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AN ANALYSIS OF TRANSLATING THE ADDRESSING TERMS IN PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER'S THIS EARTH OF MANKIND Azimatul Fauziah English Literature, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya azimatul13@gmail.com Dian Rivia Himmawati, SS, M.Hum. English Language and Literature Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya dianrivia@gmail.com ABSTRAK Studi ini focus pada penerjemahan sapaan dalam Bumi Manusia sebagai bahasa sumber dan This Earth of Mankind sebagai bahasa sasaran. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh dari kekuasaan dan solidaritas dalam penerjemahan sapaan dan mengetahui faktor yang menyebabkan ketakterjemahan dalam menerjemahkan sapaan. Metode deskriptif kualitatif, teori penerjemahan (House; 2009), hubungan antar kata , kata ganti orang yang memiliki kekuasaan dan solidaritas (Brown and Gilman; 1960), dan register kategori Halliday digunakan untuk menganalisa data. Hasil analisa menunjukan bahwa ada tiga macam sapaan di This Earth of Mankind, sapaan dalam bahasa Belanda, Melayu, dan Jawa. Beberapa sapaan dari bahasa yang berbeda memiliki makna yang sepadan dan penerjemah menerjemahkannya dengan istilah yang sama dengan menggunakan 'denotative equivalence' dan pragmatic equivalence. Penerjemah gagal memahami bahwa penulis membedakan sapaan untuk penjajah dan jajahan, keluarga bangsawan dan masyarakat umum, hubungan formal dan keakraban. Masalah penerjemahan sapaan terjadi ketika sapaan tersebut memiliki konsep khusus yang berhubungan dengan budaya tertentu namun tidak memiliki istilah padanan dalam bahasa sasaran dan karena sistem tatabahasa yang berbeda. Oleh karena itu, penerjemah menggunakan dua pandangan yang berbeda untuk menerjemahkan sapaan. pandangan yang pertama terpusat pada bahasa sumber sedangkan pandangan yang kedua terpusat pada proses penafsiran penerjemah. Hal tersebut membuat terjemahan menjadi sangat berbeda jika dilihat dari mode (cara), field (bidang), dan tenor (tujuan). Kata Kunci: penerjemahan, sapaan, padanan, budaya, kekuasaan ABSTRACT This study focuses on the translation of addressing term in Bumi Manusia as source text and This Earth of Mankind as target text. The purpose of this study is to find out the influence of power and solidarity in translating the addressing terms and find out the factors of untranslatability in translating addressing term. Descriptive qualitative method, translation theory (House; 2009), lexical relation (Kreidler; 1998), pronoun of power and solidarity (Brown and Gilman; 1960), and Hallidayan register categories are applied to analyze the data. The result show that there are three kinds of addressing terms in This Earth of Mankind, Dutch addressing term, Malay addressing term, and Javanese addressing term. Some addressing terms from different language have the same proportional meaning and the translator translated them as the same term and the translator used denotative equivalence and pragmatic equivalence. The translator failed to catch that the author differ the addressing term to show the difference between colonize and colonizer, aristocrat family and common people, intimacy relation and formal relation. The problem of translating addressing terms appeared when the special concept of addressing term related to particular culture do not have any equivalence term in target text and the different of grammatical system. Therefore, it makes the translator use double perspective in translating the addressing term. The first focuses on the source text while the other focus on the process of interpretation by the translator. It made the result of the translation become really different from the original seen from register categories: mode, field, and tenor. Keywords: translation, addressing term, equivalence, culture, dan power INTRODUCTION Bumi Manusia is one of the greatest works of Pramoedya Ananta Toer who was frequently discussed as Indonesia's and Southeast Asia's best candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature. Terms of addressee plays important role in Bumi Manusia because it indicates the social status of someone. There are three kinds of addressing terms based on ethnicity in this novel. They are Dutch addressing term, Malay addressing term, and Javanese addressing term. Oyetade (as quoted in Chu-Cing Hsu; 2) defines terms of addresseeas words or linguistic expression which speakers use to designate the person being talked to while talk is in progress or which writers use to address the recipient in written communication. Moreover, Braun (1988:7) explains that the actual use and the function of addressing terms depands on the stucture of language, on the speaker's intention and on the address relationship between two interlocutors, as well as on the occasion of the occurrence. Juliane House (2009: 4) defined translation as a process of replacing a text in one language by text in another language. He also explained that translating is not only a linguistic act but it is also an act of communication across culture. Translating terms of addressee from Indonesian into English is not easy because they have different pronominal form. In translating addressing term, the translator should notice on the detail. Words can only be understood when it is considered together with the cultural context. So, in translating addressing term, it is not only replacing the word to another language but creating the same meaning and atmosphere as similar as the original text. Moreover, the addressing terms in Bumi Manusia are closely related to power. Braun and Gilman defined Power as ability to control behavior over another. They also said that power is a relationship between at least two persons, and it is nonreciprocal in the sense that both can not have the same power in the same area of behavior (1960: 254). People who have power will be addressed differently from common people. Power is associated with high social status and it reflects respect and honor. So, people from high social status will be addressed in polite way to show a great reverence. To translate a text as similar as the source text, it is needed to see whether the source text is equivalent to target text or not. House defined equivalence as how similarity of message or function is interpreted (2009: 29). There are many types of equivalence and it depends on the perspective that the translator used. It is possible to use denotative equivalence that use 'real world' referents to which the text relates. Also, the translator could use other equivalence such as pragmatic equivalence which focuses to fulfill its communicative function for the recipients. This study tries to discuss the factors of untranslatability in translating addressing term. There are two research questions for this study, (1) How does the translator translate the Indonesian addressing terms in Toer's Bumi Manusia into English version, This Earth of Mankind? (2) What is the influence of power and solidarity toward the choices of addressing terms in Toer's Bumi Manusia? This study tries to describe about the method of the translator in translating addressing term and know the influence of power and solidarity in translating the addressing term. This study only focuses on translating the addressing terms that have any equivalence problems in their translation and do not pay attention to grammar or another linguistic aspect. This study tries to describe about the process of young learner with visual learning style acquire language and know the relationships between personality and learning style. This study is not only focusing in linguistics but also covering learning activities and psychology area but it is not for learning strategy. Several theories are becoming main cores of this study, such as translation theory of House, lexical relation of Kreidler and Brown and Gilman in pronoun of power and solidarity. . RESEARCH METHOD This study uses descriptive-qualitative in getting and describing about the translating addressing terms phenomena in This Earth of Mankind. This study needs to be explained by words not by numbers or statistics, because this study is stressing on translation aspect and its relationship with culture. Bodgan and Biklen (1984:5) defined the qualitative approach as a research procedure which produces a descriptive data such as verbal or nonverbal utterances or words from the object being observed. The data for this study are utterances. There are two sources of data used in this study. Those data are Toer's Bumi Manusia as source text that was written by Pramoedya Ananta Toer and This Earth of Mankind as target text that was translated by Max Lane. Observation is used to analyze this research. Observation includes collection of the data that is needed by the researcher without manipulating. Sugiyono(2010, p. 146) adds that observation is done by the researcher about what the researcher wants to observe in the research. To observe this research, internet access and taking a note are needed by the researcher as the basic instrument. There were three steps to analyze the data. They were data reduction, data display and conclusion and verification. The researcher sorted the data by choosing the addressing terms that had problem with equivalence. Then, she displayed the data in table. Conclusion and verification became the last step of the data analysis process. In this case, the data had been displayed and discussed before were concluded. The conclusion was the answer of the problems existing supported by some theories related (Sugiyono, 2010, p. 345). To answer the first question, the researcher used lexical relation of Kreidler in his book introducing English semantic and translation theory by Machali. Then, in answering the research question number two, the researcher used pronoun of power and solidarity by Brown and Gilman, translation theory by Nababan and House, then collaborate with Hallidayan register categories of field, mode and tenor. ANNALYSIS AND DISCUSSION There are two analyses in this section. The first is the analysis of the method that was used by translator to translate addressing terms. The second is the analysis of relation between power and solidarity toward the addressing terms. In translating terms of addressees, the translator should find the equivalence between the source text and the target text. House (2009: 29) defines equivalence as a similar message and fulfills a similar function. The writer noticed that the translator use some different patterns. The first pattern, the translator tried to find out the literal or denotative equivalence which use 'real world' as referents for source text to target text. The second pattern, the translator used the original addressing terms from the source text and provided glossary for informing the meaning of the addressing terms in the end of the novel. The last, the translator changed the addressing terms to different addressing terms as the adaptation to the context of target language. After analyzing the method that was used by translator to translate addressing terms, the research used the following table to sum up the result: Table 1 The Comparison of Addressing Terms in Bumi Manusia and This Earth of Mankind No Original Translation Procedure Problem 1. Juffrouw Miss Literal translation Different in context 2. Noni Miss Literal translation Different in context 3. Noni Noni Annotation Inconsistent 4. Mevrouw Mrs/Madam/ Ma'am Literal translation Different in context 5. Mevrouw Miss Free translation Different in meaning 6. Tuanmuda Young master Literal translation Different in context 7. Tuanmuda Master Literal translation Inconsistent 8. Tuan Sir/Mr. Literal translation Different in context 9. Tuan Tuan Annotation Inconsistent 10. Tuan You/he Free translation Different in function 11. Tuan-tuan Tuans Free translation Different in meaning 12. Ndoro Master Literal translation Different in context 13. Ndoro Ndoro Annotation Inconsistent 14. Sahaya I Literal translation Different in context 15. Sahaya Your servant Free translation Different in meaning 16. Meneer Mr. Literal translation Different in context 17. Papa Father Literal translation Different in context 18 Kowe You Literal translation Different in context 19. Nak Child Literal translation Different in context 20. Nyai Nyai Annotation - 21. Nyai-nyai Nyais Free translation Different in meaning 22. Gus Gus Annotation - 23. Sinyo Sinyo Annotation - 24. Mas Mas Annotation - 25. Abang Your friend Free translation Different in meaning 26. Man Man Free translation Different in context 27. Mr Mr. Free translation Different in meaning As shown from the table above, Malay dominated the addressing terms because Malay is neutral language that can be used by Javanese and Dutch in their daily conversations. Noni, Tuanmuda, Tuan, Ayah, Ayahanda, Sahaya, Nak, Sinyo, and Abang are addressing terms that belong to Malay addressing terms. These terms are more common because Malay is widely used in all Dutch East Indies. In the other hand, there were some Javanese addressing terms such as Nyai, Ndoro, Kowe, Gus, Mas, and Man that were used in particular occasions or refer to particular people. Similar to Javanese addressing terms, Dutch addressing terms are only used for certain people. Juffrouw, Mevrouw, Meneer, and Meester are Ducth addressing terms that only used to call Dutch people. There are three patterns in translating addressing terms. In the first pattern, the translator used denotative equivalence which only focused on the meaning of the terms. Machali (2000) stated that as a method, literal translation considers as the most important translation procedure because the basic of literal translation is in clause or sentence level. However, translating addressing terms include and reflect the culture of the society because the addressing terms that were used by the characters determine their background whether their status or ethnicity. Even the words in source text have the same denotation with target text, they do not always have the same connotation. The translator used two different procedures in translating the addressing terms for the first pattern. The first procedure is lexical translation which is used to translate Tuanmuda, Tuan, Papa, Ayah, Ayahanda, Sahaya, Aku, Kowe, and Nak. Some of the terms are not appropriate because there is the difference of interpersonal perspective. The second procedure is adaptation. The translator attempted to make the addressing terms familiar in target text. The terms Juffrouw, Mevrouw, Meneer, Ndoro, and Noni are special concepts that were used in Dutch colonial era. The translation text could be understood by the reader of the target text, but the reader can not catch the essence that those terms are particular addressing terms for certain groups. So, even the words of source text have denotative equivalence in target text, but they are not suitable for the context of source text. In the second pattern, the translator did not change the addressing terms because the terms, Noni, Nyai, Ndoro, Gus, Sinyo, and Mas are special concept of source text that do not have any equivalence word in target text. The translator used annotation to translate because he persisted to use the original terms and gave glossary to explain the meaning of the term. The writer noticed that the translator is understand that the addressing terms have important role to distinguish the identity of the characters, but he only highlighted Javanese addressing terms. The concept of thing in Dutch and English are almost similar because they are in the same language family. So, the translator was easy to find out the lexical equivalence from Ducth terms to English terms. However, the concept of some words such as Noni, Sinyo, and Nyai are especially used in colonial era, so it is difficult to find out the equivalence in target text. Ndoro, Gus, and Mas are terms from Javanese culture who really emphasis in status and familiarity while English only differ for formal or informal situation. Unfortunately, the translator used inconsistent translation procedures for one term. For instance, the term Noni is translated as Miss by using lexical translation and the translator also used annotation in other text so that he did not change the addressing terms. These conditions would make the reader confuse and would make wrong interpretation that Miss and Noni are different. The last pattern showed that the translator change the form of the addressing terms. The translator used free style translation. The translator missed to understand the language system of source text and target text because he translated Nyai-Nyai as Nyais and Tuan-Tuan as Tuans. Nyai and Tuan are not English term, so the plural form of Nyai and Tuan are not necessarily Nyais or Tuans because it is unclear whether Nyai and Tuan are countable or uncountable noun. Accountability concept is universal concept that can be understood by all people and can be expressed through lexical structure in all language, but not all languages have grammatical category for number and not all languages apply the same concept for number. The second analysis is relation between power and solidarity toward the addressing using T and V because in previous part, there are many translations of addressing term that are not appropriate to the context of the novel. The ways of people in choosing the addressing terms are really related to the culture that exist in their society. The culture of society consists of everything that everybody has to know or believe in order to operate manner that acceptable for its member. In Javanese society, especially in the past, the kingdom applied feudal system. This system force lower class people to respect much to people who have more power. Gilman (1960; 252) defined Power as a relationship between at least two persons and it is nonreciprocal because both can not have the same authority. There are many forms of power such as physical strength, wealth, age, sex, institutionalized role in the state, the army, or within the family. The relations called older than, richer than, stronger than, employer of, richer than and nobler then are all asymmetrical. If A is older than B, B is not older than A. The relation called "more powerful than". The pronoun usage expressing this power relation is also asymmetrical or nonreciprocal, with the greater receiving V and the lesser T. Pronoun form of T and V were used by some European countries to differ between 'singular you' tu (T) and 'plural you' vos (V). Now, T and V are used as symbols; the T form is often described as the familiar form and the V form as the polite one. The superior will say T to the inferior and receives V, and vice versa. T and V approach also could be used to indicate solidarity. The T form is usually used by people who stand in the same position. It reflects symmetrical relation; for instance: attended the same school or have the same parents or practice in the same profession. The T of solidarity can be produced by frequency of contact as well as by objective similarities. The dimension of solidarity is potentially appropriate to all persons addressed. Power superiors may be solidarity (parents, elder siblings) or not solidarity (officials whom one seldom sees). Reciprocal T usage was always available to show intimacy. The following part would discuss the power of characters and its influence among the other characters and the writer used T and V form to analyze them. To sum up the relation of power and solidarity through the addressing term that were chosen by the characters in Bumi Manusia, the writer summarized them into a table. The table would illustrate the addressing terms, the interlocutors, the relation between interlocutors, and the function of the addressing terms. Table 2 The T and V form of Addressing Terms in Bumi Manusia No Addressing Term Interlocutor Relation Function 1 Juffrouw Java – Dutch Dutch- Indo nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 2 Noni Java – Indo nonreciprocal Respecting 3 Mevrouw Java – Dutch Dutch -Dutch Indo – Indo nonreciprocal reciprocal reciprocal Respecting showing intimacy respecting 4 Nyai Java – Java Dutch - Java reciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 5 Tuanmuda Dutch – Java Java - Java nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 6 Tuan Java - Java Java – Dutch nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 7 Ndoro Java – Dutch Java – Java nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 8 Meneer Java – Dutch nonreciprocal Respecting 9 Mama Ann – Nyai Minke – Nyai nonreciprocal nonreciprocal showing intimacy showing intimacy 10 Papa Indo – western nonreciprocal showing intimacy 11 Aku Java - Java Java – Dutch reciprocal nonreciprocal showing intimacy showing intimacy 12 Sahaya Java – Java nonreciprocal showing intimacy 13 Kowe Dutch – Java nonreciprocal Disrespecting 14 Nak Java – Java nonreciprocal showing intimacy 15 Gus Java – Java nonreciprocal showing intimacy 16 Sinyo Java –Indo Java – Java nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 17 Abang Indo - Indo Java – Java nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting showing intimacy 18 Mas Indo – Java reciprocal showing intimacy 19 Man Dutch – Java nonreciprocal Disrespecting 20 Mr (Meester) Java – Dutch nonreciprocal Respecting The table above shows that there are three functions of addressing terms, respecting, disrespecting, and showing intimacy. From the data above, the relations of the interlocutors are mostly nonreciprocal, so it shows that social status is very important in colonial era because the nonreciprocal relations illustrate the difference power between addressor and addressee. In many nonreciprocal cases, the higher social status will get V form from the addressors to show their respect and say T form because they are not stand in the same position as the addressee. Except respecting, nonreciprocal relation is also used to show disrespect. The addressing terms that are used to disregard are especially designed for lower class by upper class or have bad connotation. In contrast, to show intimacy, the relations of the interlocutors are sometimes reciprocal or nonreciprocal. The dimension of solidarity is little bit different from power, because even the interlocutors are not stand in the same position they can use intimate addressing terms because their relations are close. DISCUSSION After analyzing the translation of addressing terms from the source text to target text, now the writer discusses the result of the analysis. Comparison of Original and Translation The research compares the field, tenor, and mode of Bumi Manusia and This Earth of Mankind. The concept of field, tenor, and mode are sociolinguistic dimensions of context of situation jointly characterizing a particular register. House (2009; 33) stated that the original and its translation should have an equivalent function whenever possible. He also said that text and context of situation are indeed separated, but the two interact with each other through inextricable connection between the social environment and the functional organization of language. Before analyzing the register, it is needed to analyze the genre first. House (2009; 35) explained that genre connect an individual text with the larger cultural context of the linguistic and cultural community in which the text is embedded. The genre of Bumi Manusia is historical fiction but it is based on the reality. It included to historical story because the setting illustrated the situation of Indonesia in the late of nineteenth century. The author used particular time and places that make the story as if it was real. The story happened in 1890's, when the national movement had been begun by native to fight against colonizer through non-violence way. Field The first dimension of register is field. Holmes (2009; 34) explained that field captures the subject matter or topic. It describes what the text is about and what kinds of thing are in text. The text was about Minke's life. It describe Minke's journey who is a naïve boy at first to be a mature person. In that process, Minke should face many problems dealing not only with himself but also his society and the colonizer. The complexities of Minke's problem include the conflict of social judgments, hierarchy system, and racial conflict. The description of this story is not so much as historical text but an attractive, easily readable story. Evidence for this is the use of Malay language in telling the story rather than Javanese or Dutch. Malay was language of interracial communication which was used by many people weather Native or Eurasian. However, there were many terms that are not Malay, but they were only used as addressing term. The choice of particular addressing term in Bumi Manusia shows the style of speaking and the purpose of the speaker, indeed the social status. Mevrouw, Juffrouw, Meester, and Meneer are some addressing terms that were borrowed from Dutch language, while Mas, Ndoro, Gus, Mas and Man are some addressing terms that were borrowed from Javanese language. The used of various addressing terms has function as the mark of power and solidarity. As seen in table 4.1.3 (see page 102) there are three functions of addressing terms, respecting, disrespecting, and showing intimacy. From that data, the relations of the interlocutors are mostly nonreciprocal, so it shows that social status is very important in colonial era because the nonreciprocal relations illustrate the difference power between addressor and addressee. The feudal and colonial system forced people to respect everyone who have more power. Geertz (1960: 282) explained that it is nearly impossible for language that applied etiquette system to say anything without indicating the social relationship between the speaker and the listener in terms of status and familiarity. In many nonreciprocal cases, the higher social status will get V form from the addressors to show their respect and say T form because they are not stand in the same position as the addressee. Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Nyai, Tuanmuda, Tuan, Ndoro, Menner, Sahaya, Sinyo, Abang, and Meester are addressing terms to show respect. The translation appears to be generally and decrease its local color because the absence of Dutch addressing terms as the marker of Dutch colonial. Even the translation of Dutch addressing terms have the same function to respect the addressee, the translation can not replace the emotion and the feeling of the original. Except respecting, nonreciprocal relation is also used to show disrespect. The addressing terms that are used to disregard are especially designed for lower class by upper class or have bad connotation. For instance, Kowe is addressing term that was used by Dutch people to express disrespect toward Javanese. The translation of Kowe, you, can not express the same function as the original because this term is neutral addressing term. In contrast, to show intimacy, the relations of the interlocutors are sometimes reciprocal or nonreciprocal. The dimension of solidarity is little bit different from power. Even the interlocutors were not stand in the same position they can use intimate addressing terms because their relations are close. In Bumi Manusia, the relations of the people who used intimate addressing terms such as Mama, Papa, Gus, Abang, and Nak were nonreciprocal. Gus, Abang and Nak were used by older people to younger people. In Javanese, age is one of the main distinctions of nonreciprocal relation. The older people do not need to use polite form, but in this case Gus, Abang and Nak are polite addressing term that indicated close relationship between older and younger people. The translation of Abang (your friend) and Nak (child) can not full fill the same function as the intimate sign like the original did. Tenor House (2009; 34) stated that tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the author and his or her addressee, the relationship between them in terms of social power and familiarity, the author's intellectual and affective position, that is, his or her personal viewpoint. The author was an Indonesian author of novels, short stories, essays, polemic and histories of his homeland and its people. The author seemed to be very aware of the conditions of his story. He attempted to create colonial atmosphere as same as the reality. The choice of the addressing terms included Dutch, Malay, and Javanese was the evident. By differing the addressing terms based on the ethnicity and social status, the author would like to inform the reader the 'reality' in the past. He wanted to show that there were social distance between poor and rich, also Javanese as the colony and Dutch as the colonizer. He persisted to use Dutch addressing terms rather than change it into Malay to create colonial atmosphere because at that time Dutch people make their language as exclusive language. The translator also tried to create colonial atmosphere by using Java and Malay addressing term that do not have equivalent in English. However, instead of using Dutch term as the author did, the translator change the addressing terms into English. Dutch and English are still in the same language family, so there are many terms of English and Dutch that have the same meaning. Mevrouw, Juffrouw, Meneer, and Meester are Dutch terms. Except Meester, they are denotatively equivalent. Mevrouw could be translated as Mrs, Juffrouw as Miss, and Meneer as Mr. They have the same referents in the real world, so it makes them denotatively equivalents. Although, the translator failed to capture that Dutch addressing term has special function as imperial impression. Ashcroft (2002; 7) stated that one of main features of imperial oppression is control over language. Dutch people, at that time, not only controlled for social, politic, and economic aspects but also controlled the language. They limit the used of their language for themselves and their offspring to marginalize their colonies. The translator did not catch the author's aim that he wanted to show the great distance between Dutch and Javanese people. Instead of giving the Dutch colonial atmosphere, the translator gave mental image of British colonialism because the special terms that implicate Dutch colonialism had been translated in English terms. Based on the table in 4.1 (see page 3), most addressing term translation dealt with cultural context. This problem arose because the translation and the original can not make the same psychological understanding for the readers. In addition, the translator used inconsistent term in his translations that primarily make the reader confused. Mode House (2009; 34) defined Mode as a channel of communication. Equivalence in dimension of mode relates to the means whereby the communication is performed. In Bumi Manusia, there were some addressing terms that have different meaning than the lexical meaning because of the feeling of the speaker. Kowe actually is common addressing terms in Javanese society to address someone who is younger or have closed relation, but when it is used by Dutch people the function is changed from showing intimacy become disrespecting. When the Dutch people used Kowe in Bumi Manusia novel, the character always used it in high tension. However, the reader will not catch that Kowe has negative connotation directly because the translation term, you, is neutral addressing terms. The communication purpose of the term Kowe cannot easily catch. So, the irritation of the character could not be understood by the reader. As seen from the mode, field, and tenor analyses above, it show that the original and the translation are not equivalence. The genre of the translation in translating addressing term is not so much as the original because some translation of the addressing terms can not reveal the atmosphere of Dutch colonial that become the main point in this equivalence problem. Equivalence Problem in Translating Addressing Terms in Bumi Manusia The analysis of register categories above clearly showed that the original and translation are not equal. Equivalence of source text and target has limited area because not all of the equivalence approaches can achieved all translation cases. The main factor that made the addressing in source text do not have suitable equivalence in target text is the special concept of Dutch colonial and Javanese culture. Nababan (1999: 99) said that the concept of source text can reveal a concept that is not well known in the target text. Some addressing terms from source text that has special concept are difficult to have their equivalence in target text because of the cultural concept of addressing term from Dutch and Javanese like Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Nyai, Ndoro, Meneer, Gus, Sinyo, Mas, Man, and Meester. Those terms can not easily be transferred to target text because those terms are created by certain condition in particular communities. Some of those terms, Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Ndoro, and Meneer have the same denotation with the translation term, but the original and translation addressing term have different connotation that make them share different interpretation. The special concept that can not be replaced in target text lead to others related problem. The special concept of particular culture make the language concept of source text is not available in target text. Nababan (1999: 99) explained that the words of source text could be understand and recognized in target text but the target text does not have a term that can reveal the concept from source text. In this case, the term Sahaya and Kowe in source text have different concept from Aku and Kau. The target text do not differ the first and second singular pronoun that make the translation of Sahaya and Kowe have different function from source text. Even the concept of Sahaya and Kowe could be understand in the target text, but the term that have the same meaning and connotation with those term are not available. So, the translator used 'I' and 'you' in a pinch to replace Sahaya and Kowe even 'I' and 'you' also used to translate Aku and Kau. The complexities of Javanese community that apply speech level also direct the translation to the equivalence problem because it makes difference of interpersonal perspective. Nababan (1999: 03) argued that interpersonal perspective is related to the relation of the participants in a text. In a language that really concern to etiquette like Javanese, Geertz stated that it is impossible to address someone without pay attention to the status of the addressee. Etiquette system force the people to create different term for one concept, so the participant can easily choose the right term to address someone that suitable for both the addressor and the addressee. For instance, in Bumi Manusia there are three different addressing terms to call male parent, Papa, Ayah and Ayahanda. The use of those addressing term could reflect the social status of the addressor and the addressee. Papa is used in western family who live Dutch East Indies, Ayah is used in middle-low family, while Ayahanda is used in Javanese aristocrat family. This difference of Papa, Ayah and Ayahanda can not be seen in the translation because the translator translated them as 'father'. The other problem of equivalence that appears because of the particular culture of the two languages is the difference of expressive meaning. According to Nababan (1999: 103) the words in source text and target text have the same proportional meaning but often they are different in expressive meaning. There are many addressing terms that have the same proportional meaning but they are different in expressive meaning because Malay terms differentiate the addressing terms based on the relationship and the social status. The term Nak has the same proportional meaning with child, but they are used in different intention. Nak is for showing intimacy but child dispose to create formal atmosphere rather than familiarity. Both terms have the same proportional meaning but they express different purpose and connotation. The different perspective toward a concept will also lead the translation to equivalence problem (Nababan, 1999: 101). Furthermore, it is also the effect of special concept in source text. The term Man in Javanese context at that time was used to address Javanese adult male from middle-low status. In the translation text, the term Man translated as man because English does not distinguish the term man for rich or poor people. In the other hand, the translator also missed to capture the perspective of the character in choosing particular term when he translated Abang. The proportional meaning of Abang is addressing term to call elder brother but it could be used to call man or boy who is elder than the addressee. The translator translated Abangmu as your friend but from Nyai Ontosoroh's point of view, she used Abangmu to make Annelies felt comfort and consider Minke as her own son. Changing the term Abangmu as your friend would lead the reader to different understanding because it seems that Nyai Ontosoroh treat Minke as only her guest. The other factor except special concept of Dutch colonial and Javanese culture is the difference in grammatical system. Nababan (1999; 108) stated that grammatical equivalence focuses to the similar concept of source text and target text at the level of number, gender, person, tense, and aspect. In translating the addressing term, the problem appeared when source language and target language have different grammatical system. The term Nyai-Nyai became Nyais or Tuan-Tuan became Tuans is not equivalence because both term are Malay term. Malay and English apply different method to change the singular concept to be plural. The translator used free style translation and he missed to understand the language system of source text and target text because he translated Nyai-Nyai as Nyais and Tuan-Tuan as Tuans. Nyai and Tuan are not English term, so the plural form of Nyai and Tuan are not necessarily Nyais or Tuans because it is unclear whether Nyai and Tuan are countable or uncountable noun. Accountability concept is universal concept that can be understood by all people and can be expressed through lexical structure in all language, but not all languages have grammatical category for number and not all languages apply the same concept for number. Therefore, the translator should observe carefully whether one concept of a language could be applied to another language or not. The reader of the target text would feel unfamiliar because in some text, the translator used Nyai and Tuan for singular form, but after that those terms became Nyais and Tuans, whereas the reader could have another understanding rather than think that those terms are plural form because they never know the terms Nyais and Tuans before. Double Perspective in Translating Bumi Manusia Constructing the effective translation is one of the purposes of translation. Nababan (1999:88) stated that there are two main factors that determine the effectiveness of the translation. The first is dimension of linguistic and knowledge. Straight (as quoted in Nababan, 1999) said that fruitfulness in conveying the message depends on the knowledge about the context of culture and the language system of source language and target language. In this case, the translator failed to capture that addressing term play important role because it reflects etiquette culture of Javanese and Dutch colonial culture in Dutch East Indies. The second factor is purpose dimension. Nababan (1999, 87) stated that the translator should decide the purpose of the translation. Further, he explained that the purpose should meet this criteria; fruitful to the original, use translation style that appropriate to source text, use suitable equivalence, and the readability level of translation fitted to the source text. However, the analysis in the previous part show that the translation of addressing terms dealt with many equivalence problems and shared different function and connotation from the original that make the translation become unreadable and confusing for the reader. Both dimensions above can not be reached by the translator because he used more than one perspective in translating the addressing terms. Before translating a text, a translator had to analyze the source text to understand the content of the text. Then, the translator chose the approach that is suitable for source text. From the data in the table in 4.1 (see page 3), the writer found some addressing terms that have many equivalent problems. The translator may use more than one procedure in translating addressing terms because the procedure of translation is for sentences or smaller linguistics units as clause, phrase, word, etc. However, before determining the procedure, the translator should choose the perspective or method that he wants to apply in translating the source text. The method that the translator used will be a framework that guides the translator to translate the text in a line. The writer noticed that the translator used double perspectives that make his translation contradictory. In translating addressing terms such as Noni, Ndoro, Nyai, Tuan, Tuanmuda, Papa, Gus, Sinyo, and Mas, the translator used perspective that was focus on the original text. House (2009: 15) explained that a focus on the (original) texts mean analyzing it, and systematically linking its form and functions in order to reveal the original author's motivated choices. The translator considered the reason of the author in choosing addressing terms and tried to find out the closest equivalence in target text, even for some addressing terms do not have any equivalence that make the translator insisted to use the original term. In contrast, the translator also used perspective that focus on the process of interpretation. House (2009: 20) defined this perspective as the translator way to builds up an individual mental representation of its meaning. House added that the reconstitution of the 'the meaning' of a text to fit another language and context is not the central point. It is dealing more with the invention of the translator then discovery of what is already exist in a text. Therefore, when the translator used this perspective to translate some addressing terms such as Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Nyai-Nyai, Tuan-Tuan, Nak, Abang, Man, etc the translation become very different from the context in source text. This perspective also leads the translator to make confusing translation because the translation for one term becomes inconsistent. Moreover some addressing terms have different meaning and connotation from the source text. In translating a text, translator should use only one perspective to make the synchronized translation. Double translation would lead the translator to different way in translating addressing term because one perspective deal with different point of view to another perspective. In Bumi Manusia case, it is much better for the translator to only apply the perspective that focus on the source text since the background of the original can not be easily transferred to target text. Moreover, if the translator was consistent to use one perspective, he would not make ambiguity translation. By understanding the whole context of the story that include ecology, technology, material culture, social organization, myth, and linguistic system of source text, the translator would have better perceptive to make good translation that fruitful to the original but it is still readable for the target reader. CONCLUSION This study is conducted to describe how the phenomenon of translating addressing terms is rolled out in BumiManusia and This Earth of Mankind. The conclusion of this study is formulated based on the statement of problems. Some translation theory based on several authors (House; 2009; Machali 2000; and Nababan; 1999): translation perspective, equivalence in translation, equivalence problem, and register categories of field, mode, and tenor are combined to the theory of addressing term (Wardaugh; 2006), pronouns of power and solidarity (Brown and Gilman; 1960) and lexical relation (Kreidler; 1998) to identify how the translator translated the addressing terms and the relation of the addressing terms toward the cultural context. Then, the writer comes to a conclusion that: The T and V approach also showed that power and solidarity become the main consideration for the characters in choosing addressing terms, so that the characters used different addressing terms depend on the status of the addressee and the relation among the characters. The translator used three patterns in translating addressing terms. In the first pattern, the translator used literal translation to translate Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Tuanmuda, Tuan, Ndoro, Meener, Papa, Ayah, Ayahanda, Sahaya, Aku, Kowe, and Nak. In second pattern, the translator used original terms, Noni, Nyai, Ndoro, Gus, Sinyo, and Mas in the target text. The last pattern is changing the addressing terms such as Nyai-Nyai, Tuan, Sahaya, Abang, Man, and Meester since the adaptation of target text. From the patterns above, it was found that the translator was inconsistent to translate some addressing terms because he translated one term used some different procedure that make the meaning of the addressing terms contradictory. Also he did not pay attention to the culture and the context that involve in addressing terms so he only did linguistic translation without concerning to the cultural influences. The main factor that lead untranslatability of translating Bumi Manusia's addressing terms is special concept of Javanese culture and Dutch colonial system that make the addressing terms can not be easily transferred to target. The difference of grammatical system of source language and target language also lead the translator to get difficulties in finding suitable equivalence for the addressing terms. Therefore the translator used double perspective to solve the equivalence problems. As a result double perspective that was expected to solve the problem instead made a larger problem because the translation of addressing terms become untranslatability and unreadable. SUGGESTION Addressing terms is general phenomenon which occurs in daily life. But, the analysis of translating addressing terms is still rarely discussed whereas linguistics and its branches is basically concerning with the use of language. From this study, the future researchers are suggested to be more interested in enlarging their knowledge dealing with applied linguistics, especially translating addressing terms which concerns with how translating addressing terms based on cultural context. Equally important, it is suggested for the readers to pay attention in choosing addressing terms based on the condition and the status of the addressee because the wrong addressing terms choices will make the addressee feel insulted or annoyed REFERENCES Ananta Toer, Pramoedya. 2011. Bumi Manusia. Jakarta: Lentera Dipantara. Ananta Toer, Pramoedya. 1996. This Earth of Mankind. New York: Penguin books Ltd. Ashcroft, Bill and Griffiths, Gareth. 2002. The Empire Writes Back – Theory and practice in post-colonial literatures. New York and London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Bogdan, Robert. C and Sari Knopp Biklen. 1982. Qualitative Research for Education: an Introduction to Theory and Methods.Allyn and Bacon. Inc. USA Brown, R., Gilman, A. 1960. The pronouns of Power and Solidarity. Thomas A. Sebeok, eds. Style in Language. Cambridge-Massachusetts: The Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 252-275. Geertz, Clifford. 1960. Linguistic Etiquette. Thomas A. Sebeok, eds. Style in Language. Cambridge-Massachusetts: The Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 282-295 Holmes, Janet. 1992. An Inroduction to Sociolinguistics. London and New York: Longman Group. Hornby, A. S. (Ed.) 1948. Advanced Learner's Dictionary (7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. House, Juliane. 2009. Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Machali, R. .2000. Pedoman Bagi Penerjemah. Jakarta: Grasindo. Nababan, R. 1999. Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris. Yogyakarta: PustakaPelajar Pramoedya Ananta Toer. Retrieved on June 25, 2013 from site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramoedya_Ananta_Toer Rothschild, Metthew. Interview with Pramoedya Ananta Toer. The Progressive Magazine. Retrieved on June 26, 2013 from site: http://www.progressive.org/mag_intv1099 Sugiyono. 2010. MetodePenelitianKuantitatif R & D. Bandung: Alfabeta. Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2006. An Introduction to Sociolinguistic.Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Widyastuti, Susana. Componential Analysis of Meaning: Theory and Applications. Online journal. Retrieved on June 25, 2013 from site: http://eprints.uny.ac.id/1174 W. Kreidler, Charles. 1998. Introducing English Semantic. London: Routledge.

AN ANALYSIS OF TRANSLATING THE ADDRESSING TERMS IN PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER'S THIS EARTH OF MANKIND Azimatul Fauziah English Literature, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya azimatul13@gmail.com Dian Rivia Himmawati, SS, M.Hum. English Language and Literature Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya dianrivia@gmail.com ABSTRAK Studi ini focus pada penerjemahan sapaan dalam Bumi Manusia sebagai bahasa sumber dan This Earth of Mankind sebagai bahasa sasaran. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh dari kekuasaan dan solidaritas dalam penerjemahan sapaan dan mengetahui faktor yang menyebabkan ketakterjemahan dalam menerjemahkan sapaan. Metode deskriptif kualitatif, teori penerjemahan (House; 2009), hubungan antar kata , kata ganti orang yang memiliki kekuasaan dan solidaritas (Brown and Gilman; 1960), dan register kategori Halliday digunakan untuk menganalisa data. Hasil analisa menunjukan bahwa ada tiga macam sapaan di This Earth of Mankind, sapaan dalam bahasa Belanda, Melayu, dan Jawa. Beberapa sapaan dari bahasa yang berbeda memiliki makna yang sepadan dan penerjemah menerjemahkannya dengan istilah yang sama dengan menggunakan 'denotative equivalence' dan pragmatic equivalence. Penerjemah gagal memahami bahwa penulis membedakan sapaan untuk penjajah dan jajahan, keluarga bangsawan dan masyarakat umum, hubungan formal dan keakraban. Masalah penerjemahan sapaan terjadi ketika sapaan tersebut memiliki konsep khusus yang berhubungan dengan budaya tertentu namun tidak memiliki istilah padanan dalam bahasa sasaran dan karena sistem tatabahasa yang berbeda. Oleh karena itu, penerjemah menggunakan dua pandangan yang berbeda untuk menerjemahkan sapaan. pandangan yang pertama terpusat pada bahasa sumber sedangkan pandangan yang kedua terpusat pada proses penafsiran penerjemah. Hal tersebut membuat terjemahan menjadi sangat berbeda jika dilihat dari mode (cara), field (bidang), dan tenor (tujuan). Kata Kunci: penerjemahan, sapaan, padanan, budaya, kekuasaan ABSTRACT This study focuses on the translation of addressing term in Bumi Manusia as source text and This Earth of Mankind as target text. The purpose of this study is to find out the influence of power and solidarity in translating the addressing terms and find out the factors of untranslatability in translating addressing term. Descriptive qualitative method, translation theory (House; 2009), lexical relation (Kreidler; 1998), pronoun of power and solidarity (Brown and Gilman; 1960), and Hallidayan register categories are applied to analyze the data. The result show that there are three kinds of addressing terms in This Earth of Mankind, Dutch addressing term, Malay addressing term, and Javanese addressing term. Some addressing terms from different language have the same proportional meaning and the translator translated them as the same term and the translator used denotative equivalence and pragmatic equivalence. The translator failed to catch that the author differ the addressing term to show the difference between colonize and colonizer, aristocrat family and common people, intimacy relation and formal relation. The problem of translating addressing terms appeared when the special concept of addressing term related to particular culture do not have any equivalence term in target text and the different of grammatical system. Therefore, it makes the translator use double perspective in translating the addressing term. The first focuses on the source text while the other focus on the process of interpretation by the translator. It made the result of the translation become really different from the original seen from register categories: mode, field, and tenor. Keywords: translation, addressing term, equivalence, culture, dan power INTRODUCTION Bumi Manusia is one of the greatest works of Pramoedya Ananta Toer who was frequently discussed as Indonesia's and Southeast Asia's best candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature. Terms of addressee plays important role in Bumi Manusia because it indicates the social status of someone. There are three kinds of addressing terms based on ethnicity in this novel. They are Dutch addressing term, Malay addressing term, and Javanese addressing term. Oyetade (as quoted in Chu-Cing Hsu; 2) defines terms of addresseeas words or linguistic expression which speakers use to designate the person being talked to while talk is in progress or which writers use to address the recipient in written communication. Moreover, Braun (1988:7) explains that the actual use and the function of addressing terms depands on the stucture of language, on the speaker's intention and on the address relationship between two interlocutors, as well as on the occasion of the occurrence. Juliane House (2009: 4) defined translation as a process of replacing a text in one language by text in another language. He also explained that translating is not only a linguistic act but it is also an act of communication across culture. Translating terms of addressee from Indonesian into English is not easy because they have different pronominal form. In translating addressing term, the translator should notice on the detail. Words can only be understood when it is considered together with the cultural context. So, in translating addressing term, it is not only replacing the word to another language but creating the same meaning and atmosphere as similar as the original text. Moreover, the addressing terms in Bumi Manusia are closely related to power. Braun and Gilman defined Power as ability to control behavior over another. They also said that power is a relationship between at least two persons, and it is nonreciprocal in the sense that both can not have the same power in the same area of behavior (1960: 254). People who have power will be addressed differently from common people. Power is associated with high social status and it reflects respect and honor. So, people from high social status will be addressed in polite way to show a great reverence. To translate a text as similar as the source text, it is needed to see whether the source text is equivalent to target text or not. House defined equivalence as how similarity of message or function is interpreted (2009: 29). There are many types of equivalence and it depends on the perspective that the translator used. It is possible to use denotative equivalence that use 'real world' referents to which the text relates. Also, the translator could use other equivalence such as pragmatic equivalence which focuses to fulfill its communicative function for the recipients. This study tries to discuss the factors of untranslatability in translating addressing term. There are two research questions for this study, (1) How does the translator translate the Indonesian addressing terms in Toer's Bumi Manusia into English version, This Earth of Mankind? (2) What is the influence of power and solidarity toward the choices of addressing terms in Toer's Bumi Manusia? This study tries to describe about the method of the translator in translating addressing term and know the influence of power and solidarity in translating the addressing term. This study only focuses on translating the addressing terms that have any equivalence problems in their translation and do not pay attention to grammar or another linguistic aspect. This study tries to describe about the process of young learner with visual learning style acquire language and know the relationships between personality and learning style. This study is not only focusing in linguistics but also covering learning activities and psychology area but it is not for learning strategy. Several theories are becoming main cores of this study, such as translation theory of House, lexical relation of Kreidler and Brown and Gilman in pronoun of power and solidarity. . RESEARCH METHOD This study uses descriptive-qualitative in getting and describing about the translating addressing terms phenomena in This Earth of Mankind. This study needs to be explained by words not by numbers or statistics, because this study is stressing on translation aspect and its relationship with culture. Bodgan and Biklen (1984:5) defined the qualitative approach as a research procedure which produces a descriptive data such as verbal or nonverbal utterances or words from the object being observed. The data for this study are utterances. There are two sources of data used in this study. Those data are Toer's Bumi Manusia as source text that was written by Pramoedya Ananta Toer and This Earth of Mankind as target text that was translated by Max Lane. Observation is used to analyze this research. Observation includes collection of the data that is needed by the researcher without manipulating. Sugiyono(2010, p. 146) adds that observation is done by the researcher about what the researcher wants to observe in the research. To observe this research, internet access and taking a note are needed by the researcher as the basic instrument. There were three steps to analyze the data. They were data reduction, data display and conclusion and verification. The researcher sorted the data by choosing the addressing terms that had problem with equivalence. Then, she displayed the data in table. Conclusion and verification became the last step of the data analysis process. In this case, the data had been displayed and discussed before were concluded. The conclusion was the answer of the problems existing supported by some theories related (Sugiyono, 2010, p. 345). To answer the first question, the researcher used lexical relation of Kreidler in his book introducing English semantic and translation theory by Machali. Then, in answering the research question number two, the researcher used pronoun of power and solidarity by Brown and Gilman, translation theory by Nababan and House, then collaborate with Hallidayan register categories of field, mode and tenor. ANNALYSIS AND DISCUSSION There are two analyses in this section. The first is the analysis of the method that was used by translator to translate addressing terms. The second is the analysis of relation between power and solidarity toward the addressing terms. In translating terms of addressees, the translator should find the equivalence between the source text and the target text. House (2009: 29) defines equivalence as a similar message and fulfills a similar function. The writer noticed that the translator use some different patterns. The first pattern, the translator tried to find out the literal or denotative equivalence which use 'real world' as referents for source text to target text. The second pattern, the translator used the original addressing terms from the source text and provided glossary for informing the meaning of the addressing terms in the end of the novel. The last, the translator changed the addressing terms to different addressing terms as the adaptation to the context of target language. After analyzing the method that was used by translator to translate addressing terms, the research used the following table to sum up the result: Table 1 The Comparison of Addressing Terms in Bumi Manusia and This Earth of Mankind No Original Translation Procedure Problem 1. Juffrouw Miss Literal translation Different in context 2. Noni Miss Literal translation Different in context 3. Noni Noni Annotation Inconsistent 4. Mevrouw Mrs/Madam/ Ma'am Literal translation Different in context 5. Mevrouw Miss Free translation Different in meaning 6. Tuanmuda Young master Literal translation Different in context 7. Tuanmuda Master Literal translation Inconsistent 8. Tuan Sir/Mr. Literal translation Different in context 9. Tuan Tuan Annotation Inconsistent 10. Tuan You/he Free translation Different in function 11. Tuan-tuan Tuans Free translation Different in meaning 12. Ndoro Master Literal translation Different in context 13. Ndoro Ndoro Annotation Inconsistent 14. Sahaya I Literal translation Different in context 15. Sahaya Your servant Free translation Different in meaning 16. Meneer Mr. Literal translation Different in context 17. Papa Father Literal translation Different in context 18 Kowe You Literal translation Different in context 19. Nak Child Literal translation Different in context 20. Nyai Nyai Annotation - 21. Nyai-nyai Nyais Free translation Different in meaning 22. Gus Gus Annotation - 23. Sinyo Sinyo Annotation - 24. Mas Mas Annotation - 25. Abang Your friend Free translation Different in meaning 26. Man Man Free translation Different in context 27. Mr Mr. Free translation Different in meaning As shown from the table above, Malay dominated the addressing terms because Malay is neutral language that can be used by Javanese and Dutch in their daily conversations. Noni, Tuanmuda, Tuan, Ayah, Ayahanda, Sahaya, Nak, Sinyo, and Abang are addressing terms that belong to Malay addressing terms. These terms are more common because Malay is widely used in all Dutch East Indies. In the other hand, there were some Javanese addressing terms such as Nyai, Ndoro, Kowe, Gus, Mas, and Man that were used in particular occasions or refer to particular people. Similar to Javanese addressing terms, Dutch addressing terms are only used for certain people. Juffrouw, Mevrouw, Meneer, and Meester are Ducth addressing terms that only used to call Dutch people. There are three patterns in translating addressing terms. In the first pattern, the translator used denotative equivalence which only focused on the meaning of the terms. Machali (2000) stated that as a method, literal translation considers as the most important translation procedure because the basic of literal translation is in clause or sentence level. However, translating addressing terms include and reflect the culture of the society because the addressing terms that were used by the characters determine their background whether their status or ethnicity. Even the words in source text have the same denotation with target text, they do not always have the same connotation. The translator used two different procedures in translating the addressing terms for the first pattern. The first procedure is lexical translation which is used to translate Tuanmuda, Tuan, Papa, Ayah, Ayahanda, Sahaya, Aku, Kowe, and Nak. Some of the terms are not appropriate because there is the difference of interpersonal perspective. The second procedure is adaptation. The translator attempted to make the addressing terms familiar in target text. The terms Juffrouw, Mevrouw, Meneer, Ndoro, and Noni are special concepts that were used in Dutch colonial era. The translation text could be understood by the reader of the target text, but the reader can not catch the essence that those terms are particular addressing terms for certain groups. So, even the words of source text have denotative equivalence in target text, but they are not suitable for the context of source text. In the second pattern, the translator did not change the addressing terms because the terms, Noni, Nyai, Ndoro, Gus, Sinyo, and Mas are special concept of source text that do not have any equivalence word in target text. The translator used annotation to translate because he persisted to use the original terms and gave glossary to explain the meaning of the term. The writer noticed that the translator is understand that the addressing terms have important role to distinguish the identity of the characters, but he only highlighted Javanese addressing terms. The concept of thing in Dutch and English are almost similar because they are in the same language family. So, the translator was easy to find out the lexical equivalence from Ducth terms to English terms. However, the concept of some words such as Noni, Sinyo, and Nyai are especially used in colonial era, so it is difficult to find out the equivalence in target text. Ndoro, Gus, and Mas are terms from Javanese culture who really emphasis in status and familiarity while English only differ for formal or informal situation. Unfortunately, the translator used inconsistent translation procedures for one term. For instance, the term Noni is translated as Miss by using lexical translation and the translator also used annotation in other text so that he did not change the addressing terms. These conditions would make the reader confuse and would make wrong interpretation that Miss and Noni are different. The last pattern showed that the translator change the form of the addressing terms. The translator used free style translation. The translator missed to understand the language system of source text and target text because he translated Nyai-Nyai as Nyais and Tuan-Tuan as Tuans. Nyai and Tuan are not English term, so the plural form of Nyai and Tuan are not necessarily Nyais or Tuans because it is unclear whether Nyai and Tuan are countable or uncountable noun. Accountability concept is universal concept that can be understood by all people and can be expressed through lexical structure in all language, but not all languages have grammatical category for number and not all languages apply the same concept for number. The second analysis is relation between power and solidarity toward the addressing using T and V because in previous part, there are many translations of addressing term that are not appropriate to the context of the novel. The ways of people in choosing the addressing terms are really related to the culture that exist in their society. The culture of society consists of everything that everybody has to know or believe in order to operate manner that acceptable for its member. In Javanese society, especially in the past, the kingdom applied feudal system. This system force lower class people to respect much to people who have more power. Gilman (1960; 252) defined Power as a relationship between at least two persons and it is nonreciprocal because both can not have the same authority. There are many forms of power such as physical strength, wealth, age, sex, institutionalized role in the state, the army, or within the family. The relations called older than, richer than, stronger than, employer of, richer than and nobler then are all asymmetrical. If A is older than B, B is not older than A. The relation called "more powerful than". The pronoun usage expressing this power relation is also asymmetrical or nonreciprocal, with the greater receiving V and the lesser T. Pronoun form of T and V were used by some European countries to differ between 'singular you' tu (T) and 'plural you' vos (V). Now, T and V are used as symbols; the T form is often described as the familiar form and the V form as the polite one. The superior will say T to the inferior and receives V, and vice versa. T and V approach also could be used to indicate solidarity. The T form is usually used by people who stand in the same position. It reflects symmetrical relation; for instance: attended the same school or have the same parents or practice in the same profession. The T of solidarity can be produced by frequency of contact as well as by objective similarities. The dimension of solidarity is potentially appropriate to all persons addressed. Power superiors may be solidarity (parents, elder siblings) or not solidarity (officials whom one seldom sees). Reciprocal T usage was always available to show intimacy. The following part would discuss the power of characters and its influence among the other characters and the writer used T and V form to analyze them. To sum up the relation of power and solidarity through the addressing term that were chosen by the characters in Bumi Manusia, the writer summarized them into a table. The table would illustrate the addressing terms, the interlocutors, the relation between interlocutors, and the function of the addressing terms. Table 2 The T and V form of Addressing Terms in Bumi Manusia No Addressing Term Interlocutor Relation Function 1 Juffrouw Java – Dutch Dutch- Indo nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 2 Noni Java – Indo nonreciprocal Respecting 3 Mevrouw Java – Dutch Dutch -Dutch Indo – Indo nonreciprocal reciprocal reciprocal Respecting showing intimacy respecting 4 Nyai Java – Java Dutch - Java reciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 5 Tuanmuda Dutch – Java Java - Java nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 6 Tuan Java - Java Java – Dutch nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 7 Ndoro Java – Dutch Java – Java nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 8 Meneer Java – Dutch nonreciprocal Respecting 9 Mama Ann – Nyai Minke – Nyai nonreciprocal nonreciprocal showing intimacy showing intimacy 10 Papa Indo – western nonreciprocal showing intimacy 11 Aku Java - Java Java – Dutch reciprocal nonreciprocal showing intimacy showing intimacy 12 Sahaya Java – Java nonreciprocal showing intimacy 13 Kowe Dutch – Java nonreciprocal Disrespecting 14 Nak Java – Java nonreciprocal showing intimacy 15 Gus Java – Java nonreciprocal showing intimacy 16 Sinyo Java –Indo Java – Java nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting respecting 17 Abang Indo - Indo Java – Java nonreciprocal nonreciprocal Respecting showing intimacy 18 Mas Indo – Java reciprocal showing intimacy 19 Man Dutch – Java nonreciprocal Disrespecting 20 Mr (Meester) Java – Dutch nonreciprocal Respecting The table above shows that there are three functions of addressing terms, respecting, disrespecting, and showing intimacy. From the data above, the relations of the interlocutors are mostly nonreciprocal, so it shows that social status is very important in colonial era because the nonreciprocal relations illustrate the difference power between addressor and addressee. In many nonreciprocal cases, the higher social status will get V form from the addressors to show their respect and say T form because they are not stand in the same position as the addressee. Except respecting, nonreciprocal relation is also used to show disrespect. The addressing terms that are used to disregard are especially designed for lower class by upper class or have bad connotation. In contrast, to show intimacy, the relations of the interlocutors are sometimes reciprocal or nonreciprocal. The dimension of solidarity is little bit different from power, because even the interlocutors are not stand in the same position they can use intimate addressing terms because their relations are close. DISCUSSION After analyzing the translation of addressing terms from the source text to target text, now the writer discusses the result of the analysis. Comparison of Original and Translation The research compares the field, tenor, and mode of Bumi Manusia and This Earth of Mankind. The concept of field, tenor, and mode are sociolinguistic dimensions of context of situation jointly characterizing a particular register. House (2009; 33) stated that the original and its translation should have an equivalent function whenever possible. He also said that text and context of situation are indeed separated, but the two interact with each other through inextricable connection between the social environment and the functional organization of language. Before analyzing the register, it is needed to analyze the genre first. House (2009; 35) explained that genre connect an individual text with the larger cultural context of the linguistic and cultural community in which the text is embedded. The genre of Bumi Manusia is historical fiction but it is based on the reality. It included to historical story because the setting illustrated the situation of Indonesia in the late of nineteenth century. The author used particular time and places that make the story as if it was real. The story happened in 1890's, when the national movement had been begun by native to fight against colonizer through non-violence way. Field The first dimension of register is field. Holmes (2009; 34) explained that field captures the subject matter or topic. It describes what the text is about and what kinds of thing are in text. The text was about Minke's life. It describe Minke's journey who is a naïve boy at first to be a mature person. In that process, Minke should face many problems dealing not only with himself but also his society and the colonizer. The complexities of Minke's problem include the conflict of social judgments, hierarchy system, and racial conflict. The description of this story is not so much as historical text but an attractive, easily readable story. Evidence for this is the use of Malay language in telling the story rather than Javanese or Dutch. Malay was language of interracial communication which was used by many people weather Native or Eurasian. However, there were many terms that are not Malay, but they were only used as addressing term. The choice of particular addressing term in Bumi Manusia shows the style of speaking and the purpose of the speaker, indeed the social status. Mevrouw, Juffrouw, Meester, and Meneer are some addressing terms that were borrowed from Dutch language, while Mas, Ndoro, Gus, Mas and Man are some addressing terms that were borrowed from Javanese language. The used of various addressing terms has function as the mark of power and solidarity. As seen in table 4.1.3 (see page 102) there are three functions of addressing terms, respecting, disrespecting, and showing intimacy. From that data, the relations of the interlocutors are mostly nonreciprocal, so it shows that social status is very important in colonial era because the nonreciprocal relations illustrate the difference power between addressor and addressee. The feudal and colonial system forced people to respect everyone who have more power. Geertz (1960: 282) explained that it is nearly impossible for language that applied etiquette system to say anything without indicating the social relationship between the speaker and the listener in terms of status and familiarity. In many nonreciprocal cases, the higher social status will get V form from the addressors to show their respect and say T form because they are not stand in the same position as the addressee. Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Nyai, Tuanmuda, Tuan, Ndoro, Menner, Sahaya, Sinyo, Abang, and Meester are addressing terms to show respect. The translation appears to be generally and decrease its local color because the absence of Dutch addressing terms as the marker of Dutch colonial. Even the translation of Dutch addressing terms have the same function to respect the addressee, the translation can not replace the emotion and the feeling of the original. Except respecting, nonreciprocal relation is also used to show disrespect. The addressing terms that are used to disregard are especially designed for lower class by upper class or have bad connotation. For instance, Kowe is addressing term that was used by Dutch people to express disrespect toward Javanese. The translation of Kowe, you, can not express the same function as the original because this term is neutral addressing term. In contrast, to show intimacy, the relations of the interlocutors are sometimes reciprocal or nonreciprocal. The dimension of solidarity is little bit different from power. Even the interlocutors were not stand in the same position they can use intimate addressing terms because their relations are close. In Bumi Manusia, the relations of the people who used intimate addressing terms such as Mama, Papa, Gus, Abang, and Nak were nonreciprocal. Gus, Abang and Nak were used by older people to younger people. In Javanese, age is one of the main distinctions of nonreciprocal relation. The older people do not need to use polite form, but in this case Gus, Abang and Nak are polite addressing term that indicated close relationship between older and younger people. The translation of Abang (your friend) and Nak (child) can not full fill the same function as the intimate sign like the original did. Tenor House (2009; 34) stated that tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the author and his or her addressee, the relationship between them in terms of social power and familiarity, the author's intellectual and affective position, that is, his or her personal viewpoint. The author was an Indonesian author of novels, short stories, essays, polemic and histories of his homeland and its people. The author seemed to be very aware of the conditions of his story. He attempted to create colonial atmosphere as same as the reality. The choice of the addressing terms included Dutch, Malay, and Javanese was the evident. By differing the addressing terms based on the ethnicity and social status, the author would like to inform the reader the 'reality' in the past. He wanted to show that there were social distance between poor and rich, also Javanese as the colony and Dutch as the colonizer. He persisted to use Dutch addressing terms rather than change it into Malay to create colonial atmosphere because at that time Dutch people make their language as exclusive language. The translator also tried to create colonial atmosphere by using Java and Malay addressing term that do not have equivalent in English. However, instead of using Dutch term as the author did, the translator change the addressing terms into English. Dutch and English are still in the same language family, so there are many terms of English and Dutch that have the same meaning. Mevrouw, Juffrouw, Meneer, and Meester are Dutch terms. Except Meester, they are denotatively equivalent. Mevrouw could be translated as Mrs, Juffrouw as Miss, and Meneer as Mr. They have the same referents in the real world, so it makes them denotatively equivalents. Although, the translator failed to capture that Dutch addressing term has special function as imperial impression. Ashcroft (2002; 7) stated that one of main features of imperial oppression is control over language. Dutch people, at that time, not only controlled for social, politic, and economic aspects but also controlled the language. They limit the used of their language for themselves and their offspring to marginalize their colonies. The translator did not catch the author's aim that he wanted to show the great distance between Dutch and Javanese people. Instead of giving the Dutch colonial atmosphere, the translator gave mental image of British colonialism because the special terms that implicate Dutch colonialism had been translated in English terms. Based on the table in 4.1 (see page 3), most addressing term translation dealt with cultural context. This problem arose because the translation and the original can not make the same psychological understanding for the readers. In addition, the translator used inconsistent term in his translations that primarily make the reader confused. Mode House (2009; 34) defined Mode as a channel of communication. Equivalence in dimension of mode relates to the means whereby the communication is performed. In Bumi Manusia, there were some addressing terms that have different meaning than the lexical meaning because of the feeling of the speaker. Kowe actually is common addressing terms in Javanese society to address someone who is younger or have closed relation, but when it is used by Dutch people the function is changed from showing intimacy become disrespecting. When the Dutch people used Kowe in Bumi Manusia novel, the character always used it in high tension. However, the reader will not catch that Kowe has negative connotation directly because the translation term, you, is neutral addressing terms. The communication purpose of the term Kowe cannot easily catch. So, the irritation of the character could not be understood by the reader. As seen from the mode, field, and tenor analyses above, it show that the original and the translation are not equivalence. The genre of the translation in translating addressing term is not so much as the original because some translation of the addressing terms can not reveal the atmosphere of Dutch colonial that become the main point in this equivalence problem. Equivalence Problem in Translating Addressing Terms in Bumi Manusia The analysis of register categories above clearly showed that the original and translation are not equal. Equivalence of source text and target has limited area because not all of the equivalence approaches can achieved all translation cases. The main factor that made the addressing in source text do not have suitable equivalence in target text is the special concept of Dutch colonial and Javanese culture. Nababan (1999: 99) said that the concept of source text can reveal a concept that is not well known in the target text. Some addressing terms from source text that has special concept are difficult to have their equivalence in target text because of the cultural concept of addressing term from Dutch and Javanese like Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Nyai, Ndoro, Meneer, Gus, Sinyo, Mas, Man, and Meester. Those terms can not easily be transferred to target text because those terms are created by certain condition in particular communities. Some of those terms, Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Ndoro, and Meneer have the same denotation with the translation term, but the original and translation addressing term have different connotation that make them share different interpretation. The special concept that can not be replaced in target text lead to others related problem. The special concept of particular culture make the language concept of source text is not available in target text. Nababan (1999: 99) explained that the words of source text could be understand and recognized in target text but the target text does not have a term that can reveal the concept from source text. In this case, the term Sahaya and Kowe in source text have different concept from Aku and Kau. The target text do not differ the first and second singular pronoun that make the translation of Sahaya and Kowe have different function from source text. Even the concept of Sahaya and Kowe could be understand in the target text, but the term that have the same meaning and connotation with those term are not available. So, the translator used 'I' and 'you' in a pinch to replace Sahaya and Kowe even 'I' and 'you' also used to translate Aku and Kau. The complexities of Javanese community that apply speech level also direct the translation to the equivalence problem because it makes difference of interpersonal perspective. Nababan (1999: 03) argued that interpersonal perspective is related to the relation of the participants in a text. In a language that really concern to etiquette like Javanese, Geertz stated that it is impossible to address someone without pay attention to the status of the addressee. Etiquette system force the people to create different term for one concept, so the participant can easily choose the right term to address someone that suitable for both the addressor and the addressee. For instance, in Bumi Manusia there are three different addressing terms to call male parent, Papa, Ayah and Ayahanda. The use of those addressing term could reflect the social status of the addressor and the addressee. Papa is used in western family who live Dutch East Indies, Ayah is used in middle-low family, while Ayahanda is used in Javanese aristocrat family. This difference of Papa, Ayah and Ayahanda can not be seen in the translation because the translator translated them as 'father'. The other problem of equivalence that appears because of the particular culture of the two languages is the difference of expressive meaning. According to Nababan (1999: 103) the words in source text and target text have the same proportional meaning but often they are different in expressive meaning. There are many addressing terms that have the same proportional meaning but they are different in expressive meaning because Malay terms differentiate the addressing terms based on the relationship and the social status. The term Nak has the same proportional meaning with child, but they are used in different intention. Nak is for showing intimacy but child dispose to create formal atmosphere rather than familiarity. Both terms have the same proportional meaning but they express different purpose and connotation. The different perspective toward a concept will also lead the translation to equivalence problem (Nababan, 1999: 101). Furthermore, it is also the effect of special concept in source text. The term Man in Javanese context at that time was used to address Javanese adult male from middle-low status. In the translation text, the term Man translated as man because English does not distinguish the term man for rich or poor people. In the other hand, the translator also missed to capture the perspective of the character in choosing particular term when he translated Abang. The proportional meaning of Abang is addressing term to call elder brother but it could be used to call man or boy who is elder than the addressee. The translator translated Abangmu as your friend but from Nyai Ontosoroh's point of view, she used Abangmu to make Annelies felt comfort and consider Minke as her own son. Changing the term Abangmu as your friend would lead the reader to different understanding because it seems that Nyai Ontosoroh treat Minke as only her guest. The other factor except special concept of Dutch colonial and Javanese culture is the difference in grammatical system. Nababan (1999; 108) stated that grammatical equivalence focuses to the similar concept of source text and target text at the level of number, gender, person, tense, and aspect. In translating the addressing term, the problem appeared when source language and target language have different grammatical system. The term Nyai-Nyai became Nyais or Tuan-Tuan became Tuans is not equivalence because both term are Malay term. Malay and English apply different method to change the singular concept to be plural. The translator used free style translation and he missed to understand the language system of source text and target text because he translated Nyai-Nyai as Nyais and Tuan-Tuan as Tuans. Nyai and Tuan are not English term, so the plural form of Nyai and Tuan are not necessarily Nyais or Tuans because it is unclear whether Nyai and Tuan are countable or uncountable noun. Accountability concept is universal concept that can be understood by all people and can be expressed through lexical structure in all language, but not all languages have grammatical category for number and not all languages apply the same concept for number. Therefore, the translator should observe carefully whether one concept of a language could be applied to another language or not. The reader of the target text would feel unfamiliar because in some text, the translator used Nyai and Tuan for singular form, but after that those terms became Nyais and Tuans, whereas the reader could have another understanding rather than think that those terms are plural form because they never know the terms Nyais and Tuans before. Double Perspective in Translating Bumi Manusia Constructing the effective translation is one of the purposes of translation. Nababan (1999:88) stated that there are two main factors that determine the effectiveness of the translation. The first is dimension of linguistic and knowledge. Straight (as quoted in Nababan, 1999) said that fruitfulness in conveying the message depends on the knowledge about the context of culture and the language system of source language and target language. In this case, the translator failed to capture that addressing term play important role because it reflects etiquette culture of Javanese and Dutch colonial culture in Dutch East Indies. The second factor is purpose dimension. Nababan (1999, 87) stated that the translator should decide the purpose of the translation. Further, he explained that the purpose should meet this criteria; fruitful to the original, use translation style that appropriate to source text, use suitable equivalence, and the readability level of translation fitted to the source text. However, the analysis in the previous part show that the translation of addressing terms dealt with many equivalence problems and shared different function and connotation from the original that make the translation become unreadable and confusing for the reader. Both dimensions above can not be reached by the translator because he used more than one perspective in translating the addressing terms. Before translating a text, a translator had to analyze the source text to understand the content of the text. Then, the translator chose the approach that is suitable for source text. From the data in the table in 4.1 (see page 3), the writer found some addressing terms that have many equivalent problems. The translator may use more than one procedure in translating addressing terms because the procedure of translation is for sentences or smaller linguistics units as clause, phrase, word, etc. However, before determining the procedure, the translator should choose the perspective or method that he wants to apply in translating the source text. The method that the translator used will be a framework that guides the translator to translate the text in a line. The writer noticed that the translator used double perspectives that make his translation contradictory. In translating addressing terms such as Noni, Ndoro, Nyai, Tuan, Tuanmuda, Papa, Gus, Sinyo, and Mas, the translator used perspective that was focus on the original text. House (2009: 15) explained that a focus on the (original) texts mean analyzing it, and systematically linking its form and functions in order to reveal the original author's motivated choices. The translator considered the reason of the author in choosing addressing terms and tried to find out the closest equivalence in target text, even for some addressing terms do not have any equivalence that make the translator insisted to use the original term. In contrast, the translator also used perspective that focus on the process of interpretation. House (2009: 20) defined this perspective as the translator way to builds up an individual mental representation of its meaning. House added that the reconstitution of the 'the meaning' of a text to fit another language and context is not the central point. It is dealing more with the invention of the translator then discovery of what is already exist in a text. Therefore, when the translator used this perspective to translate some addressing terms such as Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Nyai-Nyai, Tuan-Tuan, Nak, Abang, Man, etc the translation become very different from the context in source text. This perspective also leads the translator to make confusing translation because the translation for one term becomes inconsistent. Moreover some addressing terms have different meaning and connotation from the source text. In translating a text, translator should use only one perspective to make the synchronized translation. Double translation would lead the translator to different way in translating addressing term because one perspective deal with different point of view to another perspective. In Bumi Manusia case, it is much better for the translator to only apply the perspective that focus on the source text since the background of the original can not be easily transferred to target text. Moreover, if the translator was consistent to use one perspective, he would not make ambiguity translation. By understanding the whole context of the story that include ecology, technology, material culture, social organization, myth, and linguistic system of source text, the translator would have better perceptive to make good translation that fruitful to the original but it is still readable for the target reader. CONCLUSION This study is conducted to describe how the phenomenon of translating addressing terms is rolled out in BumiManusia and This Earth of Mankind. The conclusion of this study is formulated based on the statement of problems. Some translation theory based on several authors (House; 2009; Machali 2000; and Nababan; 1999): translation perspective, equivalence in translation, equivalence problem, and register categories of field, mode, and tenor are combined to the theory of addressing term (Wardaugh; 2006), pronouns of power and solidarity (Brown and Gilman; 1960) and lexical relation (Kreidler; 1998) to identify how the translator translated the addressing terms and the relation of the addressing terms toward the cultural context. Then, the writer comes to a conclusion that: The T and V approach also showed that power and solidarity become the main consideration for the characters in choosing addressing terms, so that the characters used different addressing terms depend on the status of the addressee and the relation among the characters. The translator used three patterns in translating addressing terms. In the first pattern, the translator used literal translation to translate Juffrouw, Noni, Mevrouw, Tuanmuda, Tuan, Ndoro, Meener, Papa, Ayah, Ayahanda, Sahaya, Aku, Kowe, and Nak. In second pattern, the translator used original terms, Noni, Nyai, Ndoro, Gus, Sinyo, and Mas in the target text. The last pattern is changing the addressing terms such as Nyai-Nyai, Tuan, Sahaya, Abang, Man, and Meester since the adaptation of target text. From the patterns above, it was found that the translator was inconsistent to translate some addressing terms because he translated one term used some different procedure that make the meaning of the addressing terms contradictory. Also he did not pay attention to the culture and the context that involve in addressing terms so he only did linguistic translation without concerning to the cultural influences. The main factor that lead untranslatability of translating Bumi Manusia's addressing terms is special concept of Javanese culture and Dutch colonial system that make the addressing terms can not be easily transferred to target. The difference of grammatical system of source language and target language also lead the translator to get difficulties in finding suitable equivalence for the addressing terms. Therefore the translator used double perspective to solve the equivalence problems. As a result double perspective that was expected to solve the problem instead made a larger problem because the translation of addressing terms become untranslatability and unreadable. SUGGESTION Addressing terms is general phenomenon which occurs in daily life. But, the analysis of translating addressing terms is still rarely discussed whereas linguistics and its branches is basically concerning with the use of language. From this study, the future researchers are suggested to be more interested in enlarging their knowledge dealing with applied linguistics, especially translating addressing terms which concerns with how translating addressing terms based on cultural context. Equally important, it is suggested for the readers to pay attention in choosing addressing terms based on the condition and the status of the addressee because the wrong addressing terms choices will make the addressee feel insulted or annoyed REFERENCES Ananta Toer, Pramoedya. 2011. Bumi Manusia. Jakarta: Lentera Dipantara. Ananta Toer, Pramoedya. 1996. This Earth of Mankind. New York: Penguin books Ltd. Ashcroft, Bill and Griffiths, Gareth. 2002. The Empire Writes Back – Theory and practice in post-colonial literatures. New York and London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Bogdan, Robert. C and Sari Knopp Biklen. 1982. Qualitative Research for Education: an Introduction to Theory and Methods.Allyn and Bacon. Inc. USA Brown, R., Gilman, A. 1960. The pronouns of Power and Solidarity. Thomas A. Sebeok, eds. Style in Language. Cambridge-Massachusetts: The Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 252-275. Geertz, Clifford. 1960. Linguistic Etiquette. Thomas A. Sebeok, eds. Style in Language. Cambridge-Massachusetts: The Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 282-295 Holmes, Janet. 1992. An Inroduction to Sociolinguistics. London and New York: Longman Group. Hornby, A. S. (Ed.) 1948. Advanced Learner's Dictionary (7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. House, Juliane. 2009. Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Machali, R. .2000. Pedoman Bagi Penerjemah. Jakarta: Grasindo. Nababan, R. 1999. Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris. Yogyakarta: PustakaPelajar Pramoedya Ananta Toer. Retrieved on June 25, 2013 from site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramoedya_Ananta_Toer Rothschild, Metthew. Interview with Pramoedya Ananta Toer. The Progressive Magazine. Retrieved on June 26, 2013 from site: http://www.progressive.org/mag_intv1099 Sugiyono. 2010. MetodePenelitianKuantitatif R & D. Bandung: Alfabeta. Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2006. An Introduction to Sociolinguistic.Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Widyastuti, Susana. Componential Analysis of Meaning: Theory and Applications. Online journal. Retrieved on June 25, 2013 from site: http://eprints.uny.ac.id/1174 W. Kreidler, Charles. 1998. Introducing English Semantic. London: Routledge.

1-. International relations (IR) theory has suffered a restructuring among several lines over the past two decades. The gradual but uninterrupted decline of systemic theories - primus inter pares in the discipline since the 1970s- is one of those. (1) This decline was accompanied by a rise of those approaches that privilege domestic politics as the place to look for answers. For reasons I will develop below, such an intellectual step was logical, expected, and partially appropriate. (2) While the current state of affairs should not be seen as immutable and a systemic comeback is plausible, the truth is that domestic politics, and non-systemic approaches in general, are well entrenched in a semi-hegemonic position. In this essay I will explain the reasons behind the aforementioned shift, assess its consequences, and advance some hypotheses on the future of systemic theories of IR.2-. Born between the interwar period and the dawn the Cold War world, IR was created with the explicit objective of explaining the causes of war –particularly great wars, understood under the lenses of the two devastating conflicts of the first half of the 20th century. Since then, IR scholars have struggled to respond to the main challenges –or what they perceive as the main challenges- in world politics. (3) This "duty" to explain the world drives theory to follow the patterns of change in international politics, which, as they develop, suggest new problématiques and novel ways to approach them. In important ways then –although, as discussed later, this is not the whole picture- (4) a sociology of inquiry is needed to better understand some of the key transformations in IR theory -e.g. the shift from systemic to domestic theories. Systemic approaches (5) made their meteoric rise under the shelter of K. Waltz's Neorealism. (6) They were created as a tool for a particular time with particular problems. (7) This was a world in which the primary preoccupation was how to manage the bilateral relationship between the United States and the USSR so that it would not en up in World War III. There were certainly other interests in the discipline, but this one outweighed all the rest. A Cold War context made systemic theories very appropriate. Needless to say, the bipolar conflict had been in place a long time before Waltz's path-breaking Theory of International Politics. (8) The essential point is, however, that Neorealism proved to be very successful in explaining the basic patterns of interest in this particular period of the history of IR –i.e. dynamics of polarity, relevance of nuclear weapons, consequences of anarchy and its relationship with war and cooperation, inter alia- in a more parsimonious and convincing way than the discipline had ever been able to do.The IR community recognized this "Copernican turn", as Waltz defined it, as progress and systemic approaches were established as mainstream, maybe even as "normal science." Anyone trying to explain something in international politics had to reckon with the system. This was true for realists (see the work of Gilpin, Walt, and Grieco) but also for scholars with a line of inquiry that differed substantially from Waltz's (see Keohane's Cooperation after Hegemony for a good example). 3-. A dramatic event that shakes the bases of an academic discipline is sometimes needed to motivate scholars to devise new lines of inquiry and surpass research programs that appear to be losing heuristic power. This is what the fall of the Soviet Union did with Neorealism, and systemic approaches in general. (9) Structural realism was in many ways, and problematically so, a theory for the Cold War. Its discussion on nuclear weapons, bipolarity, uncertainty, and superpower dynamics seemed to be too tied to a specific historical context. (10) The inability of neorealism, or any other systemic theory for that matter, to foresee –or even explain- the disappearance of the bipolar world –a systemic change par excellence-supposed a hard blow to its appeal. (11) Both the fall of the USSR and the subsequent appearance (or uncovering, once the Cold War veil was lifted) of new "themes" in international politics -IPE, civil wars, the role of leaders, the democratic peace, inter alia- opened a fertile camp over which to argue for the need to "go beyond systemic theory." (12) I argued supra that this was an appropriate move (or partially appropriate). But the reasons implicitly inferred up to know -failure in predicting events and a crisis in the IR community (in a Kuhnian sense)- cannot support this claim. The other face of the coin is that the thorough self-examination of the 1990s also responded to internal problems of systemic theories as research programs. For example, in the 1980s the discipline was stuck in the mud of absolute vs. relative gains debate, a degenerative discussion from a Lakatosian perspective. (13) Visible problems of heuristic power were calling for a partial move beyond the system. This was the real cause for the shift, and the best argument to characterize it as "appropriate". The exogenous shock (fall of the USSR) had the role, not at all minor, of opening a window of opportunity for dissenting scholars. Helen Milner was one of the most eloquent advocates for this turn. Her argument, in short, was that "systemic theory simply cannot take us far enough" (Milner, 1992). The assumption that anarchy was the principal variable defining states preferences and the primacy of a straight causal line from the system to the state and then to policy-making was excessively simplistic, Milner argued. How could the discipline solve this quagmire? By studying domestic politics to understand states' preferences and, consequently, the differing patterns of conflict and cooperation in international politics. (14) As Milner contended: "…cooperation may be unattainable because of domestic intransigence, and not because of the international system." (15) A reaction against systemic theories was not exclusive to the liberal trenches. Following this turn toward domestic politics, some realist scholars directed their efforts at the incorporation of domestic variables as a way to add complexity to systemic models that they saw as too crude. In his From Wealth to Power, F. Zakaria argued that anarchy and the distribution of power were not enough to explain the behavior of rising powers. After observing that at the end of the 19th century the US was not as assertive as a structural approach would have predicted, he hypothesized that this was because it did not have the governmental capacity to do so. To solve this puzzle he argued for the incorporation of models of resource extraction and governmental capability to try to get through the Neorealist corset. This was an important intra-realist challenge to a somewhat ossified systemic realism. (16)The rise of domestic approaches represented a generalized discontentment with the excessive importance given to parsimony and the inflexibility that came with it. Parsimony, which should be no more than a tool in theory building, was placed as a goal in itself, restricting research in a way that went against the discipline's own progress. Those boundaries had to be overcome if we wanted to say something about some of the important issues left unstudied by a focus on the system. Once again, the Cold War world with its apparently clear strategic problems may have seemed more propitious to a highly parsimonious approach to theory building. In a post Cold War world, the costs of parsimony were too heavy. Domestic theories certainly lost in parsimony, but they gained in a more real approach to IR problématiques. This was the primary rationale behind the turn here discussed, and in this limited sense, the shift was appropriate. (17)4-. It would be nice to unambiguously assert that the fall of systemic theories made IR a coherent and progressive discipline. This, unfortunately, is not the case. The past two decades have seen the formation of a different ethos of theory building and discipline development that may end up doing more harm than good to our broader understanding of international politics. Something not mentioned up to now is the ascent of quantitative and strategic-choice approaches in the discipline. Quantitative approaches gained prominence by the same time that, and related to, domestic theories were supplanting systemic theories. (18) Strategic choice and game theory, following developments in other academic areas -especially economics-, also gained importance in the 1990s under the idea of formalizing theories and going beyond the "isms." There is nothing wrong with these approaches per se. Quantitative work has been very important in the empirical development of IR -maybe too neglected in the past. Formal theory, on the other hand, is a powerful and clear tool to build and evaluate theories while avoiding problems of underspecification all too common in the discipline –though, this is only true if one can get through its assumptions. (19)The problems of this new "methodological bets" are to be found in the costs for the general development of the discipline. The most pressing are the ones related to the idea that theory construction should be a bottom to top affair, and the implicit notion that by building the parts individually we will eventually end up in a progressive accumulation of theoretical knowledge. However, this epistemological decision may well result in the proliferation of particularistic theories of problems ever more sophisticatedly studied, increasingly particular and micro, and in crescendo uninteresting. (20) By depending on a kind of magical automatic accumulation of theoretical knowledge we are risking to end up with an even more chaotic and incoherent discipline (more on this in the conclusion). 5-. As said in the introduction, the fall of grace of systemic theories cannot be taken as an irreversible given; it is possible to devise some scenarios in which systemic approaches could make a comeback.The first one is linked to the relationship between theory and History discussed earlier. The post Cold War world, particularly the 1990s, was a strange period for the discipline. The study of IR has historically dealt with great power politics as its core. The "curious" 1990s came with a certain absence of great power politics, especially due to the overwhelming power position of the US. This goes a long way in explaining the growing emphasis on domestic politics, civil wars, international organizations, inter alia, during those years. A partial return of classical great power politics (or the perception of it) -for example under the banner of the rise of China and some other middle powers- might motivate a recasting of systemic theories -particularly for those wanting to study polarity (a passé topic in the unipolar 1990s), (21) systemic change and its consequences, etc. (22)Another plausible scenario would be the success of some of the ongoing projects to make systemic theories more sophisticated and comprehensive by, for example, incorporating domestic variables. A good example is "Neo-classical Realism" (see fn. 16). This research project proceeds from a systemic assumption of the influences of the system (that is, a neorealist basis) but incorporates domestic politics as an intervening variable between systemic pressures and decision-making. Though a rather interesting proto-school, Neoclassical Realism is still in its infant stages and has yet to produce work of remarkable characteristics. Lastly, domestic politics, as should have been expected, were not the panacea for the development of IR theory. There might well be a social exhaustion with the results of domestic and micro-theory –a Kuhnian crisis analogous to the one that discredited systemic theories. This may eventually take IR on unexpected paths. Nevertheless, if measured by academic output and Geist, predicting a comeback of systemic approaches seems a risky bet. The discipline appears to be quite comfortable with increasing its empirical production, formalizing theories towards an Icarian "scientism", and avoiding, at its own peril, a "wholist" view of international politics. 6-. Going beyond systemic theories –not in the sense of vanishing them, but of relaxing some of their strictures, increasing their sophistication, and trying new approaches- was the necessary thing to do for a methodology that was unable to cope with many of the relevant problems in IR. The turn to domestic and particularistic perspectives brought much needed renovation, indeed. However, the excesses incurred by systemic theorists as a result of an obsession with parsimony and structural effects may now seem analogous (although for the opposite reasons) to a fixation with the particular and micro-level studies in contemporary IR theory. A blind push to obtain ever more data of increasingly micro phenomena puts at risk what we can say about international relations in general. We may, for example, be more much prepared to sophisticatedly answer why a specific insurgent group responded in a specific way to the level of aggression of a specific state, (23) but we may also be losing our interest and capacity to think about the nature of conflict in its most elemental condition. The stakes are too high for the IR community to avoid an honest discussion on how far we are willing to continue on this path. (1) This essay works with the assumption of a relative decline of systemic apporaches. To argue that they have vanished would be utterly incorrect. For a convincing argument on the inevitability of structural constraints see Jervis'sSystem Effects.(2) Although a change may be welcomed, the results are not always as encouraging as expected (more on this qualification of "appropriate" later).(3) This does not mean, of course, that there is an exclusive focus on policy or immediacy, It means that in its most basic essence, the idea of the discipline is to be able to provide some answers to the pressing problems in the international system. To give an example, few people would be interested in studying the prospects of war between France and Germany in the 21st century per se –though it surely is studied as a historical case that can shed light on other issues-, while this was one of the main topics in the nascent IR discipline.(4) Social science does not progress only by exogenous shocks, but also for endogenous reasons that cannot be explained by what happens outside theoretical disscusions.(5) Understood simply as those that privilege the influence of the structure over the behavior of the units.(6) This type of theories certainly were not born with Waltz; systemic is a much broader category than Neorealism. The important point is that Waltz devised the more convincing type of systemic theory. For simplicity, Waltz' Neorelism will be used here as the epitome and a kind of proxy for systemic theory. (7) It must be said that the rise of systemic theories also responded to changes in the social sciences in general; for example, the influence of structuralist anthorpoligist Levi-Strauss' work, which Waltz knew well.(8) Theories of IR before Waltz hosted a diverse group of analysts: Classical realism from the hand of a Hans Morgenthau, Geroge Kennan and Raymond Aron; liberal approaches from a Stanley Hoffman, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye; Bureacratic Organization and foreign policy from a Graham Allison; and a long et cetera.(9) See R. N. Lebow, "The Long Peace, the End of the Cold War and the Failure of Realism."(10) See I. Oren's Our Enemies and US: America´s Rivalries and the Making of Political Science.(11) As with its rise the decline of systemic theories was also linked to broader transformations in the world of ideas, to which IR seems to always be a latecomer. From a broad perspective, this phenomenon had started in the 1960s with the work of Foucault, Derrida, Geertz and others.(12) The end of the immediate preoccupation with bipolarity also gave the opportunity to rethink some long-term historical problems of Neorealism (see Schroeder 1994).(13) Some of the scholars engaged in this deabate were: Keohane, Grieco, Axelrod, and Mastanduno; cf. Milner (1992).(14) In another article in International Organization (1987) she argues that to understand the way in which states make decisions in the international economy it is not enough to look at anarchy. Her model studies the type of economic links between countries (high or low interdependence) and the influence of interests groups that may pressure the state to make particular decisions; these policy outcomes would have been incomprehensible from a systemic/anarchic stance. According to Milner, there is an important dynamic of preference construction and strategies adopted that are to be found in domestic politics.(15) See also Putnam (1988) for an interesting effort to move beyond lists of domestic factors and towards a coherent two level theory.(16) This line of research has been given the title of Neoclassical Realism (see G. Rose 1998). See the work of R. Schweller, J. Taliaferro, A. Friedberg, and T. Christensen.(17) Systemic theories were also attached to what has been discussed as the "paradigm wars" between realism, liberalism, constructivism, etc. The turn away from them can also be given credit for helping to discredit this unproductive way of theorizing.(18) This trend was tied to the notoriety of the "democratic peace" project that was, and still is, an empirical enterprise at its core. See Russett and Oneal (1999); cf. Gartzke (2007).(19) See Wagner, War and the State, and Lake and Powell Strategic Choice and International Relations.(20) This is not the nature of all the work in this approach, of course, but just a possible trend of the school as a whole. See Walt's "Rigor or Rigor Mortis" for a sharp, but not always convincing, critique.(21) For an exception see the work by N. Monteiro on unipolarity. This does not mean that polarity disappeared from the IR map, but it was certainly shrinked as a research question.(22) Some young scholars on this line of research are: P. MacDonald, J. Parent, D. Kliman and M. Beckley.(23) See Jason Lyall's "Does Indiscriminate Violence Incite Insurgent Attacks? Evidence from Chechnya" To be fair, Lyall's work attempts to generalize from this specific case –how convincing he is not very clear, however. *Ph.D. StudentDepartment of Political ScienceUniversity of Pennsylvania.E-mail: gcastro@sas.upenn.edu

Esta investigación se desarrolla, bajo una hipótesis, la cual se busca comprobar, analizando la evidencia encontrada en documentos Teóricos investigativos de autores expertos y especialistas en el tema y en publicaciones de la prensa nacional además de las leyes que corresponden a las dos reformas de la salud la 1122 de 2007 y la 1438 de 2011. La hipótesis planteada para esta investigación es que "mientras los nuevos planteamientos para la reforma de la salud no incluyan dentro de su propuesta una solución evidente a los principales problemas encontrados en el sistema de salud actual y no establezca un control fiscal y una regulación verdadera sobre el manejo de los fondos del sistema de salud; Los principios de universalidad, eficiencia, integralidad, libre escogencia, competencia sana y calidad no serán cumplidos y por lo tanto el pueblo Colombiano no podrá ejercer su derecho a la salud como lo plantea la Constitución Política de Colombia de 1991 y la ley 100 de 1993. Para comprobar la hipótesis se han seleccionado como documentos a analizar, tres publicaciones de la prensa nacional, cuatro de autores expertos y especializados en el tema y tres documentos adicionales que corresponden a las dos reformas realizadas al sistema de salud en los años 2007 y 2011 y a la nueva propuesta radicada por el gobierno nacional a inicios de este año. Es de suma importancia conocer las apreciaciones de los autores sobre el grupo de variables que se utilizarán para desarrollar este estudio. Estas variables pertenecen a aquellas que influencian el equilibrio financiero y que adicionalmente afectan directamente a la población impactando su bienestar y su calidad de vida. Entre esas variables se destacan (i) aspectos demográficos y de la fuerza laboral, (ii) aspectos económicos como los niveles de ingreso, salarios y empleo, (iii) cobertura del sistema de salud, (iv) calidad y acceso a los servicios del sistema, (v) duplicidad del gasto (vi) flujo de los recursos del sistema de salud (problemas institucionales), (vii) Gasto en salud y estabilidad financiera y (viii) regulación financiera. El Formato utilizado para la comparación análisis y síntesis de los documentos teóricos investigativos y de las publicaciones de la prensa nacional, consta de tres cuerpos. El primero, contiene las características relacionadas con tiempo y espacio de la publicación. El segundo, hace énfasis en el contenido y en los temas y variables de interés para el desarrollo de la investigación. Y el tercero hace énfasis en el contenido y en los temas y variables de interés para el desarrollo de la investigación. Al hacer el análisis, síntesis y comparación de estos artículos se resolverán algunos interrogantes que pueden llevarnos a comprobar la hipótesis como los son:¿Cuáles han sido los principales logros en salud con el sistema actual?, ¿Cuáles han sido las principales fallas o problemas en el sistema actual de salud?, ¿Hay un buen manejo de los fondos destinados al sistema de Salud actual?, ¿La gestión financiera del Sistema de Salud Colombiano, permite que este sea un sistema de salud sostenible y perdurable para todos los colombianos?. Adicionalmente, existen otros interrogantes a destacar como lo son ¿En qué consiste la nueva reforma de Salud propuesta para el 2013?, ¿Los cambios planteados en la última propuesta para hacer una reforma al sistema de salud, realmente conducen a un avance o dejan de lado los principales problemas de la seguridad social en Colombia?, ¿La nueva propuesta para la reforma de la salud busca lograr una mejora radical en la gestión financiera del Sistema de Salud Colombiano?, ¿Cuál es la percepción de los principales autores, especialistas en el tema en cuanto a la erradicación total de los problemas más álgidos en el actual Sistema de Salud Colombiano, con la nueva propuesta para la reforma de la salud para el 2013? Este trabajo de investigación surgió debido a la radicación de una nueva propuesta para la reforma a la salud y la polémica que se ha generado alrededor de esta. Veinte años después de la aprobación de la ley 100, se han identificado logros importantes principalmente en cuanto a cobertura; lastimosamente, actualmente se han manifestado problemas financieros y de liquidez, a pesar de lo cual, vale la pena destacar que el sistema fue rentable e incluso generó excedentes financieros en su operación, durante sus primeros 10 años de funcionamiento. Ahora, según la evidencia teórica investigativa y de la prensa nacional, se determinará si la nueva propuesta para la reforma de la salud es una buena opción para el país. ; This research is willing to prove a hypothesis based on evidence found in theoretical research by experienced authors in this special area. We also will use some national press publications in addition to the laws that correspond to the last health reforms, 1122 and 1438 of 2007 and 2011 respectively. The hypothesis for this research is which follows: "if new projects to health reform don't include a solution to the main problems founded in the current Health Care System and this law itself, doesn't establish a fiscal control and a real regulation on health management system resources; Principles as universality, efficiency, integrity, free choice, healthy competition and quality will not be achieved; Therefore, Colombian people won't use their right to health as suggested by Colombian Constitution of 1991 and Act 100 of 1993. Some theorical and investigative documents have been selected to be analyzed. Some of them are, three national press publications, four documents by specialists and expert authors, three additional documents that correspond to the last two reforms to the health system in 2007 and 2011, and the new project brought out by the government earlier this year. It was considered as crucial to analyze some findings established by some authors, related to a group of variables used to develop this study, which belong to those that influence financial stability and additionally affect people directly impacting the welfare and life quality. These variables are (i) demographic and labor force, (ii) economic aspects such as income levels, wages and employment, (iii) health system coverage, (iv) quality and access to health services system, (v) duplication of expenditure (vi) flow of health system resources (institutional problems), (vii) investment on health and financial stability and (viii) financial regulation. A tool was designed to compare, analyze and summarize theoretical research papers and national press publications. This format consists of three bodies. First body contains some characteristics related to time and place of publication. Second body, emphasizes content, issues and variables of interest to develop this research. And the third body emphasizes content, issues and variables of interest for the development of research and the opinion of investigators. Upon the analysis, synthesis and comparison of these items we solve some questions that can lead us to test the hypothesis. Some of them are: ¿Which have been the main achievements in health with the current system? ¿Which have been the major faults or problems in the current health system? ¿Nowadays, Is there a good management of health system resources? ¿Would financial management of Colombian Health System, let it be a sustainable health system? ¿What is the new health reform project for 2013 about? ¿Do changes outlined in the latest health reform project, lead to breakthrough out the main problems of social security in Colombia? ¿Does the new health reform project achieve a radical improvement in financial management of Colombian Health System resources?, ¿what is the perception of the principal authors, in terms of a total eradication of the most critical issues in the current Colombian health system, with the new health reform project in 2013? The idea of this research starts from the filing of a new health care reform project and the controversy that has arisen around this. After twenty years of 100 Law, important achievements have been identified mainly in coverage. Unfortunately, currently financial and liquidity problems have been manifested, despite of, it is important to say that this system was profitable and financial supported in its operation during its first 10 years. Now, according to theoretical research evidence and national press, we would like to determinate whether the new proposal for health care reform is a good option for the country or not. ; Centro de Estudios Empresariales para la Perdurabilidad

 Translation is the closest that I have ever come to demonic possession. Let me explain, I used to think that there were books I read, books I wrote about, and books I taught, each category representing a deeper level of familiarity, even intimacy to the point where it is harder and harder to tell where the book's thoughts end and my thoughts begin. Translation, however, is on a whole different level. It is thinking someone else's thoughts. As I have mentioned repeatedly on this blog, on social media, and to random people on the street, I have spent the last year or so translating Frank Fischbach's La production des hommes: Marx avec Spinoza. The translation is now for the most part complete, and should come out from Edinburgh University Press in June of 2023. Translating the book has been a transformative experience. I am even more convinced of one of the book's most controversial theses, that alienation is not the reduction of subjectivity to some object but is the reduction of material objective existence to subjectivity.  To be reduced to a bearer of labor power, to pure subjective capacity, is to be cut off from the social relations and objective conditions that make existence and activity possible. In other words, to draw together Spinoza and Marx, to be a kingdom within a kingdom, or to see oneself as such is not the zenith of freedom but the nadir of domination.Beyond this point, Fischbach's book does for Spinoza and the early Marx what Althusser did for Spinoza and the late Marx, effectively destroying that very division. The book goes a long way in making the case that what is often considered Marx's humanism is better understood as naturalism, and the influence or presence of Feuerbach conceals the subterranean influence of Spinoza. I feel like I need to reconsider how I read the early Marx. However, there is one point that I really struggled with and that is Fischbach's engagement with Heidegger, often placing Spinoza, Heidegger, and Marx in the same intellectual lineage. Part of my resistance to this pairing is autobiographical. When I was in graduate school Heideggerianism was everywhere, and Spinoza seemed to be a real alternative, an entirely different orientation of thought. Fischbach's book did make me curious, so curious that I decided to read one of the books he references, Jean-Marie Vaysse's Totalité et Finitude: Spinoza et Heidegger. The first thing that surprised me about the book was the conjunction "and" (et). I expected it to be "or"(ou) as it was for Hegel in Macherey's famous book. Vaysse recognizes that the conjunction is a strange one, that it must be in some sense an "and" that flies in the face of the obvious opposition. Spinoza would seem to be a thinker of metaphysics, of a philosophical system. This alone would oppose his project to Heidegger. As for Heidegger's explicit relation to Spinoza it is more of a non-relation, Spinoza is merely mentioned by Heidegger, and to some extent Spinoza falls outside of the trajectory that Heidegger charts of metaphysics as becoming a metaphysics of subjectivity, to thinking being as being what a subject produces. To go back to Fischbach one last time, Spinoza and Marx can be understood as falling outside of Heidegger's comprehension because for both of them production and subjectivity are not conjoined, each defining each other, but are absolutely opposed. As Fischbach writes,  referring once again to Spinoza and Marx (we'll get to Spinoza and Heidegger)"The fundamental point these two philosophers have in common is their being at one and the same time thinkers of production and radical critics of subjectivity – two elements that are completely indissociable. While Heidegger considers the modern metaphysics of subjectivity as the completion and accomplishment of an approach than consists, from Greek philosophy onwards, in taking the productive comportment of humanity as the implicit guiding thread into the sense of being, Spinoza and Marx demonstrate on the contrary that a thought of production leads to the removal of subjectivity from its foundational role. Neither Spinoza nor Marx start from the subject: the former begins from substance and understands it as the infinite activity of production, that is, as the absolute unity of producing (natura naturans) and of product (natura naturata), as the complete immanence of production in the infinity of things produced; the latter begins not from the production as the activity of one or several subjects, but from the ensemble of the relations of production, a productive industry that is at the same time a process of individuation. In neither case is production thought from the subject: for both Spinoza and for Marx there is a production that exceeds all subjectivity, a production which has always already preceded, englobed and exceeded every subjective formation, engendering subjectivity as a secondary and derived aspect. Whether thinking of production as the infinite productivity of substance – which, in its immanence to the infinity of things produced, is demonstrated to be not at all a subject (the latter being conceived as that which precedes or supports the things that are produced, or as the term by which they are assembled) – or thinking of production as primarily an ensemble of relations that precede, condition and determine the formation of individually productive positions, both Spinoza and Marx understand and illustrate that production is never assignable to any foundational subject, that it is the basis of everything without being the act of a founding subject."Despite this claim of omission, Fischbach sees a fundamental simularity of Spinoza, Heidegger, and Marx in that they are all philosophers of the world, not the subject, beginning with the relations that constitute subjectivity rather than the knowing subject as starting point. Vaysse, however sees a different similarity between Heidegger and Spinoza, one that starts with their critical targets, metaphysics and theology. Heidegger's destruction of metaphysics and Spinoza's pars destruens of theology, place the two on similar ground, or as Vaysse puts it, "Spinoza and Heidegger reject the metaphysical opposition between immanence and transcendence." This reject is clearest in what can be considered their methods. On this point Vaysse draws most distinctly from the existential analytic of Being and Time, in which Heidegger traces the very category and concepts of philosophical thought back to the practical comportments that underly them. At first glance this seems far from Spinoza's sub specie aeternitatis, of the Ethics as a system of propositions and demonstrations, however, Vaysse demonstrates that this mode of presentation is in some sense at odds with what it presents, with the understanding of existence that structures and articulates it. Spinoza like Heidegger begins from the assertion that it is is our practical comportment which primarily orients our thinking and acting. It is our desire and our affects that shape how we make sense of the world from the original "consciousness of our desires and ignorance of the causes of things" up to the qualities we attribute to the things that we desire. Our thinking is affective and active before it is reflective and contemplative. To some extent Vaysse's Heidegger and Spinoza comes after the Marxist interrogation of both, after the reading of the former, prompted by the proximity to Lukács that reads Being and Time for its critique of reification and alienation in modern life, and for the reading of the latter that understands Spinoza's philosophy to be as much one of the constitution of modal life as a philosophy of substance.As much as this point brings Heidegger and Spinoza together as thinkers of comportment and activity, it also divides them on this terrain. As Vaysse writes, "If the affects proceeds to a detailed and systemic analysis of affective life, of its variations and conflicts, Heidegger retains only the phenomena of fear." Spinoza and Heidegger are both thinkers of the constitutive nature of affects or Stimmung, but differ in terms of the primacy they attach to different affects and their objects. This difference of affects reflects a fundamentally different understanding of finitude. For Spinoza to be finite, to be a mode, is to be affected in multiple and different ways, to be constantly affected and transformed even as one strives to maintain their being, while for Heidegger finitude is centralized in one primary affective orientation, fear or anxiety framed in terms of one central event, death. This difference relates to a second difference, for Heidegger inauthenticity, our everyday understanding, is primary structured through the anonymous They, while for Spinoza the imagination, the realm of inadequate ideas that constitutes our common sense, is structured around the individual as a kingdom within a kingdom. Of course, Spinoza has his own understanding of what Heidegger might call "inauthenticity" through the imitation of affects, the way our thinking, and feeling, is shaped by a kind of generic figure of what we imagine others love and hate. Such an imaginary constitution of a norm, or a standard, remains secondary to the primary illusion, and it is an illusion of autonomy and independence, an effacement of the relations that sustain and thwart our striving. Which is to say that for Spinoza the question of the quotidian, of our basic comportment, cannot be separated from our collective relations, there is a primacy of ethics and politics to ontology that is unthinkable from Heidegger's point of view. To come to a quick and provisional conclusion, Vaysse's book has the merit of removing the external opposition of Heidegger and Spinoza that would juxtapose ontology to metaphysics, finitude to totality, but in doing so he reveals an internal difference, one predicated on how we make sense of the relationship between our quotidian comportments and philosophical reflections, our finite striving and totality. Vaysse's book begins with Heidegger and Spinoza, tracing an unrecognized similarity of orientation and investigation, only to end with Heidegger or Spinoza, a difference which is political or ethical more than metaphysical. To say it  is political or ethical seems fairly lopsided, because, as many have noted, for Spinoza the political, or collective dimension, and the ethical, or practical orientation, were always central to Spinoza's examination of the quotidian formation of the imagination, while Heidegger never directly incorporated ethics or politics to his reflections on everyday comportment with disastrous results. 

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :공과대학 협동과정 기술경영·경제·정책전공,2020. 2. 황준석. ; 기술 변화와 혁신이 국가 경제 성장의 주요 원천으로 강조되는 한편, 혁신활동에 있어 지리적 공간의 중요성을 인식함에 따라 지역적 차원에서의 혁신과 성장에 대한 논의가 심화되고 있다. 이러한 지역 수준 관점의 상대적 이점에 따라 지역 혁신과 성장에 관한 이론이 발전해왔으며, 그에 상응하는 지역 혁신 및 성장정책이 설계 및 이행되어왔다. 하지만 지역 고유의 개별적인 특성과 혁신역량이 다양하고 이질적임에도 불구하고 이에 대한 깊은 논의는 부재한 채 동질적인(one-size-fits-all) 지역혁신 및 성장 정책이 적용되어 왔다. 따라서 본 연구는 진화적 및 시스템적 관점을 채택하여 서로 다른 수준의 혁신 잠재력을 지닌 지역들을 대상으로 각 지역의 학습 프로세스에 중점을 둔 지역 혁신 및 성장 패턴에 관하여 분석하고자 한다. 이러한 목적 하에서 본 논문은 기술변화 진화이론에서 제시하는 지식에 대한 접근과 효율적 사용을 가능케 하는 세가지 핵심 기능 영역인 새로운 지식의 흡수, 혁신의 확산, 그리고 새로운 지식의 창출, 이 세가지 단계에 주목하고자 한다. 이 주요 세 가지 기능에 초점을 맞춰, 세 가지의 세부 연구내용이 학위논문에 포함되었으며, 개별 세부 연구들은 서로 다른 지식 축적 수준과 다양성을 가진 지역들의 지역혁신체제의 형성과 발전과정에 대한 연구를 담고 있다. 우선 첫 번째 세부 연구에서는 기술력이 거의 없거나 전혀 없는 개발도상국의 지역에서 외부의 지식을 흡수하고 지역사회 차원에서 혁신을 촉발시키기 위해 적용할 수 있는 개념적 틀을 제안하였다. 이를 위해 개발도상국의 적정기술 사례에 풀뿌리 혁신(grassroots innovation) 이론의 개념을 적용하여 질적 사례연구를 수행하였다. 풀뿌리 혁신은 선진국에서만 논의되어온 개념으로, 지속가능성을 위한 사회적 또는 포용적 혁신을 추구하는 커뮤니티 수준의 상향식(bottom-up) 혁신이다. 본 연구는 이러한 풀뿌리 혁신과 개발도상국을 대상으로 하는 적정기술의 유사성 및 연결성을 체계적으로 제시하고, 그를 바탕으로 다섯 가지의 핵심 구성 요소들을 포함한 개념적 틀을 재정의 및 제시하였다. 사례 연구에 따르면 사회적 니치는 로컬 지식 전달 메커니즘이 발현될 수 있도록 하며 이는 지역사회가 더 효율적으로 기술을 사용하는 데에 중요한 역할을 하는 것으로 나타났다. 두 번째 세부 연구의 경우에는 한국의 시군 지역들의 혁신 및 성장 패턴을 규명하고자 하였다. 클러스터들의 경우 집적효과를 통해 더욱 높은 수준의 혁신과 성장을 촉진한다는 측면에서 지역혁신체제 내에서 큰 잠재적 역할을 지닌다. 그에 따라 많은 지역에서 클러스터 정책을 지역 혁신 및 성장정책 수단으로 활용해왔으며, 우리나라의 지방정부들 역시 클러스터 기반 정책을 활발히 추진 중에 있다. 그러나 우리나라의 클러스터 정책은 지역의 상황과 수요에 대한 객관적인 분석이 미비한 채 과잉 공급되어 실효성 없는 정책으로 평가 받고 있다. 따라서 두 번째 세부 연구에서는 사회경제적 요소들과 지식 역량 관련 요소들을 함께 포함하여 시스템적 관점에서 클러스터에 따른 지역 경제성장 효과를 파악하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 클러스터가 존재하는 한국의 모든 시군 지역을 대상으로 PCA 분석과 패널 분석을 시행하였다. 분석 결과 클러스터를 통해 지역 내 혁신과 성장을 촉진하기 위해서는 사회경제적 환경이 선행되어야 함을 확인하였다. 그리고 우리나라 지역에서는 R&D 역량 제고에 따른 성장효과가 클러스터 효과보다 더 크고 장기적으로 영향을 미침에 따라, 클러스터 기반 정책이 당초 예상했던 것보다 낮은 성과를 가져올 수 있음을 제시하였다. 더불어, 지역 내 활용 가능한 인적자원, 교육 시스템, 연구개발 활동의 질, 클러스터의 집약도 등의 요소들이 한국의 지역 성장을 위해 필수적으로 고려되어야 할 제도적 부문인 것으로 확인하였다. 세 번째 세부 연구는 지식을 새로 재조합하는 능력이 지속가능하고 장기적인 성장을 위한 동인으로 평가됨에 따라, 유럽의 지역들을 대상으로 지역의 지식 재조합 역량이 지역 생산성에 미치는 영향을 파악하고자 하였다. 더 구체적으로, 본 연구는 지식 혹은 기술 재조합의 유형을 탐색(exploration) 유형과 활용(exploitation) 유형으로 나누어 두 가지 유형이 생산성에 미치는 영향을 비교분석 하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 EU NUTS 2 레벨 지역들을 대상으로 특허 데이터를 활용한 기술 구분간 결합 매트릭스의 생성으로 지식 축적 패턴을 분석하고, 확률적 프론티어 모델을 통해 기술 효율성을 계산하였다. 그리고 경제 규모, 지식 축적 정도, 시기 효과 등을 조절하여 지역의 지식 재조합 유형과 기술 효율성간의 관계를 회귀하였다. 분석 결과 활용적 재조합은 별다른 영향을 주지 않는 반면, 탐색적 재조합은 지역의 생산성 향상에 긍정적이고 유의미한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 위의 논의를 바탕으로 본 학위논문은 서로 다른 지역 수준에 따른 정책적 시사점을 제공할 것으로 기대한다. 첫째, 기술력이 낮은 후발 지역에서는 풀뿌리 혁신의 개념적 틀을 적용하여 외부 지식, 기술 또는 혁신을 흡수하여 지역의 요구에 대응할 수 있는 기반을 형성하여야 한다. 둘째, 지역 내 지식확산이 효과적으로 이루어지기 위해서는 바람직한 사회경제적 환경이 선행되어야 하고, R&D 역량에 대한 투자가 지속적으로 함께 이루어져야 한다. 셋째, 지식 축적 정도와 지식의 다양성 수준이 높은 지역에서는 새로운 지식의 탐색적 비용과 불확실성이 높음에도 불구하고 새로운 지식 재조합의 역량을 키워야 할 것이다. ; While technological change and innovation have been treated as key to national economic growth, attention to innovation and development at a regional level has grown from the recognition of the importance of geographical space in the innovation process. Theories on regional innovation and growth have been developed under the advantages of regional examination, and regional innovation policies were designed and implemented accordingly. However, the one-size-fits-all approach to regional policies remains troublesome as regions differ widely in terms of their intrinsic characteristics and innovation capabilities. Based on these concerns, this thesis adopts an evolutionary and systematic integrated view to investigate regional innovation and growth patterns focusing on learning processes in regions with different levels of innovation potential. This thesis adopts three main functional dimensions of access to and efficient use of knowledge in evolutionary theories; that is, absorption of new knowledge, diffusion of innovations, and generation of new knowledge. In accordance with the three dimensions, three studies are included with analyses of regional innovation and development strategies for regions with different levels of knowledge accumulation and diversity. The first study proposes a framework for the initiation of community-level innovation in a developing country where technological capabilities are few or non-existent, causing mere adaption to external innovations. With a qualitative analysis of an appropriate technology case, the study adopts concepts from grassroots innovation. Grassroots innovation is a community-level bottom-up innovation that has been discussed only in developed countries as a means of socially inclusive innovation for sustainability. However, this study identifies the links between appropriate technology and grassroots innovation and redefines a framework with core constructs: context, driving force, niche, organizational form, and resource base. The case study shows that a social niche plays a significant role in improving the use of technology by creating a local knowledge transfer mechanism through social learning. The second study investigates regional innovation and growth patterns of regions with clusters in Korea. Clusters have been popular among regional policy makers for promoting greater innovation and growth. In this regard, Korean local governments have also pursued a cluster-based policy for regional development. However, the problem is that clusters are oversupplied without an objective examination of regional conditions and demands, and the existence of clusters does not necessarily secure regional networks or economic growth. Therefore, the study aims to examine the effects of clustering on regional economic performance along with socioeconomic factors and knowledge capacity factors from a systematic perspective. Principal component analysis and panel regression methods are used to analyze Korean regions with clusters. The results indicate that favorable socioeconomic contexts are prerequisites to foster innovation and growth by clusters. In addition, a cluster-based policy may have a smaller effect than expected because R&D capacity has a stronger and longer effect on economic performance. Lastly, specific factors such as a pool of labor, education systems, quality of R&D activities, and agglomeration density of clusters are found to be critical to regional growth in regions in Korea. The last study focuses on regional capacity for knowledge recombination and its impact on regional productivity in European regions, as novel recombination is assessed to be a new driver for sustainable and long-term regional growth. Consequently, the study specifies regional capacity in technological recombination into exploration and exploitation and compare their effects on regional productivity. For the analysis, a knowledge space is constructed using technology class co-occurrence matrices with patent data, and technical efficiencies are calculated using a stochastic frontier model from socioeconomic data of EU NUTS 2 level regions. The relationship of regional recombination types and technical efficiencies is then regressed, controlling for economy scale, knowledge stock, and periodic effects. The results demonstrate that explorative recombination has a positive and significant influence on productivity gains while exploitative activity has no influence. Overall, the thesis provides several policy implications for regions from the evolutionary and systematic perspectives. First, in lagging regions with low technological capabilities, the five-construct framework drawn from grassroots innovation can form a basis for absorption of external knowledge, technology, or innovation to adapt to local needs. Second, for intra-regional knowledge spillovers to be effective in intermediate regions, creating a favorable socioeconomic environment should take precedence. Moreover, consistent attention to investment in R&D capacity is required. Third, explorative new knowledge recombination is recommended in regions with a high level of knowledge accumulation and diversity despite its high cost and attendant uncertainties. ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Research background 1 1.2 Research objectives 6 1.3 Research outline 7 Chapter 2. Literature Review 10 2.1 Regional innovation and development 10 2.1.1 The need for regional analysis 10 2.1.2 Regional economic development theories 14 2.2 Evolutionary economic geography 17 2.3 Regional innovation systems 22 2.4 Contribution of the study 26 Chapter 3. Grassroots innovation for regional development in developing countries: A qualitative study on appropriate technology 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Literature review 32 3.2.1 Appropriate technology 32 3.2.2 Grassroots innovation 34 3.2.3 Bridging appropriate technology and grassroots innovation 37 3.3 Methodology and data 41 3.3.1 Framework: Common constructs 41 3.3.2 Methodology and data 46 3.4 Case study 49 3.5 Discussion 57 3.6 Conclusion 61 Chapter 4. Illusions of clustering: Investigating regional innovation and growth patterns in Korea from a systematic perspective 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Literature review 65 4.2.1 Regions, innovation, and growth 65 4.2.2 Clusters and regional growth 67 4.3 Methodology 72 4.4 Data 82 4.5 Results 87 4.6 Discussion 92 4.6.1 Summary of results and policy implications 92 4.6.2 Other variables 94 4.7 Conclusion 98 Chapter 5. The effects of regional capacity in knowledge recombination on productivity gains in Europe 101 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Literature review 102 5.3 Methodology and data 106 5.3.1 Methods 106 5.3.2 Data 111 5.4 Results 112 5.4.1 Regional recombination capacity 112 5.4.2 Regional productivity 114 5.4.3 Regional recombination and productivity 115 5.5 Discussion and conclusion 118 Chapter 6. Conclusion 121 6.1 Overall summary 121 6.2 Policy implications and contributions 125 6.3 Limitations and future research 127 Bibliography 130 Appendix 1: Sources for case study 154 Appendix 2: Model test statistics 157 Appendix 3: Additional analysis with patent variable 159 Appendix 4: Random-effects parameters in random coefficient models 161 Abstract (Korean) 163 ; Doctor

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Madhrai Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 632 ha in Sedam taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 839 mm, of which about 639 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 91 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 591 ha (93%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 33 ha (5%) by a stone quarry and about 9 ha (1%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 7 soil phases (management units), and 4 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 94 percent of area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 36 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are shallow (25-50 cm) to moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and about 57 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) in soil depth.  About 93 per cent area of the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 93 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 93 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 76 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 17 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 19 per cent is slightly (pH 7.3-7.8) alkaline, 69 per cent soils are moderately (pH 7.8-8.4) alkaline and 6 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4- 9.0)in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in 11 per cent area is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 15 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in an area of about 93 per cent and medium (0.5- 1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 16 per cent of soils in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Madhrai micro-watershed (Mudhol sub-watershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 1705'–1707' North latitudes and 77020'–77021' East longitudes, covering an area of about 632.04 ha, bounded by Adki, Madhwar, Imdapur and Bidharcheda villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Madhrai micro-watershed (Mudhol subwatershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 45.5 to 54.5 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 61.3 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 63.6 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 50.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 70.0 per cent.  Only 10.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 40.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grain through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities having 30.0 percent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 2.3 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 60 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.6 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belonging to small and medium farmers. The dry land is total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 56.8 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 29.5 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12976 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.6127 per household, about 80.0 per cent of sample farmers having weeder and plough (70.0 %).  The average livestock value is around Rs.21666 per household; about 40.0 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 859.6 grams (1965.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 50.0 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.60051 per household. About 40 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1898 per households. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.562 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.331689 per year for the total area of 476.20 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 4377/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in redgram (Rs. 23855), sorghum (Rs. 6358) and groundnut is negative return.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 23/ ha/year in redgram.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in redgram (Rs.64663), sorghum (Rs.35850) and groundnut (Rs. 16897). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (92.4%) followed by sorghum (4.8 %) and groundnut (2.8 %).  In Madhrai micro-watershed, major soil is of Adki (ADK) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 24.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram. Tonsanhalli (THN) Soils having moderately shallow soil depth cover 11.3 % of area, the crops are redgram. Dandothi (DDT) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 33.9% of areas, main crops are redgram. Dargah (DRG) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 7.5 % of area, the major crops grown are groundnut (14.0%), redgram (61.8%) and sorghum (24.2 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area Redgram ranges between Rs.31979/ha in TNH soil (with BCR of 1.66) and Rs.18930/ha in ADK soil (with BCR of 2.82).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in DRG soil is Rs.41377/ha (with BCR of 0.59) and sorghum the cost of cultivation in DRG soil is Rs 17166/ha (with BCR of 1.37).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (22.8 %), groundnut (64.4%) and sorghum (58.1 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kamalapur Tanda microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 547 ha in Kamalapur Tanda microwatershed in Gulbarga taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 740 mm, of which about 540 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 126 mm during north-east and the remaining 74 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soils, seven per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 3rd week of May to 1rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 19 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 72 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 28 per cent is not suitable for agriculture.  About 23 per cent of the soils are moderately deep to deep (75-150 cm), 1 per cent of the soils are very deep (>150cm), 49 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25- 75 cm) and about 20 per cent are very shallow (200mm/m) in available water capacity, 8 per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 73 per cent low (51- 100 mm/m) to very low (0.75%) and 5 per cent low (337 kg/ha) and 32 per cent low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in very less area.  Available iron, zinc and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 73 per cent area has soils that are deficient (1.0 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71 (13) 107 (19) Guava - 200(36) Maize - - Jackfruit - - Red gram - 113 (21) Jamun - 136(25) Sunflower 17 (13) - Musambi 71 (13) 134(24) Cotton 71 (13) 107 (19) Lime 71 (13) 134(24) Sugarcane - - Cashew - 16(3) Soybean 71(13) 42 (8) Custard apple 178 (33) 225(41) Bengalgram 113(21) 151(28) Amla 178 (33) 38 (7) Mango - - Tamarind - 136 (25) Sapota - 192(35) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in sustained production and also in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass thus helping in maintaining an ecological balance and in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kamalapur Tanda micro-watershed (Kamalapur sub-watershed, Gulbarga taluk and district) is located in between 17035' – 17036' North latitudes and 76059' – 7701' East longitudes, covering an area of about 547 ha, bounded by Rajanhal, Bhimhalli and Kamalapur villages. With an length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Kamalapur Tanda Microwatershed (Kamalapur sub-watershed) in Gulbarga taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 64.8 to 35.2 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 66.7 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population among all sample households.  Social groups belong to general caste among all sample households.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LGP) is the source of energy for a cooking among 70 per cent.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 50 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 40 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 90 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.03 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The total land cultivated on rainfed condition of the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 2.7 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 86.49 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 20144 per household. Mobile and television are popular mass media communication.  The average livestock value is around Rs. 42222 per household; about 54 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 752.9 grams (1750.45 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 100 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.17252 per household. Among all sample farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs. 2488. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 2080 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 1060936 per year for the total area of 547 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 2553/ ha/year of red gram.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 61749). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (100 %).  In Kamalapur Tanda Microwatershed, major soil are soil of basaltic landform of Kalamundaragi (KGI) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 25.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram. Gutti (GTT) series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 6.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram. Ranjal (RNL) series having deep soil depth cover around 11.7% of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram. Mahagaon (MAN) series having very deep soil depth cover around 1.32 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram. 3  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs.56320/ha in KGI soil (with BCR of 1.20) and Rs.18488/ha in RNL soil (with BCR of 1.90).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (1.8 to 18.2 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gundagurti Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 431 ha in Chitapur taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 762 mm, of which about 571 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 99 mm during north-east and the remaining 92 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area of the microwatershed is covered by soils. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units) and 2 Land Use Classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2rd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 19 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 365 ha (85%) the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and 35 ha (8%) not suitablefor agriculture, but suited for other alternative use.  An area of about 364 ha (85%) in the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm) to deep (100-150 cm) and very shallow soils (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 93 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 43 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 49 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and 1 per cent severely eroded (e3).  An area of about 62 per cent soils that are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 27per cent area have strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 3 per cent area having slightly alkaline (pH 6.5-7.8) soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75) in organic carbon.  About 87 per cent of the area is low (1 ppm) in 4 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 88 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 1 per cent of soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 185 (43) 180(42) Sapota - 365(85) Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 365(85) Jamun - 365(85) Sunflower 185 (43) 180(42) Musambi 365(85) - Cotton 185 (43) 180(42) Lime 365(85) - Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 185 (43) 180(42) Custard apple 365(85) - Bengal gram 365(85) - Amla 365(85) - Guava - 365(85) Tamarind - 365(85) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the two identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass, thus helping in maintaining an ecological balance and also in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Gundagurthi micro-watershed (Invi sub-watershed, Chitapur taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 17013' – 17015' North latitudes and 7702' – 7705' East longitudes, covering an area of about 431 ha, bounded by Mopti, Mattimadu, Tengli and Invi villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Gundagurthi micro-watershed (Invi subwatershed, Chitapur taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 50 to 50 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 59 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 64 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 20 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 10 per cent.  About 30 per cent of households have a Bhima and Yashaswini health card.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 20 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 4 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production among all households was found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.93 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal farmers. The total cultivated by dry land condition among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 24 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 64 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 83793 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 7760 per household, about 20 per cent of sample farmers owen plough and sprayer (10 %).  The average livestock value is around Rs. 34429 per household; about 50 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1015.9 grams (2207.6 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 10 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 22008 per household. Among all sample farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs. 3434. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 829 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 329108 per year for the total area of 431.12 ha.  The ecosystem service per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs.12292).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 59120) Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (100 %)  In Gundagurthi micro-watershed, major soil are alluvial landscape of Dhandothi (DDT) series is having Very deep soil depth cover around 71.31 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram and Dargah (DRG) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 13.32 % of areas, crops are red gram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs. 46962/ha in DRG soil (with BCR of 0.97) and Rs. 28480/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.60). 3  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (6.6 to 12.5 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yedrami-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 577 ha in Yedrami-2 microwatershed in Jewargi taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 751 mm of which about 538 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 75 mm during the rest of the year. 92 per cent area is covered by soils and 8 per cent is by habitation and waterbodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 4 landuse class units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with the constraints were generated.  92 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 8 per cent is not suitable.  About 32 per cent of the soils are deep to very deep (100->150 cm), about 6 per cent moderately deep (75-100 cm), about 8 per cent is moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and 46 per cent are very shallow to shallow (200mm/m) in available water capacity and about 14 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) and 76 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in available iron and 5 per cent deficient (<4.5 ppm) in available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 218 (38) 46 (8) Guava - 84 (15) Maize - 46 (8) Jackfruit - - Red gram - 264 (46) Jamun - 183 (32) Soybean 218 (38) 46 (8) Musambi 183 (32) 36 (6) Bengalgram 264 (46) 42 (7) Lime 183 (32) 36 (6) Sunflower 120 (20) 99 (17) Cashew - - Cotton 183 (31) 82 (14) Custard apple 218 (38) 46 (8) Sugarcane - - Amla 218 (38) 46 (8) Mango - - Tamarind - 183 (31) Sapota - 84-(15) xvii Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the production and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the income, provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass, of which would help in maintaining ecological balance and help in mitigating climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Yedrami-2 micro-watershed (Kempahalla sub-watershed, Jewargi taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 16048' – 16050' North latitudes and 76030' – 76032' East longitudes, covering an area of about 577.07 ha, bounded by Akhandahalli, Sumbada and Kachapura villages.with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for Yedrami-2 Microwatershed (Kempahalla subwatershed, Jewargi taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 65.8 to 34.2 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52.7 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 84.2 per cent.  Social groups belong other backward castes (OBC) is around 55.6 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 55.6 per cent.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 88.9 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 11.1 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agricultural production among all sample households to be found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.9 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium and semi medium farmers. The total cultivated land by dry land condition among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 39.5 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 60.5 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.7666 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average per capita food consumption is around 695 grams (1448.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 66.7 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 52776 per household. About 66.7 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1577. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 899 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 473009 per year for the total area of 577.07 hectare.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 15545/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in redgram (Rs. 20315) and bengal gram (Rs. 10776).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengal grams (Rs. 62741) and in redgram (Rs. 50887). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (93.3 %) and bengal gram (6.7 %).  In yedrami 2 micro-watershed, major soil is soil of Marguti (MGT) series is having very shallow soil depth cover around 38.72 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing bengal gram (7.8 %) and red gram (92.2 %), Dimal (DIM) soil series are having deep soil depth cover 17.07 % of area, the crops grown is redgram (100 %), Mannur (MAR) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 14.57 % of area major crops grown is red gram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs. 35415/ha in DIM soil (with BCR of 1.57) and Rs.18840/ha in MGT soil (with BCR of 2.36).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in MGT soil is Rs 21022/ha (with BCR of 1.51). 3  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (26.9 %) and bengal gram (38 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Madkal Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 466 ha in Sedam taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 839 mm, of which about 639 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 91 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 366 ha (79%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 80 ha (17%) is covered by stone quarry and about 19 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 19 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 79 percent of area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 35 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 44 per cent soils are very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 20 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 33 per cent area is very low (0.75) in organic carbon.  About 10 per cent of the area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 38 per cent and low (4.5 ppm) in 73 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 31 per cent of the soils in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 162(35) 54(12) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 216(46) Jamun - 161(35) Sunflower 162(35) 54(12) Musambi 127(27) 34(7) Cotton 162(35) 54(12) Lime 127(27) 34(7) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 162(35) 54(12) Custard apple 162(35) 54(12) Bengal gram 216(46) 137(29) Amla 162(35) 54(12) Guava - - Tamarind - 161(35) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Madkal micro-watershed (Adki sub-watershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 1708'–17010' North latitudes and 77020'–77022' East longitudes, covering an area of about 465.92 ha, bounded by Khurgunta, Madhakal, Sedam villages and Telangana state with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for The Madkal Microwatershed (Adki subwatershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 54.8 to 45.2 Per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is 60.0 around per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 62 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 77.7 per cent.  Firewood is the source of energy for a cooking among 66.6 per cent.  About 11.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Farm households are having MGNREGA card only 22 per cent for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 89 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 56 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making is among all the households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.97 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land is total cultivated land area among all the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 91.0 per cent and agriculture is the main and govt service is a subsidiary occupation is around 2.3 per cent among the sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 17343 per household. Mobile and television are popular mass media communication.  The average farm assets value is around Rs. 8066 per household, about 33 per cent of sample farmers having plough and bullock cart.  The average livestock value is around Rs. 38791 per household; about 57.1 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 913 grams (2098 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 60 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 36655 per household. About 77.7 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1658. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 685 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 329794 per year for the total area of 603 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 19077/ ha/year in red gram.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 52882). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (100 %).  In Madkal micro-watershed, major soil series are Dargah soils series are deep soil depth covers around 21.7 % of area major crops are red gram. Adki soils are shallow soils depth covers around 15.6 % of area. on this soil farmers are presently growing red gram. Mathumuda series having soils are moderately deep covers around 10.6 % of area and Dhandothi soils are very deep covers around 4.6 % of area. major crops are redgram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for Red gram ranges between Rs. 28153/ha in MTM soil (with BCR of 1.93) and Rs. 20449/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.81). 3  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (19.0 to 24.1 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sompalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 759 ha in Sedam taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 839 mm, of which about 639 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 91 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 676 ha (89%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 53 ha (7%) by quarry and about 30 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 19 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 89 percent of area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 51 per cent in the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 38 per cent soils are very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 5 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 38 per cent area is very low (0.75) in organic carbon.  About 1 per cent of the area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 28 per cent and low (4.5 ppm) in 25 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 2 per cent soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 388(51) 179(24) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 388(51) Jamun - 388(51) Sunflower 388(51) - Musambi 353(47) 35(5) Cotton 388(51) - Lime 353(47) 35(5) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 388(51) - Custard apple 388(51) - Bengal gram 388(51) 179(24) Amla 388(51) - Guava - - Tamarind - 388(51) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Sompalli Microwatershed (Adki sub-watershed, Sedam taluk and Gulbarga district) is located in between 1707' – 1709' North latitudes and 77020' – 77024' East longitudes, covering an area of about 758.76 ha, bounded by Madhakal, Sedam, Kotanpalli villages and Telangana State with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Sompalli Microwatershed (Adki subwatershed, Sedam taluk and Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 68.9 to 31.1 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 64.4 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 60 per cent.  Social groups belong to general caste is around 80 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 50 per cent.  About 40.0 per cent farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grain through public distribution system among all the sample households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 20.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production was found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.1 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The total cultivated area by dry land condition among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 11.4 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 42.9 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 10185 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.6686 per household, about 60 per cent of sample farmer's weeder.  The average per capita food consumption is around 641.8 grams (1558.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.27530 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1127 per households. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1496 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.1011332 per year for the total area of 758.8 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 21155/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs.22481) and bengal gram (Rs.9938).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 62156) and bengal gram (Rs. 49395). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (82.4 %) and bengal gram (17.60 %).  In Sompalli micro-watershed, major soil series is soil of alluvial landscape of Gundagunthi (GGN) series is having very shallow soil depth cover around 14.3 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram (100 %). Adki (ADK) is also having shallow soil depth cover 23.6 % of area, the crops are red gram (66.1 %) and bengalgram (33.9 %). Mathimuda (MTM) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 5.9 % of areas, crops red gram are (100 %). Dhandothi (DRG) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 22.9 % of area, crops are red gram. 3  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for redgram ranges between Rs.36971/ha in MTM soil (with BCR of 1.85) and Rs.20218/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.83).  In bengalgram the cost of cultivation in Rs.16250/ha in MAR soil (with BCR of 2.46).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (3.8 to 2.4 %) and bengal gram (2.46 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bannikoppa-6 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, behaviour, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 215 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, one per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 200mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  Entire area has moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 40 per cent has soils that are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 59 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 48 per cent area, 49 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) and high (>1.0 ppm) in about 2 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 84 (39) 86 (40) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun - 7 (3) Drumstick - 130 (61) Musambi 7 (3) 123 (57) Sunflower 7 (3) 123 (57) Lime 7 (3) 123 (57) Groundnut - 41(19) Cashew - - Chilli - - Custard apple 84 (39) 86 (40) Pomegranate - 130(61) Amla - 171 (80) Tomato - - Tamarind 7 (3) Mulbery - 171 (80) Jasmine - 41 (19) Guava - - Marigold - 171 (80) Mango - - Chrysanthemum - 171 (80) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Bannikoppa-6 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) is located in between 15020' – 15021' North latitudes and 75056' – 75057' East longitudes, covering an area of about 214.70 ha, bounded by Kavalura and Bannikoppa villages with length of growing period (LGP) 60-90 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Bannikoppa-6 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 51.6 to 48.4 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 58 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 90.3 per cent of sample households.  Social groups belong to general caste and other back ward (OBC) is around 40 per cent.  Firewood is the source of energy for a cooking among all the sample households.  Among all sample farm households have a yashaswini health card.  Among all farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system of among all sample households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities of among all sample households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.36 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land account for 81.6 per cent of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation and agricultural labour is a subsidiary occupation is around 66.7 per cent of farmers followed by like self employed is around 16.7 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 37940 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 57247 per household; about 40 per cent of sample farmers are having sprayer, chaff cutter, earth remover and weeder.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 12536 per household; about 100 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 501.1 grams (1396.6 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 34726 per household. All sample farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 613. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 3272/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in bengal gram (Rs. 9556) followed by sunflower (Rs. 5114), greengram (Rs. 4521), coriander (Rs. 1604), bajra (Rs. 102) and sorghum is negative retunes.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2000/ ha/year is sorghum.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coriander (Rs. 104170) followed by bengal gram (Rs. 68231), bajra (Rs. 49751), sorghum (Rs. 37959), green gram (Rs. 23945) and sunflower (Rs. 17486). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is green gram (43.3 %) followed by coriander (23.1 %), bengal gram (20.2 %), sunflower (8.5 %) and bajra (5.0 %).  Bannikoppa-6 Micro watershed, major soils are soil Handrala (HDL) series is having deep soil depth cover around 3.27 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing green gram (50.0 %), coriander (26.7 %) and bengal gram (23.3 %). KDL series are having very deep soil depth cover the crops are sunflower (66.3 %), sorghum (18.3) and bajra (15.4 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for bengal gram Rs.29964/ha in HDL soil (with BCR of 1.30). 3  In coriander the cost of cultivation is Rs 16626/ha in HDL soil (with BCR of 1.07).  In green gram the cost of cultivation Rs. 9695/ha in HDL soil (with BCR of 1.47).  In bajra the cost of cultivation is Rs.12792 /ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.01).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation is Rs. 13848/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.38) and sorghum the cost of cultivation is Rs. 26174/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.03).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in coriander (76.3 %), green gram(43.8 %), bajra (15.6 %), sorghum ( 32.8 %) and sunflower (57.2 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

This thesis contains a selection of post-doctoral articles and is structured in two parts. The first part analyses the policies of climate change and their impacts on growth; the second one analyses the decarbonisation of the power mix, characterised by a high share of intermittent and renewable energies (wind and solar).Part 1: Climate Policy and GrowthThe first chapter assesses the economic consequences of the European policy on Climate-Energy. This assessment is undertaken using the NEMESIS macro-econometric model. The results of this chapter draw an integrated vision of the energy future of Europe. The conclusions are the following. First, the implementation of this European policy should have a weak cost in terms of GDP, which may even be negative depending on how revenues from carbon emissions allowances are spent by governments. Second, significant gains could be made for consumers if this spending increases their disposable incomes. Employment could also be strongly stimulated if the spending of auctions revenues reduces the cost of labour, which would also stimulate household demand and exports of new low-carbon technologies; these results would validate a win-win effect with more jobs and more quality of environment. In the end the application of the principle of solidarity in Europe would allow the Climate-Energy package to be a real opportunity for growth and employment in the EU, in particular for those countries whose GDP is below the European average, such as Romania and Poland which are also carbon-intensive economies.In the second chapter we question the assumption of endogenous growth insofar as the existence of the win-win effect in the NEMESIS model is mainly dependent on long-term effects of R&D investments. We show that the win win is in fact based on the strong assumption of non-decreasing marginal returns to knowledge in the production of innovations. Indeed, the unitary yield leads to increasing returns to scale in the economy when the final good is produced according to a constant-returns-to-scale technology. If on the contrary the production of innovations is subject to strictly decreasing marginal returns (semi-endogenous growth regime), then the rate of growth of production becomes exogenous in the long term and no win-win effect is possible.Part 2: Towards a Carbon-Free and Flexible Power MixThe third chapter deals with photovoltaic energy and its optimal integration in an electrical system despite the variability of this technology. We first develop a multicriteria optimisation methodology to simulate a real system made up of different technical possibilities from solar energies and storage batteries. We then carry out a benchmark of international policies in support of photovoltaic energy. Given the well-known issues of overcapacity, we question the effectiveness of various public subsidies to photovoltaic energy in different countries. We compute and compare the cumulative cost of different policies to promote photovoltaic energy, as well as the proportions between these costs, for the selected countries.The fourth chapter analyses the necessary conditions and limiting factors for an industrial development of the future Generation four of nuclear reactors. Around thirty scenarios are identified through a structural analysis method - resulting in a Chart of direct influences and dependences - after a statistical treatment of cross-data from surveys and interviews of experts. In the end only three scenarios prove favourable to future nuclear power, and there are several messages relating on the one hand to the role of R&D policy in the short/medium term, and on the other hand the effect of competition between technologies in a longer term.In the last chapter, we study the complementarity between nuclear energy and renewable energies (wind and solar). Indeed, as France wishes to increase the share of renewable energy in the existing electric mix characterised by a high share of nuclear power, we have found necessary to study the flexibility of nuclear power as part of the solution of balancing of supply and demand in real time. The methodology used here involves the construction of scenarios which are functions of the level of penetration of renewables into the power mix, integrating the future constraints of the French nuclear fleet as described in the French Act. This fifth chapter shows that the size of the French nuclear reactor fleet could allow production to vary considerably by making small increments in each plant. We show that incentives (carbon tax, etc.) are necessary for nuclear power to play a competitive role as back-up technology, in relation to gas-fired power plants, as the flexibility offered by nuclear power is still limited for technical and economic reasons. Finally in order to better reconcile the divergent economic objectives between the operators of nuclear power plants and the social planner, we are exploring an original solution to develop new products such as hydrogen production for the future sustainable mobility market. ; Ce mémoire d'HDR regroupe une sélection de recherches post-doctorales qui se structure autour de grandes deux parties : D'une part, l'étude des politiques en faveur de la lutte contre le dérèglement du climat et leur impacts sur la croissance ; D'autre part, l'étude des mix électriques décarbonés, caractérisés par une part élevée d'énergies renouvelables intermittentes ou variables (éolien et solaire).Partie 1 : Politiques climatiques et croissance économiqueLe premier chapitre du mémoire porte sur l'évaluation des conséquences économiques de la politique européenne en matières de climat-énergie. Cette évaluation est réalisée à partir du modèle macro-économétrique NEMESIS. Les résultats de ce chapitre dessinent ensemble une vision intégratrice du futur énergétique de l'Europe. Tout d'abord, la mise-en-œuvre de la politique européenne devrait avoir à moyen-terme un coût limité en terme de PIB pour l'UE, lequel pourrait même être négatif en fonction de la réaffectation dans l'économie des revenus tirés des enchères des quotas carbones. Des gains significatifs pourraient être obtenus par les consommateurs si cette réaffectation permettait d'augmenter leurs revenus disponibles. L'emploi pourrait aussi être fortement stimulé si la réaffectation des revenus tirés des enchères permet une réduction du coût du travail qui stimulerait par ailleurs la demande des ménages et les exports de technologies nouvelles bas-carbone : ces résultats valideraient un double-dividende emploi-environnement. L'application du principe de solidarité en Europe pourrait permettre au paquet climat-énergie d'être une opportunité pour la croissance et l'emploi dans l'UE, notamment pour les Etats dont le PIB est sous la moyenne européenne comme la Roumanie et la Pologne qui sont aussi des économies intensives en carbone.Dans un deuxième chapitre, nous interrogeons l'hypothèse de croissance endogène dans la mesure où l'existence du double-dividende dans le modèle NEMESIS dépend principalement de l'existence d'effets à long terme des investissements en RD. Nous montrons que le double-dividende repose sur l'hypothèse forte d'un rendement du stock de connaissance unitaire dans la production des innovations. En effet, le rendement unitaire entraine des rendements d'échelle croissants dans l'économie quand la production du bien final se fait à rendement constant. Si au contraire la production des innovations est soumise à un rendement du stock de connaissance inférieur à l'unité (régime dit de croissance semi-endogène), alors le taux de croissance de la production devient exogène à long terme et le double-dividende est impossible.Partie 2 : Vers des mix électriques décarbonés et flexiblesLe troisième chapitre porte sur l'énergie photovoltaïque (PV) et son intégration optimale dans un système électrique malgré la variabilité de cette technologie. Nous développons d'abord une méthodologie d'optimisation multicritères permettant de simuler un système réel composé de différentes possibilités techniques en matière de PV et de batteries de stockage. Nous réalisons ensuite un benchmark des politiques internationales en matière de soutien au PV. Etant donné les problèmes de surcapacités observés, nous nous interrogeons sur l'efficacité des différentes aides publiques au PV, dans différents pays. Méthodologiquement, nous calculons et comparons pour les pays sélectionnés le coût cumulatif des différentes politiques visant à promouvoir le PV, ainsi que les proportions entre ces coûts.Le quatrième chapitre analyse ensuite les conditions nécessaires et les facteurs limitatifs pour un développement industriel des futurs réacteurs nucléaires de génération quatre. Une trentaine de scénarii sont identifiés à travers une méthode d'analyse structurelle, aboutissant au graphique des influences directes et des dépendances, après un traitement statistique de données croisées à des résultats d'enquêtes et d'interviews semi-directifs d'experts. Au final seulement trois scénarii s'avèrent favorables au nucléaire de génération quatre et il apparaît plusieurs messages relatifs, d'une part, au rôle du politique en matière de RD à court/moyen terme et, d'autre part, à l'effet de la concurrence entre technologies à plus long terme.Nous étudions dans le cinquième et dernier chapitre les complémentarités entre nucléaire et renouvelables (éolien et solaire). En effet, dès lors que la France souhaite augmenter la part des énergies renouvelables variables dans un mix électrique se caractérisant par une part élevée de nucléaire, il nous est apparu nécessaire d'étudier la flexibilité du nucléaire comme faisant partie de la solution permettant d'équilibrer offre et demande électrique en temps réel. La méthodologie retenue implique la construction de scenarii fonctions du niveau de pénétration des renouvelables dans le mix électrique, intégrant les contraintes futures du parc nucléaire français, telles que décrites dans la loi française. Ce cinquième chapitre fait apparaître que la taille de la flotte française de réacteurs nucléaires pourrait permettre à la production de varier considérablement en effectuant de petits incréments dans chaque centrale. Nous montrons que des incitations de type taxe carbone notamment sont nécessaires pour que le nucléaire joue le rôle de back-up de façon compétitive face aux centrales à gaz, puisque la flexibilité offerte par le nucléaire est tout de même limitée pour des raisons techniques et économiques. Enfin, pour concilier au mieux les objectifs économiques divergents entre opérateurs des centrales nucléaires et planificateur social, nous explorons une solution originale consistant à développer de nouveaux produits, comme la production d'hydrogène à destination du futur marché de la mobilité durable.

Il presente lavoro ha un duplice obiettivo: illustrare l'importanza dei processi di internazionalizzazione come strumenti adottabili per sostenere e alimentare la performance dell'azienda ateneo al fine di accrescerne la competitività e, conseguentemente, applicare un sistema di performance management "dinamico" ad un caso di studio al fine di mostrarne la validità. Nel primo capitolo del presente lavoro vengono illustrate le caratteristiche salienti del Dottorato di Ricerca come settore all'interno dell'azienda pubblica "Ateneo", evidenziandone le peculiarità specifiche, gli attori chiave, gli stakeholders, e il quadro normativo di riferimento. In particolare l'attenzione viene focalizzata sulla più recente riforma del settore (D.M. 45/2013) e sulla conseguente introduzione di un nuovo processo di accreditamento dei corsi di Dottorato. Alla luce di tale analisi, il secondo capitolo è incentrato sull'approfondimento del concetto di internazionalizzazione e sulla determinazione dell'offerta formativa di tipo internazionale legata al dottorato di ricerca italiano. Nello specifico, si dimostra come in un mercato ormai globalizzato l'internazionalizzazione del Dottorato possa rappresentare un mezzo per accrescere i livelli di performance delle Università italiane, la loro immagine e dunque la capacità di attrarre investitori e studenti stranieri. Dalle considerazioni sviluppate emergerà che la performance strategica dell'azienda "Ateneo" ed in particolare del dottorato richiede di essere gestita e governata continuativamente. Per tale ragione, nel terzo capitolo, si illustra il contributo che la metodologia della System Dynamics può fornire ai decisori per la definizione delle leve decisionali su cui investire. Nel quarto capitolo si applica il Performance Management "dinamico" all'Ufficio Dottorati dell'Università degli Studi di Palermo (UNIPA). In particolare, viene analizzata la performance relativa al prodotto "Nuovo Corso di Dottorato" in termini di incremento delle immatricolazioni di studenti stranieri e dei finanziatori presso UNIPA. In conclusione, i risultati dell'analisi illustrano gli esiti della ricerca, i suoi limiti e le possibili raccomandazioni per uno sviluppo futuro. In sintesi, lo studio dell'internazionalizzazione, la sua applicazione al dottorato, l'analisi delle criticità sottostanti, la tensione verso la soddisfazione degli stakeholders, il governo strategico della performance e l'analisi delle determinanti causali di quest'ultima costituiscono le tematiche centrali lungo le quali il presente lavoro è stato sviluppato. ; The Higher Education (HE) system in Italy consists of a University(state and private Universities, polytechnics, Universities for foreigners, schools of advanced studies and on-line/distance learning Universities) and a Non-University sector(among others, national academies in the Fine Arts, Cinema, Dance and Drama, Music Conservatories, schools and institutes for the education and training of professionals in various fields, such as language mediation, design, etc.). According to Art. n. 33 of the Italian Constitution, Universities are allowed to perform autonomously within a regulatory framework defined by national laws . Thus, State Universities are public entities endowed with scientific, teaching, managerial, financial and bookkeeping autonomy. According to these principles of autonomy, each University may comply with the national regulatory framework by means of its own statutes and regulations, issued by Rector decrees. Italian Public Universities are primarily State funding-based, but the percentage of funds allocated to Universities by State-sources have been decreasing since 2001 and nowadays, the percentage of public funding appears to be aligned to most European countries. Moreover, a certain diversification of income streams is going through a widespread phenomenon, and Italian Universities seem more entrepreneurial and non-State funding oriented. Thus, exploring the principles of the funding system for public Universities, the legal framework is given by Law 537/1993. Concerning funding mechanisms as well as the introduction of a more performance-oriented system of resources allocation, we can say that the main State funding allocated to Universities is named Ordinary Financing Fund (FFO in Italian) whereas, quite recently, a reforming framework has been introducing a model of resources allocation (concerning a percentage of at least 7% of FFO) based on three leading performance indicators, namely quality of teaching and research, along with quality/efficiency/efficacy in combination with the maintenance of buildings and University campuses. In Italy, recent reforms of the sector have been inspired by various factors, and, in particular, by: – the economic crunch, that Governments have been facing for a long time, which led to budgetary restrictions; – the "marketization" of the Higher Education sector (Clark, 1998; Deem, 1998) with an higher competitiveness – at both national and international level – of the Higher Education sector. Regarding the first aspect, the ordinary funding allocation carried out by the National Governments, as said before, is strictly dependent on the performance that each academic institution achieves. Particularly, academic performance is assessed by the Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR in Italian) on the basis of specific criteria and parameters which, above all, tend to measure intangible outputs and outcomes, such as quality in education and research activities, efficiency, effectiveness, internationalization and impact on the community. So internationalization, as a performance indicator, is a central value for each University, acquiring more and more importance in a "Globalized World" which has pointed out a rapid development of Higher Education as a "market", showing managing academic institutions, in most cases, unprepared for the challenges introduced by a competitive environment, particularly in comparison to other Countries' best practices (Neely, 1999; De Boer and Goedegebuure, 2001). Consequently, the rapid progress of a globalized HE system and the higher number of cross-border movements of students and teachers, push each University to increase programmes concerning international collaboration and competitiveness. As a result, internationalization and global competitiveness of Universities has become crucial for each University all over the world. In this context Jane Knight (1997) defines the internationalization of higher education as: "the process of integrating an international/intercultural dimension into the teaching, research and service functions of the institution, where internationalization is considered as a process in response to globalization and includes both international and local elements". Following Knight, Qiang (2003) provides a useful conceptual framework of four different possible rationales for internationalization in higher education: - the political; - the academic; - the cultural/social; - the economic. The political rationale is principally related to issues of national security, stability, and peace as well as ideological influences ensuing from internationalization efforts. The academic rationale is principally linked to the goal of achieving international standards for both teaching and research. More generally, the reasoning goes that by encouraging greater internationalization across teaching, research, and service activities, the quality of higher education can be enriched. The cultural/social rationale is based on the view that the "homogenizing effects of globalization" (Knight, 1997, p. 11) need to be resisted and the culture as well as language of nations be respected. This view places particular emphasis on understanding foreign languages and cultures, the preservation of national culture, and respect for diversity. Finally, there is the economic rationale, which, by many, is considered to be a direct response to the market forces associated with the economic dimension of globalization. On the one hand, the economic rationale underlies efforts aimed at developing the human resources/capital needed for the nation to stay internationally competitive; on the other hand, it underlies efforts geared towards increasing the institution's (or sector's) income by providing education abroad or attracting more foreign students. Focusing, in particular, on this last rationale, the issue is gaining more ground also in Italy, as the positive effects that international courses can have on a University are quite broad. Moreover, these programmes led to a real improvement in the educational offer, image and, therefore, were able to bring new funds to the University, both in terms of distribution of the reward of the Ordinary Financing Fund (FFO), and as the acquisition of external funds. In recent years, the Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR in Italian) has been giving more weight to the internationalization process of Italian Universities. This can be seen, for example, through the Ministerial Decree (M.D.) n.71/2012, sharing FFO of the University for the year 2012, established, in Article n.13, the allocation of a share of € 3,000,000 to be reserved for exceptional assistance to Universities and institutes of higher education for purposes relating to specific initiatives in the areas of research, teaching and internationalization of the University system. This is the first time in which a similar amount is included, reflecting the importance that the MIUR is giving to the international development of Italian Universities. Of course the activation and implementation of International programmes requires the crucial involvement of, on the one hand, the administrative front office, having direct contact with students, and, on the other hand, of the administrative back office which is the macro management area essential for the coordination of all academic activities carried out taking into account available resources and local regulations. The involvement of many actors, at different levels, and the importance of internationalization, requires an analysis and evaluation - central object of the following thesis – of the ways and the timing required to activate, in particular, an international Ph.D. programme in an Italian Public University. A Ph.D. programme represents the "Third Cycle" of HE System and it is considered crucial as it contributes to generate Ph.D.'s, which, in great part, will be the future Professors, Educators and Managers of the entire nation. So any change in its regulation needs to be analyzed and discussed. In particular, in Italy, the recent introduction of the M.D. n. 45/2013 by the Ministry of Education, University and Research is the final step of a process which is trying to make more efficient and competitive the Italian Post Lauream sector. In particular, it introduces the so called "ACCREDITAMENTO" of Ph.D. programmes, a new compulsory validation process that risks complicating the activation of a Doctoral programme, in particular, international Doctoral programmes. So the analysis of this Reform is required to explain in detail Ph.D. founding and prosecution over time. Furthermore, this kind of programme represents a crucial issue on which all Universities should invest, in particular, in terms of international Doctorates, because they can encourage, on the one hand, students to study in other countries around the world and, on the other hand, attract the best students from other countries to study in Italy thus implementing further resources for the Italian Universities. So starting from the above considerations, the analysis of the most recent Reform on the Ph.D. sector can represent a useful starting point to show, on the one hand, the importance of investing in the creation of international Ph.D. programmes, and, on the other hand, the strengths and weaknesses introduced by this law, in order to identify the levers on which Universities should bet to make their future more secure. Consequently, we will answer to the following questions: What does this reform imply? What novelties does the validation process introduce? What changes will there be, in particular, for international Ph.D. programmes? What are the differences introduced in comparison with the previous code? Who are the subjects involved and the final customers in this process? What is internationalization of the HE system? How does it influence University image and attractiveness? How can internationalization and the comparison with international realities improve the performance of the Ph.D. sector? What are the consequences for a single University and for all stakeholders? How may the future of the University become under the implementation of international programmes? The analysis of how investments in internationalization and in the development of international agreements play a strategic role for University development will be made through the use of two survey instruments: the use of System Dynamics(SD) approach, since it enables the exploration of the dynamic complexity included in internationalization, in order to test how it can contribute to a sustainable development and the improvement of the HE system, the image of the University and, consequently, its capability to acquire new funds; through the use of semi-structured interviews, which includes the involvement of subjects directly involved in the activation of International Ph.D. programmes. In particular, to analyze the critical issues and benefits linked to the activation of this kind of University programmes, I will consider the specific case of the University of Palermo. It is a public institution which has, as its inseparable purpose, higher education and scientific research, but looking at its educational offer it is clear that there is only a small number of international courses with only 7 international Ph.D. programmes . Consequently, as opposed to what should be done in a European and global context currently more focused on international cooperation and collaboration, our University is still little present in this area, in fact the low number of international programmes generates an educational offer not competitive, damaging students as final customers. It is straightforward, therefore, to analyze and show, in the first chapter of the thesis, the characteristics of and supply of the Doctoral sector and within Italian public Universities, which are its decisions makers, key actors and stakeholders, with particular attention to the current law which regulates the Ph.D. sector in Italy, its characteristics and the differences in relation to the previous reform. Starting from this framework the second chapter will explain the international offer within the "Third Cycle" of the Italian HE system. In particular, the analysis will be focused on the analysis of internationalization as a means to improve University attractiveness and Ph.D. programme performance, considering the no-boundary global market in which they act. The target to improve University performance over time led to the necessity to find new ways and instruments, this is the central topic of third chapter focused on System Dynamic approach: the possibility to use a dynamic approach in the complex system of internationalization can furnish reliable results in order to identify levers on which decision makers should invest. The fourth chapter analyzes the critical issues and benefits linked to the activation of an International Ph.D. programmes, taking into consideration the specific case of the University of Palermo (UNIPA), the analysis, therefore will be extended to the Performance Management of the UNIPA Ph.D. Office. The last chapter will show the concluding remarks and consequently limitations and recommendations for future research. With the following research, therefore, I want to determine what the administrative, bureaucratic and educational processes that influence the activation of International programmes are, absolutely fundamental in a globalization context, and aims to show how the growing internationalization of the University of Palermo allows an increase of funding sources, both public and private, in order to enhance the University's image, its attractiveness and competitiveness and, in this way, the identification of an approach to assure a long term sustainable development without reducing the quality of students' supply.