Die neuen Anforderungen an Schulleitungen im Zuge gesellschaftlicher, schulpolitischer und schulinterner Entwicklungen sind erheblich (Huber, 2008). Diese in der Literatur breit geteilte Einschätzung schlägt sich bislang nicht ausreichend in Forschungsaktivitäten zur Gesundheit schulischer Führungskräfte nieder – im Unterschied zu der ausgiebigen Forschung zur Lehrergesundheit, die für die Lehrer durchgängig eine kritische Gesundheitslage feststellt. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit erzielte dabei die Potsdamer Lehrerstudie (Schaarschmidt, 2004). Sie belegte unter anderem auch die Einflussmöglichkeiten der Schulleitung auf die Lehrergesundheit. Die vorliegende Arbeit verfolgt zwei Ziele: Erstens wird die aktuelle Schulleitungsforschung um empirische Daten zur gesundheitlichen Situation von n = 484 Schulleitungen aus Brandenburg und Baden-Württemberg ergänzt. Zweitens wird die Bedeutung der Schulleitung für die Lehrergesundheit näher untersucht, indem empirische Daten aus Führungsfeedbackverfahren mit n = 12 Schulleitungen und n = 332 Lehrern in Baden-Württemberg und Hessen herangezogen werden. Das diagnostische Verfahren AVEM ("Arbeitsbezogenes Verhaltens- und Erlebensmuster", Schaarschmidt & Fischer, 1996/2003) dient als methodische Grundlage. Es erhebt Selbsteinschätzungen zum arbeitsbezogenen Verhalten und Erleben und weist auf mögliche Risiken im Sinne psychischer oder psychosomatischer Gefährdung hin. Das Instrument erfasst mit 66 Items 11 Dimensionen (z.B. Distanzierungsfähigkeit). Auf diese Weise ist es möglich, die befragte Person einem von vier arbeitsbezogenen Verhaltens- und Erlebensmustern zuzuordnen: Muster G (Gesundheitsideal), Muster S (Schonungstendenz gegenüber beruflichen Anforderungen), Risikomuster A (überhöhtes Engagement), Risikomuster B (Resignation). Zudem werden Fragen zu schulischer Führung eingesetzt, die sich aus vorhandenen Fragebögen speisen. Mit Hilfe einer exploratorischen Faktorenanalyse können sechs Faktoren identifiziert werden: Persönliche emotionale Wertschätzung und Fürsorge, optimistische Zukunftsorientierung, konstruktives Management des Schulbetriebs, Förderung von Weiterbildung und pädagogischem Diskurs, Präsenz/Ansprechbarkeit und Partizipationsorientierung. Zu der ersten Fragestellung zeigt sich für die befragten Schulleitungen im Mittel ein gesundheitlich recht positives Bild – gerade im Kontrast zu den befragten Lehrern. Für die befragten Schulleitungen wird eine signifikant günstigere AVEM-Musterkonstellation festgestellt: Der Anteil des Musters G ist bei den Schulleitungen deutlich höher, der Anteil des Musters B deutlich niedriger und der Anteil des Musters A in etwa gleich groß. Die AVEM-Ergebnisse schlagen sich bei den befragten Schulleitungen in unmittelbaren Gesundheitsindikatoren nieder. Für bestimmte Untergruppen herrscht allerdings ein gesundheitlich vergleichsweise kritisches Bild vor, nämlich tendenziell für Schulleitungen in Brandenburg, für weibliche Schulleitungen und Schulleitungen an Grund- und Förderschulen. Eine hohe Unterrichtsverpflichtung ist mit einem größeren Anteil an Risikomustern verbunden. Ein hohes Maß an erlebter Autonomie – insbesondere im sozial-interaktiven Bereich mit den Lehrern (d.h. bei Auswahl, Einstellung und Beurteilung von Lehrern sowie bei der innerschulischen Arbeitsorganisation und kollegialen Zusammenarbeit) – geht dagegen mit jeweils günstigeren AVEM-Musterkonstellationen einher. Zur Beantwortung der zweiten Fragestellung wird eine methodisch anspruchsvolle Mehrebenenanalyse durchgeführt, die die hierarchische Anordnung der Daten angemessen behandelt. Für die wahrgenommene soziale Unterstützung durch die Schulleitung wird dabei eine negative Beziehung zur subjektiven Bedeutsamkeit der Arbeit und der Verausgabungsbereitschaft der befragten Lehrer gefunden. Hingegen ergibt sich ein positiver Zusammenhang zwischen der erlebten Förderung von Weiterbildung und pädagogischem Diskurs und dem Erfolgserleben der befragten Lehrer. Ebenso hängt die wahrgenommene Führung durch die Schulleitung in ihrer Gesamtheit in positiver Weise mit der Lebenszufriedenheit der befragten Lehrer zusammen. Es sei betont, dass ausschließlich Effekte nachgewiesen werden, die auf die individuelle Ebene der Lehrer zurückgehen, d.h. es scheint – was den Zusammenhang zwischen erlebter Führung und Lehrergesundheit angeht – auf die subjektive Wahrnehmung des Führungsverhaltens der Schulleitung durch den/die jeweilige(n) Lehrer/in anzukommen. Eine erste theoretische Skizze zu wesentlichen Determinanten von Schulleitungsgesundheit wird vorgeschlagen. Empfehlungen für die Schulleitungspraxis umfassen die Reduzierung der Unterrichtsverpflichtung, die Erweiterung von Autonomie im sozial-interaktiven Bereich mit den Lehrern und die systematische Etablierung von Mitarbeitergesprächen zur Ausgestaltung individueller Führungsbeziehungen zwischen Schulleitungen und Lehrern. ; The new requirements for school principals in the course of social, school-political and school-internal developments are considerable (Huber, 2008). However, this appraisal broadly shared in the literature is not sufficiently reflected in current research activities concerning the health of school principals – in contrast to the extensive research concerning the health of teachers which generally ascertains a critical health situation for the teaching staff. Special attention was achieved by the Potsdam teacher study (Schaarschmidt, 2004). Among other results it also showed the influence of the school principals on the health of the teachers. The present work pursues two objectives: Firstly, it adds empirical data from surveying n = 484 school principals primarily from the German federal states Brandenburg and Baden-Wurttemberg to the current school leadership research. Secondly, the particular importance of the school principals for the health of teachers is examined in more detail. Empirical data from leadership feedback procedures with n = 12 school principals and n = 332 teachers in Baden-Wurttemberg and Hesse are used. The diagnostic instrument AVEM ("Arbeitsbezogenes Verhaltens- und Erlebensmuster" [Occupational Stress and Coping Inventory], Schaarschmidt & Fischer, 1996/2003) serves as the methodical basis. It registers self-assessments regarding work-related behavior and experience and allows to identify mental or psychosomatic risk patterns. The instrument AVEM consists of 66 items loading on 11 dimensions (e.g. ability to distance oneself from work issues). Thus, it is possible to assign the surveyed person to one of four patterns of coping with professional demands: Type-G (Health supportive behavior type), Type-S (Sparing, self-protective behavior type), Type-A (Self-overtaxing, exhaustion-prone type), Type-B (Exhaustion, burn-out, resignation-prone type). In addition, questions to assess school leadership are used which are based on previous questionnaires. By running an exploratory factor analysis six factors are identified: Individual emotional esteem and care, optimistic orientation towards future, constructive management of the school processes, support of training and discussions on education, presence and participation orientation. Regarding the first question, on average a rather positive picture appears for the surveyed school principals – in contrast to the surveyed teachers. Thus, a significantly more favorable constellation of the AVEM patterns is registered for the surveyed school principals: The proportion of Type-G is substantially higher, the proportion of Type-B clearly lower and the proportion of Type-A is about the same size. The AVEM-results are directly reflected in health indicators of the surveyed school principals. For certain sub-groups, however, there are relatively critical results with regard to health, namely by tendency for surveyed school principals in Brandenburg, for female school principals and school principals of elementary schools and special-needs schools. A high amount of teaching requirements is related to a bigger proportion of Type-A and Type-B. A high degree of experienced autonomy – in particular in social interaction with the teachers (i.e. recruiting and assessment of teachers, internal organization of work and cooperation) – however, relates to more favorable constellations of the AVEM patterns. To answer the second question of this work regarding the role of the school principals for the health of teachers, a methodically sophisticated multi level analysis is carried out which deals appropriately with the hierarchical order of the data. A negative relationship between the perceived social support by the school principals and the subjective importance of work as well as the willingness to excessive effort of the surveyed teachers is found. However, a positive relationship arises between the perceived support of training and discussions on education and the experienced professional success of the surveyed teachers. Also, the perceived leadership behavior as a whole relates positively to the life satisfaction of the surveyed teachers. It must be emphasized that only those effects can be demonstrated which refer to the individual level of the teachers, i.e. it seems – regarding the relationship between perceived leadership and the health of the teachers – that only the subjective and quite personal perception by the teacher concerning the leadership behavior of the school principal matters. A first theoretical draft of essential determinants of the health of school principals is suggested. Recommendations for the school leadership practice include the reduction of the amount of teaching requirements, the enlargement of autonomy in social interaction with the teachers and the systematic establishment of employee's dialogues which allow the development of individual leadership relations between school principals and teachers.
The objective of this thesis is to develop methods for the evaluation of agricultural firms using efficiency analysis and to develop and assess farm responses in mathematical programming (MP) models to changing political and economic conditions. The dissertation is structured in four main parts. Chapter 2 extends Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) by incorporating confidence intervals in the evaluation of the resulting point estimates. In the literature, agricultural farms are often evaluated and compared based on DEA, where causes of inefficiencies within a farm group are often analysed by regressing efficiency measures on other variables. However, when confidence intervals are taken into account, the results of this analysis show that neglecting the stochastic nature of efficiency measures cannot produce any valid conclusions about the real nature of inefficiencies. Hence, DEA efficiency measures need to be carefully interpreted, and further research is necessary before this methodology can be used as a standard approach for evaluating the efficiency of farms and other firms. Chapter 3 analyses the responses of MP farm group models induced by a change in political and economic conditions. MP models are widely used as decision models in agricultural economics. In contrast to an application on the farm level with considerable modelling detail, an analysis of macroeconomic effects is often only reasonable if it is based on representative farms. However, only sparse information is available for the specification of aggregated representative farm groups. Furthermore, decision variables should reflect observed behaviour through a process known as calibration of MP models. Positive Mathematical Programming (PMP) has been developed for this purpose, a method that calibrates the objective function with the help of a non-linear costs component and determines simulation behaviour. The influence of the different proposed PMP variants on simulation results is compared ex post with observed values using the representative farm model FARMIS. This is done through 45 farm groups; these data were obtained from the German Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN). Based on these farm groups, PMP calibration methods are applied for the year 1996/97, and a shock is introduced for observed gross margins of 2002/03. Comparison of the calibration methods reveals that the simulation strongly depends on the PMP method applied. Chapter 4 develops an estimation method for the specification of crop-specific input coefficients in MP models. The lack of information about input allocations for different crop levels, e.g., fertiliser inputs for wheat or the level of pesticides used for sugar beets, provides a challenge for the specification of aggregated farm type models. In farm accounting records available for farm group models, often only total inputs per farm are reported. In aggregated MP farm type models, the explicit representation of input allocation plays an increasingly important role, for example in the representation of environmental effects such as nitrogen intake, and subsequently in the modelling of policy alternatives. In the past, crop-specific inputs were either implemented ad hoc in MP models based on management handbooks, or were based on total input levels that were estimated with input-output regressions. This chapter presents an approach that combines the regression approach with the estimation of a farm supply model using single farm data. The relationship between the MP and the linear regression model is defined, and an estimation approach based on the optimal condition of the farm is presented. The developed estimation approach is applied to Belgian FADN data, where input allocations for various crop levels are collected in the database. A comparison of observed and estimated data is possible to validate the suggested method. The results show that the developed estimation approach successfully models the observed values of input allocation, in contrast to the regression estimation. Furthermore, this approach leads to a crop-specific breakdown of variable inputs and a representation of the resulting farm type with a fully specified non-linear component. Chapter 5 presents the farm type module developed in the modelling system CAPRI (Common Agricultural Policy Regional Impact). The integration of farm types into the modelling system CAPRI provides the chance to directly quantify the effects of market policies and developments on the farm level and to reduce the aggregation bias, resulting in an improved localisation of farm type related environmental effects. The farm types in CAPRI are based on data from the European Farm Structure Survey (FSS). For several reasons, these data are not consistent with the CAPRI database. One possible way to overcome these inconsistencies would be a simple linear up- and down-scaling of FSS to the quantity structure of the CAPRI database. However, this method could lead to a loss of information about the type and size of the farm group from FSS. To avoid this effect, an estimation approach is developed covering EU-27 that does not violate the type of farming or the economic size of the farm types. ; Methoden zur ökonomischen Modellierung landwirtschaftlicher Betriebe Die Arbeit untersucht und entwickelt Methoden zur Bewertung von landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben im Rahmen der Effizienzanalyse und zur Abschätzung von Anpassungsreaktionen induziert durch die Veränderung von politischen und wirtschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen. Die Dissertation ist in vier Hauptkapitel gegliedert. Im Kapitel 2 wird die Methodik der Effizienzanalyse, bekannt unter dem Namen Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) um den Ansatz zur Ableitung von Konfidenzintervallen erweitert, um die Aussagekraft der Effizienzmaße zu überprüfen. Die Bewertung und der Vergleich von landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben mit DEA sind in der Literatur häufig zu finden. Dabei werden die Ursachen von Ineffizienz oft mittels einer anschließenden Regressionsanalyse ermittelt. Die abgeleiteten Konfidenzintervalle zeigen jedoch deutlich, dass ohne Berücksichtigung der stochastischen Natur der Effizienzmaße kaum aussagekräftige Schlussfolgerungen über die wahre Natur von Ineffizienzen gegeben werden können. Im Kapitel 3 wird das Simulationsverhalten von mathematischen Programmierungsmodellen (MP) induziert durch die Veränderung von politischen und wirtschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen untersucht. Im Gegensatz zur Anwendung auf einzelbetrieblicher Ebene, wo eine Spezifizierung des Modells durch vergleichweise viele Informationen erfolgen kann, sind Analysen zur Politikfolgenabschätzung häufig nur sinnvoll, wenn diese auf repräsentativen Betriebsgruppen basieren und damit aggregierte Effekte quantifiziert werden können. Zur Spezifizierung der entsprechenden Modelle stehen jedoch oftmals nur wenige Informationen zur Verfügung. Weiterhin besteht das Problem, dass wichtige Entscheidungsvariablen den beobachteten Werten entsprechen sollten, was als Kalibrierung des MP-Modells bezeichnet wird. Um dennoch MP-Modelle für repräsentative Politikfolgenabschätzung auf Betriebsebene nutzen zu können, sind positiv-mathematische Programmierungsmodelle (PMP), die mittels einer nicht-linearen Komponente der Zielfunktion das Model kalibrieren und das Simulationsverhalten mitbestimmen, entwickelt worden. Der Einfluss verschiedener vorgeschlagener PMP Methoden auf das Simulationsergebnis werden mit dem Betriebsgruppenmodel FARMIS quantifiziert und ex post mit beobachteten Werten verglichen. Dafür werden 45 Betriebsgruppen benutzt. Auf diese Betriebsgruppenmodelle werden die PMPKalibrierungsmethoden für das Jahr 1996/97 angewendet und beobachtete Deckungsbeiträge aus dem Jahr 2002/03 als Schock implementiert. Aus dem Vergleich wird ersichtlich, dass das Simulationsverhalten stark durch die Wahl des PMP Verfahrens bestimmt wird. Im Kapitel 4 wird eine Schätzmethodik von fruchtartenspezifischen Input Koeffizienten in MP-Modellen entwickelt. Fehlende Daten über die Inputallokation auf Fruchtartenebene, wie zum Beispiel der Düngemitteleinsatz im Weizen oder die Höhe der Pflanzenschutzaufwendungen in der Zuckerrübenproduktion, sind ein Problem bei der Spezifizierung von aggregierten Betriebsgruppenmodellen. In Buchführungsergebnissen werden nur die Gesamtaufwendungen im Betrieb dokumentiert. In aggregierten MP-Modellen spielt die explizite Darstellung der Input Allokation jedoch eine immer wichtigere Rolle, um Umwelteffekte, wie zum Beispiel den Stickstoffeintrag aus der Landwirtschaft, abbilden und daraufhin Alternativen modellieren zu können. In der Vergangenheit wurden Input-Mengen entweder ad hoc von Informationen aus Bewirtschaftungshandbüchern auf alle Betriebsgruppen übertragen oder von den Gesamtinputmengen aus Betriebsabschlüssen eine Input-Output Regression geschätzt. Der in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Ansatz kombiniert die Regression mit der Schätzung des MP-Models basierend auf einzelbetrieblichen Daten. Der entwickelte Schätzansatz wird auf belgische Buchführungsergebnisse angewandt, die Informationen über die Input Allokation auf Fruchtartenebene zur Evaluierung der Ergebnisse enthält. Im Vergleich zur Regression lassen die Ergebnisse erkennen, dass der Schätzansatz die Beobachtungswerte besser widerspiegelt. Kapitel 5 präsentiert ein Betriebsgruppenmodell für die EU-27 und ein dafür entwickelten Schätzansatz zur Konsistenzrechung der CAPRI Datenbank (Common Agricultural Policy Regional Impact) und der Daten der Europäischen Betriebsstrukturerhebung (FSS). Der Schätzansatz basiert auf Daten der FSS, die aus mehreren Gründen inkonsistent mit den Daten von CAPRI sind. Ein möglicher Weg die Konsistenz zu erreichen, könnte eine lineare Skalierung der Betriebsdaten sein. Als Folge könnte jedoch die Betriebsgruppenstruktur aus FSS (Betriebsgruppentyp und -größe) verloren gehen. Um dieses Problem zu umgehen wurde für das Betriebsgruppenmodell eine Methode zur betriebstypen- und betriebsgrößenkonsistenten Schätzung entwickelt. Ein Vergleich mit der linearen Skalierungsmethode zeigt, dass die entwickelte Methode einer einfachen Skalierung vorzuziehen ist, weil damit sichergestellt werden kann, dass die Betriebsstrukturinformationen von FSS in den geschätzten Betriebsmodellen erhalten bleiben.
Eine nachhaltige Landwirtschaft ist als Leitbild in der Agrarpolitik verankert und erfordert die Entwicklung von Indikatoren, die bei Implementierung in landwirtschaftliche Betriebsmodelle eine Nachhaltigkeitsbewertung von Produktionszweigen ermöglichen. In einem inter¬disziplinären Stipendienschwerpunkt (´Indikatoren für eine nachhaltige Landnutzung` der Deutschen Bundesstiftung Umwelt) tragen verschiedene Arbeitsgruppen zur konzeptionellen Weiterentwicklung des Betriebsmodells REPRO bei. Die einzelnen Forschungsvorhaben umfassen die Anpassung und Verbesserung bestehender Algorithmen, die Ableitung von Indikatoren sowie die Abbildung bisher nicht oder nur unzureichend berücksichtigter Wirkungsbereiche. Das Modell REPRO ist in erster Linie für Ackerbau¬systeme unter kontinentalen Klima- und Bodenverhältnissen entwickelt und kalibriert worden. Ein entsprechender aggregierter Bilanzierungs- und Bewertungsansatz fehlte bisher für spezialisierte Grünland-Futterbaubetriebe, die desweiteren überwiegend auf leichten Stand¬orten Nordwesteuropas unter maritimen Klimabedingungen lokalisiert sind. Ziel dieser Studie war es, (i) Agrar-Umweltindikatoren speziell für Grünlandnutzungssysteme zu entwickeln, welche anhand verschiedener Kriterien auf deren Eignung, Aussagekraft, Praxisrelevanz und Korrelation zu Umweltproblemen überprüft und validiert werden; (ii) diese Indikatoren auf der Skalenebene der Fläche anhand geeigneter Datensätze quantitativ zu bestimmen und (iii) entsprechende Zielwerte zu formulieren. Als Datengrundlage dienten vorwiegend die Ergebnisse des interdisziplinären Forschungsprojektes ´Stickstoff (N)-Projekt Karkendamm`. Ergänzend dazu fanden Erhebungen zu intensiv konventionell und ökologisch bewirtschafteten Dauergrün¬landbeständen aus dem Norddeutschen Tiefland (Schleswig-Holstein (Projekt: COMPASS), Niedersachsen (Projekt: Öko-Landbau Wasserschutz Elbe-Weser Dreieck) und aus der alpinen Bergregion Gumpenstein (Projekt: Man And Biosphere) Berücksichtigung. Die Umsetzung der Arbeit erfolgte in Form eines dreistufigen Konzeptes: In einem ersten Schritt wurden anhand einer umfangreichen Literaturstudie relevante Nachhaltigkeitsindikatoren zusammengestellt, die die Aspekte Produktivität, Ressourcen¬effizienz, Tiergerechtheit und tierische Leistung für die Nutzungssysteme Weide und Schnitt gegenüberstellen. Es zeigte sich, dass die Nutzungsart einen entscheidenden Einflussfaktor nicht nur auf die Beanspruchung natürlicher Ressourcen, sondern auch auf die Futterqualitäts- und Ertragsleistung des Grünlandbestandes darstellt. Der Einfluss des Nutzungssystems muss in der Weiterentwicklung landwirtschaftlicher Bewertungssysteme Berücksichtigung finden, um die positiven Effekte der Beweidung (Tiergerechtheit, hohe Energieeffizienz, Kostenersparnis) bzw. der Schnittnutzung (geringere und mengenmäßig besser quantifizierbare Stickstoffverluste) in eine Gesamtbewertung zu integrieren. Als Fazit dieses ersten Teils konnte zusammengefasst werden, dass die Beweidung bei einer Reduktion der mineralischen N-Intensität nach wie vor ein nachhaltiges Nutzungssystem darstellt. Die Ergebnisse der Literaturstudie dienten in einem zweiten Schritt als Basis zur Entwicklung eines Indikatoransatzes. Acht formulierte Einzelindikatoren, die jeweils mit Toleranz- und Zielwerten definiert wurden, bilden in ihrer Gesamtheit erstmalig ein Instrument zum Nachweis der guten fachlichen Praxis in der Grünlandbewirtschaftung für die Beratung, Administration und die landwirtschaftliche Praxis. Aussagekräftige Indikatoren, für die eine gesicherte Datenverfügbarkeit besteht, wurden zur Bewertung der Bonität, der Bestandesentwicklung und der potentiellen bzw. aktuellen Futterqualität und Ertragsleistung mit dem Ziel zusammengeführt, Bestandesdegradierungen bereits im Vorwege zu erkennen und Verbesserungs¬ma߬nahmen rechtzeitig einzuleiten. Dabei wurden insbesondere die Anforderungskriterien Anwendbarkeit, Datenverfügbarkeit, Plausibilität, Reproduzierbarkeit und Relevanz in die Indikatorenauswahl einbezogen. Die Steigerung der Stickstoff (N)- Effizienz grünlandgenutzter Systeme kann massgeblich zur Nachhaltigkeit beitragen. In einem dritten Teil wurden Möglichkeiten zur Ableitung von N-Düngungsempfehlungen analysiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die abgeleiteten N-Applikationsmengen nach den Richtlinien der guten fachlichen Praxis durch die Standardmethode des Grenzertrages (Myr) zu hohen N-Überschüssen insbesondere in beweideten Systemen führen, so dass in umweltpolitischen Verordnungen festgelegte Toleranzbereiche nicht eingehalten werden können. Der formulierte Indikator endogene N-Verwertungseffizienz (NyUE) ist am pflanzlichen N-Bedarf ausgerichtet und stellt den inversen Rohproteingehalt dar. Zusätzlich wurden definierte Grenzbereiche an einer leistungsorientierten Milchvieh-Fütterung abgeleitet, wobei unnötig hohe N-Ausscheidungen der Tiere durch eine Begrenzung der N-Gehalte des Grünlandfutters verhindert werden. Als Fazit dieses Kapitels lässt sich zusammenfassen, dass bei Anwendung von NyUE zur Ableitung optimaler N-Intensitäten die Empfehlungen insgesamt im Vergleich zu Myr reduziert sind. Auch in beweideten Systemen können die N-Verluste mit dem Sickerwasser bei gleichbleibender Produktivität vermindert werden. Ferner sollte eine strategische N-Applikation zum ersten und zweiten Aufwuchs in schnittgenutzten Systemen erfolgen, während beweidete Systeme die höchste N-Effizienz ohne jegliche Düngerapplikation erreichen. Die einzelnen Kapitel der vorliegenden Arbeit dokumentieren, dass zur Optimierung des Grünlandmanagements Kenntnisse über die Auswirkungen unter¬schied¬licher Bewirt¬schaft¬ungs¬strategien auf die Produktivität, die Futterqualität und ins¬besondere die N-Verluste erforderlich sind, da diese im Hinblick auf die Umweltgerechtheit im intensiven Futterbau von besonderer Bedeutung sind. Darüber hinaus müssen Indikatoren zur Bewertung einer nachhaltigen Grünlandbewirtschaftung sowohl ökologische Aspekte als auch ökonomische und soziale Forderungen in einen Gesamtkontext stellen. Die national in der Anwendung befindlichen Gesamtbetriebsmodelle bilden die Betriebsform Grünland und Futterbau bislang unzureichend genau ab. Mit dieser Arbeit wurde das Ziel erreicht, der Praxis, Beratung und Administration mit einem System an geeigneten Indikatoren und Zielwerten ein Werkzeug zur Bilanzierung und Bewertung von Leistungen und ökologischen Effekten des Grünlands in die Hand zu geben. Dieses lässt sich mit wissenschaftlicher Belastbarkeit für intensiv genutztes Grünland unter nordwesteuropäischen Klima- und Standortbedingungen anwenden. ; The assessment of sustainability of different land use systems with indicators is one of the main objectives in the agricultural policy. The implementation of indicators in whole-farm models provides the evaluation of sustainability of different production processes. In an interdisciplinary scholarship-project (´Indicators for a sustainable land use`, funded by the German Federal Environmental Foundation) different working groups contribute to an advancement of the whole-farm model REPRO. An adaptation and improvement of algorithms and the deduction of indicators is necessary. Up to now, REPRO is well adapted to simulate mixed farming systems located on continental sites, but the modelling of specialised dairy farming systems and grassland production systems is insufficient. Therefore, the aim of the study was to (i) develop indicators and prove their suitability, practicability and ecological relevance for assessing the sustainability of intensively used grassland. (ii) Afterwards these indicators were quantified on the field scale and (iii) target values were formulated. Selected results of the interdisciplinary ´Nitrogen (N)-project-Karkendamm` form the basis of the dataset. Additionally, field studies from monitoring projects of Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony and the alpine region Gumpenstein were evaluated. The study was split into three chapters: In a comprehensive literature review rotational grazing and cut systems were compared in case of productivity, resource-efficiency, animal welfare and animal performance. It was shown that the management system has a strong influence not only on resource consumption but also on forage quality and yield. This influence of management strategy has to be implemented in whole-farm models for assessing positive effects for rotational grazing (animal welfare, high energy-efficiency, low costs) as well as for cut systems (lower nitrogen losses). It can be stated that actually rotational grazing provides a sustainable management system, but the application of N fertilisers is recommended to be reduced. Following, the results of the literature review were taken as a basis for the development of an indicator-based approach for assessing the sustainability of intensively managed grasslands. Eight individual indicators each defined with target values and weighting functions, offer an instrument for certifiying management practices in the codes of good agricultural practice. Indicators with high expressiveness and easy data collection measure sward quality, sward development and the potential and actual forage quality and yield performance. The aim is to inhibit sward degradation early enough before deterioration and conclude corrective actions. The selection criteria for indicators were easy data collection for cost minimisation, easy handling for users and repeatability. An increased N efficiency is a main option to increase sustainability of grassland systems. In the third step of this thesis we analysed different opportunities for the calculation of N fertiliser recommendations. It was shown that recommendations calculated with the defined standard, marginal yield response (Myr), lead to high N loads especially in grazed systems. In conclusion, guidelines of policy instruments are not matched. The calulation of fertiliser recommendation including the indicator endogenous N utilisation (NyUE) is adapted to plants´ demand; additionally, defined target values are deduced from animal´s requirements combining high production and reduced N losses. The results show that compared to Myr, the optimum fertiliser input is generally reduced by the use of NyUE. Fertiliser recommendations calculated with NyUE emphasize a strategically application of fertiliser N to the first growth and first regrowth for cut systems while grazing is most efficient with zero fertiliser. For an optimised grassland management, knowledge of the influence of different manage¬ment practices on productivity, forage quality and particularly the N losses is important. Nutrient losses, especially N, play an important role for assessing an environmental friendly use of natural resources in forage production systems. Indicators for evaluating a sustainable grassland production have to consider as well ecological, economical as social aspects in a whole context. Up to now, whole farm models cannot picture these production systems in detail and therefore further development is necessary. This study formulated a set of indicators for balancing and assessing as well performance as ecological effects of grassland production systems that can be used in the agricultural practice, by advisory service and administration. The reliability is assured for northwest European climatic areas.
A pesar de la amplia bibliografía sobre arquitectos del Movimiento Moderno y sobre los debates de las Vanguardias, aún permanecen obras sin estudiar de arquitectos y artistas, cuyos compromisos contribuyeron en el Nacimiento de las Vanguardias, abriendo camino a la eclosión del Movimiento Moderno. Esta tesis se desarrolla desde la implicación de dos artistas, el arquitecto Michael Loewe (1871-1955) y su hija, la artista Margot Loewe (1905-1974), cuyas obras nos permiten reconocer como se entrelazaron dos generaciones en pro de unos mismos ideales, y como el dialogo entre técnica y arte y entre arte e industria propició nuevos espacios y nuevos modos de vivir. La investigación se ubica en Berlín, escenario cultural de confrontación entre tradición y modernidad, de búsqueda de una nueva identidad arquitectónica, y gran laboratorio urbanístico y social que pasa de pequeña capital de Provincia a Metrópoli, entre 1871 y 1933, desde Bismarck hasta la República de Weimar. El estudio desglosa la trayectoria profesional del arquitecto alemán, partiendo de su formación y carrera como Regierungbaumeister en la Königliche Technische Hochschule de Berlin-Charlottenburg, y sus obras construidas en Berlín entre 1907 y 1933. Por orden de aparición, las obras presentadas son los edificios de Bismarckstrasse 82-83 (1907), Olivaerplatz 8 (1909), Manfred-von-Richthofen-Strasse 2 (1912), Pariser Strasse 20 (1913), los grupos de viviendas de Prausestrasse 5-27 (1920), de Kuno-Fischer-Strasse 3-4-5 (1923) y de Pichelswerder (1927). En las obras de Michael Loewe identificamos una primera etapa, previa a la I Guerra Mundial, de reacción contra el exceso ornamental de los estilos históricos y del Jugendstil, moviéndose entre la desnudez y la simplicidad geométrica, con una clara influencia del Biedermeier y del Neoclasicismo Alemán, y en la que colabora con el arquitecto-ingeniero de prestigio Bruno Möhring. En su segunda etapa, de Entre Guerras, evoluciona y se compromete tempranamente hacia un lenguaje próximo a la Neue Sachlichkeit, en que integra su proyecto en el paisaje, explorando nuevas tecnologías y nuevas formas de vivir, que le permiten expresarse con más libertad, situándose en la primera generación de influencia de F. L. Wright en Europa. En ese temprano compromiso por la Modernidad, Michael Loewe despertó reacciones favorables de partidarios del Neues Bauen, pero también fue punto de mira de los adversarios de la Nueva Arquitectura, cuyos artículos y posicionamientos se radicalizaron, convirtiéndose en objeto de lucha política En su obra afloran sus compromisos profesionales a favor de la Nueva Objetividad, que plantea el problema de la posición del arte en la sociedad, de la relación entre arte y artesanía, entre arte y técnica y finalmente el de la forma y función. Sus compromisos personales le llevaron a ejercer de promotor en los momentos de crisis económica, a adherirse a propuestas de Existenzminimum, y a experimentar nuevas formas de vivir. También le llevaron a impulsar a su hija Margot Loewe a acceder al Bauhaus, que estudia entre 1929 y 1933 en Bauhaus-Dessau, bajo la dirección de Hannes Meyer y de Mies van der Rohe. La trayectoria artística de Margot Loewe que se expone aquí, corresponde al breve periodo comprendido entre los años de sus estudios en Bauhaus-Dessau y el exilio, pero entendido como parte del debate entre las Vanguardias utópicas y la Bauhaus, en su contexto de dialogo entre tecnología y arte, en el que la tecnología permitió una nueva concepción del espacio, argumento común de la arquitectura y del arte. Los compromisos técnicos y sociales de Michael Loewe le llevaron a nuevas propuestas formales y a explorar nuevas maneras de vivir, y en sus motivaciones artísticas participó con su hija Margot Loewe en esa nueva mirada subjetiva, provocando impresiones visuales y emociones, que empuja al arquitecto a experimentar con nuevos espacios, y a la artista a la abstracción de su pintura. ; Despite the extensive literature concerning architects of the Modern Movement and debates on the Avant-Garde, several works of architects and artists remain unstudied. The commitments of these individuals contributed to the birth of the Avant-Garde Movement, opening the door for the flourishing of the Modern Movement. This thesis was developed and inspired by the works of two artists, architect Michael Loewe (1871 -1955) and his daughter, the artist Margot Loewe (1905-1974). These artists' work allows us to recognize how these two generations were interwined and contributed the same ideals, as well as how the dialogues between technique and art and between art and industry led to new spaces and new ways of living. This research project was conducted in Berlin, a cultural center of confrontation between tradition and modernity and a city that is in search of a new architectural identity. Berlin represents a major urban and social laboratory that changed from a small provincial capital into a metropolis between 1871 and 1933. This study anlyses this German architect's career, starting from is training and career as a Regierungbaumeister in the Königliche Technische Hochschule of Berlin-Charlottenburg to his architectural accomplishments that were built between 1907 and 1933. The works presented include the buildings of Bismarckstrasse 82-83 (1907), Olivaerplatz 8 (1909), Manfred-von-Richthofen-Strasse 2 (1912), Pariserstrasse 20 (1913), the housing projects of Prausestrasse 5-27 (1920) and of Kuno-Fischerstrasse 3-4-5 (1923), and Pichelwerder (1927). Regarding the works of Michael Loewe prior to World War I, we have identified an initial stage of reaction against the ornamental excess of historical styles and Jugendstil that moved between unadorned designs and geometric simplicity with clear influence from German Neoclassicism . Collaborative works with the prestigious architect-engineer Bruno Möhring were also identified in this stage. In the second stage of hi work in the years between the wars , Michael Loewe envlved and undertook early steps towards a !anguage close to the Neue Sachlichkeit, integrating his project ¡nto the landscape and exploring new technologies and new ways of living that allowed him to express himsell more freely. During his early commitment to Modernity, Michael Loewe's work elicited favorable reactions from supporters of the Neues Bauen, but he was also targeted by the opponents of the New Architecture, whose papers and positions were radicalized, and became the subject of political conflict. In Michael Loewe's work, his professional commitments emerge in favor of the New Objectivity,which raises the issue of the position of art in society and the relationships between art and craft, art and technology, and form and function . Michael Loewe's personal commitments led him to join Existenzminimum proposals, and to experience new ways of living . He encourages his daughter Margot Loewe to study between 1929 and 1933 at the Bauhaus-Dessau under the guidance of Hannes Meyer and Mies van der Rohe. The artistic trajectory of Margot Loewe that is presented corresponds to the brief period between the years of her studies at the Bauhaus-Dessau and her exile. Margot Loewe's work is understood as part of the discussion between utopian Avant-Garde and Bauhaus, as well as its context for dialogue between technology and art, where techlology enabled a new conception of space, which is a common theme in both architecture and art. The technical commitments of Michael Loewe led him to create new formal proposals and as a result of his artistic motivations, he also participated alongside his daughter Margot Loewe in new forms of subjective insight, which created visual impressions and emotions that pushed the architect to experiment with new spaces and led the artist to the abstraction of her painting. ; Postprint (published version)
A pesar de la amplia bibliografía sobre arquitectos del Movimiento Moderno y sobre los debates de las Vanguardias, aún permanecen obras sin estudiar de arquitectos y artistas, cuyos compromisos contribuyeron en el Nacimiento de las Vanguardias, abriendo camino a la eclosión del Movimiento Moderno. Esta tesis se desarrolla desde la implicación de dos artistas, el arquitecto Michael Loewe (1871-1955) y su hija, la artista Margot Loewe (1905-1974), cuyas obras nos permiten reconocer como se entrelazaron dos generaciones en pro de unos mismos ideales, y como el dialogo entre técnica y arte y entre arte e industria propició nuevos espacios y nuevos modos de vivir. La investigación se ubica en Berlín, escenario cultural de confrontación entre tradición y modernidad, de búsqueda de una nueva identidad arquitectónica, y gran laboratorio urbanístico y social que pasa de pequeña capital de Provincia a Metrópoli, entre 1871 y 1933, desde Bismarck hasta la República de Weimar. El estudio desglosa la trayectoria profesional del arquitecto alemán, partiendo de su formación y carrera como Regierungbaumeister en la Königliche Technische Hochschule de Berlin-Charlottenburg, y sus obras construidas en Berlín entre 1907 y 1933. Por orden de aparición, las obras presentadas son los edificios de Bismarckstrasse 82-83 (1907), Olivaerplatz 8 (1909), Manfred-von-Richthofen-Strasse 2 (1912), Pariser Strasse 20 (1913), los grupos de viviendas de Prausestrasse 5-27 (1920), de Kuno-Fischer-Strasse 3-4-5 (1923) y de Pichelswerder (1927). En las obras de Michael Loewe identificamos una primera etapa, previa a la I Guerra Mundial, de reacción contra el exceso ornamental de los estilos históricos y del Jugendstil, moviéndose entre la desnudez y la simplicidad geométrica, con una clara influencia del Biedermeier y del Neoclasicismo Alemán, y en la que colabora con el arquitecto-ingeniero de prestigio Bruno Möhring. En su segunda etapa, de Entre Guerras, evoluciona y se compromete tempranamente hacia un lenguaje próximo a la Neue Sachlichkeit, en que integra su proyecto en el paisaje, explorando nuevas tecnologías y nuevas formas de vivir, que le permiten expresarse con más libertad, situándose en la primera generación de influencia de F. L. Wright en Europa. En ese temprano compromiso por la Modernidad, Michael Loewe despertó reacciones favorables de partidarios del Neues Bauen, pero también fue punto de mira de los adversarios de la Nueva Arquitectura, cuyos artículos y posicionamientos se radicalizaron, convirtiéndose en objeto de lucha política En su obra afloran sus compromisos profesionales a favor de la Nueva Objetividad, que plantea el problema de la posición del arte en la sociedad, de la relación entre arte y artesanía, entre arte y técnica y finalmente el de la forma y función. Sus compromisos personales le llevaron a ejercer de promotor en los momentos de crisis económica, a adherirse a propuestas de Existenzminimum, y a experimentar nuevas formas de vivir. También le llevaron a impulsar a su hija Margot Loewe a acceder al Bauhaus, que estudia entre 1929 y 1933 en Bauhaus-Dessau, bajo la dirección de Hannes Meyer y de Mies van der Rohe. La trayectoria artística de Margot Loewe que se expone aquí, corresponde al breve periodo comprendido entre los años de sus estudios en Bauhaus-Dessau y el exilio, pero entendido como parte del debate entre las Vanguardias utópicas y la Bauhaus, en su contexto de dialogo entre tecnología y arte, en el que la tecnología permitió una nueva concepción del espacio, argumento común de la arquitectura y del arte. Los compromisos técnicos y sociales de Michael Loewe le llevaron a nuevas propuestas formales y a explorar nuevas maneras de vivir, y en sus motivaciones artísticas participó con su hija Margot Loewe en esa nueva mirada subjetiva, provocando impresiones visuales y emociones, que empuja al arquitecto a experimentar con nuevos espacios, y a la artista a la abstracción de su pintura. ; Despite the extensive literature concerning architects of the Modern Movement and debates on the Avant-Garde, several works of architects and artists remain unstudied. The commitments of these individuals contributed to the birth of the Avant-Garde Movement, opening the door for the flourishing of the Modern Movement. This thesis was developed and inspired by the works of two artists, architect Michael Loewe (1871 -1955) and his daughter, the artist Margot Loewe (1905-1974). These artists' work allows us to recognize how these two generations were interwined and contributed the same ideals, as well as how the dialogues between technique and art and between art and industry led to new spaces and new ways of living. This research project was conducted in Berlin, a cultural center of confrontation between tradition and modernity and a city that is in search of a new architectural identity. Berlin represents a major urban and social laboratory that changed from a small provincial capital into a metropolis between 1871 and 1933. This study anlyses this German architect's career, starting from is training and career as a Regierungbaumeister in the Königliche Technische Hochschule of Berlin-Charlottenburg to his architectural accomplishments that were built between 1907 and 1933. The works presented include the buildings of Bismarckstrasse 82-83 (1907), Olivaerplatz 8 (1909), Manfred-von-Richthofen-Strasse 2 (1912), Pariserstrasse 20 (1913), the housing projects of Prausestrasse 5-27 (1920) and of Kuno-Fischerstrasse 3-4-5 (1923), and Pichelwerder (1927). Regarding the works of Michael Loewe prior to World War I, we have identified an initial stage of reaction against the ornamental excess of historical styles and Jugendstil that moved between unadorned designs and geometric simplicity with clear influence from German Neoclassicism . Collaborative works with the prestigious architect-engineer Bruno Möhring were also identified in this stage. In the second stage of hi work in the years between the wars , Michael Loewe envlved and undertook early steps towards a !anguage close to the Neue Sachlichkeit, integrating his project ¡nto the landscape and exploring new technologies and new ways of living that allowed him to express himsell more freely. During his early commitment to Modernity, Michael Loewe's work elicited favorable reactions from supporters of the Neues Bauen, but he was also targeted by the opponents of the New Architecture, whose papers and positions were radicalized, and became the subject of political conflict. In Michael Loewe's work, his professional commitments emerge in favor of the New Objectivity,which raises the issue of the position of art in society and the relationships between art and craft, art and technology, and form and function . Michael Loewe's personal commitments led him to join Existenzminimum proposals, and to experience new ways of living . He encourages his daughter Margot Loewe to study between 1929 and 1933 at the Bauhaus-Dessau under the guidance of Hannes Meyer and Mies van der Rohe. The artistic trajectory of Margot Loewe that is presented corresponds to the brief period between the years of her studies at the Bauhaus-Dessau and her exile. Margot Loewe's work is understood as part of the discussion between utopian Avant-Garde and Bauhaus, as well as its context for dialogue between technology and art, where techlology enabled a new conception of space, which is a common theme in both architecture and art. The technical commitments of Michael Loewe led him to create new formal proposals and as a result of his artistic motivations, he also participated alongside his daughter Margot Loewe in new forms of subjective insight, which created visual impressions and emotions that pushed the architect to experiment with new spaces and led the artist to the abstraction of her painting. ; Postprint (published version)
Overview and introduction "Which organizational forms produce science? Expansion, diversity, and cooperation in Germany's higher education and science system embedded within the global context, 1900-2010". Already the title of my dissertation manifests an approach that examines the topic of the development of scientific productivity in the German higher education and science landscape from different perspectives: levels, dimensions, and an extensive timeframe. Deriving from and contributing to the international research project "Science Productivity, Higher Education, Research and Development, and the Knowledge Society" (SPHERE), my research focuses on the investigation of the influence of higher education development and science capacity-building on scientific knowledge production, globally, comparatively, and considerable depth for Germany, a key science producer for well over a century. Focusing mainly on the different structures and institutional settings of the German higher education and science system, the dissertations shows how these affected and contributed to the long-term development of scientific productivity worldwide. The historical, comparative, and in-depth analyses are especially important in light of advancing globalization and internationalization of science, stronger networks of scientists worldwide, and the emergence of the "knowledge society". The research design combines macro- and meso-level analyses: the institutionalized and organizational settings in which science is produced. Since information about single authors was limited in availability, extensive micro-level analyses were not possible here, yet the research articles analyzed were all written and published by individuals working in organizations, which are in the center of analysis here. By reference to the dimensions expansion, diversity, and cooperation, I elaborated the frame of my investigation, and sorted my research questions, including country, organizational field and form, and organizational levels. The structure of this work (see outline) addresses these themes and the observed timeframe spans the years from 1900 to 2010 – more than a century (see section 1.2). My main goal was to investigate how and why scientists publish their research results in peer-reviewed journal articles. The point is to emphasize the importance of scientific findings/discoveries, because non-published results are non-existent for the scientific community. From the ways and in which formats scientists publish their work, we can deduce how science is organized (within and across disciplines). My dissertation analyzes publications in peer-reviewed journals, because they are the most important format – alongside patents in applied fields – to disseminate new knowledge in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and health (hereafter STEM+ fields). Articles not only record new knowledge, but also contribute to the reputation of researchers and their organizations. Journal publications in reputable journals with peer-review have become the "gold standard" measure of scientific productivity. Within the last several decades, the scientization of many dimensions of societal life proceeded, and the generation of new knowledge increasingly became the focus of political, economic, and social interests – and research policymaking. Therefore, it is important to identify the institutionalized settings (organizations/organizational forms) in which science can best be produced. Here, the diverse types of organizations that produce science – mainly universities, research institutes, companies, government agencies and hospitals – were identified and differences and similarities of these organizational forms were analyzed on the basis of their character, goals, tasks, and the kinds of research their members produce. In a first step, I show why I structured my work at the interface of higher education research, science studies, and bibliometrics (see chapters 2 and 5). Analyzing publications is still the key task of bibliometrics, but the results are used by many other actors as well: higher education managers, politicians, and scientists themselves to make claims about the quality of science, to compare each other, or to influence the structure, organization, and output of the higher education and science system. While it is difficult to make direct statements about the quality of research on the basis of simply counting the number of research articles a scientist publishes, the quality of journals is used as a proxy to compare across disciplines. To measure quality, other parameters are necessary. Thus, here statements focus on the quantity of science produced, not on the intrinsic quality of the analyzed research articles, the specific research achievements of individual scholars, organizations or organizational forms, or even countries. Nevertheless, output indicators elaborated here definitely show the huge expansion of scientific production and productivity, the stability of the research university over time as the most important science producer in Germany, but also rising differentiation and diversification of the organizational forms contributing to overall scientific output. Furthermore, the start of a considerable and on-going rise in national and international collaborations can be dated to the early 1990s. The chapter about the multidisciplinary context (see chapter 2) discusses the relationship between higher education research and science studies in Germany as well as the special position of scientific knowledge in comparison to other forms of knowledge. Scientific knowledge is generated, distributed, and consumed by the scientific community. To get an overview about the most important studies in the field, and to contextualize my work within the already existing empirical studies, I describe the current state of research in chapter 3. Research questions Section 1.2 provides a detailed description of my research questions: Which organizational forms produce science? 1. How has worldwide and European scientific productivity developed between 1900 and 2010 in comparison? 2. How has the German higher education and science system been embedded in the global developments of higher education and science over time? 3. How has scientific productivity in Germany developed between 1900 and 2010? 4. Among all science-producing organizational forms, what do the key organizational forms contribute to scientific productivity? 5. Which organizational forms provide the best conditions for scientific productivity? 6. Which single organizations produce the most research in Germany? 7. What is the impact of increasing internationalization of research on national and international cooperation, measured in publications in scientific journals? Theoretical framework Theoretically (see chapter 4), I apply a neo-institutional (NI) framework to explore and explain both the tremendous expansion of higher education and science across the world and considerable differences across time and space in the institutional settings, organizational forms, and organizations that produce scientific research in Germany. Sociological NI focuses on understanding institutions as important in guiding social action and shaping processes of social development. Such an approach emphasizes the development, functioning, and principles of institutions. Milestones in NI describe the nexus of organization and society supposing that organizational structures express myths and reflect ideals institutionalized in their environment. While capturing, copying, and asserting these, structural similarity (institutional isomorphism) between organizations in society will be established. The concept of "organizational field" emphasizes relationships between organizations within an environment. Organizational fields (communities) consist of all relevant organizations. In section 4.1.2 I discuss the differences between institutions and organizations and the difficulty of a distinction of the terms, especially in German-speaking sociology, which does not distinguish clearly between these terms. Fundamentally, NI approaches differ in the dimensions or pillars and levels of analysis they privilege (see figure 5, p. 80), but they share fundamental principles and the theoretical framework. Thus NI is particularly suitable for a multi-level analysis of scientific productivity across time and space. The historical development of the German higher education and science system must analyzed considering also global developments, because on the one hand it had an enormous impact on the development of other systems worldwide, and, on the other hand, global trends affect the on-going institutionalization and organization(s) of science in Germany. Intersectoral and international cooperation is growing and becoming increasingly important, leading to diverse networks within and between higher education and science systems worldwide. The classical, national case study is hardly longer possible, because macro units like countries are highly interdependent, embedded in global, regional and local relationships, such that borders between the global and the national dimension are increasingly blurred. Nevertheless, countries are units with clearly defined boundaries and structures, thus they can be handled as units to compare. The theoretical perspectives and different levels of analysis addressed here are displayed in Figure 5. I apply the "world polity" approach as a broader lense with which to make sense of the truly global arena of higher education and science (macro level). The focus of this perspective is on global and international structures and processes, which developed over time. Through this perspective, I explore global diffusion and formal structures of formal principles and practical applications. Combining historical and sociological institutionalism helps to focus on developments and processes over time on the meso level, to explain how institutions have developed and change(d). The concepts of "critical junctures" and path dependencies are useful to explain these processes over time. To describe the transformation of knowledge production over the entire twentieth century, and to analyze different organizational forms that produce science in Germany, two prevalent theoretical concepts are discussed: Mode 1 versus Mode 2 science, and the Triple-Helix model to describe the relationship between science, industry and state. In "The New Production of Knowledge" Michael Gibbons and his colleagues describe the transformation of knowledge from an academic, disciplinary, and autonomous – "traditional" – organization of science (Mode 1) with a focus on universities as the key organizational form, to a more applied, transdisciplinary, diverse, and reflexive organization of science (Mode 2) that features a more diverse organization of science, relying on a broader set of organizations producing knowledge. Within the literature, debates center on whether this new model has replaced the old, and which of these models best describes the contemporary organization of science (here: the STEM+ fields). In turn, the Triple-Helix model preserves the historical importance of the universities. This approach assumes that future innovations emerge from a relationship between universities (production of new knowledge), industry (generation of wealth), and state (control). Data and methods In these analyses, only peer reviewed journal publications were used – as the best indicator for measuring the most legitimated, authoritative produced science. This focus enabled an investigation of publications in-depth and over a 110 year timeframe. Research articles in the most reputable, peer-reviewed, and internationally reputable journals are the gold standard of scientific output in STEM+. The data I used is based on a stratified representative sample of published research articles in journals in STEM+-fields. My measure relies on the key global source for such data, the raw data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) (the other global database is Elsevier's Scopus, which also indexes tens of thousands of journals), which was extensively recoded. Methodologically, my approach is based on a combination of comparative institutional analysis across selected countries and historically of the German higher education and science system, and the systematic global evaluation of bibliometric publication data (see chapter 6). The SCIE includes more than 90 million entries (all types of research), mainly from STEM+-fields. I focus on original research articles, because this type of publication contains certified new knowledge. The SPHERE dataset covers published research articles from 1900 to 2010. From 1900 to 1970, we selected data in 5-year-steps in the form of a stratified representative sample. From 1975 onwards full data is available for every year. Depending on the research question, either five or ten-year steps were analyzed. A detailed description of the sampling and weighting of the data can be found in chapter 6. In consideration of the criteria above, I analyzed 17,568 different journals (42,963 journals were included into the database if we count the same journals in different years), and a total of 5,089,233 research articles. To prepare the data for this research, it had to be extensively cleaned and coded. Very often our international research team found missing information on the country level and/or on the level of organizations/organizational forms. From June 2013 to December 2015, research in the archives of university libraries was necessary to manually add missing information, particularly organization location and author affiliations. In the field of bibliometrics, we find different methods to count publications. In this work, I mainly apply the "whole count" approach (see table 1, p. 126). This decision is based on the assumption that every author, organization, or country contributed equally to a publication. An overestimation of publications can't be precluded, because research articles are counted multiple times, if a paper is produced in co-authorship, which has been rising worldwide over the past several decades. The absolute number of publications (worldwide, Europe, Germany) is based on a simple counting of research articles (without duplicates, in cases of co-authored articles). Summary of the most important results The empirical part of my work is divided into three parts. In the following sections, I will present the most important findings. The global picture – higher education and science systems in comparison The central question of my research project was "which organizational forms produce science"? For a better understanding and classification of the results of my case study, I embedded the German higher education and science system into the European and global context. I answered the questions "how did the worldwide and European scientific productivity developed between 1900 and 2010 in comparison", and "how was/is the German higher education and science system embedded in global developments of higher education and science over time" as follows: First, I show that the worldwide scientific growth followed a pure exponential curve between 1900 and 2010 (see figures 3 and 10; pp. 50, 147) – and we can assume that this strong upward trend continues today. The massive expansion of scientific production had and still has a tremendous influence on societal developments, beyond simply economic and technical developments, but rather transforming society. I show that higher education and science systems worldwide exhibit communalities, which have led to similar developments and expansion of scientific productivity. The comparison of important European countries (Germany in comparison with Great Britain, France, Belgium and Luxembourg) uncovered the contribution of the development and spread of modern research universities and the extraordinary and continued rise in publication output (see section 7.2; Powell, Dusdal 2016, 2017a, 2017b in press). Within the global field of science, three geographical centers of scientific productivity have emerged over the twentieth century: Europe, North America, and Asia. Their relative importance fluctuates over time, but today all three centers continue to be the key regions in the production of scientific research in STEM+ journals. Especially in Asia, the growth rates have risen massively in recent years (Powell et al. 2017 in press). Second, I investigated that all countries worldwide invest more into research and development (R&D) (figure 9, p. 140). These investments have a clear impact on the scientific productivity of nations, yet there are important differences between countries in absolute production and productivity rates. Alongside direct investments in R&D or the application of patents in STEM+-fields that influence the expansion of science, the capacity for producing more knowledge fundamentally depends on rising student enrolments, a growing number of researchers, the widening of research activities into various arenas of society, the development of products, and the (re-)foundation of universities (Powell, Baker, Fernandez 2017 in press). As part of the higher education expansion and massification during the 1960s and 70s, the numbers of researchers and students rose tremendously. The growth of scientific publications thus results from the on-going institutionalization of higher education and science systems worldwide. The growth of publications is also explained by the steady growth in the number of researchers working within these growing – and increasingly interconnected – systems. Third, I could reject the argument of Derek J. de Solla Price that the pure exponential growth of scientific literature has to flatten or would slow-down several decades after the advent of "big science" (see paragraph 2.4; figure 4 and 10; p. 53, 147). Although radical historical, political, economical, and technical events (see figure 11, p. 150) led to punctual short-term decreases in publication outputs, the long-term development of universities and other organizational forms producing science led to sustained growth of scientific publications, with the numbers of publications rising unchecked over the long twentieth century. In 2010, the worldwide scientific productivity in leading STEM+ journals was about one million articles annually. Fourth, I could show that the absolute numbers have to be put into perspective and standardized in relation to the investments in R&D, the size of the higher education and science systems, the number of inhabitants (see figure 12, p. 159), and the number of researchers (table 3, p. 162; figure 13, p. 164). The initial expansion of scientific publications in STEM+-fields is based on a general growth of higher education and science systems. The different institutional settings and organizational forms that produce science have an impact on scientific productivity. The selected country case studies – Germany, Great Britain, France, Belgium and Luxembourg – demonstrate that systems with strong research universities are highly productive; they seem to provide conditions necessary for science. As a result, not only the number and quality of researchers is important, but also the institutional and organizational settings in which they are employed. Fifth, in international comparison, Germany continues to contribute significantly to scientific productivity in STEM+ fields. With an annual growth rate of 3.35%, Germany follows the United States and Japan. In 2014, German governments invested €84.5 billion in R&D – 2.9% of overall GDP. The EU-target of 3% by 2020 was barely missed. In 2010, Germany produced 55,009 research articles (see table A5). In comparison to Great Britain, France, Belgium and Luxemburg, Germany still leads in scientific output in Europe –comparing just the absolute numbers. The size of the country itself and the institutionalization of the higher education and science systems influence publication outputs, of course, with these absolute numbers in relation to other key indicators showing a different picture. Standardized by the number of inhabitants, Germany published less articles per capita than Belgium and Great Britain. The number of researchers amounted to 327,997 (FTE) in 2010. The ratio of inhabitants to scientists was 1,000:4. Among these countries studied in-depth, Luxembourg and Great Britain had more researchers per capita than did Germany. The interplay of the organizational forms of science in Germany between 1900 and 2010 On the basis of the analysis of the global and European contexts, and development of worldwide scientific productivity over time in chapter 7, I started the in-depth case study of Germany. Bridging this overview and the following in-depth analyses is a chapter on the institutionalization of the German higher education and science system (see chapter 8). Here, I described the most important institutions and organizations and the organizational field – universities, extra-university research institutes and universities of applied sciences. Furthermore, I discussed the differences between West and East Germany during their division (1945–1990). Summarizing the most important results shows that the development of publications in Germany follows global and European trends (on a lower scale) (see figure 16, p. 208). Over time, Germany experienced pure exponential growth of scientific publications and a rising diversity of organizational forms that contribute to scientific productivity (see sections 9.1 and 9.3). I answered the following three research questions: "how has the scientific productivity in Germany developed between 1900 and 2010", "among all science producing organizational forms, what do the key organizational forms contribute to scientific productivity", "which organizational forms provide the best conditions for scientific productivity", and "which single organizations are the most research intense in Germany"? First, the growth curve of scientific publications in Germany turns out as expected – it shows pure exponential graph, comparable with the worldwide and European development of scientific productivity between 1900 and 2010. Here, too, cataclysmic events such as the two world wars and the Great Depression as well as reunification had only short-term (negative) impact (figure 11, p. 150) on scientific productivity, without even a medium-term slow-down or flattening of the curve. By 2010, the total number of publications in STEM+ fields by researchers in German organizations topped 55,000 in one year alone. Second, a detailed examination and comparison of the development of scientific productivity in West Germany and East Germany between 1950 and 1990 showed that the growth rate of Germany (altogether) was based mainly on steady growth of scientific publications in West Germany (see figure 17, p. 211). The growth curve of the former GDR was quite flat and proceeded on a very low level. As a result, I conclude that the GDR's higher education and science system, based on its academy model, did not provide conditions for scientific productivity as optimally as did the BRD. Third, a detailed analysis of the "key classical" organizational forms of science – universities and extra-university research institutes – show that universities were and are the main producers of scientific publications in STEM+ from 1975 to 2010 (see figure 18, p. 217). On average, university-based researchers produced 60% of all articles and defended their status against other organizational forms, which leads to the rejection of the Mode 2 hypothesis. Non-university publications reached an average of 40%. But that does not mean that other organizational forms were not producing science as well. The percentage share of articles is ultrastable and shows only marginal variations. The thesis that the proportion of university publications should decrease over time can be rejected for the period from 1975 to 2010. This suggests that scientific productivity of universities is actually rising, since despite decreasing financial support (R&D) in favor of extra-university research institutes, the universities produced more research articles with less resources over time. Fourth, although not only scientists within universities and research institutes publish their research in scientific journals, jointly these organizational forms have produced more than three-quarters of all research articles since 1980. Already in the earlier years, they produced a large number of scientific articles. Other organizational forms also generate scientific knowledge (for an extensive description of the organizational form matrix, see table 4, pp. 222f.). Especially scientists in firms, government agencies, and hospitals publish articles in peer-reviewed journals in STEM+ (see figures 19 and 20; pp. 220, 246). Indeed, the universities have been the driving force of scientific productivity for more than a century. With their specific orientation to basic research and their linkage of research and teaching, they provide conditions that facilitate the production of science. Universities are among the oldest institutions with a high degree of institutionalization. All other organizational forms (academies, associations, infrastructures, laboratories, military, museums and non-university education) were identified in the dataset played only a minor role and were summarized in the category "further types". Fifth, the analysis of the ten most research-intensive single organizations in Germany in the year 2010 confirmed the results. Only universities and institutes were part of this group. A summary of publications of single institutes under their umbrella organizations shows that the institutes of the Max Planck Society and of the Helmholtz Association are the leading science producers in Germany, outpacing the scientific productivity of universities, but only when aggregating the contributions of dozens of individual institutes (see table 5, p. 259f). An analysis of single institutes shows that these research institutes cannot compete with universities, because of their size and the number of researchers. The Charite – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, a hybrid organization, is another leading science producer in Germany. National and international cooperation of scientific research Finally, increasing internationalization of research has impacted on national and international cooperation. leading to collaboratively-written publications in scientific journals. Through advancing globalization, national and international scientific cooperation increased in volume and importance. International cooperation in STEM+ is facilitated by the reputation of the research organization and of the co-authors, higher visibility within the scientific community and more possibilities for interdisciplinary research as well as better or more specialized facilities. Today, more than a third of all research articles worldwide are produced in scientific collaboration; only around a quarter are single-authored articles. In contrast to Humboldt's principle "in Einsamkeit und Freiheit" (in loneliness and freedom), research is no longer done by one scientist, but is much more likely the result of collaboration. Research networks are increasingly important, and researchers share their common interests on a research question, publishing their results in joint publications. Researchers, organizations, and indeed countries differ in the ways they organize their research and thus how they enable research and collaboration. This depends on location, size, higher education and science system, the organizational field and organizations. Here, varying patterns of scientific cooperation were presented, showing a massive increase in scientific collaboration in (inter)national co-authorships over time. Until the 1990s, researchers in all investigated countries (France, Germany, Great Britain, USA, Japan, China, Belgium, Luxembourg) published their research articles mainly as single-authored papers. Only since the 1990s have co- and multi-authored publications risen (considerably): In 2000, only a third of all publications were published by one author. In 2010, the proportion reached its lowest level with only one-fifth of all papers single-authored (see table 6, pp. 279f). Countries differ considerably in their amount of collaboratively-written research articles. References Powell, J. J. W. & Dusdal, J. (2016). Europe's Center of Science: Science Productivity in Belgium, France, Germany, and Luxembourg. EuropeNow, 1(1). http://www.europenowjournal.org/2016/11/30/europes-center-of-science-science-productivity-in-belgium-france-germany-and-luxembourg/. Last access: 13.12.2016. Powell, J. J. W. & Dusdal, J. (2017a): Measuring Research Organizations' Contributions to Science Productivity in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math in Germany, France, Belgium, and Luxembourg. Minerva, (). Online first. DOI:10.1007/s11024-017-9327-z. Powell, J. J. W. & Dusdal, J. (2017b in press). The European Center of Science Productivity: Research Universities and Institutes in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. IN Powell, J. J. W., Baker, D. P. & Fernandez, F. (Hg.) The Century of Science: The Worldwide Triumph of the Research University, International Perspectives on Education and Society Series. Bingley, UK, Emerald Publishing. Powell, J. J. W., Baker, D. P. & Fernandez, F. (2017 in press). The Century of Science: The Worldwide Triumph of the Research University, International Perspectives on Education and Society Series. Bingley, UK, Emerald Publishing. Powell, J. J. W., Fernandez, F., Crist, J. T., Dusdal, J., Zhang, L. & Baker, D. P. (2017 in press). The Worldwide Triumph of the Research University and Globalizing Science. IN Powell, J. W., Baker, D. P. & Fernandez, F. (Hg.) The Century of Science: The Worldwide Triumph of the Research University, International Perspectives on Education and Society Series. Bingley, UK, Emerald Publishing. ; Überblick und Einleitung Bereits der Titel meiner Dissertation "Welche Organisationsformen produzieren Wissenschaft? Expansion, Vielfalt und Kooperation im deutschen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystem im globalen Kontext, 1900-2010" verspricht, dass sich dem Thema der Entwicklung wissenschaftlicher Produktivität in Deutschland aus verschiedenen Perspektiven (Analyseebenen, Dimensionen und Zeitrahmen) genähert werden soll. Eingebettet in das international vergleichende Forschungsprojekt Science Productivity, Higher Education, Research and Development, and the Knowledge Society (SPHERE) rückt meine Dissertation die Analyse des Einflusses der Hochschulentwicklung und der wissenschaftlichen Kapazitätsbildung auf die wissenschaftliche Wissensproduktion in den Vordergrund. Es interessiert mich, wie die im deutschen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystem vorherrschenden Strukturen und institutionellen Settings die langfristige Entwicklung wissenschaftlicher Produktivität beeinflusst und verändert haben. Besonders vor dem Hintergrund einer voranschreitenden Globalisierung und Internationalisierung der Wissenschaft, einer weltweiten Vernetzung von Wissenschaftlern und der Herausbildung einer Wissensgesellschaft. Die Annäherung an den Forschungsgegentand erfolgt auf der Makro- und Mesoebene: den institutionalisierten und organisationalen Settings, in denen Wissenschaft produziert wurde und wird. Da Informationen zu einzelnen Autoren nicht zur Verfügung standen, können keine Aussagen auf der Mikroebene getroffen werden, wenngleich Publikationen natürlich immer von Individuen verfasst werden und nicht von den hier untersuchten Ländern oder Organisationsformen und Einzelorganisationen. Anhand der Dimensionen Expansion, Vielfalt und Kooperation wird der Untersuchungsrahmen abgesteckt und eine Ordnung der Fragestellung vorgenommen, an denen die Struktur der Arbeit ausgerichtet ist. Der Zeitrahmen der Arbeit umfasst die Jahre 1900 bis 2010, also mehr als ein Jahrhundert (siehe Abschnitt 1.2). Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es darzulegen, warum Wissenschaftler ihre Ergebnisse in Form von Zeitschriftenartikeln publizieren. Es geht unter anderem darum, die Wichtigkeit wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse hervorzuheben, da nicht publizierte Ergebnisse für die Wissenschaft nicht existieren und sich aus der Art und Weise, wie publiziert wird, die Organisation der Forschung innerhalb und übergreifend einer Disziplin oder eines Fachs ableiten lässt. In den in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Fächergruppen Mathematik, Ingenieur-, Natur- und Technikwissenschaften sowie Medizin (im Folgenden angelehnt an die englische Abkürzung STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) plus Medicine als STEM+ bezeichnet) spielen Publikationen in peer reviewed Zeitschriften eine wichtige Rolle – neben Patenten in den angewandteren Fächergruppen sind sie heutzutage das wichtigste Publikationsformat. Sie dienen nicht nur der Dokumentation generierten Wissens, sondern sind auch ein Anzeiger für die Reputation eines Forschers und dienen der Messung wissenschaftlicher Produktivität. Zeitschriftenpublikationen in hochklassigen Zeitschriften, die einem peer review Verfahren unterliegen, können als gold standard zur Messung wissenschaftlicher Produktivität herangezogen werden. In den letzten Jahrzehnten kam es zu einer zunehmenden Verwissenschaftlichung vieler gesellschaftlichen Teilbereiche und die Generierung wissenschaftlichen Wissens rückte immer weiter ins Zentrum des politischen und wirtschaftlichen Interesses, unabhängig davon, wo es produziert wurde. Aus diesem Grund werden die Orte und institutionellen Settings (Organisationen, Organisationsformen) wissenschaftlicher Produktivität (hauptsächlich Universitäten, außeruniversitäre Forschungsinstitute, Unternehmen, Behörden und Ressortforschungseinrichtungen und Krankenhäuser) identifiziert und voneinander abgegrenzt. Indem ihre Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede anhand ihrer Aufgaben und Ziele sowie der Art der Forschung diskutiert werden. In einem ersten Schritt lege ich dar, warum ich diese Arbeit an der Schnittstelle zwischen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftsforschung und der Bibliometrie angelegt habe (siehe Kapitel 2 und 5). Publikationsanalysen werden zwar immer noch als Hauptaufgabe der Bibliometrie gesehen, aber ihre Ergebnisse werden auch von anderen Akteuren wie Hochschulmanagern, Politikern und Wissenschaftlern genutzt, um einerseits Aussagen über die Qualität der Wissenschaft zu treffen, aber auch um sich miteinander zu vergleichen oder steuernd in die Struktur und Organisation einzugreifen und Aussagen über den Output des Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystems zu treffen. Direkte Aussagen über die Qualität der Forschung auf Basis der Anzahl an Zeitschriftenartikeln, die ein Wissenschaftler publiziert, können nicht getroffen werden, es kann aber über die Qualität einer Zeitschrift (Impactfactor) ein Proxi gebildet werden, mit dessen Hilfe Vergleiche zwischen Disziplinen getroffen werden können. Um wissenschaftliche Produktivität zu messen, müssten ergänzende Parameter hinzugezogen werden. Aus diesem Grund werden in dieser Arbeit lediglich Aussagen über die Quantität wissenschaftlicher Produktivität getroffen, nicht aber über die Qualität der untersuchten Zeitschriftenartikel, die Forschungsleistung einzelner Wissenschaftler, Organisationen oder Organisationsformen und einzelner Länder. Nichtdestotrotz zeigen Indikatoren zur Messung wissenschaftlichen Outputs eine große Expansion wissenschaftlicher Produktivität, eine Stabilität der Universitäten im Zeitverlauf und die Wichtigkeit Deutschlands als Wissensschaftsproduzent sowie eine steigende Differenzierung und Diversifizierung der Organisationsformen. Zudem können die 1990er Jahre als Startpunkt steigender nationaler und internationaler Kooperationen gesehen werden. In Kapitel 2 zum multidisziplinären Kontext der Arbeit zeige ich, in welcher Beziehung sich die Hochschul- und Wissenschaftsforschung in Deutschland zueinander befinden. Wissenschaftliches Wissen nimmt eine Sonderstellung im Vergleich zu anderen Wissensformen ein, da es unter bestimmten Bedingungen, die von der wissenschaftlichen Gemeinschaft selbst bestimmt werden, generiert und verbreitet wird. Um einen Überblick über die wichtigsten Studien innerhalb meines Feldes zu bekommen, und um meine Arbeit in den empirischen Kontext zu rücken, beschreibe ich in Kapitel 3 dieser Arbeit den aktuellen Forschungsstand. Forschungsfragen Abschnitt 1.2 stellt einen detaillierten Überblick über die dieser Arbeit zugrunde liegenden Forschungsfragen bereit: Welche Organisationsformen produzieren Wissenschaft? 1. Wie hat sich die wissenschaftliche Produktivität weltweit und im europäischen Vergleich zwischen 1900 und 2010 entwickelt? 2. Wie war/ist das deutsche Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystem in die globalen Entwicklungen der Hochschulbildung und Wissenschaft im Zeitverlauf eingebettet? 3. Wie hat sich die wissenschaftliche Produktivität in Deutschland zwischen 1900 und 2010 entwickelt? 4. Unter allen Wissenschaft produzierenden Organisationsformen, was tragen die "klassischen" Formen zur wissenschaftlichen Produktivität bei? 5. Welche Organisationsformen stellen die besten Bedingungen für wissenschaftliche Produktivität bereit? 6. Welche Einzelorganisationen gehören zu den forschungsstärksten in Deutschland? 7. Welchen Einfluss hat die zunehmende Internationalisierung der Forschung auf nationale und internationale Kooperationen in Form von Publikationen in Zeitschriftenartikeln? Theoretischer Rahmen Theoretisch (siehe Kapitel 4) basiert meine Arbeit auf einem neu-institutionellen (NI) Ansatz zur Untersuchung und Erklärung der Expansion des Hochschulwesens und der Wissenschaft weltweit. Trotz des allgemeinen Wachstums wissenschaftlicher Produktivität bestehen beträchtliche Unterschiede zwischen den institutionellen Settings, Organisationsformen und einzelner Organisationen, die maßgeblich zur wissenschaftlichen Produktivität beitragen. Der soziologische NI konzentriert sich auf das Verständnis von Institutionen und Organisationen. Institutionen sind ein wichtiger Baustein, um soziales Handeln und Prozesse der Gesellschaftsentwicklung zu verstehen. Organisationen und Institutionen stehen in einer wechselseitigen Beziehung zueinander. Die zentralen Annahmen des NI wurden von Walter Powell, Paul DiMaggio und Richard Scott formuliert. Meilensteine: der Zusammenhang von Organisation und Gesellschaft und die Annahme, dass formale Organisationsstrukturen Mythen zum Ausdruck bringen, die in ihrer gesellschaftlichen Umwelt institutionalisiert sind. Indem Organisationen diese Mythen erfassen, kopieren und zeremoniell zur Geltung bringen, werden Strukturähnlichkeiten (Isomorphien) zwischen Organisationen und der Gesellschaft hergestellt. Das Konzept der "organisationalen Felder" dient der Beschreibung der Beziehung zwischen verschiedenen Organisationen und beinhaltet alle relevanten Organisationen, die sich mit ihrer gesellschaftlichen Umwelt auseinander setzen. In Abschnitt 4.1.2 werden die Unterschiede zwischen den Begriffen Institutionen und Organisationen diskutiert, da diese besonders in der deutschsprachigen Soziologie nicht trennscharf genutzt werden. Grundsätzlich unterscheiden sich Ansätze institutioneller Theorie in ihrer Anwendungsebene, sie sind aber durch ihren Überbau miteinander verschränkt. Folglich ist der NI als theoretische Basis besonders gut geeignet, um eine Mehrebenenanalyse der wissenschaftlichen Produktivität zeit- und ortsübergreifend durchzuführen. Die historische Entwicklung des deutschen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystems kann nicht ohne eine Berücksichtigung der globalen Entwicklungen durchgeführt werden, da es einerseits einen enormen Einfluss auf die Entwicklung anderer Systeme weltweit hatte/hat und andererseits globale Entwicklungen die Institutionalisierung und Organisation der Wissenschaft in Deutschland beeinflussen. Intersektorale und internationale Kooperationen sind im Zeitverlauf angewachsen, werden immer wichtiger und führen zu ausgeprägten Netzwerken innerhalb und zwischen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystemen weltweit. Aufgrund einer zunehmenden Verzahnung einzelner Länder und den damit einhergehenden Wechselwirkungen zwischen den unterschiedlichen Analyseebenen (makro, meso, mikro) ist eine klassische, nationalstaatliche Analyse nicht mehr zielführend. Nichtsdestotrotz können Länder als vergleichbare Einheiten gesehen werden, da sie über klar definierte Grenzen und Strukturen verfügen. Die unterschiedlichen theoretischen Perspektiven und Analyseebenen werden in Abbildung 5 genauer beschrieben. Der theoretische Ansatz der "Weltkultur" bietet eine breitere Linse des soziologischen NI auf die globale Arena. Der Fokus liegt auf globalen und internationalen Strukturen und Prozessen, die sich über lange Zeit entwickelt haben. Mit Hilfe dieser Perspektive können globale Diffusion und formale Strukturen der Entkopplung von formalen Grundsätzen und praktischer Anwendung erklärt werden. Zusammen nehmen der historische und soziologische Institutionalismus zeitliche Entwicklungen und Prozesse in den Blick, die erklären, wie Institutionen entstehen und sich verändern. Die Konzepte critical junctures und Pfadabhängigkeit sollen helfen diese Prozesse auf der Mesoebene zu verstehen. Um die Transformation der Wissensproduktion im Zeitverlauf des 20. Jahrhunderts zu verstehen und um zu analysieren, welche Organisationsformen an der Produktion wissenschaftlichen Wissens beteiligt waren, werden zwei theoretische Konzepte herangezogen: Modus 1 versus Modus 2 Wissenschaft und das Triple-Helix Modell zur Beschreibung der Beziehung zwischen Wissenschaft, Industrie und Staat. In The New Production of Knowledge beschreiben Michael Gibbons und seine Kollegen den Wandel der Wissenschaft von einer akademischen, disziplinären und autonomen, traditionellen, Organisation der Wissenschaft (Modus 1) mit einem Schwerpunkt auf Universitäten als wichtigste Organisationsform, hin zu einer anwendungsorientierteren, transdisziplinären, diversen und reflexiven Organisation der Wissenschaft (Modus 2), die eine diversere Organisation der Wissenschaft unterstützt und auf einem breiteren organisationalen Setting der Wissensproduktion beruht. Innerhalb der Literatur wird diskutiert, ob das neue Modell das alte ersetzen soll und welches der Modelle die gegenwärtige Organisation der Wissenschaft am besten beschreibt. Im Gegensatz hierzu bleibt beim Triple-Helix Modell die historische Rolle der Universitäten erhalten. Der Ansatz geht davon aus, dass zukünftige Innovationen aus einer Beziehung von Universitäten (Wissensproduktion), Industrie (Generierung von Wohlstand) und dem Staat (Kontrolle) resultieren. Daten und Methoden In dieser Arbeit werden ausschließlich Publikationen in peer reviewed Zeitschriften als Kennzeichen wissenschaftlicher Produktivität herangezogen. Dieser Schwerpunkt ermöglicht mir eine tiefgreifende Analyse von Publikationen über einen Zeitraum von mehr als einem Jahrhundert. Zeitschriftenartikel in hochklassigen und möglichst internationalen Journalen bilden den gold standard wissenschaftlichen Outputs in den hier untersuchten Mathematik, Ingenieur-, Natur- und Technikwissenschaften sowie der Medizin (STEM+). Meine Daten basieren auf einem stratifizierten, repräsentativen Sample (siehe ausführlich Kapitel 6) publizierter Zeitschriften, die als Rohdaten aus Thomson Reuters Web of Science Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) zur Analyse zur Verfügung stehen (eine vergleichbare Datenbank stellt Elseviers Scopus bereit). Methodologisch wird eine Kombination aus einer vergleichenden institutionelle Analyse ausgewählter Länder, eine historische Untersuchung des deutschen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystems und eine systematische, globale Auswertung bibliometrischer Publikationsdaten angestrebt. Der SCIE umfasst mehr als 90 Millionen Einträge (gespeichert werden nahezu alle Typen wissenschaftlichen Outputs), hauptsächlich aus den oben genannten Fächergruppen. Diese Arbeit beschränkt sich auf originale Zeitschriftenartikel (Originalmitteilungen), da lediglich dieser Publikationstyp zertifiziertes und neues Wissen enthält. Der SPHERE Datensatz umfasst publizierte Zeitschriftenartikel aus den Jahren 1900 bis 2010. Von 1900 bis 1970 wurden die Daten in 5-Jahres-Schritten mittels einer geschichteten Zufallsstichprobe ausgewählt. Ab 1975 stehen die Daten vollständig und ab 1980 in Jahresschritten zur Verfügung. Abhängig von der untersuchten Fragestellung werden die Daten in 5-Jahres- oder 10-Jahres-Schritten analysiert. Eine detaillierte Beschreibung des Samplings und der Gewichtung der Daten kann den Abschnitten 6.2.2 und 6.8 entnommen werden. Unter Berücksichtigung dieser Kriterien werden 17.568 unterschiedliche Zeitschriften (42.963 Zeitschriften, wenn dieselbe Zeitschrift in unterschiedlichen Jahren mehrfach berücksichtigt wird) und 5.089.233 Forschungsartikel untersucht. Um die Daten für die Analyse aufzubereiten muss eine intensive Vorarbeit geleistet werden. Sie werden umfassend (nach-)kodiert und bereinigt. Besonders häufig sind Fehler oder fehlende Informationen auf Ebene der Länder und/oder der Organisationen/Organisationsformen, in denen die Forschung betrieben wurde. Im Zeitraum von Juni 2013 bis Dezember 2015 habe ich die Originalzeitschriften und -artikel in Online-Zeitschriftendatenbanken oder Archiven verschiedener Universitätsbibliotheken eingesehen, begutachtet und mit Hilfe einer Excel-Tabelle katalogisiert und fehlende Informationen, wenn vorhanden, ergänzt. In der Bibliometrie werden verschiedene Vorgehensweisen diskutiert, wie Publikationen gezählt werden können. Die Analysen dieser Arbeit basieren hauptsächlich auf der whole count Methode (siehe Tabelle 1). Die Entscheidung basiert auf der Annahme, dass jeder Autor, jede Organisation, oder jedes Land gleichermaßen zu einer Publikation beigetragen hat. Folglich kann es zu einer Verzerrung bzw. Überschätzung der Ergebnisse kommen, da Zeitschriftenartikel mehrfach gezählt werden, wenn sie in Form von Forschungskooperationen publiziert wurden. Um die absolute Anzahl an Publikationen (weltweit, Europa, Deutschland) zu ermitteln, wird die Gesamtzahl an Artikeln pro Jahr (ohne Duplikate) berechnet. Zusammenfassung der wichtigsten Ergebnisse Der empirische Teil meiner Arbeit ist in drei Teile untergliedert. Die folgenden Abschnitte fassen die jeweils wichtigsten Ergebnisse zusammen. The Global Picture – Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssysteme im Vergleich Im Mittelpunkt meiner Dissertation steht die Frage, welche Organisationsformen Wissenschaft produzieren. Um die Ergebnisse der detaillierten Fallstudie einordnen und bewerten zu können, erfolgt zunächst eine Einbettung in den globalen und europäischen Kontext. Die forschungsleitenden Fragen, wie hat sich die wissenschaftliche Produktivität weltweit und im europäischen Vergleich zwischen 1900 und 2010 entwickelt und wie war/ist das deutsche Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystem in die globalen Entwicklungen der Hochschulbildung und Wissenschaft im zeitverlauf eingebettet, wird folgendermaßen beantwortet: In einem ersten Schritt wird gezeigt, dass das weltweite wissenschaftliche Wachstum zwischen 1900 und 2010 exponentiell verlief und dieser Trend vermutlich bis heute anhält (siehe Abbildungen 3 und 10, S. 50, 147). Die massive Ausdehnung wissenschaftlichen Wissens hatte und hat auch heute noch einen großen Einfluss auf gesellschaftliche Entwicklungen, die nicht auf den wirtschaftlichen und technischen Fortschritt beschränkt sind. Ich werde darstellen, dass Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssysteme weltweite Gemeinsamkeiten aufweisen, die zu einer ähnlichen Entwicklung und Ausweitung wissenschaftlicher Produktivität geführt haben. Im Vergleich wichtiger europäischer Länder (Deutschland im Vergleich mit Großbritannien, Frankreich, Belgien und Luxemburg), kann gezeigt werden, dass zwischen der weltweiten Ausweitung der Wissenschaft, dem Anstieg an Publikationen und der Expansion von modernen Forschungsuniversitäten ein Zusammenhang besteht (siehe Abschnitt 7.2; Powell, Dusdal 2016, 2017a; 2017b im Druck). So wurde ein globales Feld der Wissenschaft aufgespannt, das als übergeordneter Rahmen fungiert. Drei geografische Zentren wissenschaftlicher Produktivität werden im Zeitverlauf identifiziert: Europa, Nordamerika und Asien. Sie haben zu unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten an Bedeutung gewonnen oder verloren, doch zum heutigen Zeitpunkt tragen sie alle zur wissenschaftlichen Produktivität in den untersuchten Fächergruppen bei. Allerdings sind besonders in Asien die Wachstumsraten massiv angestiegen (Powell et al 2017 im Druck). Zweitens investieren alle Länder weltweit in Forschung und Entwicklung (FuE) (siehe Abbildung 9, S. 140). Diese Investitionen haben einen Einfluss auf ihre wissenschaftliche Produktivität. Zwischen einzelnen Ländern sind zum Teil große Unterschiede in der absoluten Publikationszahl und der relativen wissenschaftlichen Produktivität feststellbar. Nicht nur Investitionen in FuE tragen zur Expansion der Wissenschaft bei, sondern auch die Anmeldung von Patenten, höhere Studierendenzahlen, eine gestiegene Anzahl an Forschern, die Ausweitung von Forschungsaktivitäten in viele gesellschaftliche Teilbereiche, die Entwicklung von Forschungsprodukten und Neugründungen von Universitäten (Powell, Baker, Fernandez 2017 im Druck). Im Zuge der Hochschulexpansion und der Massifizierung der Hochschulbildung in den 1960er und 70er Jahren sind besonders die Studierendenzahlen und die Anzahl der Wissenschaftler extrem angestiegen. Es kam also zur Ausweitung des kompletten Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystems und nicht nur zu einer Erhöhung der Anzahl an Publikationen. Im Umkehrschluss kann ein Teil des Anstiegs wissenschaftlicher Publikationen auf eine steigende Anzahl an Wissenschaftlern zurückgeführt werden. Drittens kann die von Derek J. de Solla Price aufgestellte These, dass das exponentielle Wachstum wissenschaftlicher Literatur irgendwann abflachen müsse, wiederlegt werden (siehe Abschnitt 2.4; Abbildungen 4 und 10, S. 53, 147). Obwohl einschneidende historische, politische, wirtschaftliche und technologische Ereignisse sowie Ereignisse bezogen auf die Hochschulen und Wissenschaft (siehe Abbildung 11, S. 150) kurzfristig zu einer Verringerung der Publikationszahlen geführt haben, wurde die Wachstumskurve nicht nachhaltig beeinflusst. Im Jahr 2010 wurden weltweit fast eine Million Zeitschriftenartikel in den Natur- und Technikwissenschaften sowie der Medizin publiziert. In Abschnitt 7.2.2 zeige ich, dass die Anzahl der publizierten Zeitschriftenartikel im Verhältnis zu den Ausgaben für FuE, der Größe der Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssysteme und der Anzahl der Einwohner (siehe Abbildung 12, S. 159) und Wissenschaftler (siehe Tabelle 3, S. 162; Abbildung 13, S. 164) relativiert werden müssen. Die anfängliche extreme Expansion der wissenschaftlichen Publikationen in den Mathematik, Ingenieur-, Natur- und Technikwissenschaften sowie der Medizin basiert auf einem allgemeinen Wachstum der Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssysteme (siehe oben). Unterschiedliche institutionelle Settings und Organisationsformen, in denen Wissenschaft produziert wird, haben einen Einfluss auf die wissenschaftliche Produktivität. Anhand der ausgewählten Fallbeispiele (Deutschland, Großbritannien, Frankreich, Belgien und Luxemburg) werde ich darlegen, dass Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssysteme, die über forschungsstarke Universitäten verfügen, höchst produktiv sind. Es kommt also nicht nur darauf an, wie viele Wissenschaftler innerhalb eines Systems beschäftigt werden, sondern auch darauf, in welchen institutionellen Settings sie arbeiten. Fünftens, im internationalen Vergleich trägt Deutschland immer noch erheblich zur wissenschaftlichen Produktivität in den untersuchten Fächern bei. Mit einer Wachstumsrate von 3,35% Prozent folgt Deutschland den USA und Japan. Im Jahr 2014 wurden in Deutschland 84,5 Mrd./€ für FuE von der Regierung bereitgestellt. Dies entspricht einem Anteil von 2,9 Prozent des BIP. Somit wurde der EU-Richtwert von 2020 von 3 Prozent lediglich knapp verfehlt. Im Jahr 2010 wurden in Deutschland insgesamt 55.009 Zeitschriftenartikel in den STEM+-Fächern publiziert (siehe Tabelle A5 im Anhang). Im Vergleich der absoluten Zahlen mit Großbritannien, Frankreich, Belgien und Luxemburg nimmt das Land die Spitzenposition ein. Die Größe des Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystems hat somit einen Einfluss auf die Publikationsleistung. Werden die Zahlen in einem nächsten Schritt mit anderen Schlüsselindikatoren in Beziehung gesetzt, verändert sich die Leistung der miteinander verglichenen Systeme zum Teil erheblich. Gemessen an der Einwohnerzahl werden in Deutschland weniger Zeitschriftenartikel publiziert als in Belgien oder Großbritannien. Die Anzahl der beschäftigten Wissenschaftler betrug in Deutschland im selben Jahr 1000:4. Nur in Luxemburg und Großbritannien ist das Verhältnis von Wissenschaftlern zur Einwohnerzahl größer. Das Zusammenspiel der Organisationsformen der Wissenschaft in Deutschland von 1900 bis 2010 Auf Basis der Analysen zum globalen und europäischen Kontext der Entwicklung wissenschaftlicher Produktivität im Zeitverlauf (siehe Kapitel 7) folgt eine tiefgreifende, institutionelle Analyse des deutschen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystems (siehe Kapitel 8). Sie dient als Ein- und Überleitung zur detaillierten empirischen Auswertung der Daten zum deutschen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystem. Hier werden die wichtigsten Institutionen und Organisationen sowie das organisationale Feld der Wissenschaft (Universitäten, Fachhochschulen, außeruniversitäre Forschungseinrichtungen) vorgestellt. Zudem diskutiere ich die Unterschiede zwischen Ost- und Westdeutschland zur Zeit des geteilten Deutschlands (1945-1990). Eine Zusammenfassung der wichtigsten Ergebnisse zeigt, dass die Entwicklung der Publikationszahlen in Deutschland dem weltweiten und europäischen Trend (im kleineren Umfang) folgt (siehe Abbildung 16, S. 208). Es kam sowohl zu einer Expansion des wissenschaftlichen Wissens in Form eines exponentiellen Anstiegs an Publikationen, als auch zu einer Erhöhung der Vielfalt wissenschaftlicher Produktivität im Zeitverlauf (siehe Abschnitte 9.1 und 9.3). Die folgenden vier Forschungsfragen werden beantwortet: Wie hat sich die wissenschaftliche Produktivität in Deutschland zwischen 1900 und 2010 entwickelt? Unter allen Wissenschaft produzierenden Organisationsformen, was tragen die "klassischen" Formen zur wissenschaftlichen Produktivität bei? Welche Organisationsformen stellen die besten Bedingungen für wissenschaftliche Produktivität bereit? Welche Einzelorganisationen gehören zu den forschungsstärksten in Deutschland? Wie oben beschrieben, verläuft das Wachstum wissenschaftlicher Produktivität in Deutschland zwischen den Jahren 1900 und 2010 exponentiell. Die Kurve ist vergleichbar mit der weltweiten und europäischen Entwicklung, wenn auch in kleinerem Umfang. Zwar hatten auch hier verschiedene Ereignisse, wie der Zweite Weltkrieg, die Weltwirtschaftskrise oder die Wiedervereinigung, einen kurzfristigen Einfluss, allerdings kam es zu keiner Verlangsamung oder Abflachung des Wachstums (siehe Abbildung 11, S. 150). Bis ins Jahr 2010 wuchs die Anzahl der publizierten Zeitschriftenartikel in Deutschland auf 55.009 an. Zweitens, zeigt eine detaillierte Betrachtung der wissenschaftlichen Produktivität Westdeutschlands im Vergleich zu Ostdeutschland, dass der Anstieg der gesamtdeutschen Publikationszahlen auf einem Anstieg der Zahlen in Westdeutschland basiert (siehe Abbildung 17, S. 211). Zwischen 1950 und 1990 verlief die Kurve der wissenschaftlichen Produktivität in der DDR flach und auf einem niedrigen Niveau. Hieraus kann geschlossen werden, dass das Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystem der DDR, aufbauend auf seinem Akademiemodell, keine guten Bedingungen für wissenschaftliche Forschung bereitgestellt hat. Drittens, zeigt die detaillierte Analyse der "klassischen" Organisationsformen der Wissenschaft, Universitäten und außeruniversitäre Forschungsinstitute, dass Universitäten im Zeitraum von 1975 bis 2010 in den STEM+-Fächern die Hauptproduzenten wissenschaftlicher Zeitschriftenartikel waren und sind (siehe Abbildung 18, S. 217). Im Untersuchungszeitraum beträgt der prozentuale Anteil der universitätsbasierten Forschung im Mittel 60 Prozent. Somit verteidigen sie ihren Status als wichtigste Organisationsform gegenüber anderen. Die Modus 2 Hypothese, dass es im Zeitverlauf zu einem Absinken des prozentualen Anteils der Universitäten kommen muss, wird verworfen. Der Anteil der Nicht-Universitäten liegt hingegen im Durchschnitt bei 40 Prozent. Obwohl die Richtigkeit der folgenden Aussage nicht empirisch überprüft werden kann, wird davon ausgegangen, dass es sich tatsächlich sogar um einen Anstieg wissenschaftlicher Produktivität der Universitäten im Zeitverlauf handelt. Unter Berücksichtigung einer Verschiebung der zur Verfügung stehenden finanziellen Mittel für FuE zugunsten der außeruniversitären Forschungsinstitute haben die Universitäten im Zeitverlauf mit weniger Forschungsgeldern immer mehr wissenschaftliche Zeitschriftenartikel publiziert. Viertens, obwohl nicht nur Wissenschaftler innerhalb von Universitäten und Forschungsinstituten Zeitschriftenartikel veröffentlichen, haben diese beiden Organisationsformen zusammen mehr als drei Viertel aller Publikationen seit den 1980er Jahren verfasst. Aber auch schon in den Jahren zuvor ist ihr gemeinsamer Anteil sehr hoch. Zu den wichtigsten Wissenschaftsproduzenten gehören neben ihnen die (Industrie-)Unternehmen, Behörden und Ressortforschungseinrichtungen und Krankenhäuser (für eine ausführliche Beschreibung der Matrix der Organisationsformen siehe Tabelle 4, S. 222f und Abbildungen 19 und 20, S. 220, 246). Dennoch sind die Universitäten die treibende Kraft wissenschaftlicher Produktivität seit mehr als einem Jahrhundert. Mit ihrer speziellen Ausrichtung auf Grundlagenforschung stellen sie die besten Bedingungen für wissenschaftliche Forschung bereit und gehören zu den ältesten Institutionen mit einem hohen Institutionalisierungsgrad. Universitäten sind widerstandsfähig gegenüber Veränderungen und critical junctures haben keinen negativen Einfluss auf ihre wissenschaftliche Produktivität. Alle anderen im Datensatz gefundenen oder aus der Theorie abgeleiteten Organisationsformen (Akademien, Vereine/Gesellschaften, wissenschaftliche Infrastrukturen, Laboratorien, Militär, Museen und nichtuniversitäre Bildungseinrichtungen) spielen nur eine untergeordnete Rolle und wurden in der Gruppe "sonstige" Organisationsformen zusammengefasst. Fünftens, eine Auswertung der zehn forschungsstärksten Einzelorganisationen Deutschlands im Jahr 2010 bestätigt die oben beschriebenen Ergebnisse, da lediglich Universitäten und außeruniversitäre Forschungsinstitute dieser Spitzengruppe zugehören. Eine Zusammenfassung der Publikationen der Institute unter ihrer Dachorganisation zeigt, dass die Institute der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft und der Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft maßgeblich zur Produktion wissenschaftlichen Wissens in Deutschland beitragen. Sie übertreffen zusammengezählt die Publikationstätigkeit einzelner Universitäten bei weitem (siehe Tabelle 5, S. 259f). Eine Einzelauswertung der Institute zeigt aber auch, dass sie allgemein genommen, aufgrund ihrer Größe und der Anzahl der Wissenschaftler, nicht mit den Universitäten konkurrieren können. Zudem gehört die hybride Organisation, die Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin zu den führenden zehn Wissenschaftsproduzenten im deutschen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystem. Nationale und internationale Kooperationen wissenschaftlicher Forschung Im letzten empirischen Kapitel der Arbeit wird auf der Makroebene die Frage beantwortet, welchen Einfluss die zunehmende Internationalisierung der Forschung auf nationale und internationale Kooperationen in Form von Publikationen in wissenschaftlichen Zeitschriften hat. Durch die voranschreitende Globalisierung und Internationalisierung haben nationale und internationale Kooperationen stark zugenommen. Zu den wichtigsten Gründen für (internationale) Kooperationen in den Mathematik, Ingenieur-, Natur- und Technikwissenschaften sowie der Medizin zählen unter anderen die Reputation der Forschungsorganisation und der Mitautoren, eine höhere Sichtbarkeit innerhalb der wissenschaftlichen Gemeinschaft, mehr Möglichkeiten für interdisziplinäre Forschung oder auch eine bessere Ausstattung der Labore. Heute sind bereits ein Drittel aller Forschungsartikel weltweit das Ergebnis wissenschaftlicher Kooperationen und lediglich ein Viertel wird von einem Autoren verfasst. Übertragen auf die Organisation der Forschung bedeutet der von Humboldt geprägte Leitsatz "in Einsamkeit und Freiheit", dass wissenschaftliche Forschung nicht mehr in alleiniger Verantwortung eines Wissenschaftlers durchgeführt wird, sondern das Ergebnis von Kooperationen ist. Netzwerke werden immer wichtiger, um gemeinsame Interessen zu teilen, an einer Fragestellung zu arbeiten sowie die aus der Forschung gewonnenen Erkenntnisse gemeinsam zu publizieren. Wissenschaftler, Organisationen und Länder unterscheiden sich dahingehend, wie sie ihre Forschung organisieren und folglich auch darin, wie sie ihre wissenschaftliche Zusammenarbeit gestalten. Diese Wege sind abhängig von der geografischen Lage und Größe des Hochschul- und Wissenschaftssystems, dem organisationalen Feld und den Einzelorganisationen. In dieser Arbeit werden unterschiedliche Muster wissenschaftlicher Zusammenarbeit präsentiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen massiven Anstieg wissenschaftlicher Kooperationen in Form von gemeinsamen Publikationen im Zeitverlauf. Bis in die 1990er Jahre hinein publizierten die Wissenschaftler in den hier untersuchten Länder (Frankreich, Deutschland, Großbritannien, USA, Japan, China, Belgien und Luxemburg) hauptsächlich in Alleinautorenschaft. Erst danach kam es zu einem Anstieg an Kooperationen: Im Jahr 2000 wurden lediglich 37 Prozent aller Artikel von einem Autor verfasst. Im Jahr 2010 erreichte der Anteil einen Tiefststand von lediglich einem Fünftel Alleinautorenschaften (siehe Tabelle 6, S. 279f). Allerdings unterschieden sich die Länder hinsichtlich ihres Anteils an Ko-Autorenschaften zum Teil deutlich voneinander. Literatur Powell, J. J. W. & Dusdal, J. (2016). Europe's Center of Science: Science Productivity in Belgium, France, Germany, and Luxembourg. EuropeNow, 1(1). http://www.europenowjournal.org/2016/11/30/europes-center-of-science-science-productivity-in-belgium-france-germany-and-luxembourg/. Zugriff: 13.12.2016. Powell, J. J. W. & Dusdal, J. (2017a): Measuring Research Organizations' Contributions to Science Productivity in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math in Germany, France, Belgium, and Luxembourg. Minerva, (). Online first. DOI:10.1007/s11024-017-9327-z. Powell, J. J. W. & Dusdal, J. (2017b im Druck). The European Center of Science Productivity: Research Universities and Institutes in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. IN Powell, J. J. W., Baker, D. P. & Fernandez, F. (Hg.) The Century of Science: The Worldwide Triumph of the Research University, International Perspectives on Education and Society Series. Bingley, UK, Emerald Publishing. Powell, J. J. W., Baker, D. P. & Fernandez, F. (2017, im Druck). The Century of Science: The Worldwide Triumph of the Research University, International Perspectives on Education and Society Series. Bingley, UK, Emerald Publishing. Powell, J. J. W., Fernandez, F., Crist, J. T., Dusdal, J., Zhang, L. & Baker, D. P. (2017, im Druck). The Worldwide Triumph of the Research University and Globalizing Science. IN Powell, J. W., Baker, D. P. & Fernandez, F. (Hg.) The Century of Science: The Worldwide Triumph of the Research University, International Perspectives on Education and Society Series. Bingley, UK, Emerald Publishing.
In CHINA aktuell sind bisher drei systematische Überblicksartikel zu den Beziehungen zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der VR China erschienen, und zwar in der Juni- Ausgabe 1985 ("Kaleidoskop der deutsch-chinesischen Beziehungen. Eine Zwischenbilanz anläßlich der Visite Zhao Ziyangs", S.363-373), in der Dezember-Ausgabe 1985 ("Die deutschchinesischen Beziehungen: besser als je zuvor - Zwischenbilanz 1985", S.814-824) und in der Juli-Ausgabe 1987 ("Das deutsch-chinesische Beziehungswunder", S.555-575). Mit dem folgenden Beitrag wird eine Darstellung und Analyse der bilateralen Beziehungen zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der VR China in den Bereichen Politik, Wirtschaft, wissenschaftlich-technologische Zusammenarbeit, Entwicklungszusammenarbeit und Kultur seit August 1987 vorgenommen.
. ■--J»*^-K»£^->-^^,rHHfeH '• MILLSB, PniNTGR. QETTVaeURQ. '*^'*i 1 T 11 tljn.li 11 lYllmjTyiljLjuijLiliiU'I'kixijr •^^•'-^^•'-^s^'-^s^.^^ESsast liJxr FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. J. R. STINE & SON, purpisl^er, CHAMBERSBURG ST. C. B. KITZMILLER, -DEALER TN— Boofc^ and j&joeg, GETTYSBURG, PA. Ready for Fall and Winter. Suits to Order—Prices $12.00 to $3500; Trousers, $2.50 to $9.00 ALL KINDS OF REPAIRING DONE. All the new effects in Check and Over Plaids you will find at THE LEADING TAILOR, CLOTHIER AND GENTS' FURNISHER, J. \i, ]fl/ers, 11 Balto. St., Gettysburg, Pa. S. B. ALCOTT, —AGENT FOR— Browning King & Co., Merchant Tailor, Sew York. Suits $12.00 up, Overcoats $12.00 up, Pauts $4.00. Fit and workmanship guaranteed. R. A. WONDERS' Corner Ci§ar Parlors. A FULL LINE OF Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, &c. Scott's Cor. Opp. Eagle Hotel, Gettysburg EPH. H. MINNIGH Manufacturer, Wholesale und Retail Dealer in Confectionery and Ice Cream, Oysters in Season. News Depot & Subscription Agency, MAIN ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. Sole Maimf'r of Dr. Tyler's Cough Drops FINE CIGARS AND SMOKER'S ARTICLE. Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG JOHN fl. WW, CONFECTIONERY AND ICE CREAM, OYSTERS STEWED AND FRIED. No: 17, BALTIMORE STREET. COLLEGE OK PWsidans § Sur^ons, BALTIMORE, MI>. The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Baltimore, Maryland, is a well equipped school. Four ses-sions are required for graduation. For full information send for the annual catalogue, or write to THOMAS OPIE, M. D., Dean. Cor. Calvert and Saratoga Sts. The (qett^bui'g JVJefcufiJ, Entered at the Post Office at Gettysburg as second-class matter. VOL. V. GETTYSBURG, PA., JANUARY, 1898. No. 9. STAFF: EDITOR-IN-CHIEF, ALUMNI EDITOR, IV. H. Bruce Carney. '99. Rev. F. D. Garland BUSINESS MANAGER, ADVISORY BOARD ASSISTANT EDITORS, steward W. Herman, 99. prgf \ A Himgs ' Robert W. Woods, '9S. AssT. Bus. MANAGER, " G. D. Stanley, M.D. Win. J. Klinefelter, '99. Reuben Z. Imler, '00. » J.W. Richard, D.D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price One Dollar a year in advance, single copies Fifteen cents. Sudents, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address, The Gettysburg Hercury, Gettysburg, Penna. CONSTANCY AND GROWTH. BY REV. G. M. DIPPENDERFER, A. M., '93. Individuals, parties, associations and institutions, are frequently charged with inconstancy, when the fact is, they are simply growing and developing. Constancy is a characteristic which cannot be rightly estimated by its own intrinsic merit, but which must depend for its value upon the way in which it is mani-fested. Primarily its meaning is to stand firm, and with a great many persons this means, a cessation of motion. Yet in all nature, including human nature, motion is just what makes real stability possible. The earth is so often 70 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. taken as a model of all that is firm, solid and enduring yet we know well that her rapid and regular whirl through space, is the imperative condition of her stability. We often hear people say, "as inconstant as the wind," yet we know that the continual changing of its currents is the best possible fulfillment of its purposes. The stagnant, motionless pool breeds decay and corrup-tion ; whilst the swiftly flowing stream is clear and pure. So in physical life, it is the circulation of the blood, the beating of the heart, the regular performance of every function, that constitutes health and vitality, as well as utility, while quiescence or cessation of action means death. Knowing this to be a fact, often when we speak of the mental or moral life of the world, we find that stability and firmness, which we call constancy, is translated—a full stop put to motion. To be constant to a friend, WH are told, is to preserve the friendship exactly where it is ; to be constant to a party is to cling to it unreservedly; to be constant to opinions, is to hold them precisely as they always have been held ; to be constant to the memory of some honored man, is to maintain and uphold all that he upheld, and condemn all that he condemned. Anyone who is not sat-isfied with this, but who feels within him a desire to push onward and upward, longing to climb heights that have never been trodden, or to enter a new, untried realm of thought or fancy, undertake some new endeavor, such a one is called fickle, inconstant and unstable. There are those who resent the mental growth, and ambitious exten-sion of their friends and fellowmen, when their expanding faculties need more stimulus and greater scope for action, or if they need others to fill their enlarged ca-pacities for influence and activity. Such people will not hesitate to brand these as inconstant and unstable, when the truth is, their only offence has been development. There are partisans in our day, who brand as disloyal any member of their political faith, who detects fallacies and corruptions in it, and thus banish the very element most needful for its own vitality. There are those who adhere so firmly to all the beliefs of some great man of past times and preserve every mole and. wrinkle, so that they cannot imagine the world to have made any progress since, and they would regard any one a traitor to his memory if he should presume to differ with their patron saint's views, or attempt to supplement his thought. This is a mistake ; they forget that a Washington in statesmanship, a Newton in science, a Froebel in educa-tion, a Luther in theology, would not have remained stationary, had they lived on to the present time. Their activity in their own age proves this. Then, too, they fail to perceive that the best way of honoring their mem-ory is not by clinging like wax to the particular point to which they had come, when death stopped their progress, but by cultivating, as they did, the healthy growth of the mental, moral and religious life. To accuse anyone of inconstancy because he cannot stand still in his thought, or in his heart, is like charging the child with inconstancy because he can no longer wear the clothes that once fitted him, or find pleasure in the toys that once amused him. Is constancy then a myth ? Is there nothing to which we owe unhesitating allegiance, and unswerving loyalty ? May we yield to every passing whim, and flutter about in aimless vaccillation with impunity? Assuredly not. There is a constancy, binding and imperative upon us, which makes room for all progress and is in a line with all growth. It is constancy to our highest ideal—to truth, to duty, to fellowman, to self. It tolerates no way sta-tions ; is content with no point short of its highest and best attainment. It honors and clings to all that is noble, all that is pure, all that is wise, all that is true, as far as it can be discovered; it only loosens its hold on one step, to take another in the same direction, higher and loftier. When we fail to move forward, have no desire for more truth, do not long for more knowledge, are satisfied and complacent, content to fold our arms and rest upon our oars, only to drift along with the tide, then we are I tfj&dfci 72 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. inconstant to our highest ideal, and are unfaithful to the voice of conscience. As long as our minds and hearts are growing, will our ideals be rising and expanding, and drawing us upward and onward to follow them. Discouragements and trials may daunt us, sacrifices may be necessary, but advancement must be made, and if pleasure, comfort, or ease stand in the way they must be brushed aside with ruthless hand. Constancy to our own highest thoughts, noblest pur-poses, to the voice of truth whenever we hear it, to the best that we can discover both within us and around us —this is the constancy which goes band in hand with the fullest life, and its richest attainments. Whoever ignores the law of growth in the human mind, or resists its process in himself or others, wars against the very principle of life itself, and all that makes life worth living. The eternal God hath thus peculiarly and richly endowed man, and striving for the attainment of his fullest development and truest ideal is a mark of genuine constancy. What is true in a general sense in all the walks of life, is especially true in the developing and formative period of college days. Don't be afraid to launch out into independent and original thought, nor to strive toward the attainment of a lofty ideal. Let not the fear of adverse criticism or the false accusation of inconstancy bar you from scaling the heights of independent thought and advancement. For remember, a.s "eternal vigilance is the price of liberty," so eternal progress is the price of sta-bility. It is thus each year of life comes to us—for each day a clean, white page, and we are artists whose duty it is to put something beautiful on the pages one by one; or we are historians, and must give to the page some record of work, or duty, or victory to enshrine and carry away. THE GBTTYSBUEG MERCURY. 73 -OUR ENCOUNTER WITH COL. LEHMANOSKY.1' BY REV. J. G. HARRIS, '39. This fall fifty-four years ago we attended a meeting of the Synod of the West at Hopeful Church, Ky., ten miles south of Cincinnati, as a fraternal delegate from the English Synod of Ohio. There we met the renowned Pole, Col. Lehmanosky, who boasted that he was present at the burning of Moscow, and the subsequent disastrous retreat of the French ; and also at the unearthing of the Spanish Inquisition, and helped to bring to light the horrid instruments of lorture with which the Spanish officials punished offensive Protestants. At the proper time we presented our credentials, and made a few remarks about the difficulty of gathering our scattered members into strategic points, where our influ-ence would be felt, as in Pennsylvania and Maryland, where we had compact congregations, in every flourishing town. The Col. now rose, and lifted his tall, well-devel-oped form to its full height, and pointing his finger right at us, in a stentorian voice, he began : "Sir, I know more about the Lutheran church than you do." We must con-fess that this rude assault made us feel as if we had an elephant on our hands. He then expatiated upon the great-ness of our Church in Europe, that it was numerically larger than all Protestant denominations put together, not neglecting to emphasize the parts he played in the wars of Napoleon. We soon saw that he was making an effort to impress the minds of the brethren with his immense im-portance. His most extraordinary statement was : "And now I have sheathed my sword, and present myself as a peaceful soldier of Jesus Christ, and can preach in foui-languages, Polish, French, German and English." We did not feel able to unravel this big bundle of red tape, be-cause we had no data but his own assertion. But as he had used us as a victim of his self-gratification, we re-solved to give him a chestnut to feed his vanity. When the crisis came, we told him we were delighted with his grandiloquent speech, and gratified to learn that so pro- 74 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. found a scholar and distinguished a gentleman was also such a good Lutheran To our surprise he seized the chestnut in good faith, and then all was lovely. What became of the old hero ? By the assistance of some educated friends he prepared some good lectures on the Napoleon wars, and made several tours to the east-ern states, where he sometimes had good patronage. He must have been at Gettysburg, for we learned that Dr. Krauth, ST., pronounced him a myth; but he was more than a myth. He must have seen hard service, and his familiarity with the scenes he described is a convincing proof that he was there. Perhaps his chief fault was his extravagant self-assertion. At length the infirmities of old age drew the curtain of night around him and he fell asleep, probably where he lived, in the peaceful village of Knightstown, Indiana. The brethren of the Synod of the West meant it well, when they licensed him, but the attempt to transform one of Napoleon's war-dogs into a peaceful minister of the gospel was a signal failure. His restless, domineering temper conld not have held a congregation three months. He gave the command and if they did not obey him in-stantly he court-martialed them. The moral of the above event is: Be prepared for every emergency. The moment we step from the door of our peaceful abodes we must encounter the flotsam and jetsam of men and women who shipwrecked fortune, morals, character and even salvation ; we must breathe the atmosphere of a community where wrong sits upon the throne and right stands upon the scaffold; we must look upon the shame of old Noah, perpetrated under the sanction of a government license. The unexpected is sure to come—not once, but often. What are we to do ? Arm ourselves ? Certainly not in times of peace. Experience has taught men, that where one perishes in a thousand for want of the trusted weapon, a dozen perish by assuming the role of mock-heroism. The best panoply in times of trouble and danger is the gar-ment of a meek and quiet spirit! THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 75 SHOULD THE GAME OF FOOT-BALL, AS NOW PLAYED, BE ABOL-ISHED BY LAW. AFFIRMATIVE. Probably at no time since the flowery days of Greece has the motto, "Mens sana in corpore sano," been so faith-fully observed as now. Men realize that, if they are to attain to the highest degree of intellectual development, due regard must be paid to physical development. In view of this truth much attention is paid to athletics, and games that tend to develop muscle and at the same time bring into action mental powers have been encouraged. It is safe to say that no game has satisfied these condi-tions so well as foot-ball; hence its great popularity. Foot-ball has been played for many generations, and, among the many other forms of out-door amusements, has usually been given the preference by active and brawny youths. However in the course of many years the game has been changed very materially. From time to time new rules of playing have been adopted, and old ones dropped, until the game, as now played, is very intricate and scientific. Moreover there are in it, at present, not a few objectionable features, the principal one being a large element of danger. In view of this latter consideration, many thinking people have asked for the abolishment of the game by law. As before stated, foot-ball, being very scientific, brings into play mental as well as physical powers ; hence it is natural that we should find it the favorite college game. In fact foot-ball is generally looked upon as dis-tinctively a. college game, and as such we shall first treat it, letting it be understood that, with very few exceptions, the conditions affecting college foot-ball also exist in the game as played by our c;ty and large town teams. It is generally conceded, even by the most zealous ad-vocates of foot-ball, that it is a dangerous form of recrea-tion; but these advocates, on the other hand, endeavor to counter-balance this objection by many arguments in sup- 7G THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. port of the game. They speak of its physical benefits, and set forth, in glowing terms, its demand for scientific playing. They laud it as a magnificent, manly contest, and pay a glowing tribute to it as a help to telf command. It would be rash to say that foot ball has no physical benefits ; but it would be absurd, in view of many exam-ples to the contrary, to say that it gives rise to no serious physical injuries. Granting that foot-ball is a good out-door exercise and a great developer of muscle, are there not other athletic games that may lay just claim to these good qualities, without containing so large an element of danger ? The primary object of out-door games is exercise, but does the modern foot-ball game usually demand more exercise than is conducive to health ? Under the present rules, there are made in nearly every game, plays which. in order to be successful, demand that all regard for life or limb be laid aside. Almost superhuman effort is put forth ; every muscle is strained to its utmost, and the un-naturally heavy and-rapid heart-beats of the player indi-cate the highest pitch of feverish excitement, as with ut-most speed, he runs the gauntlet of those who are endeav-oring as best they can to hurl him violently to the ground. It is needless to describe the various features of the game, they are familiar to all: the frantic rush which accom-panies the kick-off, the dangerous interference and tack-ling, the ludicrous and yet fearful "pile-up" of bodies and limbs, the disentanglement, and then the removal of the unconscious hero (?), who had the misfortune of being beneath about half a ton of avoirdupois, and then the escorting off of the "gridiron" by his comrades of the other hero (?), who only had a broken bone or a bad sprain. And yet, of all games, this is the one fraught with the most physical benefits ! It is a bad reflection on any game, when the presence of physicians is a very important consideration. And yet a first-class game of foot-ball is not complete without one or more doctors upon th3 field to care for the injured. However, the broken or sprained limbs are by no means the most important injuries sustained on the "gridiron.' u THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 77 as many prominent physicians, who have investigated the matter, testify. The injuries received are often inter-nal and are not given particular attention at the time, but in later years their effects become very manifest. More-over not a few men have been made prematurely old by their former long-continued over-exertion on the foot-ball field. Is the game, as now played, well adapted to college athletics ? We answer no. The fundamental idea of col-lege athletics is physical exercise. This exercise is needed in proportion as a student is possessed of, or deficient in, bodily health and strength. But with foot-ball the physi-cally weak man is thrust into the background, while the big, strong fellows invariably push to the front and get the positions on 1he team, and, with their fellow-players, monopolize the field, and the men, not blessed with such healthy bodies have the pleasure of watching the practice from the "bleachers." Hence foot-ball fails here, as the men who need the exercise do not get it, and those who do not stand in such great need of it get more than is essen-tial to health. But it is such a scientific game, and we can not afford to give it up. We believe that the fact that it is so scien-tific is the secret of foot-ball's popularity. However we maintain that this is one of the principal causes of danger. Permit us to refer to the published statement of Mr. Harry Beecher, who was a famous player on the Yale team. Mr. Beecher says in an article published in the New York "World": "Football has been over-scienced, plays are attempted which are perhaps too onerous for the human frame to stand." And there are many other foot-ball men who are beginning to take a similar view of the game as now played. What shall we say to the statement that it is a mag-nificent and manly contest? The nature of our answer will, of course, depend upon what we consider magnificent and manly. We can not think it an exhibition of manliness when twenty-two stalwart young fellows engage in a con-test which ' almost unvariably results in bad bruises, 78 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "black-eyes", bandaged beads, or broken bones. More-over there are men in the average game, who either be-cause of the influence of excitement or on account of some personal grudge against an opposing player, will take un-fair advantage of opponents, frequently disabling them for the rest of the game. Besides all this the idea of our young men putting themselves on exhibition in contests for money, is not at all pleasing. Is foot-ball a help to self-command ? In some cases we believe it is; in most cases it is not. From personal ob-servation we know that in the average game many con-temptible things are done by players who are under the influence of anger. The treatment received in foot-ball certainly has no tendency to render a man's temper an-gelic, and although the player may not give verbal ex-pression to his feelings, he nevertheless gives forcible expression to his anger in other ways, not conductive to the comfort of the other player against whom he holds a grudge. Moreover it is not unusual for one to hear of prominent players being disqualified on account of some mean and unfair play, which was made under the impulse of anger. In view of these facts we contend that foot-ball is not very valuable as a help to self-command. In the foregoing we have endeavored to treat our sub-ject with all fairness. We have refrained from citing examples of terrible accidents met with on the foot-ball field. We might have spoken of the many who have been crippled for life, of those whose reason has been destroyed, and of others who have been killed ; but such examples are so familiar that they need no further mention. And now, after this brief review of some of the chief dangers connected with foot-ball, the question arises: Should our government, by its silence, sanction any game that endangers the lives of citizens ? There are not a few forms of amusements and recreations, so called, which, be-cause of their dangerous tendencies, have been declared illegal by the State. Therefore, why should foot-ball which unfortunately has become so strongly characterized by violence and brutality, be tolerated ? We maintain THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 79 that the enactment of a law against the game would be a timely and necessary move. Nor do we stand alone in the positions we have taken, as is shown by the anti-foot ball agitation in the legislatures of two States, one of which has already passed a law making the playing of this game a misdemeanor. Athletic games, all sides considered, are very bene-ficial, and we believe that all that foot-ball needs, in order to be the most desirable game of the athletic field, is the introduction of rules that will do away with the present dangerous plays. However, we must treat the game as it now is played. Hence, in view of the arguments pre-sented, we conclude by repeating what we have been en-deavoring to prove, viz: "The game of foot-ball, as now played, should be abolished by law." R. D. C, '00. SHOULD THE GAME OF FOOT-BALL, AS NOW PLAYED, BE ABOL-ISHED BY LAW. NEGATIVE. Without a doubt, the American people are, next to the French, the most devoted to fads. At present the pre-dominant idea, especially in the college world, is that of athletics. We are foot-ball mad. Thousands clamor for admittance to the great games, and the whole country breathlessly awaits the result. Opposition has been, until this season, swept away by the tide of popular senti-ment. This season, however, accidents have been more nu-merous than in past years, and there is beginning a cry against foot-ball. The legislatures of Georgia, and Mich-igan have passed bills forbidding the playing, in -their states, of any game of foot-ball to which admission is charged. Our question, therefore, is timely, and should be well considered. Its statement is : "Resolved, That the game of foot- Ui I 80 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ball, as now played, should be abolished by law." By this we may understand that the game, in its present form, and consequent danger to players, be abolished and that the abolishment be by law. We shall endeavor to prove that the game of foot-ball is a manly, beneficial exercise, and that its present form reduces personal danger to a minimum. The foot-ball player of to-day attains, under skillful training, the highest possible degree of health and strength. He is fed nothing but the best and most nour-ishing food, is kept from any indulgence that would in-jure him, and every part of his body is trained and exer-cised until it is as perfect as it can be made. This is of the highest value to anyone, but is especially so in the case of the student, whose body, weakened by his seden-tary habits, loses its vigor if he does not take sufficient exercise. In this training he is taught self-restraint, and is kept from forming the bad habits which are too often contracted by students. The game itself provides an out-let for the animal spirits which exist in every man, and which show themselves in others by student pranks and debauches. The foot-ball man is not his own master, but is jealously watched and guarded, and his actions are so guided that he must develop into a robust, splendid speci-men of manhood. Foot-ball cultivates quickness of intellect and percep-tion. "Keep your eye on the ball", is the oft-repeated maxim, and, in following it, the player learns to decide on his best course of action and to act in almost the same moment. He learns to keep a cool head and a steady tem-per. Foot-ball has reached its highest perfection in the contests which take place betweea the leading colleges and universities, and has, indeed, become an all-important factor in college life. The rivalry born in these contests impels the players to their best endeavors, and through it young men learn what loyalty is ; then it is but a step to patriotism. If the United States will ever call forth her THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 81 sons in time of her need, among the first to answer will be the brawny, cool-headed men, who, in their youth, con-tested for alma mater. Foot-ball in its present form involves the least possi-bility of injury that there can be in a game of its nature. Its plays are made with such science, its penalties for foul playing are so strictly enforced, and the members of teams are so well trained that there need be no serious injuries. We are speaking, however, of teams composed of gentle-men, men who endeavor to raise foot-ball. It must be admitted that there are some teams who play so brutally that they should be severely punished. But the real foot-ball player is not of their stamp. Such men as they have laid foot-ball open to the charge of "Brutal! Brutal!" which we often hear now. But is it right to brand the game with the fault of some who pretend to play it ? Yet statistics show that foot-ball has a lower percentage of serious accidents than many other sports which are continually indulged in, such as yachting, swimming, hunting, bicycling, against which we hear almost nothing. In addition, nearly all serious accidents have occurred in games between inexperienced, badly-trained teams, or have happened to men who were not in physical condition. The American people are not so blood-thirsty and its young men are not such fools that they would take de-light in watching or taking part in foot-ball if it were as brutal as some would make us think. We are still far from the Roman idea of sport. It is an insult to our humanity that some should demand its abolishment by law. If foot-ball were so brutal as to require that, it would now be a memory. Public sentiment would have killed it long ago. Its opponents say that, in the case of collegiate foot-ball, it takes too much time from the studies, that it car-ries rivalry too far, that it encourages gambling, that thousands of dollars are wasted on it; but remember that the athletic men have been the best students in the major-ity of cases, that gentlemen will never carry rivalry too wwiBiiS*" 82 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. far, that gamblers will gamble on the slightest pretext, and that this money could be put to no better purpose than the building up of the youth in body and mind. These pessimists draw gloomy analogies between foot-ball and the gladiatorial combats of Rome, and sigh as they think of the Spanish bull-fights. But let us see if we cannot dra,w a more pleasing analogy than these. Do you remember that the Greeks were the most beautiful race in the world ? Do you remember that they regarded symmetry of shape and health of body as among the high-est gifts of the gods ? Have you read of the Olympic games, of how they worshiped their god by athletic con-test, of how he who had now in these had obtained the highest honor, of how many a victor stumbled over the goal with almost dying breath ? Do you know that Greek literature and Greek civilization were the highest the world has ever seen ? So let us hope that the present in-terest in athletics is not merely a fad, but that our young men may continue to build up their bodies, and, at length, with a perfect physical race will come even higher mental development. '00. ABOUT FEMALE EDUCATION IN GERMANY. BY MISS ADELE LUX ENBERG. "German women all know several languages." "Don't you play and sing? Of course you do; all Ger-mans are musical." These are statements often made in talking to or about German men and women ; but others are equally often heard : "There is no higher education for women in Germany." "German women do not care much for education beyond what is offered in the common school!" These two groups of statements differ so widely, that there must needs be some untruth in one or the other. Indeed, there is much in the first and more in the second, which has little, if any, claim to veracity. Truly, many Germans of both sexes know several lan-guages, but more do not, yet they are highly cultured and useful members of society. Many people in Germany THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 83 sing and play, fewer do it well; but there are still a great number—and thanks be to them—who recognize that music is a divine gift not bestowed upon everybody, a rare talent vastly diffsrent from the love of music and not to be won by hammering and squeaking and wasting precious time and money to the vexation of your "nearest" fellow-creatures ; in short, there are a good many German men and women innocent of the practice of bad playing and worse singing; many who do not play at all, though in general they may be persons of high mental develop-ment. So much for what "all Germans know and do." To find out what "German women have not," it is per-haps best to state first what they have. Several years ago, especially while the Women's Con-gress of the World's Fair was in preparation, people went over to Germany to gather facts about the "Woman's Question," or "Female Education in Germany." They brought home doleful reports about that "poor German sister" living in a country without Female Colleges, un-able to receive any education higher than that afforded by common schools, "Msedchenschulen," forced to forget the little she learned, while sitting, for the rest of her life, be-hind the mending-basket or standing before the kitchen fire and washtub. Poor German sisters, I pity you, in-deed, but not for the state of educational affairs in your country, which, like everything else in the "Old Country", have their slow but sure development and which you will improve according to your timely needs! What makes me pity you is rather the wrong idea formed of you, and circulated widely by persons that had no eyes to see, though tongues to speak, while those who did sec you aright, and who did not skim "the Continent and Great Britain in a 3 months' trip", but dwelt with you and in-quired into your conditions, took home in their souls a sympathetic picture of you, and, like something dear and precious, only occasionally disclosed it to near friends in private conversation. They had found the German woman to be for the most part a thorough, well informed and well Snn ili • 1 84 THE GETTYSBURG MERC UKY. read person, though not often a fluent converser, and all that for good reasons. For if, as a rule, the German girl leaves school at 16, she begins it at the tender age of 6, entering then not uufrequently with a fair knowledge of the "3 R's" that haunt American pub-lic school children from 8 to 10 years of age, but acquired, beside other preparation for earnest study, in the Kinder-garten of Germany. And what is offered to the child dur-ing the following 10 years ? That depends upon the school selected by the parents who must consider the future of their children as well as the funds at disposal for their education, which is not free, nor even cheap, but a con-siderable expense, and perhaps just for that reason highly prized and distinctly planned from the very beginning. This being a mere outline, it does not pretend to be ex-haustive of the subject, and only the principal and long established institutions will be considered. There is first of all the "Buergerschule fuer Msedchen", where the native tongue, arithmetic, history, geography, natural sciences and drawing are taught—and well taught—, sometimes also one foreign language. This school can be finished at fourteen, which is the earliest age at which boys and girls are permitted to quit school, education from the 6th to the 15th year being compulsory for both sexes. There is also the "Hcehere Msedchenschule", which has 9 to 10 grades or "Klassen", where beside the afore-mentioned studies, French is taught very early, and English is taken up about three or four years later, giving as a rule a seven years' course in the one, and four to five years in the other language. To Universal History is added History of Art, or of Civilization; to Arithmetic either Plane Geometry or Algebra ; to Botany, Zoology and Min-erology, which take a very important place even in the Buergerschule. The plan of the "Hcehere M. Sch" adds Physics, Chemistry Anthropology (Physiology). Moreover the prolonged course admits a broader and deeper knowl-edge of literature, geography and history, as well as a more frequent and advanced writing of essays. With all this there runs through the entire course of every school, THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 85 "BeligionsUnterricht," religious instruction, beginning with Biblical history, continuing through the New Testa-ment and Catechism, ending with Church History. Ge-sang- Unterr-icht"—chorus and choral-singing being also a required study. Considering that all instruction is given by graduated and efficient teachers, and that every study, after it has once been taken up, retains a place throughout the curri-culum— all instruction moving in concentric circles, en-larging on the same subject every consecutive year—it ap-pears as if a young German lady about 16 leaves school with a thorough foundation in everything taught in boys' Gymnasium, with the exclusion only of the dead lan-guages, and the addition of the modern. No mother, how-ever considers her daughter's education finished at that stage, though lack of means may put "Fortbildungsschule", "Selects", "Lyceum" out of her reach. At these institu-tions the same studies may be pursued under University Professors and Specialists, who have also large private classes of female students. Private teaching is of far greater importance and extent in the Old Country than in the New World, and no foreigner without a broad circle of acquaintances among German families can judge of the means of Higher Female education. One of the principal aims of school-instructions is to start the student right in all directions and to fill him with love of study that he or she may go on with it after the years of compulsion have passed. And it must be said that even those girls who cannot afford regular courses after the obligatory time, will study on by themselves, with friends, by reading for and after public lectures, exchanging lessons with foreign-ers, correspondence, and so on. But where do those efficient teachers and specialists come from, as women are not admitted to German Univer-sities ? Are they all men ? By no means all, though a good many of them are, and a lady-teacher must be very effi-cient to come out victorious in the competition. Our Uni-versities are not training-schools for teachers, and a "Ph. D." from a German University means not in the least a mmm 86 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. fine teacher of his specialty, unless the owner of that de-gree have gone through a "Lehrer-Seminar," of which women have the equivalent in the "Lehrerinnen—Bild-ungs— Anstalt" or Teachers' Training Institute. There in a course of three full years, all school studies are taken up from the very beginning, embracing, though in a broader way. the Curriculum of the Hcehere Msedchenschule." This is done for the sake of the knowledge, but more es-pecially for the methods best adapted to the moral end to be reached by each study, and for the special literature pertaining to it. History of Education, as furthered by the lives and works of great teachers of all times and na-tions, psychology and theory of methodical teaching, are studied by means of lectures, reading, essays, theses and practical teaching. All this, including singing and draw-ing, is obligatory ; the two foreign languages and piano playing, however, are elective and lead to the advanced degree of "Teacher for Higher Female Institutions," while Avithoutthem the Diploma is only granted as "Teacher for Girls' Schools." This degree is added to a specification still containing 12 main studies with a final written and verbal examination in each. And these "Lehrerinnen- Seminare," as they are called, are by no means attended only by women who want to make teaching their profes-sion, but by all who desire a higher education than that afforded by the "Hoehere Msedchenschule." As has already been said, this sketch cannot aim at completeness, it only aspires to give a general idea of Ger-man Female educational institutions; especially of those which rank foremost in attendance and age. Of the few "Msedchengymnasien" founded lately in the principal progressive cities and which follow exactly the plan of the male "Gymnasium," mention shall be made, though they are neither old nor numerous enough to take a decided place in the female education of Germany. They are a necessity, as stepping-stones to the opening of the Univer-sities to women, to the Highest Education in Germany. They have been brought about by the efforts of German women ; and if an insight into the older institutions dis- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 87 pels the illusion that there is no higher female Education in Germany, the new "Msedchengymnasium" with its long history of struggle for existence, is an evidence of the great interest taken by German women in higher edu-cation. ATTENTION. BY GEO. A. GREISS. A recent psychology defines attention, as "the volun-tary concentration of the mind on one thought object." If the term mind is used to designate the entire psychical action, we may define attention, as the concentration of the powers of thought, feeling and volition upon one ob-ject or idea. Attention, as defined is voluntary and not instinctive. As the will varies in strength in different persons, so the attention of those persons varies in accu-racy and intensity. Most psychical states, however, are affected to a great-er or less extent by the physical condition of the person. Indeed, the physical condition of the individual is no small factor in the matter of attention. Here, then we must take into account the circumstances, and environ-ment of the individual, for they determine to a certain de-gree the physical condition of the person. Thus two ele-ments must be considered in the subject of attention. The one is the will, or the voluntary power of the mind over the mental states ; the other is environment. If the will is strong and the environment is favorable, the quality of attention will naturally be of a high order ; but if the conditions just mentioned are the reverse, then the attention will be of an inferior grade. Very often these ruling factors in attention are brought into direct antagonism, by the one being stronger than the other. To have concentration of thought, the physical must frequently be overcome by the psychical. Let us illus-trate. A student at a university is studying the doctrine of 88 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. the "Person of Christ." After a refreshing walk he is seated at his study-table. He is in a proper state of mind to master the subject before him and he resolves to do so. He opens his book and begins to study the genus idiu-malicum. His entire mental power is directed upon this one subject. The lesson becomes interesting. The stu-dent understands each paragraph, as he proceeds. He comes to the end of the subject, and with a smile of satis-faction says, "I have mastered it." Leaving this subject, he enters upon the next in order, known as the genus ap- Mismaticum, with the same determination. But he hard-ly has begun to read the first line, when some one above him begins to play "Home sweet home," on the violin. The first few strains divert his attention very slightly from the study before him ; but as the music continues, interest in study becomes less. Before the selection is half render-ed, the theological study is changed into a reverie of home. Perhaps the mind of the student cannot be firmly fixed upon his study for the remainder of the evening, and time which might have been profitably spent is lost. This is force of environment. If the will of the student is strong, he can by repeated efforts overcome environment. It is not necessary for any rational being to remain, bound by environment. Every person can, if he tries, rise above his surroundings. Discordant surroundings should be removed if possible. If however the environment is unavoidable, then the will must be used to overcome the obstacle. Since most environment cannot be easily and successfully removed, we see that the will is the principal factor in the matter of attention, and a requisite in deep study. If men could subject their bodies entirely to their minds, who could tell, what results we would have, to what flights of oratory we would soar and what profound depths of philosophy we would fathom. A healthy body is also necessary for intense action of the mind. If the maxim, a sound mind in a sound body, holds true at all, it certainly does in attention. To cultivate a strong will and maintain a healthy body becomes therefore an urgent duty to the diligent student. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 89 The object of the writer is not to discuss attention as a psychical state or its place in psychology, but to look at and point out the necessity and value of an acutely culti-vated attention to the student, and also to show the de-mands of the age, for men of intensity and concentration of thought. This age is called an age of specialists. It demands men who will master their particular sphere of life. Since attention to any particular work, leads to the mastery of that work, and since mastery leads to perfec-tion, there is hardly any further proof needed for the ne-cessity of earnest and energetic men. When a chemist wishes to discover silver in a stone supposed to contain the precious metal, he does not hold the whole bulk into the flame, but takes one particle, puts it on charcoal and concentrates all the heat possible on it by means of the blow-pipe. The physician, in order to diagnose a case, does not take the patient and place the entire body under a microscope, but places one microbe or germ of the disease under the powerful microscope which concentrates all the rays possible upon this one atom. In our studying we must direct all our attention upon the subject before us and bring all the rays of intellect and reason to converge upon one object of thought. Then we can dig out the nuggets of truth and present them to others who are desirous to receive them. Why is military discipline so rigid ? In order to ac-complish what is required of a soldier, strict attention to one thing is necessary. The same reason holds true for the rigor of German universities. For a complete mastery of any study, the mastery of the parts of that study is necessary. Thus we see that the pursuit of our studies re-quires the utmost attention on our part. The reason we very often do n^t grasp a subject is not found in want of mental power, but in the want of application of that power. Why do we go to recitations sometimes in anxiety about the questions that are about to be asked ; or when we are quizzed why do we give answers which either have no bearing on the question, or are at best only a conglom. eration of phrases not conveying any sense ? The answer 00 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. to this question is found in the fact, that we have either applied ourselves too little to the study of the lesson or have not given the proper attention to the question. Some days we go to the lecture room with a clear mind and a healthy body, We can follow the reasoning of the professor without any difficulty. Every argument seems clear and conclusive. When we review the lecture in our rooms, it seems to be a part of our knowledge, and neither new nor strange. On another day we go to the same lecture room. We hear the same professor. The hour drags. The lecture seems dull. The reasoning is obscure. In reviewing this lecture, it seems entirely new and strange. We ask our-selves what is the cause of this change. We remember that we heard the same professor both times; that he showed the same earnestness. We recall, that we followed the lecture with eye and ear each time. The reason for the change is this : the first day we followed the lecture with our closest attention, while on the second day our eyes and ears followed the lecture mechanically and our minds were occupied with thoughts about things miles away and foreign to the lecture entirely. There is an old adage: "Beware of the man of one book " Why ? Because he directs all his energies toward one object. If we would master a lecture or a lesson, we must concentrate our thoughts upon them while studying or listening. "The mind cannot do two things at the same time." The necessity of attention is only superseded by its value. In speaking or reading attention commands attention. When an essay or speech has been well thought out, so that all the materials gathered and the truths used, point to one central thought, it will come with such force when it is presented, that the man of average intelligence will listen. Unity of style and harmony of material, as well as logical reasoning in any production, require the closest attention on the part of the author. But intensity of thought and concentration of mental energy is required not only in the preparation of an essay or speech, but also THE GETTYSBURG MtiRJURY 91 jn the delivery of the same. In the delivery of any pro-duction, there are two parties concerned. The hearer, as well as the speaker, has a part to do. Since earnestness and conviction are the result of per-severing study, and since they go very far toward com-manding the attention of an audience, then the speaker should give his theme thorough investigation and diligent study. Dr. Schaeffer once said, "A teacher is the hest disci-plinarian who says least about discipline and keeps his scholars busy." So he who says l3ast about attention but gives his audience something about which to think, com-mands the best attention. The object of any speech should be to move the hearers. In order to accomplish this the speaker must show by gesture and delivery that he means what he says and that he is a man of earnest convictions. Otherwise he will fail. To-day the world does not notice a careless and listless man, much less call him into a position of public trust. The value of attention is further seen in the fact that when a man has well mastered his subject, embarrassment is removed and time does not hang heavily on his hands. The speaker, being well prepared to discuss his theme, for-gets himself and his audience, and loses himself in the depth of his reasoning. But no matter how well the speaker may be prepared, if the audience is indifferent, the speech has again lost its force and not accomplished its intended purpose. The hearer must also practice and cultivate attention, so that he can follow the speaker in his nights of oratory and in his labyrinth of reason. Be-sides all this it is a mark of good common sense as well as of a disciplined mind, to listen, even if the subject of the speech and the matter of the same is dull and uninterest-ing. There is nothing more discouraging to a speaker than to have his andience look on the floor, or out of the window, or anywhere else than in his face. Give a man your eyes and ears and you will have the best efforts. When he sees that the audience shows an interest in what he says, the speaker will be filled with enthusiasm and 92 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. will carry away all that come within the compass of his eloquence. Since the age demands men who are masters of their situation, and since we are about to go out to battle with the vital problems of the age, let us quit ourselves like men and use our talents toward one end. Then we will attain the highest ideals and win the greatest laurels. THE NOBLEST MAN 1 KNEW. True nobility of character involves much, and, with few exceptions, exists only in the ideal. Absolute truth-fulness, perfect unselfishness, spotless virtue—these are the attributes of a noble man, and he in whose character all are embodied, is surely one whose friendship should be sought. I have known but one man whose character combined all these virtues in the highest degree. He was a friend of my father when both were country boys; and I have often heard of their starting to college together. They had both been fired by ambition to be something more than farmers, and accordingly worked hard to save money enough for the first year at college. They went to a small college in Pennsylvania, and informed the President that they had heard that he could turn out preachers in two years, and that they wanted him to get to work on them. He replied that he could hardly do that, but would do the best for them that he could ; and so they went to work. "Dan" has told me many stories of their early college life, of how "Dave" was always jolly and ready for fun, if it was clean fun; of how he was always without money, yet cheerful and happy; of how, though he was not specially quick in learning, he could hold an audience nearly spell-bound, whether speaking on serious or trivial subjects. After they had passed through Freshman and Soph-more years together, they separated, "Dan" going to obtain a fuller education at a larger college, while "Dave," eager to begin his life's work, abridged his course, and, after two years, sailed away as a missionary. i THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 93 He labored in Africa for nearly twenty-four years. Assistants sent him died or returned in broken health. He buried a wife and three children, victims of the awful climate. But, aided by a splendid constitution and a cheerful disposition, he stuck to his post until friends forced him to leave it. That man was David A. Day, D. D., our Lutheran missionary in Liberia, and the church is now mourning his death at sea, within a little over a hundred miles of the home-land which he longed to reach before he died. To my mind his character combined all the elements of true nobility, true self-sacrifice and virtue; and with these were joined a cheerfulness and rea ly tact which made him inimitable. He was a man of great talent, who could have risen to fame as a theologian and preach-er, but he gave h s life for a neglected people, and his work among them will be an everlasting monument to him. His last words, were "More men, fill up the ranks ;" but who can take his place ? L. A. W., '00. OH, TAKE ME BACK TO GETTYSBURG. (Tune,—Old I'olks at Home.) Around de campus cannons ruuibled, Long years ago. Deie seldom was de ball e'er fumbled, And all de men played low. Now time has covered up their foot-prints, De battle's o'er, And peace reigns over town and campus, De cannon's used no more. CHORUS: All de dearest recollections, Cluster 'round dat spot; Oh, take me back to Gettysburg, She never will be forgot. All round de old place I wandered, Happy and free, And on de midnight studies pondered, Still happiness found me. wtssmM Ij. 94 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. When I was with my classmates playing, Happy was I, Oh! seems I hear them now a-sayiug, "Boys, we will wiu or die." CHORUS— One little room among de others, One dat I love; Its dear remembrance o'er me hovers, No matter where I rove. Oh, if I see those faces never Of class-mates dear, Yet time in vain our bonds can sever, 'Though we be far or near. CHORUS— EDITORS' DESK. "We see not a step before us A s we tread on another year ; But the past is in God's keeping, The future his mercy will clear." * * * Miss Adele Luxenberg, teacher of German in Wilson i Female College at Chambersburg, spent the vacation with Mrs. Dr. Richard of Gettysburg. She was educated in sev-eral of the best institutions'"^ Germany, and is an accom-plished linguist. Her article, "About Female Education in Germany," will be read with interest. * * * WE are reminded of the fact that only two fleeting years separate us from the era toward which we have long looked with great solicitude. What great projects have been set on foot to be accomplished during the last "decade of the 19th century!" A few years ago it was prophesied that all the heathen would hear the gospel yet | this century. Arbitration was to be substituted for inter-national war. There were to be no open saloons, no illiter-acy, no wage, nor race problem, etc., by the 20th century. Who is responsible for the failure to realize these much desired achievments ? Questions like these come to us at this season and few of us can say that we have done as much towards their solution as we might have done. J. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 95 This is a good time to get on the right side of all subjects which affect us. The wise man changes his mind often, the fool never. Let us be stronger advocates of truth. Let us, as students, resolve to do more for our college and her interests. Be enthusiastic. Make better use of the oppor-tunities offered us in class-room, library, literary society, in gymnasium, in society. Economize time, think more, read more, write more. * * SURELY we cannot fault those in a situation to encour-age literary effort with not having done much for us. Those who can be reached by a prize are now encouraged by prizes aggregating nearly $150 right in our own institu-tion. We publish the liberal offer of the Century Co. to college men. If prizes do not tempt to launch into the unknown but enchanting sea of literary experience, there are left the considerations of personal honor, of cnlture, of advertising our almamafcr. Fiction, narration, descrip-tion, verse, are kinds of composition too seldom attempted by us, each of which, like virtue, brings its own reward. ALL students who have had an opportunity to attend any convention of the Young Men's Christian Associa-tion never fail to speak of the practical benefit derived from such meeting. Judging from the reports sometimes given by delegates an indifferent person might be in-fluenced to conclude that there would be no particular advantage in being present at such a gathering. This is a great mistake. You cannot always judge the merits of a student convention by the reports alone. Among the many blessings imparted to every student who attends a convention in the proper spirit, there are three which are particularly manifest. His views are broadened, his spiritual life is wonderfully deepened, and a greater zeal for earnest Bible study is aroused. The pronounced success of the Y. M. C. A. all over the world, as well as all other young people's societies, is due in great measure to the inspiration received through 9 . MPPY, Merchant Tailor. 4', Chambersburg St., Gettysburg. G. E. SPANGLER, (Success? to J, VV. Eichollz & Co.) Ill: U.F.I; IN PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTR UMENTS, STRINGS, Etc. YORK STREET, ist Square, Gettysburg. 1108 THESTNTTT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. Wright's Engraving House, HAS become the recognized leader in unique styles of COLLBQ E and FRA-TERNITY ENORAVINUS and STATION-ERY, College and Class-Day Invitations, engraved and printed from steel plates ; Programmes, Menus, Wedding and Re-ception Invitations, Announcements, etc. etc., Examine prices and styles before ordering elsewhere. 60 Visiting Cards from New Engraved Plates $1.00. ERNESTA. WRIGHT, uoS ChestnutSt., Philadelphia. ~ JOHN L. SHEADS, NEW CIGAR STORE Next door to W. M. Depot, Gettysburg, Pa. P. F. HENNIGT" —DEALER IN— Bread, Rolls, Pretzels Crackers, YORK STREET* GETTYSBURG. ^"Reasonable Rates to Clubs. L. D. IQ Main St., Gettysburg. Grocer, Confectioner and Fruiterer. ICE CREAM and OYSTERS in SEASON. GE TTYSBURG, PA., Main St. Free 'Bus to and from all trains. Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per Jay. Thirty seconds' walk from either depot. DINNER WITH DRIVE OVER FIELD WITH 4 OR MORE $I-35- JOHN E. HUGHES, Prop'r Go To C. A. BLOCHER'S .FOR. Souvenir Spoons, Sword Pins, &c. All Kinds of Jewelry. Repairing a Specialty. Post Office Corner, Centre Square. PHOTOGRAPHER, NO. 3 MAIN STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA. Our new Enameled Aristo Por-traits are equal to Photos made anywhere, and atany price. ^^^^^m^^^^^^m FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. BASE BALL SUPPLIES, Spaldings League Ball, Mits, Masks, etc., Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for Tennis, Golf, Cricket, Track and Field Gymnasium Equipments and Outfits. Complete Catalogue Spri?ig and Summer Sports Free. "THE NAMJE THE GUARANTEE" A. G. SPKLDING, & BROS., New York, Philadelphia, Chicago. S7G. Spangler, & Co. ■&-E ■+- -*■ SvS'l, Fine Groceries,, ♦ ••• +. ^-Q2) Telephone 39, 102 E. Middle St. S. J. CODOt^I, Jr»., DRUGGIST. .DHAI.gR IN. Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Ar-ticles, Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE STREET. R. H. CULP, Second Square, p m York Street. College Emblems, EJVULi ZOTHE, Engraver, Designer and Manufact'g Jeweler. ig SOUTH NINTH STREET; PHILADELPHIA, PA. SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks. Society Badges, Coih'ge Buttons, Fins. Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All goods ordered through C.H.Tilp. BOHRDINC" By Day, Week or Month. Rates reasonable. House equipped with all modern improvements. GROCERY STORE in same buildiug. Full line of goods kept and sold at small profits. House aud Store located on Cor. of College Campus, opposite Brua Chapel. (^"Public Patronage Solicited Samuel H. Tangninbangh, Prop. MENEELY BELLI Troy, N. Y. Manufacturers of SUPERIOR BELLS. The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania College was manufactured at this foundry. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. \m$ Ed^Ei^r JotynJ. Thomson's Sons —DEALER IN— Eats, Shirts, Shoes, Ties, Umbrellas, Gloves, Sal,■//.els, Hose, Poeket Books. Trunks, Telescopes, Rubbers, Etc., Etc., AMOS ECKERT. Job pointer1 ! WEAVER BUILDING, Centre Square. IMPORTERS AND JOBBERS OF * DRUGS, + Nos. IB and 18 W. Qerman street, BALTIMORE, MD. Offer to tlie trade their large aad well-selected stock of DRUGS, MEDICINES, CHEMICALS and PERFUMERY. Make a specialty to have on hand everything required by Pharmacists. A complete stocK can at any time be selected or wants supplied. ALONZO h. THOIvIPSEN, ?Ianui*ar IffiB Iffl I ■ . HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Located on Centre Kquan where McClellan House. formerly slood. 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"PRICES ALWAYS RIGHT" THE LUTHERAN PUBLISHING HOUSE. <• No. 42 North Oth St.,] "v! PHILADELPHIA, PA. ] Acknowledged Headquarters for ANYTHING and EVERYTHING in the way of Books for Churches, Families, Col-leges, and Schools, and lit-erature, for Sunday Schools. Please Remember That by sending your orders M us.j you help hutld up and develop 01 fj the Church institutions, with i
The life path, scientific-pedagogical and public activity of Volodymyr Sokurenko – a prominent Ukrainian jurist, doctor of law, professor, talented teacher of the Lviv Law School of Franko University are analyzed.It is found out that after graduating from a seven-year school in Zaporizhia, V. Sokurenko entered the Zaporizhia Aviation Technical School, where he studied two courses until 1937. 1/10/1937 he was enrolled as a cadet of the 2nd school of aircraft technicians named after All-Union Lenin Komsomol. In 1938, this school was renamed the Volga Military Aviation School, which he graduated on September 4, 1939 with the military rank of military technician of the 2nd category. As a junior aircraft technician, V. Sokurenko was sent to the military unit no. 8690 in Baku, and later to Maradnyany for further military service in the USSR Air Force. From September 4, 1939 to March 16, 1940, he was a junior aircraft technician of the 50th Fighter Regiment, 60th Air Brigade of the ZAK VO in Baku. The certificate issued by the Railway District Commissariat of Lviv on January 4, 1954 no. 3132 states that V. Sokurenko actually served in the staff of the Soviet Army from October 1937 to May 1946. The same certificate states that from 10/12/1941 to 20/09/1942 and from 12/07/1943 to 08/03/1945, he took part in the Soviet-German war, in particular in the second fighter aviation corps of the Reserve of the Supreme Command of the Soviet Army. In 1943 he joined the CPSU. He was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War of the 1st degree and the Order of the Red Star (1943) as well as 9 medals «For Merit in Battle» during the Soviet-German war.With the start of the Soviet-German war, the Sokurenko family, like many other families, was evacuated to the town of Kamensk-Uralsky in the Sverdlovsk region, where their father worked at a metallurgical plant. After the war, the Sokurenko family moved to Lviv. In 1946, V. Sokurenko entered the Faculty of Law of the Ivan Franko Lviv State University, graduating with honors in 1950, and entered the graduate school of the Lviv State University at the Department of Theory and History of State and Law. V. Sokurenko successfully passed the candidate examinations and on December 25, 1953 in Moscow at the Institute of Law of the USSR he defended his thesis on the topic: «Socialist legal consciousness and its relationship with Soviet law». The supervisor of V. Sokurenko's candidate's thesis was N. Karieva. The Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Culture of the USSR, by its decision of March 31, 1954, awarded V. Sokurenko the degree of Candidate of Law. In addition, it is necessary to explain the place of defense of the candidate's thesis by V. Sokurenko. As it is known, the Institute of State and Law of the USSR has its history since 1925, when, in accordance with the resolution of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of March 25, 1925, the Institute of Soviet Construction was established at the Communist Academy. In 1936, the Institute became part of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and in 1938 it was reorganized into the Institute of Law of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1941–1943 it was evacuated to Tashkent. In 1960-1991 it was called the Institute of State and Law of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In Ukraine, there is the Institute of State and Law named after V. Koretsky of the NAS of Ukraine – a leading research institution in Ukraine of legal profile, founded in 1949.It is noted that, as a graduate student, V. Sokurenko read a course on the history of political doctrines, conducted special seminars on the theory of state and law. After graduating from graduate school and defending his thesis, from October 1, 1953 he was enrolled as a senior lecturer and then associate professor at the Department of Theory and History of State and Law at the Faculty of Law of the Lviv State University named after Ivan Franko.By the decision of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR of December 18, 1957, V. Sokurenko was awarded the academic title of associate professor of the «Department of Theory and History of State and Law».V. Sokurenko took an active part in public life. During 1947-1951 he was a member of the party bureau of the party organization of LSU, worked as a chairman of the trade union committee of the university, from 1955 to 1957 he was a secretary of the party committee of the university. He delivered lectures for the population of Lviv region. Particularly, he lectured in Turka, Chervonohrad, and Yavoriv. He made reports to the party leaders, Soviet workers as well as business leaders. He led a philosophical seminar at the Faculty of Law. He was a deputy of the Lviv City Council of People's Deputies in 1955-1957 and 1975-1978.In December 1967, he defended his doctoral thesis on the topic: «Development of progressive political thought in Ukraine (until the early twentieth century)». The defense of the doctoral thesis was approved by the Higher Attestation Commission on June 14, 1968.During 1960-1990 he headed the Department of Theory and History of State and Law; in 1962-68 and 1972-77 he was the dean of the Law Faculty of the Ivan Franko Lviv State University. In connection with the criticism of the published literature, on September 10, 1977, V. Sokurenko wrote a statement requesting his dismissal from the post of Dean of the Faculty of Law due to deteriorating health. During 1955-1965 he was on research trips to Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Austria, and Bulgaria. From August 1966 to March 1967, in particular, he spent seven months in the United States, England and Canada as a UN Fellow in the Department of Human Rights. From April to May 1968, he was a member of the government delegation to the International Conference on Human Rights in Iran for one month. He spoke, in addition to Ukrainian, English, Polish and Russian. V. Sokurenko played an important role in initiating the study of an important discipline at the Faculty of Law of the Lviv University – History of Political and Legal Studies, which has been studying the history of the emergence and development of theoretical knowledge about politics, state, law, ie the process of cognition by people of the phenomena of politics, state and law at different stages of history in different nations, from early statehood and modernity.Professor V. Sokurenko actively researched the problems of the theory of state and law, the history of Ukrainian legal and political thought. He was one of the first legal scholars in the USSR to begin research on the basics of legal deontology. V. Sokurenko conducted extensive research on the development of basic requirements for the professional and legal responsibilities of a lawyer, similar to the requirements for a doctor. In further research, the scholar analyzed the legal responsibilities, prospects for the development of the basics of professional deontology. In addition, he considered medical deontology from the standpoint of a lawyer, law and morality, focusing on internal (spiritual) processes, calling them «the spirit of law.» The main direction of V. Sokurenko's research was the problems of the theory of state and law, the history of legal and political studies. The main scientific works of professor V. Sokurenko include: «The main directions in the development of progressive state and legal thought in Ukraine: 16th – 19th centuries» (1958) (Russian), «Democratic doctrines about the state and law in Ukraine in the second half of the 19th century (M. Drahomanov, S. Podolynskyi, A. Terletskyi)» (1966), «Law. Freedom. Equality» (1981, co-authored) (in Russian), «State and legal views of Ivan Franko» (1966), «Socio-political views of Taras Shevchenko (to the 170th anniversary of his birth)» (1984); «Political and legal views of Ivan Franko (to the 130th anniversary of his birth)» (1986) (in Russian) and others.V. Sokurenko died on November 22, 1994 and was buried in Holoskivskyi Cemetery in Lviv.Volodymyr Sokurenko left a bright memory in the hearts of a wide range of scholars, colleagues and grateful students. The 100th anniversary of the Scholar is a splendid opportunity to once again draw attention to the rich scientific heritage of the lawyer, which is an integral part of the golden fund of Ukrainian legal science and education. It needs to be studied, taken into account and further developed. ; Проаналізовано життєвий шлях, науково-педагогічну та громадську діяльність Воло-димира Гавриловича Сокуренка – видатного українського правознавця, доктора юридичних наук, професора, талановитого педагога Львівської правничої школи Франкового універ-ситету.З'ясовано, що В. Г. Сокуренко навчався у Запорізькому авіаційному технікумі та Вольському військовому авіаційному училищі, яке закінчив у 1939 р. У 1939‒1946 рр. служив у радянській армії. Після закінчення у 1950 р. юридичного факультету Львівського університету пройшов шлях від аспіранта до професора, завідувача кафедри, декана юридичного факультету. Упродовж 1960‒1990 рр. завідував кафедрою теорії та історії держави і права; в 1962‒1968 та 1972‒1977 рр. був деканом юридичного факультету Львівського державного університету імені Івана Франка. Протягом 1955‒1965 рр. перебував у наукових відрядженнях у Польщі, Чехословаччині, Румунії, Австрії, Болгарії. Зі серпня 1966 до березня 1967 рр., зокрема сім місяців перебував у США, Англії та Канаді як стипендіат ООН по департаменту прав людини. У квітні-травні 1968 р. був членом у складі урядової делегації на міжнародній конференції по правах людини в Ірані упродовж одного місяця. Володів, окрім української, англійською, польською та російською мовами. В. Г. Сокуренко відіграв важливу роль у започаткуванні на юридичному факультеті Львівсь-кого університету вивчення важливої навчальної дисципліни – Історії політичних і правових учень, яка висвітлювала і до сьогодні продовжує висвітлювати історію виникнення та розвитку теоретичних знань про політику, державу, право, тобто вивчає процес пізнання людьми явищ політики, держави і права на різних етапах історії у різних народів, почи-наючи з ранньої державності і сучасності.Професор В. Г. Сокуренко активно досліджував проблеми теорії держави і права, історії української правової та політичної думки. Він був одним із перших учених-правників у СРСР, хто почав наукові студії основ юридичної деонтології. Велику наукову дослід-ницьку діяльність проводив В. Г. Сокуренко щодо розробки основних вимог до професійно-правових обов'язків юриста, аналогічно до вимог, що стосуються лікаря. У подальших наукових дослідженнях учений аналізував юридичні обов'язки, перспективи розвитку основ професійної деонтології. Крім того, правознавець розглядав медичну деонтологію з позиції юриста, права і моралі, приділивши основну увагу внутрішнім (духовним) процесам, назвавши їх «духом права». Основним напрямом наукових досліджень В. Г. Сокуренка були проблеми теорії держави і права, історії правових та політичних учень.Володимир Гаврилович Сокуренко залишив по собі світлу пам'ять у серцях широкого загалу науковців, колег та вдячних учнів. 100-річний ювілей Вченого – добра нагода для того, щоб ще раз привернути увагу до багатої наукової спадщини правознавця, яка є невід'ємною складовою золотого фонду української юридичної науки і освіти. Вона потребує вивчення, врахування та подальшого розвитку.
1. Opening session. The International Seminars on Planetary Emergencies and associated meetings 38th session / Antonino Zichichi. Combating climate change: land use and biodiversity - Poland's point of view / Jan Szyszko. The role of stratospheric aerosols in antagonizing the global climate change / Yuri A. lzrael. From monitoring of CO[symbol] atmospheric concentrations to monitoring of global climatic change / Mikhail J. Antonovsky. Energy and environment: a challenge for the future / Giuseppe Vatinno. Acceptance of the Gian-Carlo Wick Gold Medal / André Martin. Meteorology and climate: problems and expectations / Antonino Zichichi -- 2. Energy & climate focus: managing climate change - introduction. Climate, energy and planetary emergency / William A. Sprigs and John S. Perry. Managing climate change / Arthur H. Rosenfeld. Plenary session: policy and potential for energy efficient buildings / Arthur H. Rosenfeld. 3. Energy & climate focus: managing climate change - climatology. Climate change: key conclusions from the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (IPCC-AR4) / Filippo Giorgi. Positive and negative feedbacks - how well are they modelled? / Inez Fung. Tipping points or gradual climate change? / Timothy M. Lenton -- 4. Energy & climate focus: managing climate change - mitigation of greenhouse gases. Climate change responses: mitigation - The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report / Peter Bosch. Energy transitions / lgor Bashmakov. Opportunities in the building sector: managing climate change / Arthur H. Rosenfeld and Patrick McAuliffe. Reducing the growth of motor vehicle CO[symbol] emissions through 2050: efficiency, low-emission fuels and advanced technologies / Carmen Difiglio. BIO-EPOCS Project / Andrea Contin. Cool urban surfaces and global warming / Arthur H. Rosenfeld and Hashem Akbari -- 5. Energy & climate focus: managing climate change - filling the gap: geo-engineering and adaptation. Geo-engineering: a possible insurance policy / Michael C. MacCracken. Climate engineering and planetary emergencies / Ken Caldeira. Adaptation: a natural strategy / William Fulkerson and Thomas J. Wilbanks -- 6. Energy & climate focus: managing climate change - summaries and debate. Summary of sessions 2 to 5 and comments / Richard Garwin -- 7. Missile proliferation and defense focus: U.S. missile defense shield. The 2007 Bush-Putin disagreement - some background on anti ballistic missile defense / Richard Wilson. Ballistic missile defense deployment to Poland and the Czech Republic / Richard L. Ganvin -- 8. Climate focus: theoretical alternatives to climate modeling. Theoretical alternatives to climate modeling: introductory remarks. Model limitations / Graeme L. Stephens. Scientific questions behind the arguments concerning the robustness of climate models / Garth W. Paltridge. A new dynamical mechanism for major climate shifts / Anastasios A. Tsonis -- 9. Global monitoring of the planet focus: the North Pole and life cycle nuclear energy environmental issues. Opening remarks / Arthur Nikolayevich Chilingarov. Understanding energy production environmental externalities a literature review from an engineering perspective / Frank L. Parker. Nuclear energy and radioactive waste disposal in the age of recycling / James L. Conca -- 10. Brain diseases focus: the crisis of losing minds the epidemic of Alzheimer's disease in the 21st century. How the brain changes in Alzheimer's disease / Bemardino Ghetti. Treatment and prevention of Alzheimer's disease: translating basic research findings / Steven T. DeKosky. Biological evidence for an interaction between AD and CVD: overview and 3 hypotheses / Charles DeCarli. The role of epidemiology in understanding Alzheimer's disease: the meaning of "risk" / Mary Ganguli. Alzheimer's disease: genetics to pathogenesis / John Hardy -- 11. Medicine and infectious diseases focus: infectious agents and cancer. Introductory remarks / Guy De Thé. Introducing infectious agents and cancer session / Franco M. Buonaguro. Epidemiological aspects: worldwide burden size / Robert Newton. Infectious agents and cancer: pathogenesis / John L. Ziegler. Molecular links between inflammation and cancer / Massimo Locati. Cancer vaccines / Marc Girard. Developing countries intervention programs / Jacques-Francois Martin -- 12. WFS general meeting PMP reports - debate and conclusion. Permanent monitoring panel report on information security / Henning Wegener. Permanent monitoring panel on pollution / Lome Everett. Permanent monitoring panel on limits of development / Geraldo G. Serra. AIDS and infectious diseases PMP / Guy De Thé. Recommendation to governments from the permanent monitoring panel on energy / Arthur H. Rosenfeld. Permanent monitoring panel on climate and greenhouse gases / William A. Sprigg. Mother and child permanent monitoring panel 2006-2007 activities / Nathalie Charpak. Permanent monitoring panel on terrorism / Ahmad Kamal -- 13. Brain and behavior workshop. Workshop agenda. Workshop participants -- 14. Energy-climate workshop. Recommendations. Workshop participants -- 15. Infectious diseases workshop. Workshop agenda. Workshop participants -- 16. Climate modeling workshop. Report on the workshop theoretical alternatives to climate modelling. Workshop paricipants -- 17. Information security workshop. Cyberwar or cyber-terrorism: the attack on Estonia / William A. Barletta. The situation of IT-security - a German perspective / Udo Helmbrecht. Security challenges arising from innovations in information and communication technologies (ICT) / Vladimir Britkov and Axel Lehmann. Workshop participants -- 18. Limits of development workshop. Workshop agenda. Limitations of development: climate change and the impact of rising sea levels on cities in the United States / Jesse D. Saginor and Christopher D. Ellis. Dealing with climate change: the Brazilian case / Geraldo G. Serra. Climate change - consequences for Europe / Hiltmar Schubert. Regional impacts of climate change and variability on West and Central African region / Mbareck Diop. Impact of global climate change over the territory of Argentina / Juan M. Borthagaray. Workshop participants -- 19. Seminar participants.
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In Ghana, the rising need for household energy from wood fuels and food needs is considered a major threat to forest resources conservation. Government and scientists believe that the alarming rate of deforestation and threats to important ecosystem services will not cease unless integrated land-use systems that meet the food and fuelwood demands of households are in place. Bamboo agroforestry is currently considered a possibility in view of the significant socioeconomic and ecological benefits obtained in some parts of Asia and some other tropical regions. Meanwhile, it is unclear whether bamboo would have social acceptability to be planted on farmers' fields and the extent to which bamboo-based intercropping systems will sustain food production and household energy security. In addition, knowledge of possible ecological interactions between mixed bamboo and arable crop systems are limited but would be necessary to inform management decisions applicable to improving the productivity of bamboo agroforestry systems. Using questionnaire interviews, literature review and field experiments, this study explored the traditional ecological knowledge and ecological aspects of bamboo agroforestry and accentuated implications on its adoption potential and suitability as a land-use system for household food security and fuelwood needs. The study was conducted in the Dry Semi-deciduous Forest Zone (DSFZ) of Ghana. Two exotic bamboo species; Bambusa balcooa and Oxytenanthera abyssinica were used for various bamboo intercropping and ecological trials. The premise of the study fits into Ghana's Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy and falls within the overarching aim of Work Package 4.4 of the BiomassWeb project sponsored by the German government. In Chapter one, the rationale, scope, research questions, and objectives are stated. In Chapter two, socioeconomic and cultural potentials of bamboo agroforestry are previewed on global, regional and local scales. Bamboo agroforestry potentials and research needs in Ghana are also established. The research methodology, study area, and field experimentation procedures are presented in Chapter three. Results from data collected from 200 farmers in the dry semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana in Chapter four show that farmers' traditional knowledge of bamboo, particularly, its use for charcoal production and leaves for fodder are influential determinants of bamboo agroforestry adoption. Also, farmers' age, gender and the regular practice of leaving trees on farmlands and type of cropping system are the most significant predictors influencing bamboo integration into traditional farming systems. In Chapter five, where farmers' perception of bamboo litter for livestock fodder and litter quality trials on goat's production were prospected, only 26% of respondents were aware bamboo leaves could be fed to livestock. It was evident gender may be an influential factor in determining the acceptability of bamboo fodder. Out of the 64% respondents who expressed willingness to feed their animals with bamboo leaves if demonstrated to be suitable, 47% of them were males whilst 17% were females. The fodder quality analysis showed the highest crude protein and in vitro gas production occur in Oxytenanthera abyssinica. Besides, O. abyssinica diets gave the highest daily gain and the lowest feed to gain ratio. The treatment effect was significant on blood variables measured. It is concluded in this Chapter that, bamboo leaves are viable feed supplement for goats as shown by their nutrient profile and positive influence on growth performance of goats and that, farmers are willing to use bamboo leaves as fodder for livestock production, particularly, goats. In Chapter six, agronomic potentials of bamboo were explored by investigating the effect of bamboo agroforestry with maize, cowpea, and cassava as against monocultures of the crops and bamboo. The results show that regardless of fertilizer treatments, bamboo agroforestry and monocropped fields had comparable effects on soil properties and crop productivity within two years of establishment. Intercropping advantage over monocropping was evident for all crops with partial land equivalent ratios for fertilized and non-fertilized intercropping systems with cowpea recording 1.37 and 1.54, respectively; 1.38 and 1.36, respectively, for maize and 1.12 and 1.19, respectively, for cassava. Decomposition and nutrient release patterns in bamboo were comparable to those from five other traditionally used agroforestry Multipurpose Trees/Shrubs (MPTs) in Ghana in Chapter seven; indicating that bamboo could be a useful alternative agroforestry candidate species. In Chapters eight and nine, the socioeconomic and environmental potentials of bamboo agroforestry and its consequential potential for improvements in food and energy production for smallholder farming communities are discussed. Also, the overall potential of the bamboo agroforestry for potential adoption and upscaling is presented. The limitation of this thesis is indicated and perceived areas for further improvements are suggested. By dwelling on the prospects of bamboo, this thesis compels readers to focus attention on the evidence of how smallholder farmers could increase income streams and levels for socio-economic improvements using bamboo agroforestry to maintain productive systems for sustained agricultural and fuelwood production. This could facilitate the attainment of food and energy security in Ghana. With this, the findings of this study may encourage bamboo agroforestry adoption by smallholder farmers. It is suggested that the Government of Ghana and development partners should adopt bamboo agroforestry in land-use conservation and development efforts through policy reviews and invigoration. Particularly, lessons could be drawn from the findings of this study for the Ghana bio-energy production policy and the strategies for the flagship policy of planting for food and jobs, rolled out by the government in the quest to attain food and energy security in Ghana.
Allmählich kommt Bewegung in die Forschungslage zum sogenannten "deutsch-türkischen Kino". Nachdem jahrelang nur drei Sammelbände und einige verstreute Aufsätze zum Thema vorlagen, hat die Debatte in letzter Zeit mit Monografien etwa von Nanna Heidenreich (2015), Gözde Naiboğlu (2018) und Muriel Schindler (2021) sowie zwei weiteren Sammelbänden (vgl. Alkın 2017, Bayrak u.a. 2020) deutlich an Dynamik gewonnen. Gemein ist den meisten dieser Publikationen der dezidierte Anspruch, das so lange brachliegende Forschungsfeld neu zu konturieren und den Forschungsstand einer kritischen Reflexion zu unterziehen. Diese Kritik richtet sich vornehmlich auf die medien- bzw. filmtheoretische Unterkomplexität, mit der das deutsch-türkische Kino lange angegangen wurde – speziell im Hinblick auf die Frage der Repräsentation (also die Frage, inwieweit filmische Bilder als Abbilder gesellschaftlicher Realität verstanden werden). In diesen Kontext ist auch Die visuelle Kultur der Migration von Ömer Alkın einzuordnen. Was seine Monografie (zugleich seine Dissertation) auszeichnet, ist, dass er nicht nur theoretisch ambitioniert vorgeht, sondern vor allem in historischer Hinsicht eine Forschungslücke schließt, indem er den sogenannten "türkischen Emigrationsfilm" als komplementäre Formation zu den in Deutschland produzierten Filmen in den Blick rückt. Alkın baut seine (über 600 Seiten lange) Arbeit in zwei große Teile auf. Der erste Teil widmet sich ausführlich dem Forschungsstand, den theoretischen und methodischen Vorüberlegungen (etwa zur Abgrenzung des Gegenstands oder zur eigenen Arbeitsweise mit bewegten Bildern) sowie einer Rekapitulation der historischen Kontexte zum Thema Migration sowohl der Filmproduktionen aus Deutschland wie derjenigen aus der Türkei. Die Filme des im konventionellen Sinne "deutsch-türkischen Kinos" (also Produktionen aus Deutschland, die von Menschen mit türkischem Migrationshintergrund inszeniert werden bzw. von solchen Menschen handeln) spielen allerdings im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit keine nennenswerte Rolle mehr. Dies wirft sogleich die Frage nach dem Erkenntnisgewinn von Alkıns Ansatz auf, beide Formationen zusammenzudenken – könnte sich dieser Gewinn doch erst dort mit voller Überzeugungskraft einstellen, wo man die Filme in vergleichender Analyse aufeinander bezieht. Migration wird von Alkın als "Motiv" in den Filmen, bzw. als "epistemisches Ding" (S. 36f.) verstanden. Das Ziel seiner Arbeit besteht darin, nachzuverfolgen, wie sich dieses Motiv der Migration in den Filmen des Kinos der Türkei, speziell des Yeşilçam-Kinos der 1970er-Jahre, visuell konstituiert. Alkın orientiert sich an Theorien visueller Kultur, bezieht aber auch eine ganze Reihe anderer Ansätze mit ein (Medienphilosophie, Psychoanalyse, Raumtheorie, Erkenntnistheorie, Phänomenologie, Science and Technology Studies), um die Schwierigkeiten der Eingrenzung und Verortung dieses Filmmotivs angemessen zu reflektieren. Über der Vielzahl der Perspektiven verliert sich allerdings gelegentlich die klare Ausrichtung der Argumentation. Der zweite Teil konzentriert sich auf die Analyse der Beispiele, wobei immer wieder theoretische und historische Exkurse eingestreut werden. (Eine Anmerkung zur Form: ein gründlicheres Lektorat hätte dem Buch gutgetan und seine Lesbarkeit deutlich erhöht.) Besonders die historischen Exkurse erweisen sich dabei als wichtig für die Einbettung der Filmanalysen. Alkın nimmt zu Beginn die heuristische Setzung einer "Ereignisstruktur von Emigration" (S. 209) vor, zu deren Status und theoretischer Kontextualisierung man gerne mehr erfahren hätte – etwa mit Blick auf die Frage, inwiefern es sich bei dem untersuchten Korpus um ein Genre handelt, oder wie sein Zusammenhang jenseits einer Gemeinsamkeit von Motiven zu denken ist. Alkın identifiziert vier Elemente dieser Ereignisstruktur: Abwesenheit, Anreise, Ankunft und Anwesenheit, die er anhand der Untersuchung von entsprechenden Szenen herausarbeitet. Insgesamt bleibt in der Hinführung auf die konkreten Analysen eher vage, wie der theoretische Zugriff auf die Filme gedacht wird. Alkın spricht sich dafür aus, "den Fokus auf die filmästhetischen Besonderheiten der Filme nicht durch eine prädeterminierte filmtheoretische Überlegung einzugrenzen, sondern den materiell unversieglichen Überschuss des Filmischen gegenüber eines schriftlichen Beschreibungssystems [sic], das auch die vorliegende wissenschaftliche Arbeit ist, anzuerkennen und an ihm zu arbeiten" (S. 204). Wie aber kann man am "Überschuss des Filmischen gegenüber eines schriftlichen Beschreibungssystems" arbeiten ohne konsistenten filmtheoretischen Zugang? Hier gibt es einen Bruch zwischen dem theoretischen Anspruch des Buches und der Einlösung dieses Anspruchs in den Analysen – einen Bruch, der übrigens durchaus typisch ist für die akademische Diskussion zu dem Thema. Die ausführlichen Analysen operieren denn auch keineswegs theoriebefreit. Dort, wo sie auf einer kohärenten theoretischen Basis aufbauen – etwa in der Analyse der Anfangssequenz von Davaro (R: Kartal Tibet, TR 1981) – machen sie die stärksten Abschnitte des Buches aus. Dort gelingt es Alkın auf eindrucksvolle Weise, die audiovisuelle Entfaltung des filmischen Bildraums als Entstehungsprozess einer Vorstellung von Sozialität nachzuzeichnen, für die das Verhältnis zwischen Emigrant und Dorfgemeinschaft zum Ordnungsproblem wird (vgl. S. 224-238). Ein anderes Beispiel ist die detailliert kontextualisierte Analyse einiger Sequenzen aus Memleketim (R: Yücel Çakmaklı, TR 1975), in der das komplexe Zusammenspiel von Produktionsumständen, politischen Diskursen, sozialen Kontexten, medialen Konfigurationen und künstlerischen Poetiken voll zur Geltung kommt und nachvollziehbar gemacht wird (vgl. S. 445-479). Hingegen entstehen immer dann Probleme, wenn von einer vermeintlich stabilen, ahistorischen Charakteristik von Migration auf die Filme zurückgeschlossen wird, anstatt auf die generischen Zusammenhänge einzugehen, in denen die formalen Verfahren und ästhetischen Figurationen in ihrer Historizität erkennbar werden könnten (siehe beispielsweise S. 297, wo es heißt, Migration sei gekennzeichnet durch "das binäre Modell einer Medialität von An- und Abwesenheit", und darin liege die "Wesensverwandtschaft zur Medialität des Filmischen"). Ähnlich irritierend wirkt es, wenn am Beispiel einer Szene, in der betont flash zooms eingesetzt werden, nicht etwa auf die entsprechenden historisch verortbaren Konventionen verwiesen wird (etwa jene des Hollywood-Kinos der 1970er Jahre und sicher auch im damaligen Kino der Türkei), sondern ein allgemeiner Exkurs zum Verhältnis von technischen Medien und menschlicher Wahrnehmungsfähigkeit erfolgt (vgl. S. 410f.). Vor diesem Hintergrund ist möglicherweise die letzte Drehung in Alkıns Argumentation zu verstehen, wenn er direkt vor dem kurzen Schlusskapitel die Möglichkeit einer affekttheoretisch basierten Filmanalyse andeutet, die die dauerpräsente Frage der Repräsentationslogik noch einmal von einer anderen Seite beleuchtet. So scheinen bis zuletzt leise Zweifel daran angebracht, wie sinnvoll es ist, Migration tatsächlich als "epistemisches Ding" zu abstrahieren. Denn auch der von Alkın betriebene hohe theoretische Aufwand ändert nichts daran, dass der Akt, auf das filmische Bild zu zeigen und festzustellen: "Dies ist Migration", bzw. "dies ist ein Migrant" selbst ein politischer Akt ist: nämlich ein Akt, der Identität zuschreibt und politische Kategorien – in welcher medialen Vermittlung auch immer – auf die Beschreibung audiovisueller Bilder überträgt. Wenn man daher mit W. J. T. Mitchell von einer visuellen Kultur der Migration spricht, kommt man nicht darum herum, diese Kultur auch historisch zu situieren: als Ergebnis oder Ausdruck eines Prozesses politischer und kultureller Vergemeinschaftung, der sich durch eine spezifische Sinnlichkeit auszeichnet, zugleich aber unweigerlich Ein- und Ausschlüsse produziert. Die visuelle Konstruktion von Migration ließe sich dann nur im Wechselspiel zwischen den Bildern und den Diskursen rekonstruieren, auf die die Bilder sich beziehen. Schließlich drängt sich diesbezüglich noch eine Frage zum theoretisch-analytischen Ansatz der Arbeit auf: Wieso ist darin eigentlich nur von visueller, nicht aber von audiovisueller Kultur die Rede? Schließlich spielt doch die Musik nicht nur, aber gerade auch in den Arabesk-Filmen – dem "türkischen Migrationsgenre schlechthin" (S. 394) – eine zentrale Rolle. Hier scheint ein blinder Fleck der Untersuchung zu liegen; denn es ginge dann letztlich nicht nur um die Sichtbarmachung von Migration (verstanden als epistemisches Problem), sondern um die politische, gesellschaftliche und kulturelle Funktion der Filme, die sich auf den Migrationsdiskurs beziehen. Das Wandern des Arabesk-Modus' von einer kulturellen Formation (verbunden mit der Binnenmigration in der Türkei) in ein musikalisches Genre, von dort ins Kino und von dort wiederum in einen umfassenden Lifestyle ist dafür tatsächlich beispielhaft. Erst als audiovisuelle Figurationen, das heißt, als raumzeitliche Kompositionen mit einer bestimmten Dauer, die auf eine bestimmte Weise mit ihrem Publikum interagieren, werden die Filme in dieser Hinsicht lesbar und analysierbar. Alkıns Buch stellt eine dringend benötigte Erweiterung der Forschung zum Zusammenhang von Kino und Migration zwischen der Türkei und Deutschland dar. Die äußerst ambitionierte Arbeit stößt dabei trotz einiger Probleme eine Vielzahl von Fragen an, die über das Feststellen von Forschungslücken hinausgehen: unter anderem solche nach dem Film als Form audiovisueller Diskursivität, nach der Bedeutung von Genres für ein Denken der historischen Dimensionierung ästhetischer Erfahrung, nach der Art und Weise, wie sich der Zusammenhang zwischen Film und Gesellschaft jenseits von Repräsentationslogiken denken lässt und danach, auf welche Weise die Filmwissenschaft der interdisziplinären Beschäftigung mit filmischen Bildern eine möglichst anschlussfähige methodische Grundlage bereitstellen kann. In Bezug auf diese und mehr Fragen erweist sich Alkıns Buch als überaus anregende Lektüre. Literatur: Alkın, Ömer (Hg.): Deutsch-Türkische Filmkultur im Migrationskontext. Verlag: Wiesbaden 2017. Bayrak, Deniz/Dinç, Enis/Ekinci, Yüksel/Reininghaus, Sarah (Hg.): Der deutsch-türkische Film. Neue kulturwissenschaftliche Perspektiven. Bielefeld: Transcript 2020. Heidenreich, Nanna: V/Erkennungsdienste, das Kino und die Perspektive der Migration. Bielefeld: Transcript 2015. Naiboğlu, Gözde: Post-Unification Turkish German Cinema. Work, Globalisation and Politics Beyond Representation. London: Palgrave Macmillan 2018. Schindler, Muriel: 'Deutsch-türkisches Kino'. Eine Kategorie wird gemacht. Marburg: Schüren 2021.
Nikolaos Mavropoulos Dissertation Abstract The Japanese expansionism in Asia and the Italian expansion in Africa: A comparative study of the early Italian and Japanese colonialism (1868-1901) Modern Japan and Italy were formed in the same period, the period of the New Imperialism, a time of diplomatic mistrust, protectionism, frenetic colonial and economic rivalry and of militarism, when the Great Powers (British Empire, the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire) had already established their hegemonic position in the world. Japan and Italy at the end of the 19th century were in need of stability, internal and external security, economic reorganization and immediate settlement of the economic and social problems arising from the rapid increase of their population. Furthermore, seeking to compete on an equal footing with the Powers of the era, claiming a place in the sun, they considered modernization and rapid industrialization as the only way forward. These facts as well as the policy of expansion that they partly adopted for the resolution of these issues are unique and particular. The phenomenon of the early Japanese colonialism in relation to that of the other states is intensely reminiscent, as to the origins and aspirations, of the corresponding Italian one. Its collation with that of Britain's or Germany's in the period under examination would be inappropriate. Britain even though also an island state was technologically developed, robust, having the most powerful fleet and the most extensive empire in the world. The German Empire although it too was formed late (1871) and bedevilled like Japan by the problem of overpopulation did not share the same concerns about securing its independence as it was the superpower of the era, industrialized and militarily all-powerful the very next day after its unification. Securing new markets, meeting industrial needs for raw materials, the quest for lebensraum and arable land constituted common elements for all the imperialist Powers. Besides, the human inclination towards imperialism is self-evident. Men, acting individually or collectively, have always sought to establish dominance over others, where possible. So, what are the particularities that constitute the Japanese and the Italian colonial project distinctive? Both states fearing their exclusion from the markets, their pushing aside from the international developments, their marginalisation and their conversion into supernumeraries in the era of the chaotic imperialist struggle, envisaged in their own colonial expansion their strategic security and survival. They both viewed military victories and territorial expansion as the shortest way to obtain a place in the sun. Thus, even if they had not achieved the degree of industrialization and of economic development of the more powerful states, still being weak and agrarian, they attempted to ensure their position in the world through the colonies and the trade. The problem of their economic backwardness and military weakness was causing insecurity and stress even when they were achieving successes. The expansion and the establishment of spheres of influence constituted a necessity for the survival of the nation. The possession of colonies would present to the world a powerful, prestigious and modern Italy and Japan, arbiters of developments and, in addition, it would contribute to the stability of the international system. So they participated in the colonial struggle imitating the imperialist powers. Contrary to Lenin's theory about the unbreakable relationship between imperialism and the export of surplus capital, in the dawn of their colonial adventure, Japan and Italy had difficulty in luring domestic capital into colonial investment since they had a shortage not an excess of private capital. Despite their terrible fiscal position however, immediately after their formation, they inaugurated a policy of expansion. It was then presumed by the respective ruling classes that the participation in the colonial game would be panacea, it would, as if by magic, form the lever that would topple and nullify their disadvantageous geopolitical position abroad and would resolve the economic and social problems of vital importance that beset them in the interior. This consideration, this common perception, these convictions which were shared by politicians, merchants, industrialists and military simultaneously in two regions of the world so remote and alienated between them provoke the interest of the scholar. Was this colonialism a simple "reaction" to the progress of the rest of the imperialists? In the manifestation of the Japanese and Italian imperialism up until 1901 what are the underlying characteristics, what is the role of the monarchy and of the religion or of social Darwinism, what is the impact on the conquered peoples? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the integration to the Japanese Empire of peoples racially related to it? What is the ideology, the theoretical pillars which were nurtured at the end of the 19th century and on which they supported the background of their subsequent colonial expansion? What are the particular elements, the impulses, the ideologies that the early Italian and the early Japanese colonialism shared, elements which even pushed them into fighting for similar goals in Beijing during the Boxer rebellion (1899-1901)? This research responds to these demanding questions as well as traces the origins of the two states', mutatis mutandis, similar and common historical evolution up until the middle of the 20th century by researching the relative literature and archives.
INTRODUCTION: Previous studies have identified common germline variants nominally associated with breast cancer survival. These associations have not been widely replicated in further studies. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association of previously reported SNPs with breast cancer-specific survival using data from a pooled analysis of eight breast cancer survival genome-wide association studies (GWAS) from the Breast Cancer Association Consortium. METHODS: A literature review was conducted of all previously published associations between common germline variants and three survival outcomes: breast cancer-specific survival, overall survival and disease-free survival. All associations that reached the nominal significance level of P value <0.05 were included. Single nucleotide polymorphisms that had been previously reported as nominally associated with at least one survival outcome were evaluated in the pooled analysis of over 37,000 breast cancer cases for association with breast cancer-specific survival. Previous associations were evaluated using a one-sided test based on the reported direction of effect. RESULTS: Fifty-six variants from 45 previous publications were evaluated in the meta-analysis. Fifty-four of these were evaluated in the full set of 37,954 breast cancer cases with 2,900 events and the two additional variants were evaluated in a reduced sample size of 30,000 samples in order to ensure independence from the previously published studies. Five variants reached nominal significance (P <0.05) in the pooled GWAS data compared to 2.8 expected under the null hypothesis. Seven additional variants were associated (P <0.05) with ER-positive disease. CONCLUSIONS: Although no variants reached genome-wide significance (P <5 x 10(-8)), these results suggest that there is some evidence of association between candidate common germline variants and breast cancer prognosis. Larger studies from multinational collaborations are necessary to increase the power to detect associations, between common variants and prognosis, at more stringent significance levels. ; Funding This work was supported by the following grants. Higher level funding The COGS project was funded through a European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme grant (agreement number 223175 - HEALTH-F2-2009-223175). The Breast Cancer Association Consortium (BCAC) is funded by Cancer Research-UK (C1287/A10118 and C1287/A12014). Meetings of the BCAC have been funded by the European Union COST programme (BM0606). ELAN Program of the University Hospital Erlangen (BBCC). Personal support AP is funded by a MRC studentship. DE is a Principal Research Fellow of Cancer Research UK. JH is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Australia Fellow. MS. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. GT is an NHMRC Senior Principal Research Fellow. DL is supported by the FWO and the KULPFV/10/016-SymBioSysII. JL is a UNESCO-L'Oréal International Fellow. RB was a Cancer Institute NSW Fellow. KAP is a National Breast Cancer Foundation Fellow (Australia). Funding of constituent studies These are listed by funding agency, with each grant number in parentheses Academy of Finland (266528); Addenbrookes Charitable Trust; Agency for Science, Technology and Research of Singapore; Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer and the Fondo de Investigación Sanitario (PI11/00923, PI08/1120); Baden Württemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts; Breast Cancer Campaign (2009PR42); Breast Cancer Research Foundation; Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program); Cancer Australia; Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia; Cancer Foundation of Western Australia; Cancer Fund of North Savo; Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A12014, A7572, A10124, A11699, A16561, C507/A6306, C10097/A7484,C1275/A11699); Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund; Danish Breast Cancer Group; Danish Medical Research Council; Deutsche Krebshilfe (70-2892-BR I, PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004); Dietmar-Hopp Foundation; Dutch Cancer Society (1997-1505, 2004-3124, NKI2007-3839, 2009-4318, NKI2009-4363); Dutch government (NWO 184.021.007); Dutch National Genomics Initiative; ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen; European Community´s Seventh Framework Programme (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Germany (01KH0402); Finnish Cancer Society; Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori; Genome Spain Foundation; German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ); Hamburg Cancer Society; Helmholtz Society; Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund; Italian Association for Cancer Research(AIRC); Kuopio University Hospital special Government Funding; National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (209057, 251553 and 504711); National Breast Cancer Foundation (Australia); NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre; Nordic Cancer Union; Märit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer; Nordic Cancer Union; Polish Foundation of Science (PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004); Queensland Cancer Fund; Red Temática de Investigación Cooperativa en Cáncer; Sigrid Juselius Foundation; Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation; Stichting tegen Kanker (232-2008 and 196-2010); United States National Institutes of Health (BBMRI-NL-CP16, CA69638, CA69417, CA06503, CA116201, CA122340, CA128978, CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839, CA164920, CA98216 , CA098233, CA148065, CA98710, CA98758, and Intramural Research Program of National Institutes of Health and National Cancer Institute); UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centres at the University of Cambridge, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London, and University of Oxford; University of Eastern Finland strategic funding; Victorian Health Promotion Foundation; Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium; YORKSHIRE CANCER RESEARCH (S295, S299, S305PA). ; This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from BioMedCentral via http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13058-015-0570-7
Väitöskirja käsittelee suomalaisten tieteellisten julkaisujen kansainvälistä levitystä 1800-luvun alusta toiseen maailmansotaan. Tuolloin yleisin tapa välittää kirjoja ja lehtiä oli julkaisuvaihto, jossa tieteelliset seurat ja laitokset sopivat säännöllisestä ja molemminpuolisesta julkaisujen lahjoittamisesta. Käytäntö periytyi 1700-luvulta, jolloin tiedeyhteisöön kuuluminen edellytti tiettyjä kohteliaisuussääntöjä, erityisesti vastavuoroisuutta erilaisissa palveluksissa ja lahjoituksissa sekä uskonnollisten ja poliittisten raja-aitojen ylittämistä tieteellisissä kysymyksissä. 1800-luvulla tiedeyhteisö alkoi muuttua, kun kilpailu voimistui ja menestys kasautui niihin maihin, tutkimuslaitoksiin ja lehtiin, joilla jo ennestään oli hyvä maine. Sosiologi Robert Merton on kuvannut tätä tieteellisen menestyksen kasautumista nimellä Matteus-vaikutus . Nimitys tulee Matteuksen evankeliumista (25:29): jokaiselle, jolla on, sille annetaan, ja hän on saava yltäkyllin, mutta jolla ei ole, siltä otetaan pois sekin mitä hänellä on. Tutkimusaineisto koostuu neljästä eri tutkimusaloja edustavasta seurasta: Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistys ja Suomen Hammaslääkäriseura. Suomalaiset tieteelliset seurat olivat nuoria ja vähävaraisia eikä niillä ollut vakiintunutta asemaa tiedeyhteisössä. Siten ne ovat mielenkiintoinen tutkimuskohde Matteus-vaikutuksen näkökulmasta. Erityinen piirre Suomessa on ollut valtiovallan jatkuva tuki tieteelliselle julkaisutoiminnalle. Sen ansiosta seurojen ei tarvinnut panostaa julkaisujen myyntiin. Tutkimus osoittaa, että kohteena olevat neljä seuraa kehittivät erilaisia strategioita verkostoituakseen kansainvälisesti. Toiset hankkivat lukuisia vaihtokumppaneita, kun taas toiset olivat passiivisia vaihtotoiminnassaan mutta loivat laajat kirjeenvaihtajien verkostot ja pyrkivät myös myymään julkaisujaan. 1700-luvulta perityt normit ja käytännöt tukivat suomalaisia seuroja näiden tavoitteissa jakaa julkaisujaan kansainvälisesti ja hankkia omiin kirjastoihinsa ulkomaisia julkaisuja. Pyrkimys puolueettomuuteen uskonnollisissa ja poliittisissa kysymyksissä mahdollisti vaihtosuhteiden ylläpidon sellaistenkin maiden kanssa, joiden politiikkaa ei hyväksytty. Esimerkiksi Neuvostoliittoon solmittiin lukuisia vaihtosuhteita sotienvälisenä aikana. Julkaisuvaihtotoiminta kohotti suomalaisen tieteen profiilia ja kannusti seuroja kehittämään ja kansainvälistämään julkaisujaan. Toisaalta suuri osa suomalaisten tekemistä vaihtoaloitteista ei johtanut vaihtosuhteeseen. Erityisesti biologian alalla keskeiset tutkimustulokset julkaistiin saksalaisissa kaupallisissa lehdissä, jotka eivät olleet halukkaita vaihtosuhteisiin. Helpointa oli luoda suhteita pieniin maihin tai sellaisiin maihin, joissa tieteellisen tutkimuksen perinne oli nuorta, kuten Yhdysvalloissa. Pienet maat tai perifeeriset alueet, esimerkiksi suomalais-ugrilaisten kansojen asuinseudut, tarjosivat usein relevantteja julkaisuja. Tutkimusaineiston valossa Matteus-vaikutuksen vahvistuminen vuosisadan vaihteessa on ilmeistä. Sitä kuitenkin lievensivät tiedeyhteisön vanhat käytännöt ja normit, jotka mahdollistivat kansainväliset yhteydet niillekin toimijoille, joilla ei ollut mahdollisuuksia julkaisujen kaupalliseen levitykseen. ; The thesis addresses the international exchange of publications of Finnish learned societies from the early nineteenth century until the Second World War. Exchange of publications refers to the regular and mutual delivery of books and journals between institutions. The practice was inherited from the early eighteenth century when the scientific community was called the Republic of Letters. The idea of republic emphasised the special nature of scientific community and required certain courtesy rules, in particular reciprocity was expected in favours, letters and gift-giving. The structure of the scholarly community began to change in the nineteenth century as scientific competition intensified and success accumulated in those countries, institutions and journals which had already gained a good reputation. This phenomenon of accumulation of scientific success was later described as the Matthew effect in science introduced by Robert Merton. The present study examines the extent to which the exchange of publications mitigated the accumulation of scientific advantage epitomised by the Matthew effect. The Finnish learned societies provide an interesting case because they were geographically peripheral and did not enjoy an established position in the scholarly community. A special feature in Finland is that the government has supported academic publishing and thus freed learned societies from having to promote the sales of their publications. The material consists of four societies representing different branches of scholarship: the Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica; the Finnish Literature Society; the Finnish Antiquarian Society; and the Finnish Dental Society. The methods used in the study derive both from information studies and history. The data on exchange relations and publishing activities were collected from the minutes, letters and library catalogues of the above societies and analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. A citation analysis was also conducted. The study demonstrated that establishing exchange relations was not a sufficient means of gaining international visibility. These four societies developed different strategies to promote networking, some actively establishing exchange relations, some being passive in their exchange policy but creating large networks of corresponding members and selling their publications. The norms and reciprocal practices inherited from the eighteenth century supported the Finnish societies in their efforts to distribute their publications internationally and to acquire foreign serials for their libraries. The ideal of neutrality on political and religious questions made it possible to sustain contacts even with institutions in countries whose politics was not accepted, such as the Soviet Union. The exchange of publications raised the profile of Finnish science and scholarship and encouraged the Finnish societies to develop and internationalise their periodicals. On the other hand, a large share of exchange initiatives taken by the Finnish societies came to nothing, particularly in the field of biology, where the most important research findings were published in German commercial journals. It was easier to acquire exchange partners in small countries and countries with short scientific traditions, such as the United States. Small countries and peripheral areas, such as those populated with Finno-Ugrian peoples, often provided relevant publications, which made exchange a well-functioning system.
