colonial issues. The former French colonies were asked to pass from the status of colonized territories to constituents of a supranational structure. The French decision makers pushed the overseas territories to transcend the stage of nationalism to reach an advanced statehood model: a post-Westphalian stage in which their demands for total independence would be obsolete. ; Résumé en espagnol

Full author list: L. Tartaglia, A. Pastorello, J. Sollerman, C. Fransson, S. Mattila, M. Fraser, F. Taddia, L. Tomasella, M. Turatto, A. Morales-Garoffolo, N. Elias-Rosa, P. Lundqvist, J. Harmanen, T. Reynolds, E. Cappellaro, C. Barbarino, A. Nyholm, E. Kool, E. Ofek, X. Gao, Z. Jin, H. Tan, D. J. Sand, F. Ciabattari, X. Wang, J. Zhang, F. Huang, W. Li, J. Mo, L. Rui, D. Xiang, T. Zhang, G. Hosseinzadeh, D. A. Howell, C. McCully, S. Valenti, S. Benetti, E. Callis, A. S. Carracedo, C. Fremling, T. Kangas, A. Rubin, A. Somero and G. Terreran ; In this paper we report the results of the first ~four years of spectroscopic and photometric monitoring of the Type IIn supernova SN 2015da (also known as PSN J13522411+3941286, or iPTF16tu). The supernova exploded in the nearby spiral galaxy NGC 5337 in a relatively highly extinguished environment. The transient showed prominent narrow Balmer lines in emission at all times and a slow rise to maximum in all bands. In addition, early observations performed by amateur astronomers give a very well-constrained explosion epoch. The observables are consistent with continuous interaction between the supernova ejecta and a dense and extended H-rich circumstellar medium. The presence of such an extended and dense medium is difficult to reconcile with standard stellar evolution models, since the metallicity at the position of SN 2015da seems to be slightly subsolar. Interaction is likely the mechanism powering the light curve, as confirmed by the analysis of the pseudo bolometric light curve, which gives a total radiated energy ≳ 1051 erg. Modeling the light curve in the context of a supernova shock breakout through a dense circumstellar medium allowed us to infer the mass of the prexisting gas to be ≂ 8 MO , with an extreme mass-loss rate for the progenitor star ≂ 0.6 MO yr-1, suggesting that most of the circumstellar gas was produced during multiple eruptive events. Near- and mid-infrared observations reveal a fluxexcess in these domains, similar to those observed in SN 2010jl and other interacting transients, likely due to preexisting radiatively heated dust surrounding the supernova. By modeling the infrared excess, we infer a mass ≳ 0.4 × 10-3 MO for the dust. ; The Oskar Klein Centre is funded by the Swedish Research Council. We acknowledge the support of the staff of the Xinglong 2.16 m telescope. This work was partially supported by the Open Project Program of the Key Laboratory of Optical Astronomy, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences. M.F. is supported by a Royal Society – Science Foundation Ireland University Research Fellowship. J.H. acknowledges financial support from the Finnish Cultural Foundation and the Vilho, Yrjö and Kalle Väisälä Foundation of the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters. Research by D.J.S. is supported by NSF grants AST-1821987, AST-1821967, AST-1813708, AST-1813466 and AST-1908972. S.B., L.T.and M.T. are partially supported by the PRIN-INAF 2016 with the project "Towards the SKA and CTA era: discovery, localisation, and physics of transient sources" (PI: M. Giroletti). N E.-R. acknowledges support from the Spanish MICINN grant ESP2017–82674–R and FEDER funds. D.A.H., C.M., and G.H. were supported by NSF AST-1313484 The work of X.W. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC grants 11325313, 11633002, and 11761141001), and the National Program on Key Research and Development Project (grant no. 2016YFA0400803). Research by S.V. is supported by NSF grant AST-1813176. J.Z. is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, grants 11773067, 11403096), the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of the CAS (grants 2018081), and the Western Light Youth Project. Based on observations collected at: ESO La Silla Observatory under program "Optical & NIR monitoring of bright supernovae with REM" during AOT30. The Gemini Observatory, under program GN– 2016B-Q-57, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the NSF on behalf of the Gemini partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), CONICYT (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (Argentina), and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (Brazil). Tthe Nordic Optical Telescope, operated by the Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association and the Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC), both installed at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofìsica de Canarias, on the island of La Palma (Spain). The Copernico Telescope (Asiago, Italy) operated by INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova. The 3 m Shane Reflector, located at the Lick Observatory (7281 Mt Hamilton Rd, Mt Hamilton, CA 95140, USA.) owned and operated by the University of California. This work makes use of observations from the Las Cumbres Observatory network of telescopes. We acknowledge the support of the staff of the Li–Jiang 2.4 m telescope (LJT). Funding for the LJT has been provided by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and the People's Government of Yunnan Province. The LJT is jointly operated and administrated by Yunnan Observatories and Center for Astronomical Mega–Science, CAS. This research has made use of the Keck Observatory Archive (KOA), which is operated by the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute (NExScI), under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain. This publication makes use of data products from NEOWISE, which is a project of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, founded by the Planetary Science Division of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research has made use of the Keck Observatory Archive (KOA), which is operated by the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute (NExScI), under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS Web site is http://www.sdss.org/. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC) for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are The University of Chicago, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, The Johns Hopkins University, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, University of Pittsburgh, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. The intermediate Palomar Transient Factory project is a scientific collaboration among the California Institute of Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, the Oskar Klein Center, the Weizmann Institute of Science, the TANGO Program of the University System of Taiwan, and the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe. IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. SNOOPY is a package for SN photometry using PSF fitting and/or template subtraction developed by E. Cappellaro. A package description can be found at http:// sngroup.oapd.inaf.it/snoopy.html. FOSCGUI is a graphic user interface aimed at extracting SN spectroscopy and photometry obtained with FOSC-like instruments. It was developed by E. Cappellaro. A package description can be found at http://sngroup.oapd.inaf.it/foscgui.html

Apart from evoking accent-based stereotypes, non-native speech has been found to pose threat to intelligibility and overburden listeners with additional cognitive load which may evoke their irritation (Johansson 1975; Kelly 2000; Munro 2003; Lippi-Green 2012; Moyer 2013). The paper discusses the notion of communicative responsibility defined as speaker's effort to overcome the undesirable consequences of foreign accent for the sake of efficient conveyance of relevant message. Five religious lectures (amounting to 5hrs of audio-visual material) delivered in Polish-accented English are discussed with respect to the speaker's non-native pronunciation and his morally motivated effort to convey the message precisely despite phonetically deviant speech. The shortcomings of non-native pronunciation are anticipated and targeted by preventive strategies, such as disambiguation, frequent repetition and use of emphatic stress to highlight the most relevant information, eliciting direct feedback from the listeners, monitoring their non-verbal responses, as well as the employment of enhancing devices, such as gestures. ; agabryla@gmail.com ; Agnieszka Bryła-Cruz is an Adjunct Professor at Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland. Her main research interests concern the role of linguistic and socio-linguistic factors in Second Language Acquisition, particularly pronunciation, and the perception of non-native accents by English native speakers. More recently, she has studied the role of phonetics in listening comprehension in a series of empirical studies. ; Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland ; Asher, J. & García, R. 1969. The optimal age to learn a foreign language. Modern Language Teacher 53: 334-341. ; Auhagen, A.E. & Bierhoff, H. (eds.). 2001. Responsibility: The Many Faces of a Social Phenomenon. London: Routledge. ; Bansal, R. K. 1969. The Intelligibility of Indian English: Measurements of the Intelligibility of Connected Speech, and Sentence and Word Material, presented to Listeners of Different Nationalities. Hyderabad: Central Institute of English. ; Baugh, J. 2003. Linguistic profiling. In: S. Makoni, G. Smitherman, A. Ball & A. Spears (eds.), Black Linguistics: Language, Society and Politics in Africa and the Americas, 155-168. London: Routledge. ; Brown, A. 1991. Pronunciation Models. Singapore: Singapore University Press. ; Bryła-Cruz, A. 2016. Foreign Accent Perception: Polish English in the British Ears. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ; Campbell, H. A. (ed.). 2013. Digital Religion: Understanding Religious Practice in New Media Worlds. London / New York: Routledge. ; Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M. & Goodwin, J. M. 1994. Teaching Pronunciation: a Reference for Teachers of English of Speakers of other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; Church, R. Breckinridge, Alibali, M.W. & Kelly, S. D. 2017. Understanding gesture: Description, mechanism and function. In: R. B. Church, M. W. Alibali & S. D. Kelly (eds.), Why Gesture? How the Hands Function in Speaking, Thinking and Communicating (Gesture Studies 7), 3-10. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ; Clark, H. H. 1994. Managing problems in speaking. Speech Communication 15: 243‐250. ; Dawson, L. L. 2005. The mediation of religious experience in cyberspace. In: M. T. H2jsgaard & M. Warburg (eds.), Religion and Cyberspace, 15-37. New York / London: Routledge. ; De Ruiter, J. P. 2017. Asymmetric redundancy of gesture and speech. In: R. B. Church, M. W. Alibali & S. D. Kelly (eds.), Why Gesture? How the Hands Function in Speaking, Thinking and Communicating (Gesture Studies 7), 59-75. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ; Derwing, T., Fraser, H., Kang, O., Thomson, R. 2014. L2 Accents and ethics. Issues that merit Attention. In: A. Mahboob & L. Barratt (eds.), Englishes in Multilingual Contexts: Language Variation and Education, 63-80. New York / London: Springer. ; Dragojevic, M. & H. Giles. 2016. I don't like you because you're hard to understand. Human Communication Research 42 (3): 396-420. ; Erwin, S. I. 2005. Language Barriers Hinder Multinational Operations. National Defense (90). http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2005/7/1/2005july-language-barriers-hinder-multinational-operations, retrieved March, 2017. ; Field, J. 2005. Intelligibility and the listener: The role of lexical stress. TESOL Quarterly 39 (3): 399-423. ; Flege, J. E. 1988. The production and perception of foreign language speech sounds. In: H. Winitz (ed.). Human Communication and its Disorders. A Review, 224-401. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. ; Flege, J. E. & Southwood, H. 1999. Scaling foreign accent: direct magnitude estimation versus internal scaling. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics 13 (5): 335-349. ; Gilbert, J. B. 2010. Pronunciation as orphan: What can be done? Speak Out! 43: 3-7. ; Gullberg, M. 1998. Gesture as a Communication Strategy in Second Language Discourse. A Study of Learners of French and Swedish. Lund: Lund University Press. ; Gullberg, Marianne. 2008. A helping hand? Gestures, L2 learners, and grammar. In: S. G. McCafferty & G. Stam (eds.), 185-210. Gesture: Second Language Acquisition and Classroom Research. New York / London: Routledge. ; Johansson, S. 1978. Studies of Error Gravity: Native Reactions to Errors Produced by Swedish Learners of English. Göteborg, Sweden: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. ; Johnson, T. D. 2014. The Preacher as Liturgical Artist. Metaphor, Identity and the Vicarious Humanity of Christ. Cascade Books: Oregon. ; Johnson, P. W. T. 2015. The Mission of Preaching: Equipping the Community for Faithful Witness. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. ; Kelly, G. 2000. How to Teach Pronunciation. Harlow: Longman. ; Kendon, A. 2004. Gesture: Visible Action as Utterance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; Lambert, W. E., Hodgson, R. C., Gardner R. C. & Fillenbaum, S. 1960. Evaluational reactions to spoken English. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 60: 44-51. ; Lenneberg, E. 1967. Biological Foundations of Language. New York: John Wiley. ; Lippi-Green, R. 1997. English with an Accent. Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States. Devon: Biddles Ltd. ; Lippi-Green, R. 2004. Language ideology and language prejudice. In: E. Finegan & J. R. Rickford (eds.), Language in the USA: Themes for Twenty-first Century, 289-304. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; Lischner, R. 2002. The Company of Preachers: Wisdom on Preaching, Augustine to the Present. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. ; Luce, P. A. & Pisoni, D. B. 1998. Recognizing spoken words: the neighbourhood activation model. Ear Hear 19 (1): 1-36. ; McRoy, S. W. & Hirst, G. 1995. The repair of speech act misunderstandings by abductive inference. Computational Linguistics 21 (4): 435‐478. ; McNeill, D. 1992. Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal about Thought. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ; Moyer, E. 2013. Foreign Accent: The Phenomenon of Non-Native Speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; Munro, M. J. 2003. A primer on accent discrimination in the Canadian context. TESL Canada Journal 20 (2): 38-51. ; Oyama, S. 1976. A sensitive period in the acquisition of a non-native phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 5: 261-285. ; Penfield, W. & Roberts, L. 1966. Speech and Brain Mechanisms. New York: Atheneum. ; Resner, A. 1999. Preacher and Cross: Person and Message in Theology and Rhetoric. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdman. ; Roembke, L. 2000. Building Credible Multicultural Teams. Pasadena (CA): William Carey Library. ; Sapon, S. 1952. An application of psychological theory to pronunciation problems in second language learning. Modern Language Journal 36: 111-114. ; Scovel, T. 1969. Foreign accents, language acquisition and cerebral dominance. Language Learning 19: 245-263. ; Sobkowiak, W. 1996. English Phonetics for Poles. Poznań: Bene Nati. ; Stott, J. 2017. Between Two Worlds: the Challenge of Preaching Today. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company. ; Strother, J. B. 1999. Communication failures lead to airline disasters. IPCC 99: Communication jazz: Improvising the new international communication culture: Proceedings. Paper presented at the 1999 IEEE International Professional Communication Conference, New Orleans, LA, September 7-10, 29-34. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE. ; Szpyra-Kozłowska, J. 2013. On the irrelevance of sounds and prosody in foreign-accented speech. In: E. Waniek-Klimczak & L. Shockey (eds.), Teaching and Researching English Accents in Native and Non-native Speakers, 15-29. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ; Thompson, I. 1991. Foreign accents revisited: The English pronunciation of Russian emigrants. Language Learning 41 (2): 177-204. ; Trudgill, P. & Hannah, J. 1994. International English. A Guide to Varieties of Standard English. Bristol: J. W. Arrowsmith Ltd. ; Walley, A. 2007. Speech learning, lexical reorganization, and the development of word recognition by native and non-native English speakers. In: O.-S. Bohn & M. Munro (eds.), Language Experience in Second Language Learning, 315-330. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. ; Williams, F. 1970. Language, attitude and social change. In: F. Williams (ed.), Language and Poverty: Perspectives on a Theme, 380-399. Chicago, IL: Markham. ; Woods, P. 2006. The hedgehog and the fox; Approaches to English for peacekeeping. In: J. Edge (ed.), (Re)locating TESOL in An Age of Empire, 208-226. New York: Polgrave Macmillan. ; Wright, R. 2004. Factors of lexical competition in vowel articulation. In: J. Local, R. Ogden & R. Temple (eds.), Phonetic Interpretation: Papers in Laboratory Phonology VI, 75-87. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; "The Strategy of the Devil in our lives" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3Z4CNERkfw ; "Spiritual warfare" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jI4CqFAymDw&t=1619s ; "Opening doorways to the demonic activity" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n61ZfLE_XyQ&t=774s ; "The evil spirits in action" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVIIbVawzXM ; "The distraction power of the Jezebel spirit" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MxaEn7X1-Ec&t=2132s ; Dalai Lama https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HbC-TXNGK1M ; 26 (3/2019) ; 4 ; 20

Актуальность. Здоровье – найвысшая ценность не просто в контексте восприятия конкретным лицом, но и общества и государства в целом. Согласно содержания международных документов, утвержденных Генеральной Ассамблеей ООН, ВОЗ, Всемирной медицинской ассоциацией правительства несут ответственность за здоровье населения, обеспечивют реализацию права человека на жизнь и здоровье. Однако, для формирования мощной и действенной системы здравоохранения в Украине для фармацевтического обеспечения льготных категорий граждан полезным является опыт организации обеспечения здравоохранения в экономически развитых странах. Цель работы заключалась в изучении опыта Великобритании по организации организации системы здравоохранения для фармацевтического обеспечения лекарственными средствами льготных категорий населения. Материалы и методы. Для достижения поставленной цели были использованы общепринятые методы нормативно-правового, документального, ретроспективного и сравнительного анализа. Результаты. Система финансирования здравоохранения Великобритании предусматривает поступление преобладающей части средств из государственного бюджета, при этом распределение осуществляется по управленческой вертикали от высшего звена к низшему. Именно галоги, которые составляют около 90% бюджета здравоохранения, являются финансовым основанием национальной системы здравоохранения Великобритании. Для сравнения, только 7,5% средств поступают от работодателей. Поэтому можно утверждать, что система здравоохранения Великобритании фактически полностью обеспечивается за счет финансовых платежей со стороны плательщиков налогов и собственно государственного обеспечения. В мировой практике принято выделять три основные модели финансирования сферы здравоохранения: частная, бюджетная (модель Бевериджа), смешанная (модель Бисмарка). Частная модель финансирования существует за счет создания устойчивой конкуренции между заведениями здравоохранения. Частное страхование составляет около 40% от общих затрат, а остаток стоимости фармацевтического обеспечения покрывает сам пациент. Частная модель финансирования характерна для таких развитых стран как США и Япония. Бюджетная модель финансирования или модель Бевериджа предусматривает покрытие значительной части затрат на фармацевтическое обеспечение государственными учреждениями. Такая модель характерна и для Великобритании. Смешанная модель финансирования или модель Бисмарка базируется на «трех китах»: государство, предприятия и личные средства гражданина. Данная система финансирования на страховой основе характерна для Германии, Австрии и Франции. Частная медицина Великобритании — одна из наиболее передовых и наиболее дорогих в мире. В этой стране около 300 негосударственных госпиталей, каждый из которых получает лицензию в местном подразделении Национальной системы здравохранения и проходит проверку дважды в год. Здесь отсутствуют очереди, а медицинскую помошь предоставляют в полном и необходимом объеме. Платные услуги врачей и кабинетов оплачивают или страховые компании, или пациенты самостоятельно. В крупных компаниях Великобритании распространено медицинское страхование как дополнительный бонус к зарплате. Выводы. Опыт Великобритании по обязательному мединскому страхованию распространен в странах с преимущественным государственным финансированием. Модель Бевериджа распространена во многих странах, в которых государство обеспечивает компенсацию 80% и более затрат на здравоохранение (Канада, Австралия, Греция, Швеция, Испания). Значительные подвижки в системе здравоохранения Великобритании, возможность выбрать вид страхования и воспользоваться льготами на получение лекарственных средств позволила искусственно повысить конкуренцию между учреждениями здравоохранения, а соответственно – улучшить качество и скорость фармацевтического обеспечения пациентов. Таким образом, бюджетная медицина Великобритании – приоритет для многих стран мира и залог государственного финансирования фармацевтического обеспечения льготных категорий населения, независимо от уровня доходов и социального статуса. ; Background. Health is the highest value not only in the context of the perception of a person, but also society and the state as a whole. According to the content of international documents approved by the UN General Assembly, the WHO, the World Medical Association, governments should be responsible for the health of the population, ensure the implementation of the human right to life and health. Previously, the state of affairs in Ukraine regarding the pharmaceutical provision of privileged categories of citizens was studied. However, for forming a powerful and effective health care system in Ukraine for the pharmaceutical provision of privileged categories of citizens, it is useful to analyze the experience of providing health care in economically developed countries. The purpose of the research was to study the Great Britain experience with the organization of a healthcare system for the pharmaceutical provision of medicines to privileged population groups. Materials and methods. Common methods of normative legal, documentary, retrospective and comparative analysis used to gain that purpose. Results. The system of financing health care in the Great Britain provides getting finances mainly from the state budget, while the division takes place on the management vertical from the highest level to the lower one. The taxes that make up about 90% of the health care system budget are the financial basis of the national health system of the Great Britain. For comparison, only 7.5% comes from employers. Therefore, can argue that the healthcare system of the Great Britain in fact completely financed by financial contributions from taxpayers and by the government. There are three main models of financing health care allocated in the world practice: private, budget (model Beveridge), mixed (Bismarck model). A private financing model exists through the creation of sustainable competition between healthcare facilities. The part of private insurance is about 40% of total costs, and the patient himself covers the cost of pharmaceutical provision. A private financing model is typical for such developed countries as the United States of America and Japan. The budget model of funding or the Beveridge model means covering a large part of the costs of pharmaceutical provision by state institutions. This model is also typical for Great Britain. A mixed financing model or Bismarck model based on the three foundations: the state, enterprises and personal funds of a citizen. This system of insurance financing is typical for Germany, Austria and France. Private medicine in the Great Britain is one of the most advanced and most expensive in the world. There are about 300 non-state hospitals in the country, that receive a license at a local the National Health Service unit and tested twice a year. There are no queues here and medical care provided in full and to the extent necessary. The services of pay-doctors and cabinets paid either by insurance companies or by patients themselves. Large companies in Britain have health insurance as an additional paycheck bonus. Conclusions. According to the Great Britain experience, compulsory medical insurance takes place in countries with predominantly state funding. The Beveridge model is widespread in many countries where the state provides coverage of 80% or more of health care costs (Canada, Australia, Greece, Sweden, and Spain). Despite significant changes in the health care system of the Great Britain, the opportunity to choose the type of insurance and to take advantage of the benefits for the purchase of medicines and medical products, that allowed to increase competition between health facilities and, accordingly, to improve the quality and speed of pharmaceutical provision of patients. Thus, budget medicine of Great Britain is a priority for many world countries and a guarantee of state financing of pharmaceutical provision for privileged categories of citizens, regardless of income level and social status. ; Актуальність. Здоров'я – найвища цінність не просто в контексті сприйняття певної особи, але й суспільства та держави загалом. Згідно до змісту міжнародних документів, затверджених Генеральною Асамблеєю ООН, ВООЗ, Всесвітньою медичною асоціацією уряди мають нести відповідальність за здоров'я населення, забезпечити реалізацію права людини на життя і здоров'я. Однак, для формування потужної та дієвої системи охорони здоров'я в Україні для фармацевтичного забезпечення пільгових категорій громадян корисним є аналіз досвіду організації забезпечення охорони здоров'я в економічно розвинених країнах. Мета роботи полягала у вивченні досвіду Великої Британії щодо організації системи охорони здоров'я для фармацевтичного забезпечення лікарськими засобами пільгових категорій населення. Матеріали та методи. Для досягнення поставленої мети було використано загальноприйняті методи нормативно-правового, документального, ретроспективного та порівняльного аналізу. Результати. Система фінансування охорони здоров'я у Великій Британії передбачає надходження переважної частини коштів з державного бюджету, при цьому розподіл відбувається по управлінській вертикалі від вищої ланки до нижчої. Саме податки, які складають близько 90% бюджету охорони здоров'я, є фінансовим підґрунтям національної системи охорони здоров'я Великої Британії. Для порівняння, лише 7,5% коштів надходять від роботодавців. Тому можна стверджувати, що система охорони здоров'я Великої Британії фактично повністю забезпечується за рахунок фінансових внесків із боку платників податків та власне державного забезпечення. У світовій практиці прийнято виділяти три головні моделі фінансування сфери охорони здоров'я: приватна, бюджетна (модель Беверіджа), змішана (модель Бісмарка). Приватна модель фінансування існує за рахунок створення стійкої конкуренції між закладами охорони здоров'я. Частка приватного страхування складає близько 40% від загальних видатків, а залишок вартості фармацевтичного забезпечення покриває сам пацієнт. Приватна модель фінансування характерна для таких розвинених країн як США та Японія. Бюджетна модель фінансування або модель Беверіджа передбачає покриття значної частини витрат на фармацевтичне забезпечення державними установами. Така модель характерна і для Великої Британії. Змішана модель фінансування або модель Бісмарка базується на «трьох китах»: держава, підприємства та особисті кошти громадянина. Дана система фінансування на страхових засадах характерна для Німеччини, Австрії та Франції. Приватна медицина у Великій Британії — одна з найбільш передових і найдорожчих у світі. У цій країні близько 300 недержавних госпіталів, кожен з яких отримує ліцензію в місцевому підрозділі Національної системи охорони здоров'я Великої Британії і проходить перевірку два рази на рік. Тут немає ніяких черг, а медичну допомогу надають у повному та необхідному обсязі. Послуги платних лікарів і кабінетів оплачують або страхові компанії, або пацієнти самостійно. У великих компаніях Британії поширено медичне страхування як додатковий бонус до зарплати. Висновки. За досвідом Великої Британії обов'язкове медичне страхування має місце у країнах із переважним державним фінансуванням. Модель Беверіджа поширена у багатьох країнах, де держава забезпечує компенсацію 80% і більше витрат на охорону здоров'я (Канада, Австралія, Греція, Швеція, Іспанія). Значні зрушення у системі охорони здоров'я Великої Британії, можливість обрати вид страхування та скористатися пільгами на придбання лікарських засобів дозволила штучно підвищити конкуренцію між закладами охорони здоров'я, а відповідно – і покращити якість та швидкість фармацевтичного забезпечення пацієнтів. Отож, бюджетна медицина Великої Британії – пріоритет для багатьох країн світу та запорука державного фінансування фармацевтичного забезпечення пільгових категорій населення, незалежно від рівня доходів та соціального статусу.

Актуальность. Здоровье – найвысшая ценность не просто в контексте восприятия конкретным лицом, но и общества и государства в целом. Согласно содержания международных документов, утвержденных Генеральной Ассамблеей ООН, ВОЗ, Всемирной медицинской ассоциацией правительства несут ответственность за здоровье населения, обеспечивют реализацию права человека на жизнь и здоровье. Однако, для формирования мощной и действенной системы здравоохранения в Украине для фармацевтического обеспечения льготных категорий граждан полезным является опыт организации обеспечения здравоохранения в экономически развитых странах. Цель работы заключалась в изучении опыта Великобритании по организации организации системы здравоохранения для фармацевтического обеспечения лекарственными средствами льготных категорий населения. Материалы и методы. Для достижения поставленной цели были использованы общепринятые методы нормативно-правового, документального, ретроспективного и сравнительного анализа. Результаты. Система финансирования здравоохранения Великобритании предусматривает поступление преобладающей части средств из государственного бюджета, при этом распределение осуществляется по управленческой вертикали от высшего звена к низшему. Именно галоги, которые составляют около 90% бюджета здравоохранения, являются финансовым основанием национальной системы здравоохранения Великобритании. Для сравнения, только 7,5% средств поступают от работодателей. Поэтому можно утверждать, что система здравоохранения Великобритании фактически полностью обеспечивается за счет финансовых платежей со стороны плательщиков налогов и собственно государственного обеспечения. В мировой практике принято выделять три основные модели финансирования сферы здравоохранения: частная, бюджетная (модель Бевериджа), смешанная (модель Бисмарка). Частная модель финансирования существует за счет создания устойчивой конкуренции между заведениями здравоохранения. Частное страхование составляет около 40% от общих затрат, а остаток стоимости фармацевтического обеспечения покрывает сам пациент. Частная модель финансирования характерна для таких развитых стран как США и Япония. Бюджетная модель финансирования или модель Бевериджа предусматривает покрытие значительной части затрат на фармацевтическое обеспечение государственными учреждениями. Такая модель характерна и для Великобритании. Смешанная модель финансирования или модель Бисмарка базируется на «трех китах»: государство, предприятия и личные средства гражданина. Данная система финансирования на страховой основе характерна для Германии, Австрии и Франции. Частная медицина Великобритании — одна из наиболее передовых и наиболее дорогих в мире. В этой стране около 300 негосударственных госпиталей, каждый из которых получает лицензию в местном подразделении Национальной системы здравохранения и проходит проверку дважды в год. Здесь отсутствуют очереди, а медицинскую помошь предоставляют в полном и необходимом объеме. Платные услуги врачей и кабинетов оплачивают или страховые компании, или пациенты самостоятельно. В крупных компаниях Великобритании распространено медицинское страхование как дополнительный бонус к зарплате. Выводы. Опыт Великобритании по обязательному мединскому страхованию распространен в странах с преимущественным государственным финансированием. Модель Бевериджа распространена во многих странах, в которых государство обеспечивает компенсацию 80% и более затрат на здравоохранение (Канада, Австралия, Греция, Швеция, Испания). Значительные подвижки в системе здравоохранения Великобритании, возможность выбрать вид страхования и воспользоваться льготами на получение лекарственных средств позволила искусственно повысить конкуренцию между учреждениями здравоохранения, а соответственно – улучшить качество и скорость фармацевтического обеспечения пациентов. Таким образом, бюджетная медицина Великобритании – приоритет для многих стран мира и залог государственного финансирования фармацевтического обеспечения льготных категорий населения, независимо от уровня доходов и социального статуса. ; Background. Health is the highest value not only in the context of the perception of a person, but also society and the state as a whole. According to the content of international documents approved by the UN General Assembly, the WHO, the World Medical Association, governments should be responsible for the health of the population, ensure the implementation of the human right to life and health. Previously, the state of affairs in Ukraine regarding the pharmaceutical provision of privileged categories of citizens was studied. However, for forming a powerful and effective health care system in Ukraine for the pharmaceutical provision of privileged categories of citizens, it is useful to analyze the experience of providing health care in economically developed countries. The purpose of the research was to study the Great Britain experience with the organization of a healthcare system for the pharmaceutical provision of medicines to privileged population groups. Materials and methods. Common methods of normative legal, documentary, retrospective and comparative analysis used to gain that purpose. Results. The system of financing health care in the Great Britain provides getting finances mainly from the state budget, while the division takes place on the management vertical from the highest level to the lower one. The taxes that make up about 90% of the health care system budget are the financial basis of the national health system of the Great Britain. For comparison, only 7.5% comes from employers. Therefore, can argue that the healthcare system of the Great Britain in fact completely financed by financial contributions from taxpayers and by the government. There are three main models of financing health care allocated in the world practice: private, budget (model Beveridge), mixed (Bismarck model). A private financing model exists through the creation of sustainable competition between healthcare facilities. The part of private insurance is about 40% of total costs, and the patient himself covers the cost of pharmaceutical provision. A private financing model is typical for such developed countries as the United States of America and Japan. The budget model of funding or the Beveridge model means covering a large part of the costs of pharmaceutical provision by state institutions. This model is also typical for Great Britain. A mixed financing model or Bismarck model based on the three foundations: the state, enterprises and personal funds of a citizen. This system of insurance financing is typical for Germany, Austria and France. Private medicine in the Great Britain is one of the most advanced and most expensive in the world. There are about 300 non-state hospitals in the country, that receive a license at a local the National Health Service unit and tested twice a year. There are no queues here and medical care provided in full and to the extent necessary. The services of pay-doctors and cabinets paid either by insurance companies or by patients themselves. Large companies in Britain have health insurance as an additional paycheck bonus. Conclusions. According to the Great Britain experience, compulsory medical insurance takes place in countries with predominantly state funding. The Beveridge model is widespread in many countries where the state provides coverage of 80% or more of health care costs (Canada, Australia, Greece, Sweden, and Spain). Despite significant changes in the health care system of the Great Britain, the opportunity to choose the type of insurance and to take advantage of the benefits for the purchase of medicines and medical products, that allowed to increase competition between health facilities and, accordingly, to improve the quality and speed of pharmaceutical provision of patients. Thus, budget medicine of Great Britain is a priority for many world countries and a guarantee of state financing of pharmaceutical provision for privileged categories of citizens, regardless of income level and social status. ; Актуальність. Здоров'я – найвища цінність не просто в контексті сприйняття певної особи, але й суспільства та держави загалом. Згідно до змісту міжнародних документів, затверджених Генеральною Асамблеєю ООН, ВООЗ, Всесвітньою медичною асоціацією уряди мають нести відповідальність за здоров'я населення, забезпечити реалізацію права людини на життя і здоров'я. Однак, для формування потужної та дієвої системи охорони здоров'я в Україні для фармацевтичного забезпечення пільгових категорій громадян корисним є аналіз досвіду організації забезпечення охорони здоров'я в економічно розвинених країнах. Мета роботи полягала у вивченні досвіду Великої Британії щодо організації системи охорони здоров'я для фармацевтичного забезпечення лікарськими засобами пільгових категорій населення. Матеріали та методи. Для досягнення поставленої мети було використано загальноприйняті методи нормативно-правового, документального, ретроспективного та порівняльного аналізу. Результати. Система фінансування охорони здоров'я у Великій Британії передбачає надходження переважної частини коштів з державного бюджету, при цьому розподіл відбувається по управлінській вертикалі від вищої ланки до нижчої. Саме податки, які складають близько 90% бюджету охорони здоров'я, є фінансовим підґрунтям національної системи охорони здоров'я Великої Британії. Для порівняння, лише 7,5% коштів надходять від роботодавців. Тому можна стверджувати, що система охорони здоров'я Великої Британії фактично повністю забезпечується за рахунок фінансових внесків із боку платників податків та власне державного забезпечення. У світовій практиці прийнято виділяти три головні моделі фінансування сфери охорони здоров'я: приватна, бюджетна (модель Беверіджа), змішана (модель Бісмарка). Приватна модель фінансування існує за рахунок створення стійкої конкуренції між закладами охорони здоров'я. Частка приватного страхування складає близько 40% від загальних видатків, а залишок вартості фармацевтичного забезпечення покриває сам пацієнт. Приватна модель фінансування характерна для таких розвинених країн як США та Японія. Бюджетна модель фінансування або модель Беверіджа передбачає покриття значної частини витрат на фармацевтичне забезпечення державними установами. Така модель характерна і для Великої Британії. Змішана модель фінансування або модель Бісмарка базується на «трьох китах»: держава, підприємства та особисті кошти громадянина. Дана система фінансування на страхових засадах характерна для Німеччини, Австрії та Франції. Приватна медицина у Великій Британії — одна з найбільш передових і найдорожчих у світі. У цій країні близько 300 недержавних госпіталів, кожен з яких отримує ліцензію в місцевому підрозділі Національної системи охорони здоров'я Великої Британії і проходить перевірку два рази на рік. Тут немає ніяких черг, а медичну допомогу надають у повному та необхідному обсязі. Послуги платних лікарів і кабінетів оплачують або страхові компанії, або пацієнти самостійно. У великих компаніях Британії поширено медичне страхування як додатковий бонус до зарплати. Висновки. За досвідом Великої Британії обов'язкове медичне страхування має місце у країнах із переважним державним фінансуванням. Модель Беверіджа поширена у багатьох країнах, де держава забезпечує компенсацію 80% і більше витрат на охорону здоров'я (Канада, Австралія, Греція, Швеція, Іспанія). Значні зрушення у системі охорони здоров'я Великої Британії, можливість обрати вид страхування та скористатися пільгами на придбання лікарських засобів дозволила штучно підвищити конкуренцію між закладами охорони здоров'я, а відповідно – і покращити якість та швидкість фармацевтичного забезпечення пацієнтів. Отож, бюджетна медицина Великої Британії – пріоритет для багатьох країн світу та запорука державного фінансування фармацевтичного забезпечення пільгових категорій населення, незалежно від рівня доходів та соціального статусу.

La tesis denominada "La enseñanza de la democracia en la educación primaria en México. Estudio de caso", es una investigación de corte cualitativo basada en la observación de clase de nueve profesores de dos escuelas suburbanas del municipio de San Francisco del Rincón , en el estado de Guanajuato, México. Es una investigación que busca responder a los interrogantes de lo que sucede en el aula en términos de qué concepto de democracia manejan los profesores. Sobre la enseñanza de la democracia se busca responder a qué recursos y estrategias emplean para su enseñanza y qué tipos de contenidos son los que se manejan en las aulas observadas: conceptuales, procedimentales y actitudinales. En cuanto a las finalidades de la enseñanza de la democracia , se desvela el tipo de vivencias de la democracia que tiene el alumnado en la escuela y cuáles son los valores de la democracia que se enseñan en el aula y cómo se enseñan . Todo esto interpretado en base a las categorías e indicadores propuestos. Para esta investigación se construyó un marco teórico sobre la democracia y la ciudadanía, del cual surgió un concepto propio de ciudadanía y democracia. También se hizo u na búsqueda de las investigaciones y aportaciones sobre ciudadanía en Europa y concretan ente en España, así como de la investigación sobre la ciudadanía y la democracia en lengua inglesa, para terminar con el estado de la investigación en este tema en México. Se realizó un análisis contextual acerca de cómo está presente la enseñanza de la democracia en los documentos normativos mexicanos y en los programas de estudio. De todo este trabajo de i ndagación teórica y de un primer acercamiento a la información recogida mediante la observación, se pudo concretar un cuadro de categorías, indicadores y descriptores, que servirían de guía durante el análisis y l a interpretación de la información. La tesis contiene también un análisis y descripción acerca de la metodología y las técnicas que se propusieron para el tratamiento de los datos. En el aspecto metodológico es una investigación cualitativa en la que se usa para la recogida de la información técnicas etnográficas como, la observación en el aula, los registros de observación y las notas de campo, además de la entrevista semi estructurada. Para el análisis de la información se emplearon las técnicas de codificación de la Grounded Theory y del método etnográfico. Algunas conclusiones de esta tesis son: respecto al concepto de democracia que enseñan los profesores en la escuela, es que están presentes los dos conceptos, el político que se refiere al derecho de los ciudadanos a elegir a sus gobernantes por medio del voto. El social que se refiere a la capacidad de los ciudadanos de partici par y resolver sus problemas y de realizar discusiones públicas. Esto es importante si consideramos que si bien los niños no han alcanzado úun la ciudadanía formal, si están perfectamente capacitados para participar y proponer soluciones a los problemas de su entorno. Encontramos que los profesores parecen no tener u n concepto claro de lo que es la democracia, como vimos en el análisis de los registros de clase y que confirmamos en las entrevistas. Esta misma confusión la transmiten a sus alumnos en las clases. Otro hallazgo es que el concepto de democracia política es el que más se trabaja en las clases y los libros de texto lo refuerzan. En cuanto a la democracia social en general, los profesores no proponen la real ización de estas actividades y abordan los temas de Formación Cívica y Ética (FCyE) sin realizar ningún tipo de reflexión. Entre l os profesores observados encontramos algunos que le dan valor a la participación y en algún momento buscan que sus alumnos la pongan en práctica. Sobre los recursos y estrategias para la enseñanza de la democracia, encontramos que la mayor parte de las prácticas observadas son poco democráticas, centradas en el profesor que explica, lee o pone a leer a los alumnos. En este modelo el profesor hace preguntas pero no escucha las respuestas de los alumnos o trata de conducir las respuestas hacia lo que él quiere escuchar. En este tipo de clases parece que dialogan pero en realidad el discurso que está presente es el del profesor. Entre los maestros observados encontramos una minoría cuyas clases las podemos calificar como pai1icipativas. Respecto a los tipos de contenidos que enseñan los profesores, los contenidos conceptuales son los más se enseñan en las clases. Acerca de los contenidos procedimentales, nos percatamos que no todos los profesores usan en sus clases este tipo de contenidos. Los contenidos menos utilizados en la clase sobre democracia son los actitudi nales. Y si consideramos que estos deben ayudar a los alumnos a emitir juicio s y a orientar maneras de actuar, es difícil pensar que en estas circunstancias los alumnos podrán desarrollar formas de comportamiento democráticas. ; This research paper, "A Case Study of The Teaching of Democracy i n elementary Schools in Mexico", is a qualitative research project based on class observation of nine teachers in two suburban schools in the county of San Francisco del Rincón, in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico. This project is an attempt to find out what concepts of democracy teachers use in the classroom. Regarding the teaching of democracy, the aim is to uncover what resources and strategies are used and which conceptual, procedural and attitudinal contents are used in the classroom. Concerning the aim of the teaching of democracy , the type of democratic experience students have at school and the democratic values that are taught and how they are taught are revealed . All the information has been interpreted using the statistical categories and indicators proposed in this project. A theoretic framework about democracy and citizenship was created for this research project from which its own pat1icular concept of democracy and citizenship arose. A search for previous research and contributions about citizenship i n Europe, particularly in Spain, was carried out, as well as, research into democracy and citizenship published in English in the UK, Canada and the USA and finally concluding with the research situation in Mexico regarding the same issue. A contextual analysis of the presence of the teaching of democracy i n standard Mexican educational curriculum and texts was carried out. From ali the previous research into theory and an initial analysis of the information gathered from observation, a series of statistical categories, descriptors and indicators were created which will be guiding parameters during the analysis and interpretation of the information . This paper also contains an analysis and description of the methodology and techniques proposed for the processing of the facts and figures. As regards the methodology, this is a qualitative research project admi nistering ethnographic techniques during the process of obtaining information, such as classroom observation, observation files and field notes, in addition to semi-structured interviews. Grounded theory codification techniques based on ethnographic methodology were used for the analysis of the information. The conclusion seeks to respond to the research questions and proposals established initially. Sorne conclusions of this thesis are: regarding the concept of democracy taught by teachers at school, is that the two concepts are present, the politician who refers to the right of citizens to elect their rulers through voting. The social one that refers to the ability of citizens to participate and solve their problems and to hold public discussions. This is important if we consider that although the children have not yet reached formal citizenship, they are perfectly qualified to participate and propose solutions to the problems of their environment. We find that teachers do not seem to have a clear concept of what democracy is, as we saw in the analysis of class records and confirmed in interviews. This same confusion is transmitted to her students in class. Another finding is that the concept of political democracy is the most taught in classes and textbooks reinforce it. As for social democracy, in general, teachers do not propose to carry out these activities and approach the subjects of Civic and Ethical Training without any kind of retlection. Among the teachers observed we find sorne that give value to the participation and at sorne point seek their students to put it into practice. On the resources and strategies for the teaching of democracy, we find that most of the observed practices are undemocratic, centered on the teacher who explains, reads or puts students to read. In this model the teacher asks questions but does not listen to the students' answers or tries to lead the answers to what he wants to hear. In these types of classes it seems that they dialogue but in fact the discourse that is present is that of the teacher. Among the observed teachers we find a minority whose classes we can qualify as participative. With regard to the types of contents taught by teachers, conceptual contents are the most taught in classes. Regarding the procedural contents, we realize that not all teachers use in their classes this type of content. The less used content in the class about democracy are attitudinal. And if we consider that these contents should help students to make judgments and guide ways of acting, it is difficult to think that in these circumstances students will be able to develop democratic forms of behavior.

Acknowledgements A full list of acknowledgments appears in the Supplementary Note 4. Co-author A.J.M.d.C. recently passed away while this work was in process. This work was performed under the auspices of the Genetic Investigation of ANthropometric Traits (GIANT) consortium. We acknowledge the Cohorts for Heart and Aging Research in Genomic Epidemiology (CHARGE) Consortium for encouraging CHARGE studies to participate in this effort and for the contributions of CHARGE members to the analyses conducted for this research. Funding for this study was provided by the Aase and Ejner Danielsens Foundation; Academy of Finland (41071, 77299, 102318, 110413, 117787, 121584, 123885, 124243, 124282, 126925, 129378, 134309, 286284); Accare Center for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry; Action on Hearing Loss (G51); Agence Nationale de la 359 Recherche; Agency for Health Care Policy Research (HS06516); ALF/LUA research grant in Gothenburg; ALFEDIAM; ALK-Abelló A/S; Althingi; American Heart Association (13POST16500011); Amgen; Andrea and Charles Bronfman Philanthropies; Ardix Medical; Arthritis Research UK; Association Diabète Risque Vasculaire; Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (241944, 339462, 389875, 389891, 389892, 389927, 389938, 442915, 442981, 496739, 552485, 552498); Avera Institute; Bayer Diagnostics; Becton Dickinson; BHF (RG/14/5/30893); Boston Obesity Nutrition Research Center (DK46200), Bristol-Myers Squibb; British Heart Foundation (RG/10/12/28456, RG2008/08, RG2008/014, SP/04/002); Medical Research Council of Canada; Canadian Institutes for Health Research (FRCN-CCT-83028); Cancer Research UK; Cardionics; Cavadis B.V., Center for Medical Systems Biology; Center of Excellence in Genomics; CFI; CIHR; City of Kuopio; CNAMTS; Cohortes Santé TGIR; Contrat de Projets État-Région; Croatian Science Foundation (8875); Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation; Danish Council for Independent Research (DFF-1333-00124, DFF-1331-00730B); County Council of Dalarna; Dalarna University; Danish Council for Strategic Research; Danish Diabetes Academy; Danish Medical Research Council; Department of Health, UK; Development Fund from the University of Tartu (SP1GVARENG); Diabetes Hilfs- und Forschungsfonds Deutschland; Diabetes UK; Diabetes Research and Wellness Foundation Fellowship; Donald W. Reynolds Foundation; Dr Robert Pfleger-Stiftung; Dutch Brain Foundation; Dutch Diabetes Research Foundation; Dutch Inter University Cardiology Institute; Dutch Kidney Foundation (E033); Dutch Ministry of Justice; the DynaHEALTH action No. 633595, Economic Structure Enhancing Fund of the Dutch Government; Else Kröner-Fresenius-Stiftung (2012_A147, P48/08//A11/08); Emil Aaltonen Foundation; Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam; Erasmus MC and Erasmus University Rotterdam; the Municipality of Rotterdam; Estonian Government (IUT20-60, IUT24-6); Estonian Research Roadmap through the Estonian Ministry of Education and Research (3.2.0304.11-0312); European Research Council (ERC Starting Grant and 323195:SZ-245 50371-GLUCOSEGENES-FP7-IDEAS-ERC); European Regional Development Fund; European Science Foundation (EU/QLRT-2001-01254); European Commission (018947, 018996, 201668, 223004, 230374, 279143, 284167, 305739, BBMRI-LPC-313010, HEALTH-2011.2.4.2-2-EU-MASCARA, HEALTH-2011-278913, HEALTH-2011-294713-EPLORE, HEALTH-F2-2008-201865-GEFOS, HEALTH-F2-2013-601456, HEALTH-F4-2007-201413, HEALTH-F4-2007-201550-HYPERGENES, HEALTH-F7-305507 HOMAGE, IMI/115006, LSHG-CT-2006-018947, LSHG-CT-2006-01947, LSHM-CT-2004-005272, LSHM-CT-2006-037697, LSHM-CT-2007-037273, QLG1-CT-2002-00896, QLG2-CT-2002-01254); Faculty of Biology and Medicine of Lausanne; Federal Ministry of Education and Research (01ZZ0103, 01ZZ0403, 01ZZ9603, 03IS2061A, 03ZIK012); Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; Fédération Française de Cardiologie; Finnish Cultural Foundation; Finnish Diabetes Association; Finnish Foundation of Cardiovascular Research; Finnish Heart Association; Fondation Leducq; Food Standards Agency; Foundation for Strategic Research; French Ministry of Research; FRSQ; Genetic Association Information Network (GAIN) of the Foundation for the NIH; German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF, 01ER1206, 01ER1507); GlaxoSmithKline; Greek General Secretary of Research and Technology; Göteborg Medical Society; Health and Safety Executive; Healthcare NHS Trust; Healthway; Western Australia; Heart Foundation of Northern Sweden; Helmholtz Zentrum München—German Research Center for Environmental Health; Hjartavernd; Ingrid Thurings Foundation; INSERM; InterOmics (PB05 MIUR-CNR); INTERREG IV Oberrhein Program (A28); Interuniversity Cardiology Institute of the Netherlands (ICIN, 09.001); Italian Ministry of Health (ICS110.1/RF97.71); Italian Ministry of Economy and Finance (FaReBio di Qualità); Marianne and Marcus Wallenberg Foundation; the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports, the Netherlands; J.D.E. and Catherine T, MacArthur Foundation Research Networks on Successful Midlife Development and Socioeconomic Status and Health; Juho Vainio Foundation; Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International; KfH Stiftung Präventivmedizin e.V.; King's College London; Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation; Kuopio University Hospital; Kuopio, Tampere and Turku University Hospital Medical Funds (X51001); La Fondation de France; Leenaards Foundation; Lilly; LMUinnovativ; Lundberg Foundation; Magnus Bergvall Foundation; MDEIE; Medical Research Council UK (G0000934, G0601966, G0700931, MC_U106179471, MC_UU_12019/1); MEKOS Laboratories; Merck Santé; Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports, The Netherlands; Ministry of Cultural Affairs of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; Ministry of Economic Affairs, The Netherlands; Ministry of Education and Culture of Finland (627;2004-2011); Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, The Netherlands; Ministry of Science, Education and Sport in the Republic of Croatia (108-1080315-0302); MRC centre for Causal Analyses in Translational Epidemiology; MRC Human Genetics Unit; MRC-GlaxoSmithKline pilot programme (G0701863); MSD Stipend Diabetes; National Institute for Health Research; Netherlands Brain Foundation (F2013(1)-28); Netherlands CardioVascular Research Initiative (CVON2011-19); Netherlands Genomics Initiative (050-060-810); Netherlands Heart Foundation (2001 D 032, NHS2010B280); Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMW) (56-464-14192, 60-60600-97-118, 100-001-004, 261-98-710, 400-05-717, 480-04-004, 480-05-003, 481-08-013, 904-61-090, 904-61-193, 911-11-025, 985-10-002, Addiction-31160008, BBMRI–NL 184.021.007, GB-MaGW 452-04-314, GB-MaGW 452-06-004, GB-MaGW 480-01-006, GB-MaGW 480-07-001, GB-MW 940-38-011, Middelgroot-911-09-032, NBIC/BioAssist/RK 2008.024, Spinozapremie 175.010.2003.005, 175.010.2007.006); Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam; NHS Foundation Trust; National Institutes of Health (1RC2MH089951, 1Z01HG000024, 24152, 263MD9164, 263MD821336, 2R01LM010098, 32100-2, 32122, 32108, 5K99HL130580-02, AA07535, AA10248, AA11998, AA13320, AA13321, AA13326, AA14041, AA17688, AG13196, CA047988, DA12854, DK56350, DK063491, DK078150, DK091718, DK100383, DK078616, ES10126, HG004790, HHSN268200625226C, HHSN268200800007C, HHSN268201200036C, HHSN268201500001I, HHSN268201100046C, HHSN268201100001C, HHSN268201100002C, HHSN268201100003C, HHSN268201100004C, HHSN271201100004C, HL043851, HL45670, HL080467, HL085144, HL087660, HL054457, HL119443, HL118305, HL071981, HL034594, HL126024, HL130114, KL2TR001109, MH66206, MH081802, N01AG12100, N01HC55015, N01HC55016, N01C55018, N01HC55019, N01HC55020, N01HC55021, N01HC55022, N01HC85079, N01HC85080, N01HC85081, N01HC85082, N01HC85083, N01HC85086, N01HC95159, N01HC95160, N01HC95161, N01HC95162, N01HC95163, N01HC95164, N01HC95165, N01HC95166, N01HC95167, N01HC95168, N01HC95169, N01HG65403, N01WH22110, N02HL6‐4278, N01-HC-25195, P01CA33619, R01HD057194, R01HD057194, R01AG023629, R01CA63, R01D004215701A, R01DK075787, R01DK062370, R01DK072193, R01DK075787, R01DK089256, R01HL53353, R01HL59367, R01HL086694, R01HL087641, R01HL087652, R01HL103612, R01HL105756, R01HL117078, R01HL120393, R03 AG046389, R37CA54281, RC2AG036495, RC4AG039029, RPPG040710371, RR20649, TW008288, TW05596, U01AG009740, U01CA98758, U01CA136792, U01DK062418, U01HG004402, U01HG004802, U01HG007376, U01HL080295, UL1RR025005, UL1TR000040, UL1TR000124, UL1TR001079, 2T32HL007055-36, T32GM074905, HG002651, HL084729, N01-HC-25195, UM1CA182913); NIH, National Institute on Aging (Intramural funding, NO1-AG-1-2109); Northern Netherlands Collaboration of Provinces; Novartis Pharma; Novo Nordisk; Novo Nordisk Foundation; Nutricia Research Foundation (2016-T1); ONIVINS; Parnassia Bavo group; Pierre Fabre; Province of Groningen; Päivikki and Sakari Sohlberg Foundation; Påhlssons Foundation; Paavo Nurmi Foundation; Radboud Medical Center Nijmegen; Research Centre for Prevention and Health, the Capital Region of Denmark; the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly; Research into Ageing; Robert Dawson Evans Endowment of the Department of Medicine at Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center; Roche; Royal Society; Russian Foundation for Basic Research (NWO-RFBR 047.017.043); Rutgers University Cell and DNA Repository (NIMH U24 MH068457-06); Sanofi-Aventis; Scottish Government Health Directorates, Chief Scientist Office (CZD/16/6); Siemens Healthcare; Social Insurance Institution of Finland (4/26/2010); Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; Société Francophone du 358 Diabète; State of Bavaria; Stiftelsen för Gamla Tjänarinnor; Stockholm County Council (560183, 592229); Strategic Cardiovascular and Diabetes Programmes of Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm County Council; Stroke Association; Swedish Diabetes Association; Swedish Diabetes Foundation (2013-024); Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation (20120197, 20150711); Swedish Research Council (0593, 8691, 2012-1397, 2012-1727, and 2012-2215); Swedish Society for Medical Research; Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics; Swiss National Science Foundation (3100AO-116323/1, 31003A-143914, 33CSCO-122661, 33CS30-139468, 33CS30-148401, 51RTP0_151019); Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation; Technology Foundation STW (11679); The Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Vlaanderen, Ministry of the Flemish Community (G.0880.13, G.0881.13); The Great Wine Estates of the Margaret River Region of Western Australia; Timber Merchant Vilhelm Bangs Foundation; Topcon; Tore Nilsson Foundation; Torsten and Ragnar Söderberg's Foundation; United States – Israel Binational Science Foundation (Grant 2011036), Umeå University; University Hospital of Regensburg; University of Groningen; University Medical Center Groningen; University of Michigan; University of Utrecht; Uppsala Multidisciplinary Center for Advanced Computational Science (UPPMAX) (b2011036); Velux Foundation; VU University's Institute for Health and Care Research; Västra Götaland Foundation; Wellcome Trust (068545, 076113, 079895, 084723, 088869, WT064890, WT086596, WT098017, WT090532, WT098051, 098381); Wissenschaftsoffensive TMO; Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation; and Åke Wiberg Foundation. The views expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); the National Institutes of Health (NIH); or the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ; Peer reviewed ; Publisher PDF

Background Improving survival and extending the longevity of life for all populations requires timely, robust evidence on local mortality levels and trends. The Global Burden of Disease 2015 Study (GBD 2015) provides a comprehensive assessment of all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes in 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2015. These results informed an in-depth investigation of observed and expected mortality patterns based on sociodemographic measures. Methods We estimated all-cause mortality by age, sex, geography, and year using an improved analytical approach originally developed for GBD 2013 and GBD 2010. Improvements included refinements to the estimation of child and adult mortality and corresponding uncertainty, parameter selection for under-5 mortality synthesis by spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression, and sibling history data processing. We also expanded the database of vital registration, survey, and census data to 14 294 geography–year datapoints. For GBD 2015, eight causes, including Ebola virus disease, were added to the previous GBD cause list for mortality. We used six modelling approaches to assess cause-specific mortality, with the Cause of Death Ensemble Model (CODEm) generating estimates for most causes. We used a series of novel analyses to systematically quantify the drivers of trends in mortality across geographies. First, we assessed observed and expected levels and trends of cause-specific mortality as they relate to the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a summary indicator derived from measures of income per capita, educational attainment, and fertility. Second, we examined factors affecting total mortality patterns through a series of counterfactual scenarios, testing the magnitude by which population growth, population age structures, and epidemiological changes contributed to shifts in mortality. Finally, we attributed changes in life expectancy to changes in cause of death. We documented each step of the GBD 2015 estimation processes, as well as data sources, in accordance with Guidelines for Accurate and Transparent Health Estimates Reporting (GATHER). Findings Globally, life expectancy from birth increased from 61·7 years (95% uncertainty interval 61·4–61·9) in 1980 to 71·8 years (71·5–72·2) in 2015. Several countries in sub-Saharan Africa had very large gains in life expectancy from 2005 to 2015, rebounding from an era of exceedingly high loss of life due to HIV/AIDS. At the same time, many geographies saw life expectancy stagnate or decline, particularly for men and in countries with rising mortality from war or interpersonal violence. From 2005 to 2015, male life expectancy in Syria dropped by 11·3 years (3·7–17·4), to 62·6 years (56·5–70·2). Total deaths increased by 4·1% (2·6–5·6) from 2005 to 2015, rising to 55·8 million (54·9 million to 56·6 million) in 2015, but age-standardised death rates fell by 17·0% (15·8–18·1) during this time, underscoring changes in population growth and shifts in global age structures. The result was similar for non-communicable diseases (NCDs), with total deaths from these causes increasing by 14·1% (12·6–16·0) to 39·8 million (39·2 million to 40·5 million) in 2015, whereas age-standardised rates decreased by 13·1% (11·9–14·3). Globally, this mortality pattern emerged for several NCDs, including several types of cancer, ischaemic heart disease, cirrhosis, and Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. By contrast, both total deaths and age-standardised death rates due to communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional conditions significantly declined from 2005 to 2015, gains largely attributable to decreases in mortality rates due to HIV/AIDS (42·1%, 39·1–44·6), malaria (43·1%, 34·7–51·8), neonatal preterm birth complications (29·8%, 24·8–34·9), and maternal disorders (29·1%, 19·3–37·1). Progress was slower for several causes, such as lower respiratory infections and nutritional deficiencies, whereas deaths increased for others, including dengue and drug use disorders. Age-standardised death rates due to injuries significantly declined from 2005 to 2015, yet interpersonal violence and war claimed increasingly more lives in some regions, particularly in the Middle East. In 2015, rotaviral enteritis (rotavirus) was the leading cause of under-5 deaths due to diarrhoea (146 000 deaths, 118 000–183 000) and pneumococcal pneumonia was the leading cause of under-5 deaths due to lower respiratory infections (393 000 deaths, 228 000–532 000), although pathogen-specific mortality varied by region. Globally, the effects of population growth, ageing, and changes in age-standardised death rates substantially differed by cause. Our analyses on the expected associations between cause-specific mortality and SDI show the regular shifts in cause of death composition and population age structure with rising SDI. Country patterns of premature mortality (measured as years of life lost [YLLs]) and how they differ from the level expected on the basis of SDI alone revealed distinct but highly heterogeneous patterns by region and country or territory. Ischaemic heart disease, stroke, and diabetes were among the leading causes of YLLs in most regions, but in many cases, intraregional results sharply diverged for ratios of observed and expected YLLs based on SDI. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional diseases caused the most YLLs throughout sub-Saharan Africa, with observed YLLs far exceeding expected YLLs for countries in which malaria or HIV/AIDS remained the leading causes of early death. Interpretation At the global scale, age-specific mortality has steadily improved over the past 35 years; this pattern of general progress continued in the past decade. Progress has been faster in most countries than expected on the basis of development measured by the SDI. Against this background of progress, some countries have seen falls in life expectancy, and age-standardised death rates for some causes are increasing. Despite progress in reducing age-standardised death rates, population growth and ageing mean that the number of deaths from most non-communicable causes are increasing in most countries, putting increased demands on health systems. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. ; We thank the countless individuals who have contributed to the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 in various capacities. The data reported here have been supplied by the United States Renal Data System (USRDS). Data for this research was provided by MEASURE Evaluation, funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Collection of these data was made possible by USAID under the terms of cooperative agreement GPO-A-00-08-000_D3-00. Views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of USAID, the US Government, or MEASURE Evaluation. Parts of this material are based on data and information provided by the Canadian institute for Health Information. However, the analyses, conclusions, opinions and statements expressed herein are those of the author and not those of the Canadian Institute for Health information. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics granted the researchers access to relevant data in accordance with licence number SLN2014-3-170, after subjecting data to processing aiming to preserve the confidentiality of individual data in accordance with the General Statistics Law–2000. The researchers are solely responsible for the conclusions and inferences drawn upon available data. The following individuals acknowledge various forms of institutional support. Simon I Hay is funded by a Senior Research Fellowship from the Wellcome Trust (#095066), and grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1119467, OPP1093011, OPP1106023 and OPP1132415). Panniyammakal Jeemon is supported by a Clinical and Public Health Intermediate Fellowship from the Wellcome Trust-DBT India Alliance (2015–20). Luciano A Sposato is partly supported by the Edward and Alma Saraydar Neurosciences Fund, London Health Sciences Foundation, London, ON, Canada. George A Mensah notes that the views expressed in this Article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, or the United States Department of Health and Human Services. Boris Bikbov acknowledges that work related to this paper has been done on the behalf of the GBD Genitourinary Disease Expert Group supported by the International Society of Nephrology (ISN). Ana Maria Nogales Vasconcelos acknowledges that her team in Brazil received funding from Ministry of Health (process number 25000192049/2014-14). Rodrigo Sarmiento-Suarez receives institutional support from Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales, UDCA, Bogotá, Colombia. Ulrich O Mueller and Andrea Werdecker gratefully acknowledge funding by the German National Cohort BMBF (grant number OIER 1301/22). Peter James was supported by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health (Award K99CA201542). Brett M Kissela would like to acknowledge NIH/NINDS R-01 30678. Louisa Degenhardt is supported by an Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Principal Research fellowship. Daisy M X Abreu received institutional support from the Brazilian Ministry of Health (Proc number 25000192049/2014-14). Jennifer H MacLachlan receives funding support from the Australian Government Department of Health and Royal Melbourne Hospital Research Funding Program. Miriam Levi acknowledges institutional support received from CeRIMP, Regional Centre for Occupational Diseases and Injuries, Tuscany Region, Florence, Italy. Tea Lallukka reports funding from The Academy of Finland (grant 287488). No individuals acknowledged received additional compensation for their efforts. ; Peer-reviewed ; Publisher Version