The subject. Modern law enforcement is considered in harmony with the spiritual and moral foundations of legal culture through the use of ideas and approaches of Roman law.The purpose. An attempt has been made to assess the influence of Roman Law on Russian constitutionalism and modern law enforcement on the basis of the spiritual and moral traditions of Russian legal culture.The methodology. Methods of dialectical logic, analysis and synthesis, comparative-historical, formal-legal methods were used. The main method is comparison of foundations of Roman law with the basic principles of Russian constitutionalism.The main results and scope of their application. The problem of influence of Roman law on Russian constitutionalism and, in general, on the basis of modern Russian law enforcement is raised. If universalism and individualism should be believed as the foundations of classical Roman law, then the basis of Russian law is community and social solidarity. In Russia collective property and joint work as well as ancestral structure in the form of a rural community reached the modern times, while in ancient Rome their disappearance was the basis of the formation of Roman law. National peculiarities of the Russian legal and political systems are determined by cultural-historical (civilizational) circumstances, especially by the natural and climatic factors. It was in the communal world of Russia that the idea of Christian equality has formed the basis of the model of life, while in Western Europe the community has followed the path of individualization of the individual and differentiation of elites and masses according to the criteria of social success. The absolute belief in law as a phenomenon of social planning and a tool for compromise between different parts of society, inherited from Roman law, formed the Romano-German and Anglo-Saxon worldview, but it did not take root in Russian legal culture. Modern Russian constitutionalism, while poorly considering the Roman-Byzantine origins of national Russian law, is wrong in its denial of the national-cultural and historical adaptation of European legal institutions and principles.Conclusions. One of the important results of the study is the conclusion that the social value of Roman law in Russian Constitutionalism includes the moral mission of Roman law and a high assessment of the normative value of the heritage of Roman law. The value depravity of the current Constitution of the Russian Federation can be eliminated, its defects can and should be corrected on the basis of the Roman law tradition, but this should be done only by adequately assessing the own experience of law enforcement, the thousand-year state- legal and spiritual development of the Russian civilization. ; Современное правоприменение рассматривается в гармонии с духовно-нравственными основами правовой культуры через использование идей и подходов римского права. Также преследуется цель выявить влияние римского публичного права на российский конституционализм. В исследовании использованы методы диалектической логики, сравнительно-исторический, формально-юридический и др. Утверждается, что российский конституционализм, слабо учитывая римско-византийские истоки национального русского права, ошибочен своим отрицанием национальной культурно-исторической традиции в адаптации европейских правовых институтов и принципов. Ныне исключительную роль играют духовно-нравственные и религиозные критерии дальнейшего развития государств. Определение роли римского права в российском конституционализме включает в себя высокую оценку нормативного значения институтов и принципов римского права и нравственную миссию римского права в процессе правоприменения.
Throughout the 16th century, which, maybe more than any other, becomes aware of the relativity and the transience of men's lives and accomplishments, scholars strive for repose. We do not use this word with its everyday acceptations it must be understood in the light of the literary, the philosophical, the political and the theological theories of that time. We did not intend to write the history of the material conditions of repose, and this work is not a sociological or an historical study. We tried to reveal the issues, the values and the representations that define the ideal of repose for Renaissance men of letters, indicating the classical and the medieval, the pagan and the christian sources.Partly received as an inheritance from Roman otium, Greek scholè and medieval vacatio, 16th century ideal repose is a matter of salvation : salvation of the Humanists commited in this world, facing the duties of negotium and public life ; salvation of the philosophers and the poets, who seek in hideaways the peacefulness necessary for contemplation and writing ; salvation of the Christians, who set up here below the eternal rest of their souls. The question of repose lies at the crossroad of ethics, politics, theology and metaphysics.What is the time assigned to repose and leisure ? Where and how can one find repose and happiness, without infringing the laws of nature and those of civilization, since man is a social animal ? How can one preserve leisure and peace of mind in an age characterized by a restless mobility ? How can one prevent repose from deteriorating into an inert idleness ? Those are the questions, among many others, we tried to answer. ; En ce XVIe siècle qui, plus que tout autre peut-être, fait l'expérience de la relativité, du caractère transitoire de l'existence et des réalisations humaines, les lettrés réfléchissent aux moyens de goûter enfin au repos. Ce mot ne doit bien évidemment pas être envisagé dans sa seule acception courante, mais au prisme des théories littéraires, philosophiques, politiques et théologiques de l'époque. Il ne s'agit pas de retracer l'histoire des conditions matérielles de l'otium, dans le cadre d'une étude sociologique ou historique, mais de dévoiler les enjeux, les valeurs et les représentations qui définissent le repos idéal pour les hommes de la Renaissance, en signalant les influences antiques et médiévales, païennes et chrétiennes.Héritier en partie de l'otium romain, de la scholè grecque et de la vacatio médiévale, le repos auquel le XVIe siècle aspire est affaire de salut : salut de la quies animi de l'humaniste engagé dans le monde et confronté aux obligations du negotium et des affaires publiques ; salut du philosophe et du poète, qui cherchent dans la retraite la paix nécessaire à la contemplation et à l'écriture ; salut du chrétien, qui prépare ici-bas le repos éternel de son âme. La question du repos se situe au carrefour de l'éthique, de la politique, de la théologie et de la métaphysique.Quel est le temps dévolu à l'otium ? Où et comment trouver le repos qui, tout en restant à la mesure de l'homme, puisse assurer son bonheur ? Comment préserver loisir et tranquillité dans un monde marqué par une extrême mobilité ? Comment éviter que le repos ne se dégrade en molle oisiveté ? Telles sont, parmi d'autres, les questions auxquelles nous avons tenté de répondre.
The theme of hunger is recurrent in the literatures of the entire world. Primordial, original, this theme, which the lexical field is often summoned to attest to the importance of human impulses, is not yet a subject of great interest on the part of literary scholars General and compared, as well as from the philosophers. The purpose of this work is therefore to establish a representative pattern of writings of the hunger, to define typologies of hunger, to provide one or more taxonomy (s) to then deepen the critical analysis of various speeches from hunger by several topics as the identity of the hungry man, hunger myths, mysticism and fasting, the humour of the hunger, the particular consequences of hunger when it is manipulated by a political power, the ethics of starvation, etc. This broad critical analysis of the different discourses of hunger should allow to consider the credibility and the structuring elements of what could be called an "ontology of hunger" in the sense of a radical reform and rebuilding of the reports of the man and his environment. The references used in this work are not restricted to a time or a particular geographical area. We'll tap as much in ancient literatures, classical, modern, postmodern, contemporary as well as technical studies because hunger is not the prerogative of a time or a particular civilization but raw, first and original data of the human being. ; Le thème de la faim est récurrent dans les littératures du monde entier. primordial, originel, ce thème, dont le champ lexical est souvent convoqué pour attester de l'importance des pulsions humaines, ne fait pourtant l'objet, jusqu'à présent, que de peu d'intérêts de la part des spécialistes de la littérature générale comparée tout comme, d'ailleurs, de la part des philosophes. il s'agit donc d'établir un corpus représentatif des typologies d'écriture de la faim, de proposer une ou plusieurs taxinomie(s) pour, ensuite, approfondir l'analyse critique des différents discours de la faim par plusieurs topiques portant sur l'identité des affamés, les mythes de la faim, la mystique,le jeûne, l'humour de la faim ou bien encore les conséquences particulières de la faim lorsqu'elle est instrumentalisée par un pouvoir politique. cette large analyse critique des différents discours de (et sur) la faim doit permettre d'envisager la crédibilité et les éléments structurants de ce qui pourrait être désigné comme une 'ontologie de la faim' au sens d'une refondation des rapports de l'homme et de son environnement. le corpus d'œuvres n'est pas restreint à une époque ou à une zone géographique particulière. il s'agit de puiser tout autant dans les littératures anciennes, classiques, modernes, postmodernes que contemporaines dans la mesure où la faim n'est pas l'apanage d'un temps ou d'une civilisation particuliers mais une donnée brute, première et native de l'humain. ; O tema da fome é quase sistemático nas literaturas do mundo inteiro. Primordial, original, esse assunto (cuja léxico é bastante utilizado como campo metafórico para descrever as pulsões humanas, (amor, paixão, ódio, etc.)foi, portanto, pouco examinado e são poucas as estudas que se focalizam sobre este tema, seja literárias ou filosóficas.O alcance da tese é descrever essa "terra desconhecida" e propor uma taxinomia dos famintos assim que, depois de pesquisar a identidade dos famintos, os mitos da fome, a mística dela, o humor e as consequências sobre a política, o poder e os aspectos jurídicos, elaborar um ontologia da fome ou, pelo menos, os primeiros elementos desse ontologia que poderia liderar uma mudança importante sobre a origem do sentido ética da fome.
В статье обосновываются нравственно-философские ориентиры круп нейшего экономиста и политического мыслителя ХХ в. Джона Мейнарда Кейнса (1883-1946), сыгравшие важную роль в переосмыслении ряда важных положений классической политэкономии и ставшие идейной и методологической основой «кейнсианской революции» и создания новой области экономического анализа макроэкономики. Автор прослеживает основные этапы формирования этических взглядов Кейнса, показывает, что его интерес к этике как осмыслению морали был продиктован потребностью в новом концептуальном видении экономической действительности и в поиске ответа на главный этический вопрос: «Что делать?». Обращается внимание на то, что понимание Кейнсом этической направленности экономической теории позволило ему занять критическую позицию по отношению к традиционному индивидуализму (традиционному для учёных после Адама Смита) и викторианской морали (скорее, в более общем плане протестантской морали, тем более что в тексте автор обращается к трудам Зомбарта и Вебера) бережливости и накопительства и сделать вывод, что рациональные и «правильные» с точки зрения отдельного индивида способы поведения не являются гарантией процветания общества. Для достижения последнего Кейнсом была обоснована жизненная необходимость коррекции рыночной системы и «централизованного контроля» со стороны государства за общим уровнем платежеспособного спроса. Подчёркивается, что этические взгляды Кейнса корреспондируют с развивающейся ныне «этикой ответственности» относительно молодой научной дисциплиной, появление которой связано с рисками, которые несёт с собой техногенная эпоха: загрязнением окружающей среды, дефицитом ресурсов, перенаселением, усилением турбулентности мирового хозяйства. В заключительной части статьи рассматривается один из важных с точки зрения Кейнса пороков капитализма невротическая склонность людей к умножению «абстрактного (денежного) богатства». Показано, что она уродует не только психику и сознание людей, но и меняет вектор развития рыночной экономики в направлении «спекулятивного капитализма», создающего угрозу цивилизации созидания, росту материального благополучия и всестороннего развития личности. ; The article examines the philosophical and moral foundations of the biggest economist and political philosopher of the 20th century John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), who played an important role in rethinking a number of important provisions of the classical political economy and in creating the ideological and methodological basis of the "Keynesian revolution" and of the new field of economic analysis-macroeconomics. The author traces the main stages in the formation of ethical views of Keynes, shows that his interest in ethics as the system of values in society was dictated by the need for the new conceptual vision of economic realities and by the search of an answer to the main ethical question: "What should we do?". Attention is drawn to the fact that an understanding of the ethical orientation of economic theory by Keynes allowed him to take a critical stance towards traditional individualism and Victorian morality of thrift and moneymaking and to conclude that rational and "right" forms of individual behaviour are not a guarantee of the prosperity of society as a whole. To achieve the latter Keynes justified the necessity of "central control" by the State of the overall level of aggregate expenditure. It isstressed that the ethical views of Keynes correspond with the concept of the "ethic of responsibility"a relatively new scientific discipline, which originated as a response to the risks of technogenic era: pollution, resource constraints, overpopulation, lack of stability of the world economy. The final part of the article analyzes one of the most important, from the point of view of Keynes, vices of capitalism reckless proclivity of people to the multiplication of "abstract monetary wealth". It is shown that it doesn't only disfigure the psyche and consciousness of people, but also changes the direction of development of the market economy towards "speculative capitalism", which creates a threat to civilization, creativity, well-being and full development of the individual.
У статті простежується еволюція формування уявлень в історії соціології на сутність соціальних технологій і необхідність їх використання в соціальній практиці. Соціальні технології розглядаються як чинник стабільного та ефективного розвитку соціальних систем. Аналізуються напрями й особливості упровадження соціальних технологій у різні сфери сучасного суспільства. В статье прослеживается эволюция формирования представлений в истории социологии на сущность социальных технологий и необходимость их использования в социальной практике. Социальные технологии рассматриваются как фактор стабильного и эффективного развития социальных систем. Анализируются направления и особенности внедрения социальных технологий в различные сферы современного общества. ; The increasing complexity of social relations, increased dynamism of social processes, the growing role of social factors in the development of world civilization urgency of the problems of development and implementation of constructive social technologies. The article traces the evolution of the formation of ideas in the history of sociology in the social nature of technology and the need for their use in social practice. Marxist historical-materialist conception as well as classical evolutionism the possibility of technological solutions to global social processes in the nineteenth century. The idea of the applicability of the concept of «technology» to social development in the twentieth century is widespread. Social technologies should be directed at specific defects of social life. Social technologies are a set of tools and methods of targeting social processes, the livelihoods of people, allowing to receive a limited amount of socio-economic resources of the most significant results. Social technologies are used to control the people, social issues, social processes and social systems. The importance of social technology is that it streamlines, optimizes the management process, including only those operations that are most effective in achieving this goal. The use of technology to reduce management costs, improve the efficiency of administrative influence and its role in society, quickly and efficiently replicate the social practices and procedures. Social technologies are seen as a factor of stable and effective development of social systems. In modern conditions the majority of problems encountered in the various spheres of society is a complex, multifactorial. Therefore becoming increasingly important to their multiplicity of solutions, and the sphere of manifestation is quite broad and diverse Analyzes the trends and characteristics of the introduction of social technologies in various areas of modern society. In the economy is to improve the methods of work organization in industry, agriculture, trade services, search for new markets, develop new products and services, improve production capabilities. In politics become widespread technology of formation of electoral behavior of the population, the efficient organization of election campaigns. The essence of social technologies in the field of social work are reduced to a set of techniques and methods to influence the state, public and private organizations to provide assistance and support to vulnerable populations. On strengthening the focus on teaching techniques in our time indicates an increase in the number of copyright schools, individual techniques, intensive courses, development of pilot school programs, integrated programs of aesthetic and artistic education, innovative learning technologies in higher education and so on. The role of social technologies in the field of culture and leisure activities aimed at the development of folk art, protection of cultural and historical monuments, the organization of family entertainment. The activities of agencies and organizations in the spiritual life is less prone to the regulation, because they are dealing with a rather peculiar products of human life: social mood, well-being, motivation, public opinion, etc.
У статті обґрунтовано, що метою підготовки дитини в сучасний школі є формування творчої, всебічно розвинутої, духовно збагаченої особистості з науковим світоглядом, ґрунтовними професійними знаннями. Виходячи із цього, зміст сучасної професійної підготовки повинен бути спрямованим на формування вчителя, здатного працювати в системі, що характеризується взаємодією різних культур, відповідно до вимог сучасного соціуму, відродження особистості, відновлення загальнолюдських цінностей. Під педагогічним потенціалом ми визначаємо здатність певного елемента педагогічної системи ефективно досягати певної мети шляхом реалізації означених завдань. Педагогічний потенціал англомовної дитячої літератури полягає у здатності сприяти навчанню, розвитку та вихованню дитини. Гарно, кваліфіковано підібрана дитяча книжка завжди є сильним засобом розумового виховання й формування художньо-естетичних уподобань і смаків дитини. Дитяча література може бути використана в процесі морального, економічного, екологічного виховання. Дитяча англомовна література – це художня, науково-популярна, науково-фантастична, науково-художня література, створена спеціально для дітей, що включає найкращі класичні, фольклорні, поетичні та прозові твори, написані англійською мовою. Сучасна англомовна література для дітей – кращі зразки сучасної художньої, науково-популярної, науково-фантастичної, науково-художньої літератури, написані англійською мовою з урахуванням жанрового розмаїття англомовної літератури. Культура – поняття багаторівневе і складне, інтегрує в собі елементи менталітету, релігійних вірувань, побутових і політичних характеристик цього суспільства, його історії та її впливу на сьогодення. Вітчизняні педагоги відзначають, що вчителі мають бути готові залучати дітей до скарбів світового мистецтва через знайомство з культурою окремих цивілізацій чи країн. Педагоги сучасності наголошують на тому, що виховний потенціал окремих предметів шкільного курсу залишається поза увагою вчителів, зокрема мова йде про такий компонент іноземної мови, як соціокультурна компетенція. У статті визначено, що соціокультурна компетенція є обізнаністю учня з культурою та соціально-побутовим устроєм того народу, мова якого вивчається, що має привести до подальшого розуміння філософських та естетичних характеристик мови і стимулювати подальший інтерес до вивчення мови. ; In the article it is substantiated that the purpose of preparing a child in a modern school is to form a creative, comprehensively developed, spiritually enriched personality with a scientific outlook, thorough professional knowledge. On this basis, the content of modern vocational training should be aimed at the formation of a teacher able to work in a system characterized by the interaction of different cultures, in accordance with the requirements of modern society, the revival of personality, the restoration of human values. Under the pedagogical potential, we define the ability of a particular element of the pedagogical system to effectively achieve a certain goal by accomplishing these tasks. The pedagogical potential of English-language children's literature lies in the ability to promote the learning, development and upbringing of the child. A well-crafted, well-selected children's book is always a powerful tool for the mental education and formation of artistic and aesthetic preferences and tastes of the child. Children's literature can be used in the process of moral, economic, environmental education. Children's English Literature is a non-fiction, non-fiction, non-fiction, non-fiction book designed specifically for children, featuring the finest classical, folk, poetic and prose works written in English. Contemporary English-language literature for children - the best examples of contemporary fiction, non-fiction, science fiction, non-fiction, written in English, taking into account the genre diversity of English literature. Culture is a multilevel and complex concept that integrates elements of the mentality, religious beliefs, everyday and political characteristics of this society, its history and its impact on the present. Domestic educators point out that teachers should be prepared to involve children in the treasures of world art through familiarity with the culture of individual civilizations or countries. Teachers of the present emphasize that the educational potential of certain subjects of the school course is left out of the attention of teachers, in particular it is a component of foreign language as a sociocultural competence. The article determines that sociocultural competence is the student's awareness of the culture and social and everyday life of the people whose language is being taught, which should lead to a further understanding of the philosophical and aesthetic characteristics of the language and stimulate further interest in language learning.
The city as a business center is an organization that includes lower-level organizations along with the Internet as well as the necessary techniques and technologies, as well as an attitude towards changes in relations with clients and placed in the natural and social environment.The purpose of the work is to justify that there is still current theorem from Rykla (2006), that The collapse of the world communist system (Second World) at the turn of the seventies and nineties of the twentieth century caused the breakdown of the political and ideological division of the world, which enabled return to the classical model of the core and periphery in the global economy system. The division is perceived in relation to the countries of Western, Central and Eastern Europe. The global economic and political system of the world has also led to the shifting of the center of gravity of development and the pace of the emergence of new cities as business centers to Asian countries (Lipińska 2018). The utilitarian purpose of the work is to initiate work on the cities' compliance with the semi-periphery and periphery of the civilization challenge of countries (and even global cities themselves) that are currently more developed. This view was expressed by Z. Rykiel (2006) claiming that the basis for meeting the civilizational challenge should be to understand that the functions constituting the core of the world system are knowledge, innovation production and management of Z. Rykla (2006). Observing the changes in the global economic and political system, it seems that one should seek an answer to the question: Is the return of the world economic and political system to small cities a form of deep ecology, i.e. a holistic view of the trend and progress in the growth of sustainable urban development seeing man as an individual in a global state? A feature of the research is their repeatability and comparability, which means that the result of the research depends on the assumptions made.Key words: big and small cities; ecological economics; environmental economics; sustainable development; the core of the global economic and political system; semi-periphery of the global economic and political system; the periphery of the global economic and political system; background of the global economic and political system. ; Miasto jako centrum biznesu jest organizacją obejmującą organizacje niższego rzędu wraz z internetem oraz potrzebne techniki i technologie, a także nastawienie na zmiany w relacjach z klientami i umieszczoną w środowisku przyrodniczym i społecznym. Celem pracy jest uzasadnienie, że wciąż jest aktualne twierdzenie Z Rykla (2006 s. 228), iż Upadek światowego systemu komunistycznego (Drugiego Świata) na przełomie lat siedemdziesiątych i dziewięćdziesiątych XX w. spowodował załamanie się polityczno-ideologicznego podziału świata, co umożliwiło powrót do klasycznego modelu rdzenia i peryferii w systemie gospodarki światowej. Obserwuje się utrwalenie się tego podziału w stosunku do państw Zachodniej, Środowej i Wschodniej Europy. Światowy system ekonomiczno-polityczny świata doprowadził również do przesunięcia się obecnie punktu ciężkości rozwoju oraz tempa powstawania nowych miast jako centrów biznesu do krajów azjatyckich (Lipińska 2018). Celem utylitarnym pracy jest spowodowanie podjęcia prac nad sprostaniem przez miasta semiperyferii i peryferii wyzwaniu cywilizacyjnemu krajów (a nawet już samych miast globalnych) obecnie wyżej rozwiniętych. Podgląd ten wyraził Z. Rykiel (2006), twierdząc, że podstawą sprostania wyzwaniu cywilizacyjnemu powinno być zrozumienie, że funkcjami konstytuującymi rdzeń systemu światowego są wiedza, wytwarzanie innowacji i zarządzanie Z. Rykla (2006). Obserwując dokonujące się zmiany w światowym systemie ekonomiczno-politycznym wydaje się, że należy poszukiwać odpowiedzi na pytanie: Czy powrót światowego systemu ekonomiczno-politycznego świata do miast małych jest formą głębokiej ekologii, tj. nurtem holistycznego ujęcia i postępem we wzroście zrównoważonego rozwoju miast z punktu widzenia człowieka jako jednostki w państwie globalnym? Cechą badań jest ich powtarzalność i porównywalność, a to oznacza, że wynik badań zależy od przyjętych założeń.Słowa kluczowe: wielkie i małe miasta; ekonomia ekologiczna; ekonomia środowiska; zrównoważony rozwój; rdzeń światowego systemu ekonomiczno-politycznego; semiperyferie światowego systemu ekonomiczno-politycznego; peryferie światowego systemu ekonomiczno-politycznego; tło światowego systemu ekonomiczno-politycznego.
The individual in communism was deformed from extreme collectivism and sterilizing ideology! The service toward the cause of communism on this individual was engrafted with a feeling of love for the regime. In these circumstances was created "idol-ideology" and "idol-leadership." This kind of morality and education shaped and mal-nurtured the isolated and submissive individual, a politicized one; the individual that considered himself as a member of the armada with epochal historical mission. The communist system of "Popular Democracy," resurrected the ancient feature of our anthropology built during the ruling of the Ottoman Empire period: "serving and being under command!" So much as the individuals entered into a race with one-another to serve the Party, and in hierarchic order from bottom-up, to serve directly the leadership, even more the main leader. This type of competition was complete with the vice, because of the cultural differences, the routine part of anthropology acted upon the lead of a negative energy, materialized through: lies, slander, intrigues, traps, unfaithfulness, and hate. Serventhood reawakened the ottoman mechanism of serving and faithfulness on family basis, family heritage, on kinship, regionally and nepotistic relationships. The long absence of freedom, as a natural social breathing, as a co-existential instrumental mechanism that widens the spectrum of legal action, the purpose of which is the respect for human rights and their realization with main feature the human dignity and prosperity, nevertheless could not have left traces upon the individual and collective conscience. The elongated historical authoritarianism and the permanent absence of democratic system, the fearful isolation in communism, the absence of any private property, the absence of the freedom of speech: including the religious one, had shaped the Albanian anthropologic-individual deeply deformed and totally unprepared for liberal democracy. All of this situation made the anarchy to be displayed as form of weakness to be oriented. Anthrop-anarchy was created as a transitional form of anthropological groups, which left behind the classical and ideological forms of the organization in communism, and in contact with the free-market economy, with the freedom of movements, with the open society for change; being an unprepared anthropology and lead by incompetent policy-making, occurred that these anthropological groupings to take intermediate forms, illusive traits, unstable structures. Anthrop-anarchy entered in a battle to be legalized by bending the state in its knees, which by its decisions legalized the informality: property and economic wise. So, the footpath was opened for the anarchic individual, who appeared as promoter of the Albanian society in transition. Politics accepted this pressure, because they continue to count their votes. Differently from all of the former Eastern Communist countries, Albania is the only one that has informal property problems in national level. The authoritative power has more dispositions to legalize the informal properties, rather than support by law the legal owners. There are more than 300,000 informal buildings that have been included in the legalization process. This informal reality with national dimensions, shows that in Albania still it is not understood that private property is 9/10 law and 1/10 asset. This is an assassination against the legal statehood. This situation helps to understand why the "democracy through law" does not function. The political parties have morphed in market accessories. Even worse, this mechanism has changed into a system, therefore in Albania there are no poor politicians. Another feature of political party pluralism is the absence of political relativism. The parties sell their ideas and programs as an absolute truth. In these political climate is impossible the function the cultural political pluralism. This is why, the democracy in Albania cannot be considered as functional or simply fragile one. That is an authoritarian democracy that is fed by the exclusiveness philosophy, and that creates conflictual actions, that often end "beheaded" by Ottoman style! It is necessary that the change to create a liberal democracy system must start from education on law, rules, and constitutionality. We must cross the bridge from an Oriental inherited education to a Western Civilization one! DOI:10.5901/ajis.2017.v6n1p97
Building upon research done by Carl J Richard, and Ricardo Herrera, this research paper will discuss how the Ancient Greek and Roman ideals that Alden Partridge was exposed to through his life growing up in close proximity to the time of the American Revolution and resulted in his development of a values based educational system that would produce citizen soldiers who would be able to serve their country both in the military and civilian sectors. ; Winner of the 2021 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the University Archives category. ; There is Nothing More Inherently American: How the rebellion of Alden Partridge and Greek and Roman influences lead to the rejuvenation of the American education system Alex Rollins Professor McCann HI 243 Historical Methods 4 December 2020 1 Alden Partridge believed that the future of the new American Republic would be secured or lost as a result of the education of its youth. Living in a time of great reform and turmoil in the first 50 years after the founding of the American Republic, Alden Partridge was subject to the same influences of the Founding Fathers: The Ancient Greeks and Romans. The ideals of the Ancient Greeks and Romans penetrated the core of the educational curriculum that most European men received in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and served as the catalyst for the fight against British tyranny in the American Revolution. Partridge was a product of Dartmouth College and the United States Military Academy at West Point and was a man that was so radical that he was removed from his position of Superintendent at West Point by a Summary Court Martial in 1818. Despite his humiliation at the United States Military Academy, Partridge still retained his passion of educating the American youth. Partridge made the decision to create his own institution, the American Scientific and Literary Academy in Norwich Vermont in 1819 which is now known as Norwich University. Building upon research done by Carl J Richard, and Ricardo Herrera, this research paper will discuss how the Ancient Greek and Roman ideals that Alden Partridge was exposed to through his life growing up in close proximity to the time of the American Revolution and resulted in his development of a values based educational system that would produce citizen soldiers who would be able to serve their country both in the military and civilian sectors. Partridge embedded the Ancient Greek and Roman principles of individual freedom, duty to state, civic virtue, and ardent patriotism in order to create an educational system that prepares 2 ndividual citizens and aimed to ultimately "qualify them for all of those high responsibilities resting upon a citizen of this free republic." 1 Alden Partridge was a product of the time in which he lived: The age of the early American Republic. Hailing from Norwich Vermont, Partridge was educated in the "neighborhood schools" surrounding the town.2 Partridge eventually gained admittance to Dartmouth College, where he was introduced into "the mainstream of intellectual thought of the eighteenth century."3 While attending Dartmouth, Partridge developed expert level proficiency in Latin and Greek classics, arithmetic, grammar, and reading in a colonial era grammar school.4 These schools were known for having a "uniformed and standardized" education that was centered around knowledge in Greek and Latin as those languages were seen as the keys to college admission at the time.5 Like most children at the time who attended these school, Partridge most likely received instruction in arithmetic, Euclid's books, became familiar with the works of Virgil, Horace, Homer, and Xenophon, and Cicero's orations. Partridge would have been bombarded with classical influences and would have most likely developed an appreciation for living a moral and virtuous life like most Greek and Roman works compel their audience to do. Partridge Despite being a gifted academic blessed with the ability to teach, Partridge was drawn towards service to his community in the militia. Desiring to follow in his father and uncle's footsteps, Partridge joined the Regiment of Artillerists and was ordered to attend the United States Military Academy at West Point in the years immediately following its founding in 1802.6 While at West Point Partridge received training in military engineering and gained such a 1 Norwich University Cadet Handbook, iii. 2 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 1. 3 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 1. 4 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 2. 5 Gummere, The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition, 55. 6 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 3. 3 profound proficiency that he was later asked to instruct military engineering following his commissioning as an officer. He became proficiency in all aspects of military engineering, the employment of field artillery and infantry operations. While attending West Point, Partridge noticed several problems with the education system. Partridge wanted to ensure that a commission would only be given when one's studies are complete and thought that there needed to be tougher academic regulations to obtain a degree from the institution. Partridge contributed a great deal to West Point including introducing moral education and instruction in the application of living a life based off of the values of duty, obedience, and "morality, virtue and honor." 7 Alden Partridge excelled during his time instructing at West Point and took great strides to improve West Point in order to further the developments of the cadets and in his mind, ultimately secure the safety of the early American Republic. At the end of 1814, Partridge traveled to Washington DC to meet with Secretary of War Monroe about pushing more funding towards West Point and providing more support to the changes that he desired to make. When he returned to West Point however, Partridge found that "reports injurious to his reputation had been industriously circulated" and the faculty had begun to enact a plan to change the philosophy and overall purpose of West Point.8 These men included Andrew Ellicott, Jared Mansfield, and CPT David B. Douglass and their goals included to convert West Point into a civilian run school where the instructors would not be military officers.9 Their overall redesign of the institution included removing the Corps of Engineers as the primary operators of the school, introduce an entirely civilian staff, and to redesign the training process to prioritize developing engineers to serve the nation rather than military 7 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 203. 8 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 33. 9 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 51. 4 officers. 10 These three men pushed for Partridge to be court martialed under these 4 charges: 1.) Neglect and unofficer like conduct, 2.) Four accounts of unofficer like conduct that were to the "prejudice of good order and military discipline" for showing favoritism to cadets, 3.) Disobedience to orders for contradicting an order from a general officer and the President, and 4.) Mutiny, and the beginning and exciting mutiny.11 The Court martial which charged Alden Partridge of these crimes forced his departure from the United States Military Academy at West Point and serves as the mark of his new beginning as a civilian. After settling into civilian life, Partridge wrote President Monroe in November of 1820, "My employment since I left military service, I believe has been both honorable to myself and useful to my country and I now find myself placed at the head of a Seminary, founded by my own Exertions, and the first of the kind established in the United States-the Superintendency of which I hold, not at the option of any Human Being."12 This seminary is referring to the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy, which became known as Norwich University. Partridge's Academy mirrored the educational background of the Ancient Greeks and Romans and was subjected to the influence of classical ideals of civic virtue, and duty to state that perpetrated educated men during the time of the Early American Republic. Partridge claimed that "In organizing the plan for this institution, I have taken for my guide, in part, the Constitution of the United States", a document filled with Roman Republican values.13 Partridge hoped to instill those values of duty to state and enthusiastically supported how the Constitution supported how all citizens should be used as a force to protect not only their own interests, but 10 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 52. 11 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 89. 12 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 109. 13 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 138. 5 also serve as a vanguard against tyranny and control by elites. When the Constitution was written, it was the "time when the influences of the classics was at its height." 14 Drawing from their Classical education, the Founding Fathers relied heavily on the structure of the Roman Republic when designing the structure of the American experiment in liberty. The forefront of the Republican ideology that was present during this time was a counterculture movement against monarchical governments. The Founding Fathers were inspired by the stories of Sparta portrayed by Aristotle to "create a republic [established] on the natural rights of the citizen, even while urging the sacrifice for the common good."15 The Spartan state connected the concept of citizenship to the republican concept of duty to the state. Partridge, much like the Founding Fathers, admired "the Spartan's intense military training" which was the medium through which a Spartan citizen, much like an American one, carried out his duty to the state.16The Spartan State required all military aged males to undergo intense military training throughout the course of their youth because "individual Spartans could be conscripted by the state at any moment and could only be freed [from their duties] by the state" to return to society as normal citizens. Partridge followed a similar ideology within his citizen-solider concept that he wished to instill at his institution. Partridge believed that the American people should be "an informed people [who could] protect their liberties" which would be enabled through his scientific military instruction.17 Partridge also intended for his students to maintain a "Spartan life" which would force those students to focus on their studies both academically and militarily.18 14 Gummere, The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition, 174. 15 Richard, Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts, 23. 16 Richard, Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts, 31. 17 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 139. 18 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 139 6 The Roman concept of citizenship lay in being an individual who held themselves to high moral standards, opposed corruption, defended liberty, and believed in their service to the state. Partridge held similar thoughts. In the 1820 prospectus for the A.S.L.M., Partridge outlined the classes that would meet his desired end state of creating model citizen-soldiers. Those classes included instruction in Latin and Greek, the sciences, History, logic, artillery gunnery, military tactics, and the ancient tactics of the phalanx and the legion to provide historical context as to how the US military has evolved while still retaining its classical influences. Partridge's citizen soldier concept was no doubt influenced by Cincinnatus, the Roman epitome of civic virtue and citizen-soldiery and the impact that he had on the Founding Fathers and the founding of the United States. Cincinattus was a Roman statesman who seized the reins of power to fight an invading army in a time of crisis and then voluntarily gave the up to return to his farm. Just as Patrick Henry believed that the fighters of the revolution were "sons of Cincinnatus…that served their country without ruining it", Partridge's institution would develop the same caliber of individual, who upon graduation would be postured to serve as a leader in the militia and his community.19 American soldiers in the years of the Early Republic embraced the ideas of liberty, citizenship, republicanism, and democracy. These ideals were utilized in the curriculum at Partridge's Institution which he linked to the aspect of serving in the military and helped develop as the corner stone of the military and overall American ethos. Partridge believed strongly in military service acting as the platform from which moral education is built on which aligns with the Roman principles of civic virtue and the Greek ideals of protecting individual liberty. Partridge sought to develop the American spirit which collectively resides in fighting 19 Richard, Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts, 125. 7 tyranny as a soldier, and then having the ability to return to society after service to better the nation in a different capacity. Partridge was a devout believer in the fact that military service is "basic to the very definition of American Nationalism" and helped American citizens define their relationship to the American Republic.20 Partridge stated in his Lecture on National Defense that "The liberties of Romer were safe, while every Roman citizen considered and felt himself a soldier."21 Using the same logic, Partridge sought secure the liberties of the American citizen at his institution by placing the Citizen-Soldier concept as the cornerstone of his curriculum. While this idea of having a militia composed of individual citizens was the key to America's success in its revolt against Britain, it was not a popular idea at the time. In a correspondence on the subject of Partridge's Lecture on Defense between William Sumner the Adjutant General of the Commonwealth and John Adams, the former President of the United States, Sumner presents his distaste of having a organized militia. Sumner stated that a "Militia, however large, never can be; for it is composed of citizens only, armed [and trained] for the preservation of their own privileges."22 Partridge did not agree with that belief at all. In fact Partridge made it where citizen-soldiers trained at his institution would identify with the concepts of self-sacrifice and catering towards the needs of the community and ultimately the state "became the touchstones of republican virtue and self-worth."23 In his Lecture on Education, Partridge highlighted that he would develop citizen-soldiers and fix the issues that he saw at West Point and in the American Education System as a whole. 20 Herrera, For Liberty and the Republic, 87. 21 Partridge, "Lecture on Defense", 2. 22 Adams, Partridge, and Sumner, Observations on National Defence, Drawn from Capt. Patridge's Lecture on That Subject, and from Gen. Sumner's Letter to the Venerable John Adams, on the Importance of the Militia System, 20. 23 Herrera, For Liberty and the Republic, 87. 8 Partridge's lecture on education presents the argument that investment in the elementary education of the American Youth is paramount because it is "the rising generation that we are to look for the future guardians and protectors of the inestimable rights and privileges."24 Partridge states that he does not believe that education should be tailored to any specific job but instead believes that education should be tailored to prepare "a youth in the best possible manner for the correct discharge of the duties of any situation that he may be placed."25 Partridge cites 6 major deficiencies in the education system. The first deficiency that Partridge highlights is that the education system is "not sufficiently practical, nor properly adapted to the various duties an American citizen may be called upon to discharge."26 Partridge observed that the American youth who were "destined for a liberal education"27 would be required to study Greek and Latin more than they were required to study their native language of English which he believed to be extremely impractical. Partridge states that while the youth are required to gain proficiency in dead languages, they are not taught relative subjects such as government, international relations, and physical fitness. These are all subjects that the American youth must be proficient in to be productive citizens in the civilian sector of society or to be the "defender of their countries rights and the avengers of her wrongs" as leaders in the military."28 Partridge asserts that if the education system does not set up American citizens to perform their duty and contribute to society, then it is nothing short of defective and sets America up for failure. Partridge notes that there is additionally a neglect of physical fitness and physical education within the American education system. Identifying physical fitness as an "absolute 24 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 1. 25 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 26 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 27 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 28 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 9 necessity," Partridge believes that a citizen's ability to endure fatigue and their ability to take care of themselves is critical to the creation and maintenance of the American workforce. 29 In order to have a strong, productive workforce, Partridge believes that it is up to the individual citizen to maintain a high level of physical fitness so that they do not "prematurely die or linger out a comparatively useless and miserable existence."30 Partridge additionally believes that it is important for citizens to be able of "enduring exposure, hunger, and fatigue."31 Partridge links one's ability to exert themselves physically to their ability exert themselves mentally and asserts that a strong body houses a strong mind. Partridge additionally identified that the current system of education fails to manage time adequately and creates an environment that fosters a sense of idleness and lackadaisicalness. Partridge believed that with proper time management, that the American youth could occupy their time with productive activities that reinforce what they are learning in the classroom. Fourthly, Partridge claims that students should live frugally while obtaining their education. He believes that access to more wealth allows students to live extravagant lifestyles that are "highly injurious" to the individual and are not conducive to a productive academic environment.32 Partridge states that giving youths money "and allowing them a portion of idle time and it may be viewed as a miracle if a large portion of them do not become corrupt in morals.[and] they are prepared to become nuisances" to society and not benefit the greater good.33 Fifthly, Partridge highlights that all students should not be required to pursue the same courses of study as everyone has their own strengths and weakness. Partridge believes that when 29 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 30 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 3. 31 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 3. 32 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 4. 33 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 4. 10 one is forced to pursue a course of study that does not interest them that they will never excel in that field, achieve a state of proficiency in the subject, and will develop a general disdain to engage in academic activities. Finally, Partridge states that he does not believe there should be a set time limit to complete one's education and advocates for one to be able to work at their own pace. According to Partridge it is pertinent that a student is able to progress as quickly or as slowly as he or she wants so that they develop a "thorough understanding of the subject" that they choose to pursue. 34 Partridge sought to fix the deficiencies he presented in his lecture in his own institution where he would integrate military discipline and organization, the instruction of military science, history, and general sciences within the academic environment. It is through military organization and discipline that Partridge hopes to instill the Roman traits of honor, manliness, and obedience in the individual citizen to aid in his/her success in the academic environment. The instruction of military science reinforces the fostering of the traits of a soldier and strengthens the skill of the militia to eliminate the need of a large standing army that has the potential to infringe on the freedoms of the American citizen. Partridge believed heavily in incorporating the study of history to supplement the instruction of military science by providing case studies and context as to why military operations are conducted in the manner that they are and highlight the principles on which victory is created. Through this integration of military science, history, and general science instruction, Partridge hoped to increase the financial stability of the early American Republic by lowering defense spending and thereby decreasing 34 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 4. 11 national debt. Partridge's educational model would achieve this as a result of military training/defense spending would be tied to the general education of the American population. In examining whether the ideals of the Ancient Greeks and Romans influenced Alden Partridge, it is difficult to say given the time and access needed to peruse hundreds upon hundreds of documents. Partridge's life was devoted to the education of America's youth because he believed that the success of the American Republic pivoted on the education of the youth. It can safely be asserted that Alden Partridge's educational ideology correlates with the Greek and Roman values of civic virtue, and duty to state; however, correlation does not equal causation. In examining three archival sources from the Partridge Papers and other secondary sources pertaining to the subject of the early American Education system and Classical Education as a whole it can only be asserted that if Partridge was subject to Ancient Greek and Roman ideals, then they implicitly impacted his plan to rejuvenate the American system of education along with his experiences both good and bad instructing at the United States Military Academy at West Point. 12 Annotated Bibliography Archival Sources from Norwich Partridge, Alden. The Partridge Papers. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. • Partridge, Alden. Lecture on Education, 1828. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. • Partridge, Alden. Lecture on National Defense, 1824. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. • Observations on National Defense, Drawn from CPT Partridge's Lecture, 1824. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. These sources from the Partridge Collection at the Norwich University Archives provide Partridge's opinion on education, national defense, and the opinion of other key players in American history such as John Adams and John C. Calhoun regarding Partridge's idea of national defense. These sources are very cut and dry in addition to being easy to read and are critical to my research as they present the revolutionary ideas of the citizen-soldier concept and Partridge's educational reform straight from the man himself. Primary Sources Painter, Jacqueline S., Dean Paul. Baker, and United States. Army. Court-martial (Partridge : 1817). The Trial of Captain Alden Partridge, Corps of Engineers: Proceedings of a General Court-Martial Convened at West Point in the State of New York, on Monday, 20th October 1817, Major General Winfield Scott, President. Norwich University Library Occasional Paper; No. 3. Northfield, Vt.: Friends of the Norwich University Library, 1987. This source is the transcript from the court-martial of CPT Alden Partridge that led to his dismissal as superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point. This transcript is critical to my research as it gives historical context to a key event in CPT Partridge's life that pushed him to go out and create his own educational institution. This source reveals the immense controversy that surrounded the case and highlights a key time in the development of American Military education. 13 Secondary Sources Baker, Dean Paul. "The Partridge Connection: Alden Partridge and Southern Military Education," (PhD diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill), 1986. This is a dissertation that was submitted to UNC Chapel Hill to satisfy the requirements for a History PhD for Dean Paul Baker. The fifth chapter titled "The Captain's Academy" provides a unique presentation of how Partridge's Academy fits in the larger picture of American Education at the time of the early 19th century. Baker additionally covers how Partridge spearheaded educational reform and inspired others to do so. Baker highlights while Partridge's academy specialized in training military leaders, its greatest contribution to society was training men for civilian careers. Harmon, Ernest N. Norwich University: Its Founder and His Ideals. Newcomen Address, New York: Newcomen Society in North America, 1951. MAJ. GEN. Ernest Harmon was the Professor of Military Science and Commandant of Cadets at Norwich University from 1927-1931. This is a small 31 paged primary source document that explains the founding of Norwich University and how it has contributed to American success both on the battlefield and on domestic soil. This document provides a look as to how the leader of Norwich University as an institution views the ideals of Alden Partridge and additionally provides an overview on Norwich's establishment following Partridge's removal from West Point. Hanson, Victor Davis., and John Heath. Who Killed Homer?: The Demise of Classical Education and the Recovery of Greek Wisdom. 1st paperback ed. San Francisco [Calif.]: Encounter Books, 2001. Victor David Hanson is a Professor of Greek at California State University at Fresno and is a renowned author, military historian. He additionally holds a PhD in the classics from Stanford University. Who Killed Homer? describes the importance of understanding Greek culture and its contribution to the development of the United States and Western Civilization as a whole. The second section of the work is entitled "Thinking Like a Greek" and provides a clear and concise overview of what ideas and ideology is considered to be "Greek" and gives a broad context as to the Greek influences on one's life. This is critical to this paper as it presents Greek ideas and ideology simply as interpreted by a leading expert in the Ancient Greeks. Herrera, Ricardo A. For Liberty and the Republic: The American Citizen as Soldier, 1775-1861. 1 online resource. vols. Warfare and Culture. New York: New York University Press, 2015. Ricardo Herrera is an associate Professor at the US Army Command General Staff College. This source relies primarily on unpublished manuscript sources to convey the ethos of the citizen soldier concept from America's birth to the breaking of the Civil War. Herrera goes into great detail as to how in the mind of an American, the idea of citizenship is closely linked 14 with being a soldier. This source is pertinent in my research because it displays how in early American History, the ideals of liberty, citizenship, republicanism, and democracy are linked to serving in the military. The identification of these ideals in the citizen-soldier ethos can be utilized to highlight similarities to the ethos that existed in Ancient Greek/Roman society and that has transcended the Hellenic age to the time of America's birth and the early 19th century when Alden Partridge founded his academy. Howe, Daniel. "Classical Education in America." The Wilson Quarterly (1976-) 35, no. 2 (2011): 31–36. The focus of this source is how classical education has developed and been implemented throughout America History starting just after the Revolution. The article gives a fantastic overview of how classical ideas influenced the creation of America and remained a cornerstone from which the republic was developed. I plan to implement this source in my research by using it to provide an overview of how classical ideas remain present during the time of Alden Partridge, and how they influenced his upbringing and his personal education in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Gummere, Richard M. The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition : Essays in Comparative Culture. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674284531. This source is a compilation of essays that discuss how the classical tradition influenced Colonial Americans. One essay is entitled "Colonial Reactions to a Classical Education" and discusses the classically based curriculum of the colonial grammar schools. Highlighting the emphasis placed on reading Greek authors such as Homer, Xenophon, Euclid, and developing an appreciation for learning Greek and Latin, this chapter aids me in my research paper by providing a detailed look as to what the curriculum of the early classical schools were and helps me develop a better picture of what Partridge's education was as an American youth. Norwich University Cadet Handbook. The Office of the Commandant, 2020. This is the handbook with all of the knowledge that is required to learn as a first-year cadet at Norwich University. The Office of the Commandant releases a new one each year. In this book you will find the Norwich Cadet's Creed, a brief history of Norwich University, a list and brief bio of the medal of honor winners and other things such as that. 15 Richard, Carl J. Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts: How the Ancients Inspired the Founding Fathers. 1st Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009. Carl J. Richard is a professor of history at the university of Louisiana. This source explains how the Founding Fathers of the United States were influenced by their education in the Greek and Roman Works. Richard explains that the ideals of civic virtue, individual liberty, checks and balances on government, were derived from the classics and aided the Founding Father's in their incitement of revolting against tyranny. This source critical to my research because it specifically outlines what about the Greeks and Romans influenced the creation of America and will provide ample amounts of evidence that I can tie to the ideology that Partridge shares with the Founding Fathers. Thelin, John R. A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. This source covers the overview of higher education in America from the founding of colleges in the colonial era to the 21st century. This source goes into detail as to the curriculum and teaching methods utilized at early American universities such as Dartmouth, Alden Partridge's Alma Mater prior to attending the United States Military Academy at West Point. I plan to utilize this source in my research paper to provide insight as to what Partridge's educational experience was like at Dartmouth and sheds light as to what the potential influences are on his educational philosophy that was considered so radical at the time. Urban, Wayne J., and Wagoner, Jennings L., Jr. American Education: A History. London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2013. Accessed November 5, 2020. This source covers the history of American education from the precolonial era to the twenty-first century. The source develops a whole chapter to the development of the education system from 1776-1830 entitled "Education and the Building of a New Nation" that covers the influences of classical education on the development of civic virtue and duty to state that Partridge sought to instill in his students at his institution. The author covers the classical influences on the enlightenment that perpetrated the thoughts of the founders of America and explains how those classical ideas remained tied to the development of citizens within the educational system. I plan to use this work in my research paper by using it to explain the type of school that Alden Partridge attended and to show how common the proliferation of classical ideals were in 18th-19th century society . 16 Webb, Lester A. Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833,. Northport, Ala.: American Southern, 1965. This source is a biographic overview of Partridge's upbringing in the Vermont frontier all the way to when he was fired at West Point. Lester Webb presents a thoroughly researched work that compiles information from varying primary sources regarding Alden Partridge and his career as a teacher of mathematics and military science. I plan to incorporate this source in my research paper by using it to help me provide context as to how Alden Partridge was brought up and to help me describe what educational influences he was subject to since not much is known about his childhood. Wood, Gordon S. The Idea of America: Reflections on the Birth of the United States. Penguin, 2011. Gordon S. Wood is a Pulitzer Prize winning historian that has written several books on the American Revolution. This work focuses on the emphasis that Ancient Greece/Rome played in the development of the American Republic and how education is a cornerstone of creating citizens and instilling a sense of pride and involvement in the activities of one's nation. I plan to implement this work in my research by using it to draw parallels between the ideals of the Greeks and Romans that the ideal of America was based on and the educational ideals and citizen soldier concept developed and implemented by CPT Alden Partridge.
The article deals with the semantic and historico-philosophical peculiarities of the formation of the contemporaneity phenomenon, as a set of ideological and worldview attitudes relevant to our age. It is indicated that the term «contemporaneity» itself was used so as to define the temporal and semantic distinction between the old (former) and the actual (present). At the same time, what was emphasized, was the indispensable historical change of the «old» to the «new» and the undeniable value superiority of «modern» (anti-ancient) over the «past» (premature). Simultaneously, the western tradition preserved a generally favorable attitude to the «classical» as to the authoritative supertemporal «topicality», the best sample of which for a long time considered to be the spiritual heritage of antiquity. Each and every time working out a different, «new» attitude towards it, the subsequent generations thus were substantiating «their own» contemporaneity. The significance of the philosophical and semiotic approach in the study of the determinant characteristics of the Western civilization during the last centuries is emphasized herein, namely: acceleration, emancipation, and democratization. In particular, the identification of the nature of the relations between «modernity», «modernization» and «Modern» remains among the insufficiently studied aspects of the issue in question. It has been substantiated that the very history of the contemporaneity can be considered in the synchronic and diachronic planes, where the first one takes into account, first and foremost, the actual «turning points» and the actions of their immediate creators, participants or witnesses, while the second one builds a logically related time sequence between what has already been done, what is now in the process of implementation and what has not yet been implemented. With the help of the «temporal layers» concept introduced by R. Koselleck, it has been established that the novelty of our era was formed under the influence of both temporal and substantive– and value-based parameters. It has been specified herein that: a) its components could differ even within one ideologically homogeneous period; b) each «contemporaneity», but for the uniqueness of its formation, also involves the inheritance of a greater or lesser number of «layers» of the already by-past shared history; c) the reoccurrence and even predictability of changes that determine the actual «spirit» of the epoch, does not deny either the radicalization of their potential meanings, nor the particular specificity of their implementation. On the example of the «modernity» of the classical paradigm in the Modern era, it has been proved that its components could differ even within a single chronological period. The basics that shared the common mathesis universalis principle were functioning in one plane, while the second plane demonstrated a high level of critical guidance to the Cartesian principles. Consequently, the Cartesian-modern interpretation of «contemporaneity» faced a semantic dispute with another interpretation. Their confrontation successfully played the role of auxiliary «causative agents» in the formation of the modern age, which convincingly linked its progress with Cartesianism. This can be illustrated by several examples: the famous intellectual «Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns» (fr. «Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes»); philosophical essay by J.-J. Rousseau «Discourse on the Sciences and Arts» (fr. «Discours sur les sciences et les arts»); the emergence of a new discipline – aesthetics, which diversified the traditional ideas about the canons of beauty; finally, the end to the monopoly of historians on the study of the history of contemporaneity. It has been proved that such understanding of modernization also influenced the new content of the problematic questions as to the past, present and future. The answers to them highlighted the value and emphasized the uniqueness of the contemporaneity, which is happening now and is actually implemented. Non-present was understood as the past or not yet realized «contemporaneity», the driving force of which was progress. In accordance with the vision outlined herein, certain suggestions have been made regarding the interpretation of the key elements of the contemporaneity, namely: «modernity» is understood as the leading thought tradition, as well as spiritual and mental peculiarity of the Western worldview over the last five hundred years. It is implemented practically in the processes of «modernization» of sociocultural human existence and is guided by a solid guideline for its rationocentric emancipation. The mentioned tendencies reached their peak during the historical period called «Modern» (17th – beginning of the 19th c.), and subsequently entered the most actual phase of contemporaneity called the post-Modern (or Postmodern) which finally radicalized the experience of modernization accumulated in the past. Key words: contemporaneity, modernization, modernity, Modern, actuality ; У статті розглянуто семантичні та історико-філософські особливості становлення феномену сучасності як сукупності актуальних нашій добі ідейно-світоглядних настанов. Обґрунтовано, що саму історію сучасності можна розглядати в синхронічній і діахронічній площинах. Підкреслено значущість і перспективність філософсько-семіотичного підходу у вивченні визначальних прикмет західної цивілізації впродовж останніх століть, саме: пришвидшення, емансипації, демократизації. До недостатньо досліджених аспектів порушеної проблематики належить, зокрема, з'ясування природи зв'язку між модерністю, модернізацією і Модерном. За допомогою концепції «часових пластів» Р. Козеллека з'ясовано, що новизна нашої доби сформувалася під впливом і часових, і субстанційно-ціннісних параметрів. На прикладі «модерності» класичної парадигми у період Модерну доведено, що її складники могли відрізнятися навіть у межах одного хронологічного періоду. Проаналізовано, як саме їх протистояння успішно виконували роль допоміжних «збудників» у формуванні новітньої доби, яка донедавна переконливо пов'язувала свій поступ із картезіанством. Відповідно до окресленого бачення, сформульовано деякі пропозиції стосовно тлумачення ключових складників сучасності, а саме: модерність розуміємо як провідну мисленнєву традицію і духово-ментальну своєрідність західного світорозуміння впродовж останніх п'ятсот років. Вона практично реалізується у процесах модернізації соціокультурного буття людини і керується твердою настановою на його раціоцентричну емансипацію. Згадані тенденції свого найвищого розквіту сягнули в історичний період Модерну (XVII – поч. ХІХ ст.), а згодом увійшли у найактуальнішу фазу сучасності, названої пост-Модерною (або Постмодерном), яка остаточно радикалізувала накопичені минулим досвіди осучаснення. Ключові слова: сучасність, модернізація, модерність, Модерн, новітність
Метою статті є репрезентація закономірних дляукраїнського педагогічного дискурсу і реальноїпрактики діяльності закладів освіти ХХ століттязмін в осмисленні та втіленні ідеї суб'єктностіособистості учнів. Означене зорієнтувало дослі-дження на такі проблемні напрямки: встано-вити динаміку когнітивно-креативного процесугенерування та впровадження ідеї суб'єктностіз урахуванням її філософського, психологічного,освітньо-політичного та педагогічно-технологіч-ного контексту; створити загальну інфографікуперіодизації розвитку ідеї суб'єктності на основізіставлення профілів суб'єктності учнів досліджу-ваного періоду на окресленій території. Методи. Розв'язування дослідницьких завдань передба-чало використання інтерпретаційних методів,зокрема, генезного, що уможливило висновки про закономірності розвитку ідеї суб'єктності особи-стості в науково-педагогічному дискурсі та впрова-джених моделях навчання і виховання учнів; моде-лювання розвитку ідеї, щоб встановити логіку їїгенерування та трансформації; дискурс-аналізудля виявлення соціокультурного виміру суб'єк-тнісної проблематики в педагогічних ідеях ХХ сто-ліття; порівняльного аналізу з метою зіставленняпрофілів суб'єктності у виокремлених періодах. Результати. Закономірності розвитку та впро-вадження ідеї суб'єктності особистості школярарозглянуто в трьох площинах: філософсько-пси-хологічній (методологічній), системою координатякої є цивілізаційний тип особистості (класична,модерна, постмодерна) та суспільства (монархічне,індустріальне, демократичне, інформаційно-тех-нологічне); освітньо-політичній, розгорнутій наосях державних реформ та педагогічних (зокрема,і новаторських) шкіл; педагогічно-технологічній,яка охоплює, з одного боку, змістово-процесний бікнавчального, розвивального та виховного впливівпедагога, та з іншого – результатно-оцінний бікпедагогічного впливу, представлений новоутво-реннями учня та змінами педагогічної ситуації. Висновки. Логіка розвитку ідеї суб'єктності учняу вітчизняній освітній теорії та практиці ХХ сто-ліття представлена в межах формування уявленьпро суб'єктність як культурну вимогу суспільно-іс-торичної формації, типову ознаку представникацивілізації, складову виховного ідеалу, компетент-ностей і нормативного рівня розвитку школяра(суспільний запит освіті), припис щодо його соці-альної ролі, як засіб залучення учня до освітньогопроцесу, можливість його особистісної самореалі-зації. Провідні тенденції розвитку ідеї суб'єктностіучня стосуються змін суспільно-історичних фор-мацій і культурно-психологічного типу спільнотита психологічного типу особистості відповідноїепохи, світоглядних позицій та освітніх парадигм,теоретичного обґрунтування нового педагогіч-ного тезаурусу та технологічних інновацій у закла-дах освіти. ; The purpose of the article is to represent changesin the understanding and implementation of the ideaof personal agency of schoolchildren inherent in Ukrainianpedagogical discourse and actual practice of educationinstitutions in the XXth century. The above has forwardedthe research to the following areas of concern:to establish the dynamics of a cognitive-creative processof generating and implementing the idea of agencygiven its philosophical, psychological, educational-politicaland pedagogical-technological context; to createa general infographic periodization of the developmentof the idea of agency based on comparing profilesof agency of schoolchildren of the studied period ina particular territory. Methods: To solve the researchtasks, the author has used interpretational methods,particularly genesis one, that has made it possible toconclude about the development patterns of the idea of personal agency in the scientific-pedagogical discourseand introduced models of schoolchildren's educationand upbringing; the modelling of the progressof the idea contributes to finding out the logicof its generating and transformation; a discourse-analysisfor the identification of a socio-cultural dimensionof the agency-related issues in the pedagogical ideasof the XXth century; a comparative analysis to compareagency profiles in the defined periods. Results. Development patterns and introduction of the ideaof a pupil's personal agency are studied within threedimensions: philosophical-psychological (methodological),the coordinate system of which is a civilizationaltype of personality (classical, modern, postmodern),and society (monarchical, industrial, democratic, informationtechnology); educational and political, which isrendered on the axes of state reforms and pedagogical(including innovative) schools; pedagogical-technologicalcovering, on the one hand, the content-processaspect of educational, developmental and pedagogicaleffect of a teacher and, on the other hand, an effective-evaluation aspect of the pedagogical influencerepresented by new formations of a pupil and changesin the pedagogical situation. Conclusions. A logicof the development of a child's agency in the domesticeducational theory and practice of the XXth centuryis rendered under the framework of shaping visionsof agency as a cultural demand of the socio-historicalformation, a generic feature of a representativeof the civilization, a component of pedagogical ideal,competencies and a specified level of a child's development(a social demand for education), a note onhis social role as a means of involving the child intothe educational process, an opportunity for his self-realization.The key trends of the development of the ideaof a pupil's agency concern the changes in socio-historicalformations and cultural-psychological typeof community and psychological type of a personalitybelonging to a specific epoch, worldviews and educationalparadigms, theoretical substantiation of a newpedagogical thesaurus and technology innovations ineducation institutions.
In the article, on the basis of classical works of foreign and native politologists, is analyzed the problem of existence of civil society, as the reflection of national consciousness of Ukrainian nation.The present article is very actual and timely. What is the idea of this article? The main idea of the article is to show the problem of existence of civil society, as a reflection of national consciousness of Ukrainian nation.Today the concept of the national consciousness, mentality of Ukrainian nation has become a stumbling block of world viewing, Social, ideological and political principles of the sovereignty of Ukraine.In the article there is a thing about legal state.A legal state is the type of a State, which has such features as the leadership of the low, division of power, legal defence of a personality, juridical equality of a citizen and the state.In condition of modernization of a society, national consciousness of Ukrainian nation play the very important role in construction of a civil society.The transitional stage of building of the civil society is very long and there are many problems: at first sight, in the consciousness of the people in Ukraine.Ukraine faces a lot of important and global problems: mental, spiritual, philosophical.One of the most important task is to build civil society. Without the high level of national consciousness it is impossible.The expression "civil society" has become a peculiar emblem of 1900's, 20th century and how it continues its existence as the closest task of ideal for some countries and as an attribute and reality for others.A civil society is a society of citizens with high level of economical, social, political, cultural and moral traits, which together with the state creates developed lawful relations, the society of equal citizens, which doesn't depend on the state nut it interacts with it for the sake of common benefit.The main traits of the civil society: separated from the state social structure which contains different associations, voluntary units of people.Open rivalry of public interests initiates a political process, favour realization of social interest.The attempt is made to mark the national consciousness as the integrating power the determinant of civil society.Speciality of methodological approach consists of unification of theoretical analysis with attempt to determine, how the national consciousness (sense) of Ukrainian nation influences on the development of civil society in Ukraine.The term "modernization" was formed at the beginning of 1950s of the XX century to characterize the countries which presented the transition to the industrial society.First of all by the means of improvement of its economical infrastructure, devices of the economical growth. In the process of the modernization evolution as an interdiscipline theory and its gradual politicizing there crysallized the therm of "political modernization" which nowadays is connected with the formation of political institutions, social mobilization, widening of the political participation of the population, confirming of democratical values and norms.Under modern conditions political modernization has a special meaning for societies which are distent from the main development of peoples civilization, separated from the values common to all mankind.Modernization is the very important process, witch aimed to clearing up the sources, character and directions of political changes.Without modernization impossible to build the civil society.Ukrainian national consciousness is a spiritual phenomena of the nation.National consciousness which from one hand reflects all the interests of the nation and which appears to be their universal reflection, and from the other hand, is the generator and the centre of understanding and forming these interests represents itself as the entire organism.National consciousness is the result of the political constitutional confirming of the nation, criterion of its self-identifying. National consciousness function in the unity of rational and irrational essential manifestation: national character, national dream, national idea.In the end of this essay, I want to say, that the term of the article is very interesting, global and unexplored. ; В статті, на основі класичних праць зарубіжних та вітчизняних політологів, аналізується проблема екзистенції громадянського суспільства, як відображення національної свідомості української нації. Здійснена спроба визначити національну свідомість як інтегруючу силу, детермінанту громадянського суспільства. Дана стаття є вельми актуальною і своєчасною. Своєрідність методологічного підходу полягає у поєднанні теоретичного аналізу зі спробою виявити, як саме національна свідомість впливає на стан розвитку громадянського суспільства в Україні.
The Phoenicians were a Semitic people that inhabited the coast of the southern Levant. They were known throughout the Ancient Near East as shrewd merchants, gifted artisans, and exceptional mariners who ventured the Mediterranean Sea and beyond the straights of Gibraltar long before the invention of the compass. And yet despite all their acknowledged traits, modern scholars still define this important ancient culture as a lost civilization, mainly due to the acute lack of prominent original Phoenician written sources. Although thousands of Phoenician and Punic inscriptions were found over the years, the vast majority consists of laconic formulas providing little information. Therefore, most of our conceptions on the Phoenicians are still derived from anachronistic exterior sources such as the Hebrew bible and various classical authors. Since the 19th century, archaeology has played a key role in the rediscovery of the Phoenician culture in the east and west. However, since most of the major Phoenician urban centers lie below their modern successors, excavations in Lebanon are often difficult. Furthermore, the fragile political situation in the region during the last half a century has greatly hindered archaeological exploration of the Phoenician homeland. For these reasons and more, the Phoenicians received little scholarly attention in comparison to other ancient Levantine people such as the Israelites, Philistines, or Aramaeans. Modern scholars often treat each Phoenician city-state as an individual entity, emphasizing their autonomous nature and their independent civic identity. Some even questioned whether we may refer to the Phoenicians as a people, as they seem to lack basic elements of an ethnic group. They were a people without a common name, as they often chose to identify themselves as members of their city-state rather than subscribing to a broader ethnic or national identity. They had no acknowledged state with fixed borders, and they lacked political unity. Furthermore, some scholars maintain that there was no substantial difference between the language, religion, or craftsmanship of the city-states that constituted Phoenicia, and that of the rest of the southern Levant during most of the Bronze and Iron Ages. This study aims to answer the question can a broad Phoenician ethnic identity be reconstructed from the material culture of the Phoenicians during the Iron Age despite their tendency for a strong regional civic identity? By implementing an interdisciplinary longue durée approach that takes into consideration historical, political, and socio-economic factors, as well as the acute effect of the land-and-seascape on this ancient society, and analyzing various aspects of their material culture as it was expressed through architecture, religion and cult, burial practices, and the maritime culture, certain unique cultural elements were recognized which may serve as 'ethnic markers'. These unique markers, which were mainly exhibited in the Phoenicians' religion and cult, and maritime culture, were identified throughout Phoenicia and its dependencies suggesting a pan-Phoenician cultural koiné. In light of these findings, core issues of the Phoenician culture in the east, such as their ethnogenesis and the constant tension between their civic and ethnic identities, were addressed and possible theories were offered. Although material culture should not be automatically equated with ethnicity, it is undeniable that in the course of the self-definition of any human group, certain aspects of material culture, alongside other cultural traits such as language, religion, or dress, are chosen or used to mark ethnicity and often reflect symbolism and ethnic behavior. Material culture constitutes an indirect reflection of society, as ideas, ideology, and systems of belief are often manifested in its people's handiwork. The utilization of certain aspects of material culture was often implemented in order to distinguish a certain group from other groups, creating social boundaries that differentiate 'us' from 'them', and thus facilitating the formation of a distinct identity. This study, which often times extends far beyond its chronological scope, demonstrates that despite the individual/autonomous tendencies of the Phoenicians for a strong regional/civic identity, rather than to a broader ethnic identity, certain unique cultural elements manifested in the material culture demonstrate a pan-Phoenician cultural koiné, which was recognized not only by others as distinctive 'Phoenician' or 'Canaanite', but also by the Phoenicians themselves. These cultural elements, expressed in the material culture, and their self-ascription and ascription by others, constitute a complex shared ethnic identity that we refer to today as 'Phoenician'. ; XXIII, 497 Seiten
Актуальність проблеми. Періодизація еволюції теорії економічної політики базується на відмінностях визначення предмету економічної теорії – як частини філософії моралі, як науки про матеріальне багатство націй, як науки про раціональну поведінку людей. Цілі дослідження: представляється доцільним проаналізувати основні ідеї класичної політичної економіки. Аналіз останніх досліджень і публікацій – розглядаються підходи, обгрунтовані у свій час такими мислителями, як Н. Макіавеллі, Т. Гоббс, Дж. Локк, Г. Гегель, К. Маркс, Дж. Роулз, А. Сміта, Д. Рікардо, Дж. Кейнса, Л. фон Мізеса, М. Фрідмана, Ф. А. фон Хайєка, Р. Кохане, В. Андрущенко, В. Воронкова, Р. Олексенко та інші. Методологія дослідження. Методологічну основу дослідження складає система загально наукових та загально доповнюючи методів дослідженнях. Використано метод системного аналізу, дедуктивний та дедуктивний аналіз, структурно – функціональний та порівняльний аналіз, історичний та метод спостереження, тощо. Виділення недосліджених частин загальної проблеми. Залишаються недостатньо дослідженими і потребують поглибленого вивчення питання напрямів удосконалення теоретико-методологічних засад реалізації державної економічної політики в сучасних умовах. Постановка завдання. Визначити сутність державної економічної політики та окремлети основні її елементи. Розглянути основні етапи та принципи реалізації державної економічної політики. Узагальнити теоретико-методологічні засади реалізації державної економічної політики в сучасних умовах. Виклад основного матеріалу. Складні та суперечливі процеси сучасних суспільних трансформацій і необхідність подолання кризових явищ в економіці вимагають відповідного впливу держави та чітко діючої системи соціально-економічного управління шляхом формування та реалізації ефективної державної економічної політики. Висновки. Основі теоретичні напрямки характеризують основні моделі реалізації економічної політики: ліберальну, та державну. Між окресленими альтернативними моделями існує значний діапазон проміжних способів реалізації економічної політики, у межах яких державна регуляція обмежуються певними сферами. ; The basics of the state economic policy and its evolution in socio-historical progress in civilization process are analyzed; the author studies the approaches substantiated in their time by such famous thinkers likeNiccolo Machiavelli, ThomasHobbes, JohnLocke, GeorgHegel, KarlMarx, JohnRawls; liberal substantiations suggested byAdamSmith, DavidRicardo, JohnMaynardKeynes, Ludwig von Mises, MiltonFriedman,Friedrich von Hayek, R. Cokhane in their works; utilitarian theory of social welfareby Jeremy Bentham, arepresentative of classical political economical schoolJohnStuartMill didn't deny the possibility and eligibility of state's interference in the economic processes; the utilitarian theory of social welfare by Jeremy Bentham, who suggested pleasures and suffering analysis concept according to which it is expedient to redistribute the income between the rich and the poor to provide the best welfare in the society that influenced thespreading of "marginalist revolution"ideasand which has changed the methodological and theoretical basics of economic policy. Aconsiderable and significant contribution to the economic welfare theory developing(the theory of economic policy) was made by Vilfredo Pareto. With the help of the curvesof indifference Vilfredo Paretoanalyzed effective conditions of resources placing based on whichthe first theorem of welfare economy"Pareto optimum"– thecriterion of economic effectiveness was developed. The conceptions of state economic policy suggested by the representatives of monetarism, keynesianism, marxism, economic nationalism and others are analyzed. There is a great range of intermediate ways of economic policy implementation between alternative models being analyzed within which the state regulation is restricted to certain spheres ; Актуальность проблемы. Периодизация эволюции теории экономической политики базируется на отличиях определения предмета экономическол теории – как части философии морали, как науки о материальном богатстве наций, как науки о рациональном поведении людей. Цели исследования: представляется необходимым проанализировать основные идеи классической политической экономики. Анализ последних исследований и публикаций – рассматриваются подходы, обоснованные в свое время такими мыслителями, как Н.Микиавелли, Т.Гоббс, Дж.Локк, Г.Гегель, К.Маркс, Дж.Роулз, А.Смит, Д.Рикардо, Дж.Кейнс, Л.фон Мизес, М.Фридман, Ф.А.фон Хайек, Р.Кохане, В, Андрущенко, Р.Олексенко и других. Методология исследования. Методологическую основу исследования составляет система общенаучных и общедополняющих методов исследования. Использовано метод системного анализа, дедуктивный и индуктивный анализ, структурно-функциональный и сравнительный метод, исторический и метод наблюдения и другие. Использование неисследованных частей общей проблемы. Остаются недостаточно исследованными и требуют углубленного изучения вопросы - направления усовершенствования теоретико-методологических оснований реализации государственной экномической политики в современных условиях. Постановка задания. Определить сущность государственной экономической политики и очертить основные ее элементы. Рассмотреть основные этапы и приницпы реализации государственной экономической политики в современных условиях. Изложение основного амтериала. Сложные и противоречивые процессы современных общественных трансформаций и необходимость преодоления кризисных явлений в экономике требуют соответствующего влияния государства и необходимость преодоления кризисных явлений в экономике, требуют соответствующего влияния государства и четко действующей системы социально-экономического управления путем формирования и реализации эффективной государственной экономической политики. Выводы. Основные теоретические направления характеризуют основные модели реализации экономической политики : либеральную и государственную. Между очерченными альтернатвиынми моделями существует значительный диапазон промежуточных способов реализации экономической политики, в рамках которых государственная регуляция ограничивается определенными сферами.
Материал представляет собой размышление над книгами известного отечественного философа В.А. Кутырёва, в том числе над последней изданной работой «Последнее целование. Человек как традиция» (СПб., 2015). Нижегородский профессор автор ряда трудов, посвящённых критическому разбору современного инновационизма. Он пытается привлечь внимание к мировоззренческим аспектам информационного прогресса. Эти исследования направлены против движения человечества к вырождению, отказу от жизни и культуры в пользу техники и виртуализма. В рецензии даётся критический разбор философской традиции, которая завершилась в наши дни забвением бытия, руинизацией жизни и гуманизма. Автор использует методологические принципы философской антропологии, которые позволяют обосновать понятие «человеческой природы», бытийственных аспектов жизни. Он рассматривает традицию как проявление универсалий бытия. Материал направлен против господствующего в современном общественном сознании безоглядного прогрессизма, инновационизма. Ставится вопрос о более скрупулёзной и глубокой философской рефлексии, которая позволила бы оценить возможные риски при осуществляющейся трансгрессии общества. Дана высокая оценка традициям, которые в известном смысле можно называть универсалиями. Отвергаются попытки современных исследователей отказаться от понятия «человеческой природы», от размывания идентичности. ; The article is devoted to the analysis of the works written by a professor of the University of Nizhny Novgorod Vladimir Aleksandrovich Kutyrev, including his new book «The last kissing. Man as a tradition» (SPb., 2015). His studies are directed against the movement of humanity to degeneration as rejection of real life and culture in favor of technology and virtualization. The review gives critical scrutiny of the philosophical tradition which at the present ended in contempt for the being, the ruining of life and humanism. Concurrently, the limited nature of this viewpoint can be observed. The author reflects on the tremendous changes of the outside world, assuming they require the extreme mobilization of philosophical reflection. The belief that IT in the course of development can eliminate human difficulties and vices is subjected to criticism. V. A. Kutyrev insists on the fact that the mechanism of identity is a basis of any human-related reasoning. Self-identity cannot be pieced together with innovations only, as had argued in due time P. Ricoeur. It is tradition that preserves «humane». However, if we set aside the past, the basic, there is no point in discoursing upon hereafter. Tradition can be treated in different ways. Some people propose to alleviate from the ship of present a burden of tenacious ethnicity, traditions, isolation and narrow-mindedness. Yet others think differently. Others, as noted in the article, presume that critique of archaistic society as the one suffering from narrow-mindedness and patriarchal character is unjustified. The French philosopher G. Bataille proclaimed sacredness the major achievement of traditional society. He noted that the real world complies with the innermost order only exteriorly. Innermost means intimate, secret. Bataille spoke in support of a revival of sacredness. He saw in it the salvation of mankind. For many years he was in search of sacred knowledge, which would change the face of sociology or political economy. V. A. Kutyrev proved the philosophy of tradition to be a historical form of an identity, bearing the tension of existence and changes. And while it bears this tension, it exists. The author pays attention to the transformation of identity nowadays. Hybridism is a new motto. Girls often want to be boys, boys to be girls. White wish to be black, black dream of becoming white. Elderly want to get back their youth. Aborigines try on the roles of the European. The European voluntarily rush for the shacks. The most important thing is not to be frozen in the past life, the past role, the past self-identity. Parents are labeled oddly with «the first» and «the second» parent. The main thing is to escape a clear sex identity. Blurring the gender identity aimed at the elimination of gender certainty. Cultural and domestic signals are added to the armory. Woman shave her head, man puts on her dresses along with army boots. That indicates a mockery of the traditional assumptions about identity. The whole process of identity construction is transformed. We live in an era of constructivism mania. Transformations, modifications touch everything. We have not yet managed to understand the mysteries of protein life form, as we hasten to hatch out. We are ready to set our minds to a cosmic mood. We wonder why nature was so tolerant towards the evident mistakes of evolution. It won't be like that anymore. We endured puberty and now sank into an abyss of constructivism. V. A. Kutyrev thinks the main fault lies with the philosophers. Enthusiasts of the incredible changes in the historical destiny of mankind make philosophy seem like a useless expendable material in this situation. Every philosophical idea echoes differently in the philosophical space. But there is no sense in examining different concepts as the reason for the exposure. The «New philosophers» of France not so long ago accused classical philosophy followers to play the mischief with modern history. Even before Karl Popper traced the cradle of totalitarian ideas in the social thoughts of Plato. The topic of «Übermensch» in Nietzsche's reflection was interpreted as the precursor of fascism. Ideological demarcation in philosophy certainly requires establishing responsibility of thinkers for revelations they give to people. Nevertheless, is it fare to blame Kant for the discovery of transcendental thinking, which led philosophy astray from the verified root of seeking thought? Would modern philosophy be that rich, if it were not for Kant? How did it come in domestic literature to impute almost criminal intentions to classical scholars? Let us take for instance E. Husserl. He created the concept of lifeworld, some kind of a correlate of human experience in everyday reality. This idea enabled us to return to analyze the primary forms of everyday reliability. V. A. Kutyrev elaborates the concept of co-evolution of the natural and the artificial worlds, stresses the need of resisting to the discredit of existence and the tendencies of substituting ontology with «nihilitology», propose the idea of uniting philosophy and religion in order to protect humanism from scientific mind. He states that the intensification of antagonism between natural and artificial and the creation of «post-human» reality have caused the global crisis. Only our ability to restrain the expansion of technology and preserve the niche of natural existence will help us to avert the catastrophe. Emphasizing the major accomplishments of V. A. Kutyrev in criticizing the destructive tendencies of modern civilization, author draws attention to the philosopher's polemical costs and the specific weaknesses of his philosophical standpoint.
