Suchergebnisse

Europe requires significant transmission grid expansions to foster the integration of electricity markets, enhance security of supply and integrate renewable energies. However, next to lengthy authorization processes, transmission system operators (TSOs) in Europe are currently facing extreme public opposition in their transmission line projects leading to significant project delays. These delays imply significant additional costs for TSOs as well as society as a whole and put the transformation of the European energy system at risk. Existing scientific literature currently lacks comprehensive studies that have tried to identify generalizable success factors to overcome public opposition in transmission line projects. The goal of work at hand was to close this research gap. Potential success factors were collected through extensive literature review and interviews throughout Europe with respective stakeholders such as citizen action groups, NGOs or energy experts. Experiences from analogue large infrastructure projects like wind parks, carbon capture and storage facilities, hydro dams, nuclear waste repositories, etc. were also used to form hypotheses. The findings were transformed into a structural equation model and tested through a questionnaire answered by almost all European TSOs. Results revealed that people's trust in the TSO is of utmost importance for less public opposition. It can be regarded as the critical success factor per se. TSOs can create trust through stakeholder participation, sufficient communication, proper organizational readiness and liaison with stakeholders. Furthermore, appropriate technical planning can help to reduce public opposition in transmission line projects. In total 18 concrete and actionable success factors were identified for TSO management to facilitate the establishment of these aforementioned aspects. They will help European TSOs to reduce public opposition and thus accelerate the implementation of new transmission lines. Interestingly, economic benefits for people did not turn out to be a Significant success factor in reducing their opposition against new transmission lines.:Contents I List of tables VIII List of figures IX List of abbreviations XI List of symbols XV List of country codes XVI 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Problem statement 1 1.2 Thematic classification and research gap 2 1.3 Objective, research questions and scop e of work 3 1.4 Methodology and structure of work 5 2 Fundamentals of electricity transmission line planning 7 2.1 History of the European electricity transmission network 7 2.2 Transmission technologies 9 2.2.1 High-voltage alternating current (HVAC) 9 2.2.1.1 High - voltage alternating current overhead lines (HVAC OHL) 9 2.2.1.2 High - voltage alternating underground cables (HVAC UGC) 10 2.2.2 High - voltage direct current (HVDC) 12 2.2.2.1 High - voltage direct current overhead lines (HVDC OHL) 12 2.2.2.2 High - voltage direct current underground cables (HVDC UGC) 13 2.2.3 Gas - insulated lines (GIL) 14 2.3 Major players 15 2.3.1 European Transmission System Operators (TSOs) and related associations 15 2.3.1.1 National Transmission System Operators (TSOs) 15 2.3.1.2 ENTSO - E 16 2.3.2 Energy regulators and related associations 18 2.3.2.1 National regulatory authorities (NRA) 18 2.3.2.2 European associations of energy regulators 19 2.4 Development of new transmission lines 20 2.4.1 Planning objectives 20 2.4.2 Planning process 21 2.4.2.1 Identification of needs 22 2.4.2.2 Feasibility study 23 2.4.2.3 Spatial planning 24 2.4.2.4 Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) 25 2.4.2.5 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 26 2.4.2.6 Permitting procedure 28 2.4.2.7 Securing land rights and way - leaves 28 2.4.2.8 Construction, commissioning and operation 29 2.5 Project delays and obstacles 31 2.5.1 Project delays 31 2.5.2 Rationales for delay 33 2.5.2.1 Minor obstacles 34 2.5.2.2 Public opposition 35 2.5.2.3 Insufficient authorization procedures 36 2.5.3 Excursus: Recent governmental measures to overcome delays 38 2.5.3.1 Austria 38 2.5.3.2 Denmark 38 2.5.3.3 Germany 39 2.5.3.4 Great Britain 41 2.5.3.5 Netherlands 42 2.5.3.6 European Union 43 2.5.3.7 Further recommendations 48 2.6 Interim conclusion on the fundamentals of transmission line planning 49 3 Fundamentals of social acceptance 51 3.1 Definition and classification 51 3.2 Contextual factors that influence stakeholders' attitudes 54 3.2.1 Proximity of stakeholders to a facility 54 3.2.2 Risk perception of individuals 55 3.2.3 Individual knowledge base 56 3.2.4 Existing and marginal exposure 56 3.2.5 Land valuation and heritage 57 3.2.6 Trust in project developer 58 3.2.7 Energy system development level 59 3.3 The history of social movement against infrastructure facilities 60 3.4 Forms of public opposition 61 3.5 Interim conclusion on the fundamentals of social acceptance 63 4 Fundamentals and methodology of success factor research 64 4.1 The goal of success factor research 64 4.2 Defining success factor terminology 64 4.2.1 Success 64 4.2.2 Success factors 65 4.3 Success factor research history and current state 67 4.4 Classification of success factor studies 67 4.4.1 Specificity 68 4.4.2 Causality 69 4.5 Success factor identification approaches 70 4.5.1 Systematization of success factor identification approaches 70 4.5.2 Approach assessment 72 4.6 Criti cism to success factor research 73 4.7 Interim conclusion on the fundamentals of success factor research 75 5 Success factor res earch on social acceptance in transmission line planning – a combination of research streams 77 5.1 State of research 77 5.1.1 Social acceptance in electricity transmission line planning (A) 77 5.1.2 Success factor research on social acceptance (B) 83 5.1.3 Success factor research in transmission line planning (C) 89 5.2 Value add and classification of this work 89 5.3 Research design 90 5.3.1 Identification of potential success factors through a direct, qualitative - explorative approach 92 5.3.1.1 Overview of methodologies 92 5.3.1.2 Survey 93 5.3.2 Quantitative - confirmatory approach to validate potential success factors 95 5.3.2.1 Overview of statistical methodologies 95 5.3.2.2 Structural equation modeling (SEM) 96 5.3.2.2.1 Path analysis 97 5.3.2.2.2 Structure of SEM 99 5.3.2.2.3 Methods for SEM estimation 102 5.3.2.2.4 PLS algorithm 106 6 Identification of reasons for public opposition and derivation of potential success factors 112 6.1 Conducted interviews 112 6.1.1 Selection of interviewees 112 6.1.2 Preparation, conduction and documentation of interviews 115 6.2 Reasons for public opposition 117 6.2.1 Health and safety issues 118 6.2.1.1 Electric and magnetic fields (EMF) 118 6.2.1.2 Falling ice 124 6.2.1.3 Toppled pylons and ruptured conductors 125 6.2.1.4 Flashover 125 6.2.2 Reduced quality of living 126 6.2.2.1 Visual impact 126 6.2.2.2 Noise 128 6.2.3 Economic unfairness 130 6.2.3.1 Devaluation of property and insufficient compensation 130 6.2.3.2 Expropriation 131 6.2.3.3 Negative impact on tourism 132 6.2.3.4 Lack of direct benefits and distributional unfairness 132 6.2.3.5 Agricultural disadvantages 133 6.2.4 Lack of transparency and communication 135 6.2.4.1 Insufficient justification of line need 135 6.2.4.2 Insufficient, inaccurate and late information 137 6.2.4.3 Intransparent decision making 138 6.2.4.4 Inappropriate appearance 138 6.2.4.5 Expert dilemma 139 6.2.5 Lack of public participation 140 6.2.5.1 Lack of involvement 140 6.2.5.2 One - way communication 141 6.2.5.3 Lack of bindingness 141 6.2.5.4 Inflexibility 142 6.2.6 Environmental impact 142 6.2.6.1 Flora 143 6.2.6.2 Fauna 145 6.2.7 Distrust 146 6.3 Potential success factors to reduce public opposition 147 6.3.1 Communication 149 6.3.1.1 Communication strategy 149 6.3.1.2 Early communication 150 6.3.1.3 Line justification 150 6.3.1.4 Direct personal conversation 151 6.3.1.5 Appropriate communication mix 153 6.3.1.6 Comprehensibility 156 6.3.1.7 Sufficient and honest information 157 6.3.1.8 Stakeholder education 158 6.3.1.9 Post - communication 159 6.3.2 Participation 160 6.3.2.1 Pre - polls 160 6.3.2.2 Participation possibilities 161 6.3.2.3 Participation information 164 6.3.2.4 Macro - planning involvement 165 6.3.2.5 Pre - application involvement 166 6.3.2.6 Neutral moderation/mediation 166 6.3.2.7 Joint fact finding 169 6.3.2.8 Flexibility, openness and respect 170 6.3.2.9 Commitment and bindingness 171 6.3.2.10 Transparent decision making 172 6.3.3 Economic benefits 173 6.3.3.1 Local benefits 173 6.3.3.2 Individual compensations 174 6.3.3.3 Muni cipality compensations 176 6.3.3.4 Socio - economic benefits 177 6.3.3.5 Excursus: Social cost - benefit analysis of a new HVDC line between France and Spain 177 6.3.4 Organizational readiness 182 6.3.4.1 Stakeholder analysis and management 182 6.3.4.2 Qualification and development 184 6.3.4.3 Sufficient resources 186 6.3.4.4 Internal coordination 187 6.3.4.5 Cultural change 187 6.3.4.6 Top - management support 188 6.3.4.7 Best practice exchange 188 6.3.5 Stakeholder liaison 189 6.3.5.1 Stakeholder cooperation 189 6.3.5.2 Supporters / Multiplicators 190 6.3.5.3 Local empowerment 191 6.3.6 Technical planning 191 6.3.6.1 Line avoidance options 191 6.3.6.2 Route alternatives 194 6.3.6.3 Transmission technology options 194 6.3.6.4 Piloting of innovations 198 6.3.6.5 Excursus: Exemplary transmission line innovations 198 6.3.6.6 Avoidance of sensitive areas 206 6.3.6.7 Bundling of infrastructure 206 6.3.6.8 Line deconstruction 207 6.3.6.9 Regulatory overachievement 208 7. Development of research model 209 7.1 Procedure 209 7.2 Development of hypotheses on causal relationships 209 7.2.1 Stakeholder liaison 209 7.2.2 Participation 210 7.2.3 Communication 210 7.2.4 Organizational readiness 211 7.2.5 Economic benefits 212 7.2.6 Technical planning 212 7.2.7 Trust 213 7.2.8 Summary of hypotheses 213 7.3 Development of path diagram and model specification 214 7.3.1 Structural model 214 7.3.2 Measurement model 215 7.3.2.1 Formative measurements 215 7.3.2.2 Reflective measurements 2 7.4 Identifiability of model structure 217 8 Empirical validation of potential success factors 219 8.1 Data acqu isition 219 8.1.1 Concept of using questionnaires for data acquisition 219 8.1.2 Target group and sample size 220 8.1.3 Questionnaire design 222 8.1.3.1 Form and structure 222 8.1.3.2 Operatio nalization 224 8.1.3.2.1 Operationalization of potential success factors 224 8.1.3.2.2 Operationalization of construct TRUST 225 8.1.3.2.3 Operationalization of construct REDUCED PUBLIC OPPOSITION 226 8.1.3.2.4 Operationalization of control variables 226 8.1.3.3 Bias 227 8.1.3.3.1 Common method bias 227 8.1.3.3.2 Key i nformation bias 229 8.1.3.3.3 Hypothetical bias 229 8.1.4 Pretest 230 8.1.5 Questionnaire return and data preparation 231 8.2 Model estimation 236 8.2.1 Software selection for modeling 236 8.2.2 Estimation results 237 8.3 Model evaluation 239 8.3.1 Evaluat ion of reflective measurement models 240 8.3.1.1 Content validity 240 8.3.1.2 Indicator reliability 243 8.3.1.3 Construct validity 245 8.3.1.3.1 Convergent validity 245 8.3.1.3.1.1 Average var iance extracted (AVE) 245 8.3.1.3.1.2 Construct reliability 245 8.3.1.3.2 Discriminant validity 247 8.3.1.3.2.1 Fornell/Larcker criterion 247 8.3.1.3.2.2 Cross loadings 248 8.3.2 Evaluation of formative measurement models 250 8.3.2.1 Content validity 250 8.3.2.2 Indicator reliability / relevance 250 8.3.2.2.1 Indicator weights and significance 250 8.3.2.2.2 Multicollinearity 254 8.3.2.3 Construct validity 256 8.3.3 Evaluation of structural model 256 8.3.3.1 Multicollinearity 256 8.3.3.2 Explanatory power 257 8.3.3.3 Predictive relevance 259 8.3.4 Evaluation of total model 260 8.4 Verification of hypotheses and discussion of results 260 8.5 Success factors for reducing public opposition in transmission line planning: Recommendations for TSO management 264 8.5.1 Measures to create stakeholder trust 266 8.5.1.1 Sufficient stakeholder participation 266 8.5.1.2 Proper stakeholder communication 267 8.5.1.3 TSO's organizational readiness for stakeholder management 267 8.5.1.4 Creating liaison with stakeholders 268 8.5.2 Important aspects in technical planning 268 8.5.3 Consolidated overview 269 9 Concluding remarks 270 9.1 Summary of results 270 9.2 Contribution, limitations, and directions for further research 272 10 Appendix 276

In the field of economics, the two main branches that deal with the analyses of economy-ecology interactions are Environmental and Resource Economics (ERE) and Ecological Economics (EE). The latter is typically characterized as being fundamentally at odds with ERE's negligence of biophysical constraints to economic activity. EE has proceeded to develop as a pluralist and trans-disciplinary field whose literature engages in the stipulation of previously overlooked considerations. For some, this pluralism represents the biggest strength: its success hinges on both the acceptance of multiple and incommensurable epistemologies that detect fissures in the dominant epistemology and the debate that arises out of the different delineations of dissent. Others argue that over the course of EE's existence, pluralism has been insufficiently able to rid the field from mainstream, particularly neoclassical, economic epistemologies and formalisms.

The aim of this paper is to provide recommendations for the development of an alternative to the current formal abstractions of ecology-economy configurations. This is done through a reinterpretation of the natural capital concept from an eco-Marxist perspective. After introducing the natural capital concept and discussing how the treatment thereof differs across ERE and EE, we isolate strong sustainability as one of the main attributes of EE when it comes to formalization practices. Strong sustainability's prescription to treat natural capital as a complementary input in economic production functions has led to the implementation of various strategies concerning natural capital conservation. The bulk of these strategies has subsequently relied on monetary valuation for the purpose of embedding conservation strategies within the broader rationale of the market. In this paper we discuss monetary valuation in light of planetary boundaries, such as atmospheric sink capacities, and ecosystem services such as the habitat provision for endangered species. Critical studies have identified the monetary valuation of biophysical and ecological processes as commodification and we address both the theorized and experienced contradictions it is associated with.

In our view, the logic behind the exchange value assessment of ecological processes can easily be traced back to the underlying assumptions of mathematical formalization in EE. In order to dissect these assumptions, we find it fruitful to draw on ecological Marxism. After introducing the reader to the gist of Marx's ecological insights we discuss the concept of dualism in ecological Marxism and economics. We contend that our explicit focus on mathematical formalization forecloses a complete rejection of dualism since the specification of variables requires a process of conceptual distinction. This is why we adopt the notion of duality; where the separation and opposition between two essential elements is replaced by interdependence.

Having positioned ourselves in the eco-Marxist debate on dualism, we then proceed with a discussion of Marx's labour process theory and Moore's world-ecology. The labour process is subject to two elements: 'purpose realisation' and 'material metabolism'. The first refers to labour as an imposition of human intention; causing nature to capitulate to humanity's will. 'Material metabolism' describes labour as an exchange or mediation between itself and nature. World-ecology offers an ecological interpretation of capital accumulation over the course of history. One of the concepts used to distinguish historical ecology-economy configurations, or world-ecological regimes, over capitalism's long-dureé is the ecological surplus. This is a ratio between the system-wide appropriation and capitalization of both human and extra-human inputs. High ecological surpluses allow capital accumulation to proceed by means of labour productivity gains which are facilitated by appropriated labours, entities and processes. Low ecological surpluses hamper accumulation and trigger investments in new sources of appropriation, cheaper capitalized inputs or efficiency increasing technologies.

How do these two eco-Marxist insights facilitate a reinterpretation of the assumptions underlying the practice of mathematical formalization in EE? Through the concept of the ecological surplus, world-ecology allows us to consider the commodification of ecological processes as an instance of capitalization. When valuation techniques disclose the benefit of an ecological process in monetary terms, said ecological process can be treated as an input in the production function. But according to world-ecology, an increase in capitalization also diminishes the ecological surplus which subsequently hampers capital accumulation. This begs us to question why the capitalization of ecological processes is a dominant strategy in response to ecological degradations. We argue that capitalization is a fruitful strategy in the face of future constraints to accumulation, such as diminished labour or human-made capital productivity and/or future opportunities for accumulation through for example, greenwashing.

Marx's labour process theory allows us to further argue that the incentives which capitalization aim to foster can be seen as desired alternations to the 'material metabolism' element of the labour process. The socially defined set of 'purpose realisations' on the other hand remains faithful to "the endowment of natural objects with humanistic forms for the purpose not of use value creation, but exchange value accumulation". This leads us to conclude that the depiction of economy-ecology configurations by means of natural capital which enters the production function supports the underlying assumption that ecological sustainability is best achieved when capital bargains on behalf of nature. Furthermore, by explicitly focusing on capitalized ecological processes, the status-quo of formal abstraction in EE presumes dualism and is therefore incomplete. We argue that a more comprehensive portrayal requires the consideration of appropriated ecological processes in order to capture reciprocity and the unified management of interdependent flows which reproduce metabolic value. To this end, we introduce a trivial conceptual framework which summarizes the (proposed) mathematical formalization of economy-ecology configurations across ERE, EE and Ecological Marxism. The formal abstraction we propose from an eco-Marxist perspective is not only based on the consideration of appropriated ecological processes but also imposes duality instead of dualism between the 'societal' and 'natural' elements of production. The contribution of Ecological Marxism in this paper should not be seen as the formulation of an alternative to capitalization. Our proposed formal abstraction is based on the assumption that the 'purpose realisation' element of the labour process facilitates the goal of exchange value accumulation. Instead, we hope our contribution has shown that Ecological Marxism provides useful insights which can stretch the current confines of EE's mathematical formalization; allowing for a more comprehensive portrayal of economy-ecology configurations.

Community-based paralegalism has been active in the Philippines for the past 30 years, and yet its contribution to access to justice and the advancement of the rights and entitlements of the poor has been largely undocumented. This paper attempts to provide a framework study on the history, nature, and scope of paralegal work in the Philippines, based on the experience of 12 organizations that are active in the training and development of community-oriented paralegals. The study first provides a working definition of a community-based paralegal, and then examines the work of paralegals, their systems of accountability or lack thereof, and issues regarding recognition by the state and civil society actors. It also explores facilitating and hindering factors that aid or impinge upon the paralegals effectiveness. A major contributor to the work of paralegals was the democratization process after the overthrow of the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos and the continuing evolution of legal rights spurred by the relatively progressive constitution ratified in 1987. Three dimensions of paralegal s work are identified and explored, namely, building rights awareness, settling private disputes, and increasing state and corporate accountability. The study ends with conclusions and recommendations with regard to sustainability, monitoring and evaluation, funding, and the prospects for paralegal work over the long term.

Atmospheric pollution is one of the biggest environmental problems in the world. To evaluate and create action plans that improve air quality, measurements are needed that indicate the state of air quality, its trends, the pollutants of greatest concern and the regions most affected. However, to have air quality measurements it is necessary for governments to have policies and resources focused on this issue. For many years, developed countries have had data and programs to measure and improve air quality, but in regions such as Latin America and the Caribbean, many countries have so far started their measurement programs and in some cases they do not. According to the World Bank, global monitoring and modeling systems are a free source of information and can help to know the air quality in a specific region. CAMS is the atmospheric monitoring service of the Copernicus program and has models to know the atmospheric composition such as CAMS Reanalysis, CASMRA generates air quality and meteorological data with hourly and spatial temporal resolutions below 1° arc. Currently there are no works evaluating the CAMS data for Latin America and the Caribbean For these reasons, the main objective of this work was to analyze the air quality in different cities of Latin America and the Caribbean from surface monitoring, CAMSRA data and Tropomi satellite monitoring. Initially, data was sought in cities with more than one million inhabitants and later these data were spatially and temporally analyzed. The surface mediations were then evaluated and compared with the data from CAMSRA and Tropomi. Finally, satellite images identified areas with the highest level of pollutants in the region or places where more in-depth studies are needed. This work allowed the creation of a public database of 15 cities in the region with hourly periodicity for all pollutants by station. Also, it allowed to analyze for the first time multiple trends from 2000 to 2018 together thanks to the new Prophet tool. On the other hand, the performance of CAMS and Tropomi in Latin America and the Caribbean was evaluated for the first time and compared with surface data. Furthermore, it was possible to identify areas with high levels of contamination by means of satellite images of Tropomi. It was found that only 18% of cities with more than 1 million inhabitants measure air quality with good spatial and temporal resolution. From the analysis of the available surface measurements, it was found that, in general, in the cities analyzed, air pollution has decreased in the last two decades. However, all cities still exceed the recommendations by the World Health Organization for particulate matter. The results also indicate that the CAMSRA data only reproduce the trends and levels of particulate matter in some cities in Latin America and the Caribbean. It was also found that Tropomi in general reproduces well the trends of surface NO2 measurements, however, it does not adequately reproduce the behavior of particulate matter. Finally, it is concluded that global monitoring and modeling information is very valuable and very useful to analyze air quality problems in this region of the world or where there are still no air quality monitoring networks. ; La contaminación atmosférica es una de las mayores problemáticas medio ambientales en el mundo. Para evaluar y crear planes de acción que mejoren la calidad del aire se necesitan mediciones que indiquen cual es el estado de la calidad del aire, sus tendencias, los contaminantes de mayor preocupación y las regiones más afectadas. Sin embargo, para tener mediciones de calidad del aire es necesario que los gobiernos tengan políticas y recursos enfocados en este tema. Desde hace muchos años países desarrollados cuentan con datos y programas para medir y mejorar la calidad del aire, pero en regiones como América Latina y el Caribe muchos países hasta ahora inician sus programas de medición y en algunos casos no tienen. De acuerdo con el Banco Mundial los sistemas de monitoreo y modelación global son una fuente de información gratuita y pueden ayudar a conocer la calidad del aire en una región especifica. CAMS es el servicio de monitoreo atmosférico del programa Copernicus y cuenta con modelos para conocer la composición atmosférica como CAMS Reanálisis. CASMRA genera datos de calidad del aire y meteorológicos con resoluciones temporales horarias y espaciales inferiores a 1° de arco. Actualmente no existen trabajos que validen los datos de CAMS para América Latina y el Caribe. Por estos motivos, este trabajo tuvo como objetivo principal analizar la calidad del aire en diferentes ciudades de América Latina y el Caribe a partir de monitoreos en superficie, datos de CAMSRA y monitoreos de satelitales de Tropomi. Inicialmente se buscaron datos en las ciudades con más de un millón de habitantes y posteriormente se analizaron espacial y temporalmente dichos datos. Luego se evaluaron y compararon las mediciones en superficie con los datos de CAMSRA y Tropomi. Finalmente, por medio de imágenes satelitales se identificaron zonas con mayor nivel de contaminantes en la región o lugares donde se necesiten hacer estudios con mayor profundidad. Este trabajo permitió crear una base de datos publica de 15 ciudades de la región con periodicidad horaria para todos los contaminantes por estación. También, permitió analizar por primera vez múltiples tendencias desde el año 2000 hasta el año 2018 en conjunto gracias a la nueva herramienta Prophet. Por otra parte, se evaluó por primera vez el desempeño de CAMS y de Tropomi en América Latina y el Caribe y se compararon con datos en superficie. Además, se pudo identificar zonas con altos niveles de contaminación por medio de imágenes satelitales de Tropomi. Se encontró que solo el 18% de las ciudades con más de 1 millón de habitantes miden la calidad del aire con una buena resolución espacial y temporal. A partir del análisis de las mediciones de superficie disponibles se encontró que en general en las ciudades analizadas la contaminación del aire ha disminuido las últimas dos décadas. No obstante, todas las ciudades aun exceden las recomendaciones por la Organización Mundial de la Salud para material particulado. Los resultados también indican que los datos de CAMSRA solo reproducen las tendencias y los niveles del material particulado en algunas ciudades de América Latina y el Caribe. También se encontró que Tropomi en general reproduce bien las tendencias de las mediciones de NO2 en superficie, sin embargo, no reproduce adecuadamente el comportamiento del material particulado. Finalmente, se concluye que la información de monitoreo y modelación globales es muy valiosa y de gran utilidad para analizar los problemas de calidad del aire en esta región del mundo o donde aún no existen redes de monitoreo de calidad del aire. ; Línea de Investigación: Calidad del aire ; Maestría

Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze, tecnologie e biotecnologie per la sostenibilità ; This Ph.D. thesis focused on the definition, evolution and application of the forest management, assessing new available technologies and methods useful to make real and applicable the sustainable forest management (SFM). In detail, three case studies arguing on different levels of intervention in the forest management and planning are reported: 1. A review of the national and international policies: it gives alternative solutions to make SFM feasible; 2. A study useful to apply a methodology for mapping the accumulation of woody biomass in Mediterranean beech forests at regional scale; 3. A method to support the adaptive landscape planning in the Mediterranean region. Forests can be considered as a set of ecosystems that create different products and services. The ability to obtain products and services through a sustainable approach is the essence of the modern forest management and planning. However, forest management requires to operate over broad area to fully understand forest ecosystem processes and for ensuring the maintenance of healthy ecosystems. This approach generates different challenges related to the costs and technologies required for the forests assessment and monitoring. Furthermore, the Mediterranean environments suffer the abandonment of silvicultural practices from decades and the land use and climate change has strongly altered the capacity of forest ecosystems to guarantee the future human well-being. For these reasons, new forest management approaches should be both sustainable and stimulating for the development of the timber industry and they should operate at different geographical scales. The development of the timber industry and SFM at national scale are directly influenced by the availability of suitable tools and incentives. The first part of this study focused on how climate adaptation policies are currently implemented at global and national scale. The work outlines that, with proper policies and new simulation tools and environmental impact analysis useful to make the carbon accounting approach more explicit and economically relevant, is a feasible solution to guarantee socio-economic development and the maintenance of ecological features. In order to face the challenges related to the cost and technologies required to assess and monitor large forest areas, this work propose a modelling strategy useful to obtain spatially explicit estimates of net carbon accumulation in Italian beech forests. The approach is based on the use of a biogeochemical model, BIOME-BGC, which is capable of simulating all main processes of ecosystems in quasi-equilibrium conditions. The modelling approach is proven to be capable of reproducing inter-annual variations of the net primary production, estimating the ground current annual increments. Finally, to support the landscape planning in the Mediterranean region, where forest ecosystem functionality and resilience should be improved, in this thesis is also reported a methodology to obtain spatially explicit estimates of the predominant forest functions. The approach uses remotely-sensed data acquired from digital open data platforms, elaborated with open software and combined by the K-means algorithm. The selected indicators measured the forest capacity to improve the following functions: (1) wood biomass productivity; (2) mediation of water flows; (3) climate regulation; (4) Suitability to host key species and habitats; (5) Trails accessibility. The results obtained can support the landscape planner to orient decisions, based on the main stands potentiality, toward sustainable routes. In conclusion, the proposed approaches and methodologies demonstrated to be suitable for implementing the SFM at different levels and geographical scales. As main strengths, the proposed approaches are simple, economical and can be easily reproduced in similar contexts. ; Questa tesi di dottorato ha approfondito sulla definizione, evoluzione ed applicazione della gestione forestale, valutando nuovi metodi e nuove tecnologie disponibili utili per rendere reale ed applicabile la gestione forestale sostenibile. In dettaglio, vengono riportati tre casi di studio. Essi discutono i diversi livelli di intervento della gestione e della pianificazione forestale: 1. Una revisione delle politiche nazionali e internazionali: fornisce soluzioni alternative per rendere possibile la gestione forestale sostenibile; 2. Uno studio utile per l'applicazione di una metodologia per mappare l'incremento di massa legnosa nelle foreste mediterranee di faggio in scala regionale; 3. Un metodo per sostenere la pianificazione adattiva a scala di paesaggio nella regione mediterranea. I popolamenti boschivi possono essere considerati come un insieme di ecosistemi che creano molteplici prodotti e servizi. La capacità di ottenere prodotti e servizi in modo sostenibile è l'essenza della gestione e pianificazione forestale moderna. Tuttavia, per comprendere pienamente i processi ecosistemici delle foreste e per garantire il mantenimento di ecosistemi sani, la gestione forestale richiede di operare su aree vaste. Questo approccio genera una serie di sfide legate al costo e alle tecnologie necessarie per la valutazione e il monitoraggio delle foreste. Inoltre, gli ambienti mediterranei soffrono dell'abbandono decennale delle pratiche selvicolturali, e il consumo di suolo e il cambiamento climatico hanno fortemente alterato la capacità degli ecosistemi forestali di garantire il futuro benessere umano. Per questi motivi, i nuovi approcci di gestione forestale dovrebbero essere sia sostenibili che stimolanti per lo sviluppo dell'industria del legname e dovrebbero operare a diverse scale geografiche. Lo sviluppo dell'industria del legno e della gestione forestale sostenibile a livello nazionale sono direttamente influenzati dalla disponibilità di strumenti e incentivi adeguati. La prima parte di questo elaborato focalizza su come le politiche di adattamento al cambiamento climatico siano attuate a livello globale e nazionale. Il lavoro riporta che, politiche adeguate e nuovi strumenti di simulazione e analisi dell'impatto ambientale utili per rendere l'approccio alla quantificazione del carbonio più esplicito ed economicamente rilevante, siano una soluzione fattibile per garantire lo sviluppo socio-economico e il mantenimento delle caratteristiche ecologiche. Per affrontare le sfide legate al costo e alle tecnologie necessarie per valutare e monitorare vaste aree forestali, questo lavoro propone una strategia di modellizzazione utile per ottenere la mappatura dell'accumulazione di carbonio nelle faggete italiane. L'approccio si basa sull'utilizzo di un modello biogeochemico, BIOME-BGC, che è in grado di simulare tutti i principali processi degli ecosistemi in condizioni di quasi-equilibrio. L'approccio di modellizzazione si è dimostrato in grado di riprodurre variazioni inter-annuali della produzione primaria netta, stimando l'incremento corrente. Infine, per sostenere la pianificazione a scala di paesaggio nella regione mediterranea, in cui la funzionalità e la resilienza dell'ecosistema forestale necessitano di essere migliorate, in questa tesi è riportata una metodologia per ottenere la mappatura delle funzioni forestali prevalenti. L'approccio utilizza dati telerilevati acquisiti da piattaforme digitali open, elaborati con open software e combinati dall'algoritmo K-means. Gli indicatori selezionati misurano la capacità delle foreste di sostenere le seguenti funzioni: (1) Produttività della biomassa legnosa; (2) Mitigazione dei flussi d'acqua; (3) Capacità di regolazione climatica;(4) Idoneità ad ospitare specie ed habitat prioritari; (5) Accessibilità alla rete sentieristica. I risultati ottenuti saranno di supporto al pianificatore forestale su scale di paesaggio per orientarne le decisioni verso traiettorie sostenibili, basandosi sulle potenzialità dell'area in esame. Concludendo, gli approcci e le metodologie proposte hanno dimostrato di essere funzionali per l'attuazione della gestione e pianificazione forestale sostenibile a diversi livelli e a diverse scale geografiche. Come punto di forza principale, gli approcci proposti sono semplici, economici e possono essere facilmente riprodotti in contesti analoghi.

Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze, tecnologie e biotecnologie per la sostenibilità ; This Ph.D. thesis focused on the definition, evolution and application of the forest management, assessing new available technologies and methods useful to make real and applicable the sustainable forest management (SFM). In detail, three case studies arguing on different levels of intervention in the forest management and planning are reported: 1. A review of the national and international policies: it gives alternative solutions to make SFM feasible; 2. A study useful to apply a methodology for mapping the accumulation of woody biomass in Mediterranean beech forests at regional scale; 3. A method to support the adaptive landscape planning in the Mediterranean region. Forests can be considered as a set of ecosystems that create different products and services. The ability to obtain products and services through a sustainable approach is the essence of the modern forest management and planning. However, forest management requires to operate over broad area to fully understand forest ecosystem processes and for ensuring the maintenance of healthy ecosystems. This approach generates different challenges related to the costs and technologies required for the forests assessment and monitoring. Furthermore, the Mediterranean environments suffer the abandonment of silvicultural practices from decades and the land use and climate change has strongly altered the capacity of forest ecosystems to guarantee the future human well-being. For these reasons, new forest management approaches should be both sustainable and stimulating for the development of the timber industry and they should operate at different geographical scales. The development of the timber industry and SFM at national scale are directly influenced by the availability of suitable tools and incentives. The first part of this study focused on how climate adaptation policies are currently implemented at global and national scale. The work outlines that, with proper policies and new simulation tools and environmental impact analysis useful to make the carbon accounting approach more explicit and economically relevant, is a feasible solution to guarantee socio-economic development and the maintenance of ecological features. In order to face the challenges related to the cost and technologies required to assess and monitor large forest areas, this work propose a modelling strategy useful to obtain spatially explicit estimates of net carbon accumulation in Italian beech forests. The approach is based on the use of a biogeochemical model, BIOME-BGC, which is capable of simulating all main processes of ecosystems in quasi-equilibrium conditions. The modelling approach is proven to be capable of reproducing inter-annual variations of the net primary production, estimating the ground current annual increments. Finally, to support the landscape planning in the Mediterranean region, where forest ecosystem functionality and resilience should be improved, in this thesis is also reported a methodology to obtain spatially explicit estimates of the predominant forest functions. The approach uses remotely-sensed data acquired from digital open data platforms, elaborated with open software and combined by the K-means algorithm. The selected indicators measured the forest capacity to improve the following functions: (1) wood biomass productivity; (2) mediation of water flows; (3) climate regulation; (4) Suitability to host key species and habitats; (5) Trails accessibility. The results obtained can support the landscape planner to orient decisions, based on the main stands potentiality, toward sustainable routes. In conclusion, the proposed approaches and methodologies demonstrated to be suitable for implementing the SFM at different levels and geographical scales. As main strengths, the proposed approaches are simple, economical and can be easily reproduced in similar contexts. ; Questa tesi di dottorato ha approfondito sulla definizione, evoluzione ed applicazione della gestione forestale, valutando nuovi metodi e nuove tecnologie disponibili utili per rendere reale ed applicabile la gestione forestale sostenibile. In dettaglio, vengono riportati tre casi di studio. Essi discutono i diversi livelli di intervento della gestione e della pianificazione forestale: 1. Una revisione delle politiche nazionali e internazionali: fornisce soluzioni alternative per rendere possibile la gestione forestale sostenibile; 2. Uno studio utile per l'applicazione di una metodologia per mappare l'incremento di massa legnosa nelle foreste mediterranee di faggio in scala regionale; 3. Un metodo per sostenere la pianificazione adattiva a scala di paesaggio nella regione mediterranea. I popolamenti boschivi possono essere considerati come un insieme di ecosistemi che creano molteplici prodotti e servizi. La capacità di ottenere prodotti e servizi in modo sostenibile è l'essenza della gestione e pianificazione forestale moderna. Tuttavia, per comprendere pienamente i processi ecosistemici delle foreste e per garantire il mantenimento di ecosistemi sani, la gestione forestale richiede di operare su aree vaste. Questo approccio genera una serie di sfide legate al costo e alle tecnologie necessarie per la valutazione e il monitoraggio delle foreste. Inoltre, gli ambienti mediterranei soffrono dell'abbandono decennale delle pratiche selvicolturali, e il consumo di suolo e il cambiamento climatico hanno fortemente alterato la capacità degli ecosistemi forestali di garantire il futuro benessere umano. Per questi motivi, i nuovi approcci di gestione forestale dovrebbero essere sia sostenibili che stimolanti per lo sviluppo dell'industria del legname e dovrebbero operare a diverse scale geografiche. Lo sviluppo dell'industria del legno e della gestione forestale sostenibile a livello nazionale sono direttamente influenzati dalla disponibilità di strumenti e incentivi adeguati. La prima parte di questo elaborato focalizza su come le politiche di adattamento al cambiamento climatico siano attuate a livello globale e nazionale. Il lavoro riporta che, politiche adeguate e nuovi strumenti di simulazione e analisi dell'impatto ambientale utili per rendere l'approccio alla quantificazione del carbonio più esplicito ed economicamente rilevante, siano una soluzione fattibile per garantire lo sviluppo socio-economico e il mantenimento delle caratteristiche ecologiche. Per affrontare le sfide legate al costo e alle tecnologie necessarie per valutare e monitorare vaste aree forestali, questo lavoro propone una strategia di modellizzazione utile per ottenere la mappatura dell'accumulazione di carbonio nelle faggete italiane. L'approccio si basa sull'utilizzo di un modello biogeochemico, BIOME-BGC, che è in grado di simulare tutti i principali processi degli ecosistemi in condizioni di quasi-equilibrio. L'approccio di modellizzazione si è dimostrato in grado di riprodurre variazioni inter-annuali della produzione primaria netta, stimando l'incremento corrente. Infine, per sostenere la pianificazione a scala di paesaggio nella regione mediterranea, in cui la funzionalità e la resilienza dell'ecosistema forestale necessitano di essere migliorate, in questa tesi è riportata una metodologia per ottenere la mappatura delle funzioni forestali prevalenti. L'approccio utilizza dati telerilevati acquisiti da piattaforme digitali open, elaborati con open software e combinati dall'algoritmo K-means. Gli indicatori selezionati misurano la capacità delle foreste di sostenere le seguenti funzioni: (1) Produttività della biomassa legnosa; (2) Mitigazione dei flussi d'acqua; (3) Capacità di regolazione climatica;(4) Idoneità ad ospitare specie ed habitat prioritari; (5) Accessibilità alla rete sentieristica. I risultati ottenuti saranno di supporto al pianificatore forestale su scale di paesaggio per orientarne le decisioni verso traiettorie sostenibili, basandosi sulle potenzialità dell'area in esame. Concludendo, gli approcci e le metodologie proposte hanno dimostrato di essere funzionali per l'attuazione della gestione e pianificazione forestale sostenibile a diversi livelli e a diverse scale geografiche. Come punto di forza principale, gli approcci proposti sono semplici, economici e possono essere facilmente riprodotti in contesti analoghi.

Miks peaks üks muuseum avaldama kokaraamatu? Ja miks on see muuseum otsustanud koostada kokaraamatu just lamba- ja talleliha retseptidest? Miks peaks üks muuseum avaldama kokaraamatu? Ja miks on see muuseum otsustanud koostada kokaraamatu just lamba- ja talleliha retseptidest? Kallis lugeja, me ei ole kokad, seega palun ära oota staarkokkade imeretsepte. Szentendre Skanzen on pööranud suurt tähelepanu traditsioonilisele maapiirkondade kultuurile ja oskusteabele, mida saab kodudes kasutada veel aastaid. Meie elumajades on mitmeid kööke, kus valmistatakse traditsioonilist toitu, kasutades kohalikke köögivilju ja ürte. Muuseumi külastajatel on võimalus neid roogasid proovida. Meie arvates on toidu valmistamine midagi enamat kui igapäevane toiming – see on loominguline tegevus ja tõeline koos veedetud kvaliteetaeg, perekonnale või sõpradele süüa tehes saab majapidamistööst meelelahutus. Loodame, et meie kogutud retseptid on piisavalt põnevad ja huvitavad, et motiveerida inimesi valmistama lambaliharoogasid isegi siis, kui nad varem pole seda julgenud teha. See raamat on ka neile, kes veedavad meelsasti aega süüa tehes, kellele meeldib mitmekesisus ja kes on toiduvalmistamise kunstist huvitatud. Euroopa maapiirkondades on endiselt au sees mitmed eripäraseid toidud. Maakohtade kokakunsti mitmekesisus peitub karjaste toitudes ning eri köökide argipäeva- ning pühaderoogades. Mitmekülgne köök sõltub kohalikult kliimast, tooraine kvaliteedist ning kohalikest traditsioonidest. Talleliha on Euroopa köökides sajandeid olnud kõige olulisemal kohal. Mõndades piirkondades on talleliha endiselt valitseval kohal ning sellest valmistatakse erinevaid populaarseid roogasid aga üldiselt on see käesoleval sajandil oma populaarsust kaotamas. Kas on kedagi, kes poleks kuulnud lambaliha kebab'ist, Inglise röstitud lambalihast või Ungari lambalihahautisest? Meie kokaraamatusse on kogutud retseptid Euroopa riikidest, milles kasutatakse lihtsaid, kuid samas väga erinevaid tooraineid ja maitsetaimi. Mitmetes Euroopa piirkondades valmistatakse talle- või lambalihast traditsioonilisi toitusid nii argi- kui ka pidupäevadel. Tänapäeval teatakse kõige paremini ülestõusmispühade lambapraadi – paljudes riikides ei osata ülestõusmispühade lauda ilma lambapraeta ette kujutadagi. "CANEPAL: Kultuur ja Loodus: lambakasvatuse ja pastoraalse elu pärand Euroopas" on rahvusvaheline projekt, mis sai teoks Euroopa Liidu Kultuur 2007-2013 raamprogrammi kaasrahastuse toel. Ungari Vabaõhumuuseumi juhtimisel osalesid projektis erinevad asutused seitsmest Euroopa riigist (Prantsusmaa, Kreeka, Poola, Eesti, Bulgaaria, Hispaania ja Ungari). Projekti eesmärgiks oli juhtida tähelepanu lambakasvatuse ja karjatamise pärandile ning tänapäeva võimalustele. Projekti teema võimalikult mitmekülgseks esitamiseks koostati mitmeid teadustöödele tuginevaid näitusi, multimeedia materjale, DVD karjasemuusikaga ja hariv arvutimäng. Kokaraamatusse valisime retseptid projektis osalenud riikidest. Me ei keskendunud üksnes koostisosadele ja valmistamisele, vaid ka toiduga seotud ajaloo ja traditsioonide edasiandmisele. Suur tänu programmis osalenud asutustele ja retsepte valinud kolleegidele! Eriline tänu Attila Hadnagy'le, Jászárokszállás võõrastemaja juhatajale, kes tegutseb Ungari Vabaõhumuuseumis ja andis roogade valmistamiseks vajalikud ruumid. Soovime samuti tänu avaldada peakokk István Csete'le, kes kõik toidud fotosessiooni tarvis ka valmis tegi. Eriline tänu ka Tamara Faár'ile ja Zsófia Szigethy'le, kes uurisid kõiki retsepte põhjalikult ja aitasid neid sõnadesse panna. Valdava osa resteptide juures on orginaalfotod, mis on tehtud roogade valmistamise ajal. ; Projekti CANEPAL: Kultuur ja Loodus: lambakasvatuse ja pastoraalse elu pärand Euroopas üheks partneriks oli ka Eesti Maaülikooli põllumajandus- ja keskonnainstituut. ; Why does a museum publish a cookbook? And if it does, why does it select sheep and lamb dishes? We are not chefs, so dear reader, please do not expect great creations of star chefs. The Skanzen in Szentendre has been paying great attention to the representation of traditional rural culture and to the mediation of practical knowledge which can be used at home for years. We maintain several kitchens in our dwelling houses where traditional, local food, vegetables and herbs from the gardens are used and visitors can taste dishes prepared from these ingredients. In our opinion, cooking is more than an everyday routine, it is a creative art, a real quality time spent together, since if we cook either for the family or friends; cooking becomes a real entertainment instead of a household chore, due to the time spent together. We hope that we present dishes that are more exciting, more interesting and we motivate people to cook lamb dishes even if they did not dare to prepare such meals before. Thus the book is for those who gladly cook, who like variety, namely for everyone who is interested in cuisine. Europe's rural regions have preserved several peculiar dishes. The variegation of gastronomy is hidden in the meals of shepherds or in the everyday and festive dishes of the kitchens in the countryside. Diverse cuisine, determined by the climate of the environment, superb raw materials and local traditions possess several ingredients. Lamb was one of the most significant meat types in European kitchens for centuries. However, in the 20th century it has lost much of its popularity even if it is still general in some of the regions and popular dishes are born from sheep and lamb. Is there anyone who has not heard about lamb kebab, English roasted lamb or the Hungarian mutton stew? In our cookbook we collected the recipes of European countries, utilising the simplest but also the most diverse raw materials and herbs. In several regions of Europe traditional, characteristic meals are prepared from lamb or sheep either on weekdays or at festivals. Nowadays, the Easter lamb is the best-known; in several countries Easter table is unimaginable without roasted lamb. The "CANEPAL: Culture and Nature: the European Heritage of Sheep-Farming and Pastoral Life" is an international project, which was realised by the co-financing of the European Union Culture 2007-2013 frame programme. The programme was brought into being by the partnership of institutions from seven European countries (France, Greece, Poland, Bulgaria, Eesti, Spain and Hungary) with the leadership of the Hungarian Open Air Museum with the aim of drawing attention to the heritage and present-day possibilities of European sheep-farming and shepherding. Based on scientific research exhibitions, multimedia materials, music DVD and computer game have been created in the programme presenting the topic in its variety. Into our cookbook we selected recipes collected in the countries participating in the programme. We have not only focused on formulating the ingredients and the process of preparation as precisely as possible, we also tell the history and the traditions of the meals. Thanks to the institutions participating in the programme, to the colleagues who selected the recipes! Special thanks to Attila Hadnagy, manager of the Inn from Jászárokszállás, operating in the Hungarian Open Air Museum, because he provided place for the preparation of the dishes. We would also like to say thanks to Chef István Csete, who cooked the dishes for the photo shoot. Special thanks to Tamara Faár and Zsófia Szigethy who examined all recipes and formulated the texts. Most of the recipes are accompanied by real and original photos made during the preparation of the meals. ; One of the partners in the project CANEPAL: Culture and Nature: European Heritage of Sheep and Cattle Breeding was the Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences of the Estonian University of Life Sciences. ; Toetajad: Euroopa Komisjon, Kultuur 2007-2013 Raamprogramm, Ungari Riiklik Kultuurifond. Projekti on rahastatud Euroopa Komisjon toetusel.

ABSTRACT - Background: Immigrants' lives are shaped by the Social Determinants of Health (SDOH) along with the migratory phases. The SDOH are the social, economic and environmental conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age that influence the health of individuals and populations. Immigrants are more vulnerable to social exclusion (SE) as they suffer from certain types of discrimination, higher levels of unemployment, precarious jobs, deepening levels of poverty, differential access to housing, and limited political and social participation; being all of these factors SDOH themselves. Even though migration is an emerging and increasing social, political and public health issue, very few studies applied the lens of SDOH to understand immigrants' experiences in Europe. Also, the empirical evidence on social exclusion is still scarce. Aim: To examine the association between independent and overall dimensions of social exclusion and poor self-rated health (PSRH) and self-reported depressive symptoms (SRDS) in the immigrant population in Europe. Also, to analyze inequalities in SRDS between natives and immigrant groups according to their length of residence in Europe, and to test the mediating role of SE in explaining these differences. Objectives: The thesis comprises four studies. In Study I (Chapter 3), the objective was to summarize existing literature on the relationship between SE and health outcomes in the immigrant population in Europe. In Study II (Chapter 5), the objective was to analyze inequalities in SRDS between natives and immigrant groups according to their length of residence in Europe and to test the mediating role of SE in explaining these differences. In Study III (Chapter 6), the objective was to examine the association between independent and overall dimensions of SE and SRDS in the immigrant population in Europe; stratifying the analysis by sex. Finally, in Study IV (Chapter 7), the objective was to analyze the association between multidimensional SE and PSRH in the immigrant population in Europe. Methods: In Study I, a scoping review was conducted and quantitative articles that analyzed SE as a multidimensional concept but also in each of its dimensions, were included. Study II was based on cross-sectional data from the 7th round of the European Social Survey 2014 (sample of 1792 Immigrants and 22557 native-born Europeans). The dependent variable was SRDS. Independent variables were: immigrant background and social exclusion factors that were classified into four groups (economic, social, cultural and political factors). Socially excluded individuals were those less advantaged in each factor. All analyses were stratified by the length of residence. The independent and overall associations between SE and health outcomes were examined using Robust Poisson regression models (PR; OR; IC 95%). Study III was based on cross-sectional, including 1816 economically active immigrants (European Social Survey, 2014). The dependent variable was SRDS. The independent variables were economic, social, cultural, and political SE factors. The association between SE factors and SRDS were tested by robust Poisson regression models (PR; OR; IC 95%). Study IV used cross-sectional data, including 1268 economically active immigrants (European Quality of Life Survey 2016). The dependent variable was PSRH . The independent variables were economic, social, cultural, and political SE factors. The association between SE factors and PSRH were tested by robust Poisson regression models (PR; OR; IC 95%). Results: In Study I, a total of nine studies, analyzed the multidimensionality SE and its association with health outcomes among the immigrant population in Europe. Besides, 26 studies analyzed factors related to the social, economic and cultural dimensions of SE and their associations with immigrants' health. Interactions were found between the economic, cultural and social factors in their associations with poor mental health and mental health. Other studies, analyzed structural indicators of SE based on country level integration policies. This review also found that SE factors such as material deprivation, precarious working conditions, discrimination, and low social support were associated with immigrants' poor mental and self-rated health. In Study II, immigrants had a higher prevalence of SRDS than natives; those residing in Europe for 1-10 years and ≥20 years had the highest prevalence. In the mediation regression analysis, immigrants residing in Europe for 1-10 years and ≥20 years were eligible for mediation because of their significant associations (PR:1.36; 95%CI: 1,20-1,53 for 1-10 years and PR: 1,44; 95%CI: 1,30-1,60 for >20 years). Multidimensional SE factors analyzed together completely explained these differences for immigrants residing in Europe for 1-10 years (PR: 1,09; CI: 0,96-1,23) and partially for immigrants residing for ≥20 years (PR: 1,23; CI: 1,11-1,36). In Study III, women had higher prevalences of SRDS than men (38.8% vs 26.4%). In women, those who found it difficult to live with household income (PR: 1.08; CI:1.01-1.13), who faced housing problems (PR: 1.09; CI:1.01-1.17), were unemployed (PR:1.20; CI:1.08-1.34), had low institutional trust (PR: 1.09; CI:1.02-1.17), who did not have citizenship (PR: 1.12; CI: 1.04-1.20), and with ≥20 years of residence (PR: 1.12; CI:1.02-1.26) were more likely to report SRDS. In men, those who found it difficult to live with household income (PR: 1.21; CI: 1.12-1.30), faced housing problems (PR: 1.08; CI: 1.02-1.17), and were economically inactive ( PR: 1.21; CI: 1.10-1.32) were more likely to report SRDS. In Study IV, about 22% of the immigrant population reported poor SRH. Immigrants facing housing problems (PR: 1.46; CI95%:1.20-1.78), those unemployed (PR:1.48; CI95%1.32-1.95) and economically inactive (PR:1.98; CI95%: 1.56-2.51), with poor formal social contacts (PR:1.70; CI95%:1.16-2.52), who did not politically participate (PR:1.78; CI95%: 1.25-2.59), and those who did not felt a connection with society (PR: 1.40; CI95%: 1.13-1.73) had a higher probability of reporting PSRH. Conclusions: Policies should offer migrants the possibility to settle in good social and economic condition, promote efforts to eliminate social exclusion and prevent the associated health inequalities. Thus, immigrants might be able to achieve their development potential and contribute to the social and economic development of their countries of origin and destination. This is especially important in the context of the economic crisis in Europe, and its impact on health might be the cause for the loss of the healthy immigrant effect especially in countries that have been particularly affected by this crisis. Besides, the results in this thesis reflect the need for gender-oriented social and integration policies. Immigrant women and men are particularly exposed to economic exclusion (insufficient income, unemployment). This integration and immigration policies should challenge the dominant perception of 'unskilled' migrants, seek to improve skills recognition, improve working conditions and help in regulating the informal economy of both the feminized low paid domestic care work and the informal work among men. ; RESUMO - Antecedentes: A vida dos imigrantes é moldada pelos Determinantes Sociais da Saúde (DSS), juntamente com as fases migratórias. Os DSS são as condições sociais, econômicas e ambientais em que as pessoas nascem, crescem, vivem, trabalham e envelhecem e influenciam a saúde de indivíduos e populações. Os imigrantes são mais vulneráveis à exclusão social (ES), pois sofrem com certos tipos de discriminação, níveis mais altos de desemprego, empregos precários, níveis mais altos de pobreza, acesso diferenciado à moradia e participação política e social limitada; sendo todos esses DSS eles mesmos. Embora a migração seja uma questão social, política e de saúde pública emergente e crescente, poucos estudos aplicaram a abordagem do DSS para entender as experiências dos imigrantes na Europa. Além disso, as evidências empíricas sobre exclusão social ainda são escassas. Objetivo geral: Examinar a associação entre as dimensões independentes e globais da exclusão social e a pobre autoavaliação da saúde (PAS) e os sintomas depressivos autorreferidos (SDA) na população imigrante na Europa. Além disso, analisar as desigualdades no SDA entre grupos de nativos e imigrantes de acordo com o tempo de residência na Europa e testar o papel mediador do ES na explicação dessas diferenças. Objetivos específicos: A tese compreende quatro estudos. No Estudo I (Capítulo 3), o objetivo era resumir a literatura existente sobre a relação entre SE e resultados de saúde na população imigrante na Europa. No Estudo II (Capítulo 5), o objetivo era analisar as desigualdades no SDA entre grupos de nativos e imigrantes de acordo com o tempo de residência na Europa e testar o papel mediador do SE na explicação dessas diferenças. No Estudo III (Capítulo 6), o objetivo era examinar a associação entre as dimensões independentes e globais de ES e SDA na população imigrante na Europa; estratificando a análise por sexo. Finalmente, no Estudo IV (Capítulo 7), o objetivo foi analisar a associação entre ES multidimensional e PAS na população imigrante na Europa. Métodos: No Estudo I, foi realizada uma revisão exploratória e artigos quantitativos que analisaram a ES como um conceito multidimensional, mas também em cada uma de suas dimensões foram incluídos. O Estudo II foi baseado em dados transversais da 7ª rodada da Pesquisa Social Europeia de 2014 (amostra de 1792 imigrantes e 22557 europeus nativos). A variável dependente foi SDA. As variáveis independentes foram: origem imigrante e fatores de exclusão social que foram classificados em quatro grupos (fatores econômicos, sociais, culturais e políticos). Indivíduos socialmente excluídos foram os menos favorecidos em cada fator. Todas as análises foram estratificadas pelo tempo de residência. As associações independentes e gerais entre ES e resultados de saúde foram examinadas usando modelos de regressão de Robust Poisson (PR; OR; IC 95%). O estudo III foi baseado em dados transversais, incluindo 1816 imigrantes economicamente ativos (European Social Survey, 2014). A variável dependente foi SDA. As variáveis independentes foram fatores econômicos, sociais, culturais e políticos de ES. A associação entre fatores de ES e SDA foi testada por modelos robustos de regressão de Poisson (PR; OR; IC 95%). O estudo IV utilizou dados transversais, incluindo 1268 imigrantes economicamente ativos (European Quality of Life Survey 2016). A variável dependente foi PAS. As variáveis independentes foram fatores econômicos, sociais, culturais e políticos de ES. A associação entre fatores de ES e PAS foi testada por modelos robustos de regressão de Poisson (PR; OR; IC 95%). Resultados: No Estudo I, um total de nove estudos analisou a multidimensionalidade SE e sua associação com os resultados de saúde entre a população imigrante na Europa. Além disso, 26 estudos analisaram fatores relacionados às dimensões sociais, econômicas e culturais da SE e suas associações com a saúde dos imigrantes. Foram encontradas interações entre os fatores econômicos, culturais e sociais em suas associações com problemas de saúde mental e saúde mental. Outros estudos analisaram indicadores estruturais da SE baseados em políticas de integração em nível de país. Esta revisão também constatou que fatores de SE, como privação material, condições precárias de trabalho, discriminação e baixo apoio social, estavam associados a problemas de saúde mental e autoavaliação dos imigrantes. No Estudo II, os imigrantes apresentaram maior prevalência de SDA do que os nativos; aqueles que residem na Europa entre 1 e 10 anos e ≥ 20 anos tiveram a maior prevalência. . Na análise de regressão da mediação, os imigrantes residentes na Europa por 1 a 10 anos e ≥ 20 anos foram elegíveis para mediação por causa de suas associações significativas (RP: 1,36; IC 95%: 1,20-1,53 por 1 a 10 anos e RP: 1,44; IC95%: 1,30-1,60 por> 20 anos). Os fatores multidimensionais de ES analisados em conjunto explicaram completamente essas diferenças para imigrantes residentes na Europa por 1 a 10 anos (PR: 1,09; IC: 0,96-1,23) e parcialmente para imigrantes residentes por ≥ 20 anos (PR: 1, 23; IC: 1,11-1,36). No Estudo III, as mulheres apresentaram maiores prevalências de SDA do que os homens (38,8% vs 26,4%). Nas mulheres, aqueles que acharam difícil viver com renda familiar (RP: 1,08; IC: 1,01-1,13), que enfrentavam problemas de moradia (RP: 1,09; IC: 1,01-1,17), estavam desempregados (RP: 1,20; IC: 1,08-1,34), possuían baixa confiança institucional (RP: 1,09; IC: 1,02-1,17), que não possuían cidadania (RP: 1,12; IC: 1,04-1,20) e com ≥20 anos de residência (RP: 1,12; CI: 1,02-1,26) apresentaram maior probabilidade de SDA. Nos homens, aqueles que acharam difícil viver com renda familiar (RP: 1,21; IC: 1,12-1,30), enfrentaram problemas de moradia (RP: 1,08; IC: 1,02-1,17) e eram economicamente inativos (RP: 1,21; IC : 1.10-1.32) eram mais propensos a relatar SDA. No Estudo IV, cerca de 22% da população imigrante relataram uma PAS. Imigrantes que enfrentam problemas habitacionais (RP: 1,46; IC95%: 1,20-1,78), desempregados (RP: 1,48; IC95% 1,32-1,95) e economicamente inativos (RP: 1,98; IC95%: 1,56-2,51), com problemas sociais formais contatos (RP: 1,70; IC95%: 1,16-2,52), que não participaram politicamente (RP: 1,78; IC95%: 1,25-2,59) e aqueles que não sentiram conexão com a sociedade (RP: 1,40; IC95%: 1,13-1,73) apresentaram maior probabilidade de relatar PAS. Conclusões: As políticas devem oferecer aos migrantes a possibilidade de se estabelecerem em boas condições sociais e econômicas, promover esforços para eliminar a exclusão social e impedir as desigualdades de saúde associadas. Assim, os imigrantes podem ser capazes de atingir seu potencial de desenvolvimento e contribuir para o desenvolvimento social e econômico de seus países de origem e destino. Isso é especialmente importante no contexto da crise econômica na Europa, e seu impacto na saúde pode ser a causa da perda do efeito saudável dos imigrantes, especialmente nos países que foram particularmente afetados por essa crise. Além disso, os resultados desta tese refletem a necessidade de políticas sociais e de integração orientadas para o gênero. Mulheres e homens imigrantes estão particularmente expostos à exclusão econômica (renda insuficiente, desemprego). Essas políticas de integração e imigração devem desafiar a percepção dominante de migrantes 'não qualificados', buscar melhorar o reconhecimento de habilidades, melhorar as condições de trabalho e ajudar a regular a economia informal do trabalho doméstico de baixa remuneração entre mulheres e o trabalho informal entre homens.

The reflections presented here are part of the concerns of the "Communitarian Weavings and Political Forms Research Group" at the Benemerita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (Autonomous University of Puebla), in Mexico, in relation to what it means in Latin America to defend life through a wide and varied range of organizational processes and community struggles in the midst of the renewed dynamics of appropriation, dispossession, devastation and degradation of the human and non-human nature that violent accumulation logics constantly promote. This concern has led us to the task of endowing ourselves with an analytical, ecological, holistic and relational view of the notion of life, which we have been composing in dialogue with the ecology-world perspective, the Latin American political ecology tradition and some feminist traditions. In this article, based on diverse investigations in different countries of Latin America (Mexico, Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Colombia and Uruguay), we present what should be discussed when thinking about life, the Capitalocene and the struggles in defense of shared interests. The article consists of three sections. In the first, we explain what we mean by the condition of interdependence and how, from this idea, we recover the notion of "web of life" proposed by Jason W. Moore and other authors. We argue that life is a relational fact and that interdependence is an inescapable condition of all existence on planet earth. We only live thanks to the relationships of interdependence that we weave with other living beings and with the materiality that constitutes this extraordinary living being that we call Earth, capable of self-regulating through a series of complex cycles interdependent with each other. Recognizing this condition of coexistence implies, for us, assuming that life is as defined by Capra (1999), an immeasurably complex relational plot, a multidimensional network of relational networks interconnected with each other and immersed in a process of continuous evolution. On the basis of those considerations, in the second section, we ask ourselves about the life that the modern-capitalist project has been reproducing from the logic of domination of an anthropocentric, patriarchal and colonial character, and the ways in which it has sought to reorganize the condition of interdependence; that is, putting human and non-human natures to work to ensure the logic of accumulation. We recover in this sense the idea of Capitalocene proposed by Moore (2020), in order to emphasize that the accumulation of capital is not a mere social process with environmental consequences; rather, it is a network of internal relations spanning the totality of the conformation of life. Therefore, it is also a way of continuously reorganizing the relations of interdependence in the web of life and historically linking human and extra-human natures to put them to work for the benefit of the generation of value. In recognizing the above, we also stress that the reorganization of the terms of interdependence posed by the processes of capitalist accumulation enters into a structural contradiction with the life cycles as a whole. This is because at the same time life reproduction patterns are imposed for the extraction and generation of value, necrotic metabolics (the exchange of matter and energy for the accumulation of capital, not for the reproduction of life) are also generated, which fractures and degrades the self-regulatory capacities of living organisms, of their environments and of the planet as a whole, alienating and reshaping the autopoietic powers inscribed in them. An example through which we illustrate the capitalist reorganization of the relationship of interdependence and its necrotic dynamics is the capitalist management of relations of interdependence around water in neoliberal times. Lastly in the third section, we expose our approach to social antagonism and the struggles in Latin America for the common, to defend life and to manage the relations of interdependence in contradiction with the terms of capitalist co-production. First, we clarify what we understand by the production of the common good, and we maintain that this is sustained in specific modes of organization of relations of interdependence; that is, in the establishment of particular terms of relationship with the web of life that, in a situated way, guarantees the satisfactory reproduction of life within a specific community of people, and between it and the companion species and the natural elements that constitute their environment. Secondly, we propose, in dialogue with Marx, that the unlimited need to expand the frontiers of capital on the web of life systematically finds limits and resistances within the affected social networks. Even in those territories where lives have been repeatedly subsumed and reshaped by the logic of value, the renewed and violent imposition of new forms of dispossession may encounter resistances likely to trigger organizational processes of defense and re-appropriation of previously expropriated means of existence. This includes the production and/or regeneration of new commonalities and renewed forms of interdependence. In this sense, the social plots that produce the common are never something given or merely inherited, but are diverse and collective creations. This calls for repeated exercises aimed at disputing the terms of interdependence imposed by capitalist, patriarchal and colonial mediations, facilitating more satisfactory possibilities of organization and reproduction of life, both human and otherwise. We close the text by inviting readers to think how, in the midst of what the processes of multiple dispossession driven by capital have sought to deny, erode, fragment or alter, the defense and affirmation of life within such processes of struggle always supposes a practical and concrete exercise of regeneration and re-appropriation of political capacities. This highlights what is altered by the metabolism of capital and leads to a reaffirmation of other terms of interdependence. Given the dark and uncertain times we are going through, the multiplicity of struggles in defense of life in Latin America invite us to look at and intervene politically, focused on the reproduction of life conforming to a need for regeneration from the capitalist, patriarchal and colonial damage inflicted on the web of life. ; Las reflexiones que aquí se presentan nacen de las preocupaciones del área de investigación de "entramados comunitarios y formas de lo político" en torno a lo que hoy en América Latina significa defender la vida para un amplio y variado abanico de procesos organizativos y luchas comunitarias en medio de las renovadas dinámicas de apropiación, despojo, devastación y degradación de las naturalezas humanas y no humanas que las violentas lógicas de acumulación impulsan sin parar. Esta inquietud nos ha llevado a la tarea de dotarnos de una mirada analítica, ecológica, holística y relacional en torno a la noción de vida, que hemos ido componiendo en diálogo con la perspectiva de la ecología-mundo, la ecología política latinoamericana y la apuesta de algunas tradiciones del feminismo por poner en el centro la vida. En este texto, a modo de síntesis parciales, presentamos lo que, desde nuestras propias inquietudes políticas, implica pensar la vida, el Capitaloceno y las disputas planteadas por una multiplicidad de luchas en defensa de lo común con base en diversas investigaciones en diferentes países de América Latina, en particular en México y Bolivia, pero también en Ecuador, Guatemala, Colombia y Uruguay. El texto se compone de tres apartados. En el primero, explicamos qué entendemos por condición de interdependencia y cómo, a partir de esta idea, recuperamos la noción de trama/tejido de la vida propuesta por diferentes autores. En el segundo, nos preguntamos por la vida que el proyecto moderno-capitalista ha ido produciendo a partir de la lógica de dominio de carácter antropocéntrico, patriarcal y colonial y los modos en los que se ha buscado reorganizar la condición de interdependencia, poniendo a trabajar a las naturalezas humanas y no humanas para garantizar la lógica de acumulación. Un ejemplo a través del cual ilustramos estas dinámicas es la gestión capitalista de las relaciones de interdependencia en torno al agua en tiempos neoliberales. Y finalmente, exponemos sobre la base de numerosas investigaciones, enfocadas principalmente en experiencias comunitarias en oposición a algún proyecto extractivista, nuestro acercamiento al antagonismo social y la disputa que entablan las luchas por lo común en América Latina para defender la vida y gestionar las relaciones de interdependencia en contradicción con los términos de coproducción capitalistas.

Rising demand for agricultural commodities coupled with population growth, climate change, declining soil fertility, environmental degradation and rural poverty in the develop-ing world call for strategies to sustainably intensify agricultural production. Sustainable in-tensification refers to increasing production from the same area of land while reducing its negative environmental consequences. Most of the adverse conditions are particularly preva-lent in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where rates of undernutrition are the highest worldwide, while agricultural productivity is still far below global averages. An important factor in ex-plaining productivity deficits among smallholders in SSA is the slow adoption of new agri-cultural technologies. Recently, governments and international donors especially concentrate on the promotion of 'system technologies', i.e. packages of technologies that should be ap-plied jointly due to synergistic effects. Yet, evidence shows that farmers delay in particular the uptake of system technologies, and tend to scatter practices across plots instead of com-bining them on the same plot. Hence, analyzing how to effectively enhance the adoption of technology packages is crucial, but still understudied. In addition, comprehensive studies on the plot- and household level effects of system technologies that use micro data from farmer surveys are still scarce when it comes to impacts beyond traditional outcomes, such as crop yields and income, but important to understand the consequences of adoption for farmers. This dissertation addresses these gaps by studying the adoption and effects of 'Integrated Soil Fertility Management' (ISFM). ISFM is a system technology comprised of a set of site-specific soil fertility practices which should be applied in combination. Its core is the inte-grated use of organic and inorganic fertilizers with improved seeds. Practices should be adapted to local conditions, accompanied by a general improvement of agronomic tech-niques and, depending on the context, by other technologies such as crop rotation, agroforest-ry or reduced tillage. The general aim of ISFM is an improvement of the soil's fertility by replenishing its nutrient stocks and organic matter level. Enhanced soil fertility is likely to improve food security, incomes, and ultimately, livelihoods of the rural population depend-ing on small-scale agriculture. In addition, healthier and more fertile soils can contribute to restoring and conserving natural resources by providing crucial ecosystem services, such as the storage of soil carbon, erosion control and the prevention of further deforestation. Thus, they can make an important contribution to the sustainable intensification of smallholder agricultural systems. However, ISFM commonly also goes along with increased demand for capital and labor, which often prevents smallholders from adopting it. In addition, ISFM is considered knowledge-intensive, as combining several practices and adapting them to local conditions requires at least a basic understanding of biological processes. Against this background, the dissertation addresses two broad research objectives: Firstly, to assess the role of 'farmer-to-farmer' and non-traditional forms of agricultural extension to enhance knowledge and adoption of ISFM as a pathway to sustainable intensification. And secondly, to assess the productivity and welfare implications of adopting ISFM practices at the plot and household level. The thesis comprises three essays. The first essay concentrates on knowledge and adoption of ISFM as a complex agricultural technology, while the second and third essay analyze the effects of ISFM at the plot, respectively household level. All three essays build on primary data collected among 2,382 farm households in the three Ethi-opian regions Amhara, Oromia and Tigray. The research was carried out in cooperation with the 'Integrated Soil Fertility Management Project' (ISFM+ project) of the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ), launched in 2015 in 18 districts in the three highland regions. The first essay focusses on the role of agricultural extension in the dissemination of ISFM. In recent decades, decentralized and participatory extension models have become dominant in SSA. In these 'famer-to-farmer' approaches, only a few 'model farmers' are trained directly by extension agents and should then train other farmers, often organized in groups. From there, information should trickle down to all other households in a community. Yet, evidence suggests that information diffusion is a complex process and does not automatically reach all farmers. On the contrary, knowledge is likely to be transmitted incompletely from model farmers to extension group members and from there to 'ordinary' farmers. This applies in particular to complex system technologies, where farmers have to learn about each individu-al practice as well as the necessity of applying them jointly. In this article, we assess the ef-fects of a farmer-to-farmer extension model and an additional intervention in form of a video on farmers' knowledge and adoption of ISFM. We implemented a cluster randomized con-trolled trial, using 161 microwatersheds (mws) as primary units of randomization. 72 mws received the farmer-to-farmer extension treatment, with model farmers who maintain ISFM demonstration plots and train so-called 'farmer research and extension groups' as core ele-ments. 36 out of these treatment mws received an additional video intervention, explaining the underlying reasons for adopting the ISFM package, and featuring documentaries on suc-cessful ISFM adoption. 89 mws did not receive any intervention and serve as control group. In each of the three groups, 15 households per mws were randomly selected to be included in the sample. Findings show that farmer-to-farmer extension, both alone and in combination with video, increases ISFM adoption, both of its individual components as well as their com-bined adoption on the same plot. Effects are stronger for farmers who are involved in group-based extension activities, but exist to a weaker extent also for farmers in the same commu-nities who are not involved. On average, we find no significant additional effect of the video intervention on adoption. However, the video does show a significant additional effect for farmers in treatment mws who are not members of extension groups, in particular when it comes to the integrated use of the practices on the same plot. Further, while both farmer-to-farmer extension alone and in combination with the video induce gains in ISFM knowledge, effects are significantly stronger for the combined treatment. A causal mediation analysis reveals that increases in knowledge explain part of the treatment effects on adoption. Over-all, these results suggest that farmer-to-farmer extension can effectively foster technology adoption; both among extension group members as well as among non-members residing in the same communities, probably a sign of information spillovers. Yet, for the non-members, providing complementary information via video seems a valuable method to counterbalance incomplete information diffusion and ultimately, foster the adoption of complex system technologies such as ISFM. Essay two analyzes of the effects of different combinations of ISFM practices on land productivity, net crop value, labor demand, labor productivity and financial returns to unpaid labor at the plot level. To date, evidence on the profitability of ISFM in smallholder settings is scarce, in particular when it comes to labor investments. The study differs from previous research by looking into a broader range of outcome indicators, and into the effects of dis-tinct combinations of inorganic fertilizer, organic fertilizer and improved seeds. We employ a multinomial endogenous switching model to account for endogeneity, and data from over 6,000 teff, wheat and maize plots. Results show that both partial and complete ISFM adop-tion lead to significant increases in land productivity and net crop value, in particular when improved seeds are used. On average, the largest effect on land productivity stems from adopting complete ISFM, i.e. improved varieties with inorganic fertilizer and organic ferti-lizer, followed by the combinations containing only one fertilizer type. Analyses for two different agroecological zones suggest that in moister regions, complementing improved varieties with inorganic fertilizer is most important, while in drier regions, enhancing it with organic fertilizer is crucial, most probably due to its water-retaining effect. Regarding net crop value, average effects of combining improved seeds with either one or both fertilizer types are similar, despite the larger effect of the complete package on land productivity; probably due to reduced input costs when only one of the two fertilizer types is used. Further, as expected, ISFM is related to higher labor demand, but also significantly increases labor productivity and financial returns to labor. Hence, despite the additional demand for labor and capital, results suggest that ISFM can be a profitable technology for smallholders, at least when assessed at the plot level. The third essay complements the picture on ISFM effects by analyzing its impacts at the household level. This is important since additional demand for resources associated with a technology (package) may imply a reallocation of labor from one income-generating activity to another, leaving net effects for a household uncertain. Therefore, we study whether adopt-ing ISFM on at least one teff, wheat or maize plot increases income obtained from these crops, as well as total household income and household labor demand, and whether ISFM adoption is related to the probability of pursuing other economic activities. In addition, we assess impacts on food security, measured by self-reported incidences of food deprivation. Further, the essay analyzes effects on children's education as indicator for longer-term wel-fare, assessed by the enrollment rate of children in primary school age, the average number of absent school days and average educational expenditure. On the one hand, additional labor requirements may increase the work burden for children, with possible negative effects for their education. On the other hand, if ISFM is related to income gains, it might also lead to additional investments in education. We apply the inverse probability weighting regression adjustment method to account for selection bias, with propensity score matching as robust-ness check, and account for dissimilar agroecological potential by running disaggregated analyses for moist and dry regions. Results show that ISFM adoption for main cereal crops is related to increased income per capita obtained from these crops in both agroecological zones. Effects sizes of a rather lax definition of ISFM – having used improved seeds in com-bination with at least either organic or inorganic fertilizer – and a stricter definition, which comprises both fertilizer types, are very similar. A reason for that might be the additional costs associated with using two instead of only one fertilizer type; or because the synergistic potential of their joint use does not materialize immediately. Yet, only in the moister re-gions, higher crop income seems to translate into higher household income per capita, while it does not in the dry region. This might be because the share of income from these crops in total household income is not important enough in the latter subsample. Yet, in the dry re-gion, ISFM adoption for main cereals also leads to a lower probability of achieving income from other crops and off-farm activities, probably an effect of resource reallocation (in par-ticular labor). Moreover, we find a food security-enhancing effect of ISFM only for the moister areas, but not for the dry region. In both subsamples, ISFM adoption is related to increased demand for household labor. Yet, despite the higher labor demand, we find no in-dication for increased school absenteeism or even reduced enrollment rates of children, and no effects on educational expenditure. By contrast, ISFM adoption is associated with higher primary school enrollment the moist agroecology. Hence, only for areas where ISFM adop-tion is related to gains in overall household income, we also find positive effects on other welfare indicators, such as food security and education. All in all, these results suggest that broader welfare effects of agricultural innovations have to be evaluated within the complex system of households' income diversification strategies. Overall, this dissertation contributes to the state of research by drawing a more comprehen-sive picture of the effects of ISFM in resource-constrained and diversified smallholder sys-tems, as well as of interventions to foster the adoption of ISFM, or system technologies in general. Firstly, results imply that farmer-to-farmer and other, not traditional forms of agri-cultural extension have the potential to increase knowledge and adoption of complex innova-tions. Yet, extension systems still have to overcome shortcomings and find ways to be more inclusive, probably by means of an effective and creative mix of interventions. And second-ly, findings suggest that ISFM can be a profitable technology for farmers, but also requires more resources. When evaluating broader impacts of its adoption, it is important to account for heterogeneous conditions and contexts.

The World Bank legal review gathers this input from around the world and compiles it into a useful resource for all development practitioners and scholars. The subtitle of this volume, legal innovation and empowerment for development, highlights how the law can respond to the chal-lenges posed to development objectives in a world slowly emerging from an economic crisis. The focus on innovation is a call for new, imaginative strategies and ways of thinking about what the law can do in the development realm. The focus on empowerment is a deliberate attempt to place the law into the hands of the poor; to give them another tool with which to resist poverty. This volume shows some of the ways that the law can make an innovative and empowering difference in development scenarios. Development problems are complex and varied, and the theme of innovation and empowerment naturally has a broad scope. Consequently, this volume reaches far and wide. It considers the nature, promise, and limitations of legal innovation and legal empowerment. It looks at concrete examples in places such as Africa, the Asia-Pacific region, and Latin America. It considers developments in issues with universal application, such as the rights of the disabled and the effectiveness of asset recovery measures. The theme of legal innovation and empowerment for development complements substantive and institutional sensibilities in current development policy. Substantively, development policy discourse seems to have moved away from tacking hard toward statist policy or neoliberal policy. Although this brief introduction cannot do justice to the richness and complexity of these contributions, it does consider each focal point in turn.

ABSTRACKThis study aims to examine and analyze the influence of The influence of Green Marketing Mix on Purchase Intention and the impact on Purchase Decision of Tupperware product in Pontianak. This research type is survey research. The population in this study is consumers of Tupperware product in Pontianak City. The number of samples of 100 respondents selected by way of purposive sampling, then processing the data using path analysis.The results of analysis for the first model show that the variables of Green Product, Green Place, and Green Promotion had a significant positive effect on Purchase Intention, while green price is not significant on Purchase Intention. The ability of the four variables to explain the effect on Purchase Intention is 31,2%, while the rest of 68,8% is explained by other factors outside research model. Result of research for second model shows that Purchase Intention and Green Product have a significant positive effect on Purchase Decision, while variable Green Price, Green Place, and Green Promotion had no significant on Purchase Decision. The ability of the five variables to explain the effect on Purchase Decision is 60,3%, while the rest of 39,7% is explained by other factors outside research model. Keywords : Green Product, Green Price, Green Place, Green Promotion, Purchase Intention, Purchase Decision DAFTAR PUSTAKAA Sucitro, S., Hung, W., & Ho, S. (2015). Influence of Green Marketing toward Purchase Intention of Green Products through Attitude: Survey on Indonesian and Taiwanese Students. International Journal of Humanities and Management Sciences (IJHMS), 3(4), 198-202.Agustin, Risna Dwi, S. Kumadji, E. Yulianto. (2015). Pengaruh Green Marketing Terhadap Minat Beli serta Dampaknya pada Keputusan Pembelian. 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