Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hire Bamanhal-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 400 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soil, 7 per cent by rock outcrops and 150cm) soils. About 86 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 7 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface. About 9 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 7 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 86 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 10 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 83 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 11 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 23 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 32 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 8 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 10 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 9 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 64 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 1 per cent of the soils. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 5 per cent of the soils. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 82 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 4(1) 72(17) Sapota - 49(12) Maize - 75(18) Pomegranate - 66(16) Bajra 42(10) 148(37) Musambi 4(1) 62(15) Groundnut 42(10) 110(28) Lime 4(1) 62(15) Sunflower 4(1) 62(15) Amla 48(12) 149(37) Redgram - 65(16) Cashew 6(1) 43(11) Bengal gram 16(4) 173(43) Jackfruit - 49(12) Cotton 4(1) 71(17) Jamun - 65(16) Chilli - 59(14) Custard apple 51(13) 145(36) Tomato - 59(14) Tamarind - 23(6) Brinjal 49(12) 24(6) Mulberry 6(1) 66(16) Onion 49(12) 20(5) Marigold - 76(18) Bhendi 49(12) 24(6) Chrysanthemum - 76(18) Drumstick 6(1) 66(17) Jasmine - 59(14) Mango - 6(1) Crossandra - 58(14) Guava - 49(12) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 118 (59%) men and 82 (41%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 6.20, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 5.27, semi medium farmers' was 5.55 and medium farmers' was 7. The data indicated that, 62 (31%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 89 (44.50%) were in 16-35 years of age, 36 (18%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (6.50%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Hire Bamanhal-2 had 27 per cent illiterates, 36 per cent of them had primary school education, 5 per cent of them had middle school education, 16 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.50 per cent of them did ITI and 2.50 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicate that, 80 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 17.14 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 2.86 per cent were in private service. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 7.50 per cent of the household members, 56 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.5 per cent were general labour, 1.50 per cent were in private service, 29 per cent were students and 5.50 per cent were children. The results show that 99.50 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 17.14 per cent possess thatched house, 62.86 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 20 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house. The results show that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 82.86 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 14.29 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 17.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 9000, mixer grinder was Rs.1913, bicycle was Rs. 2000, motor cycle was Rs.44166 and mobile phone was Rs.2210. About 40 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess harvester and 54.29 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1500, harvester was Rs.5000 and weeder was Rs.50. 2 The results indicate that, 34.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.86 per cent of the households possess local cow and 5.71 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.58, average own labour (women) available was 1.58, average hired labour (men) available was 7.81 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.77. The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Hire Bamanhal-2 micro-watershed possess 39.26 ha (68.54%) of dry land and 18.02 ha (31.46%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.34 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 12.55 ha (87.50%) of dry land and 1.79 ha (12.50%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 15.47 ha (63.98%) of dry land and 8.71 ha (36.02%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.90 ha (54.21%) dry land and 7.52 ha (45.79%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 292,835.05 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 465,933.08. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 641,003.46 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 382,451.61 for dry land and was Rs. 613,318.31 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 239,115.64 for dry land and Rs. 470,585.50 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 168,409.09 for dry land and Rs. 425,403.66 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 11 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 31.43 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 30.48 meters. The results indicate that, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 1.79 ha, 8.71 ha and 7.52 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (11.74 ha), groundnut (5.29 ha), maize (37.36 ha), navane (1.62 ha) and sunflower (0.81 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra and maize. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, navane and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut and maize. Medium farmers have also grown maize, bajra and groundnut. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hire Bamanhal-2 micro-watershed was found to be 73.05 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 98.44 per cent, small farmers it was 80.03 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 76.15 and medium farmers it was 62.33 per cent. The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households have bank account. 3 The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the household availed loan from grameena bank, 12.50 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial banks and 62.50 per cent of them availed loan from cooperative bank in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, the average amount of credit borrowed in micro watershed by medium farmers was Rs.148125. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan. The results indicate that, around 62.50 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 37.50 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 69839.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55637.10. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -14202.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.8. The total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 32012.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22230. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. -9782.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.69. The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 33460.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38324.11. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 4863.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.15. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 26729.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26030.26. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 699.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97. The total cost of cultivation for Navane was Rs. 20962.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28405. The net income from Navane cultivation was Rs. 7442.15. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.36. The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 28.57 per cent opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 30,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 43,300, for small farmers it was Rs. 62,200, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 75,300 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 93,380. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,986.15. For landless households it was Rs. 3,200, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 8,666.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 3,809.92, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,100.55 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 13,900. 4 The results indicate that, households have planted 13 mango and 6 coconut trees in the field. The results indicate that, households have planted 188 neem trees, 5 tamarind trees and 12 teak trees in their fields. The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs.4,057.14, for improved crop production Rs. 2,457.14, for irrigation facility Rs. 705.88 and for improved livestock management Rs. 314.29. The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 40 per cent for land development, for 25.71 per cent for irrigation facility, for 40 per cent for improved crop production and for 8.57 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 65.19 per cent, groundnut to the extent of 83.33 per cent, maize to the extent of 90 per cent, navane to the extent of 20 per cent and sunflower was sold to the extent of 83.33 per cent. The results indicated that, about 108.57 per cent of the famers have sold their produce to local/village merchants. The results indicated that, 108.57 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 100 per cent of the small farmers, 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of the medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 40 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 14.29 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 42.86 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 71.43 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. 5 The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 97.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 11.43 per cent, fruits were adequate for 8.57 per cent, milk was adequate for 97.14 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 5.71 per cent. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 2.86 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 100 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 88.57 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 88.57 per cent and meat was inadequate for 94.29 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 80 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (80%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (45.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (31.43%), high rate of interest on credit (11.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (20%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25.71%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), less rainfall (51.43%) and source of agri-technology information (28.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Un poco de historiaIslandia es el último país europeo en formarse como tal. Situado al norte del Atlántico, entre Groenlandia y Noruega, al borde del círculo polar ártico, tuvo sus primeros habitantes en el siglo VIII. Se cree que fueron monjes irlandeses los primeros en instalarse en sus tierras inhóspitas. Si bien no se han encontrado evidencias arqueológicas que lo prueben, alguna historia escrita narra el pasaje de los mismos y su abandono de la isla con la llegada de los vikingos paganos entre los siglos VIII y IX. De acuerdo a su sitio oficial (1), el Libro de los establecimientos (Landnámabák), del siglo XII, relata detalladamente cómo los escandinavos descubrieron accidentalmente esta tierra. Los noruegos serían los primeros en establecerse, luego de varios viajes de exploración previos, en la actual Reykjavík, hoy ciudad capital (2). Vikingos de otras partes de Escandinavia y Gran Bretaña llegaron luego para completar la población, lo que sumaría elementos celtas que aún permanecen en su cultura.Islandia es una de las democracias más antiguas del mundo, el Althingi (parlamento y sistema judicial) se estableció en el año 930 al mismo tiempo que se establecía ya un código legal. Con el Althingi surge el Icelandic Commonwealth y el primer tratado internacional, en el año 1022, que regulaba los derechos de los islandeses en Noruega y de los noruegos en Islandia. Es un país cristiano que adopta esta religión pacíficamente bajo la influencia del Rey de Noruega en torno al siglo XI. En los siguientes siglos pasaron de estar bajo la tutela noruega a la danesa que impuso la iglesia luterana hacia el 1500 y el monopolio del comercio, junto con la reducción de poderes e independencia del Althingi. Esto, sumado a varios desastres naturales, destruyó la economía islandesa que vivió un periodo de grandes hambrunas y epidemias que llegaron a reducir su población notoriamente.Para mediados del siglo XIX, el Althingi se restablece como asamblea (rol que mantiene hoy en día), el comercio se liberaliza, se elabora la primera Constitución e Islandia logra el control de sus finanzas, si bien no logrará la independencia hasta 1918: una independencia relativa ya que se mantendrá súbdita de la corona danesa hasta 1940 y la República de Islandia, como tal, no se proclamará hasta 1944.Islandia hoy: su relación con la Unión EuropeaIslandia es una república de 103.000 km2, con poco más de 300.000 habitantes concentrados en la costa suroeste del país, en su capital Reykjavik (donde se encuentra dos tercios de su población total) y alrededores. Es una república parlamentaria con un periodo presidencial de 4 años sin límite de reelección. A pesar de su modernización económica en los últimos años y el desarrollo del sector servicios, la pesca y sus derivados sigue siendo el principal producto que rige la economía, representando la mitad de las exportaciones del país (3). En la última década había logrado uno de los más altos niveles de crecimiento constante en el mundo junto con una baja inflación y un bajo desempleo. Sin embargo, la crisis de 2008 golpeó fuerte a esta economía pujante obligando a su Estado a hacerse cargo de los tres bancos más grandes del país (Kaupthing, Landsbanki y Glitnir). Este colapso bancario y la depreciación de la moneda nacional (corona islandesa) dejaron una crisis económica y financiera de la que el país aún no se recupera. Se ha casi triplicando la tasa de desempleo, que pasó del 3% en 2004 al 8,7% en la segunda mitad de 2010, recuperando el impulso a la baja con 5.9% en el último trimestre de este 2011 (4).Su relación con el continente, como se ha señalado, es estrecha e histórica sobre todo con los países escandinavos. No forma parte de la Unión Europea pero es miembro de la Asociación Europea de Libre Comercio (EFTA por su sigla en inglés) desde 1972, lo que resulta en que dos tercios de su intercambio comercial sean con países de la Unión. Además, es país fundador del Espacio Económico Europeo (EEE) que rige desde 1994, lo que hace que de hecho esté ya muy inserta en la Unión en lo que respecta a su acervo comunitario. Forma parte, también, del llamado Espacio Schengen que permite la libre circulación de personas (para viajar y trabajar) dentro de la Unión, desde el año 2000.Desde mediados de 2010, Islandia es candidata oficial de adhesión a la Unión Europea y se preparan para asumir las obligaciones de miembro de la misma. El ingreso del país a la Unión genera dudas en ambas márgenes ya que el rechazo de los islandeses a formar parte del grupo ha sido permanente hasta la crisis que los golpeó en 2009, cuando la posibilidad de resguardarse bajo el paraguas de la Unión y del euro resultó, al menos, atractiva. El pedido de adhesión no dejó de ser sorpresivo y es un hecho que no escapa a los europeos del continente que ven cómo, en los últimos tiempos, la economía comienza a dar signos de posible recuperación y aquélla impulsiva voluntad de pertenecer a la Unión se desvanece lentamente entre la opinión pública. Es claro que la élite política de Islandia no lo tendrá fácil cuando deba defender la adhesión frente a sus electores.El contexto político en el que surge el pedido de adhesión es complejo ya que el gobierno de Geir Haarde, de centro derecha, había dimitido en febrero de 2009 en una coyuntura de crisis económica y política muy fuerte, formándose un gobierno interino de coalición encabezado por la que quedaría como primera ministra en las elecciones de abril del mismo año, Jóhanna Sigurôardóttir, de izquierda y social demócrata. Es el ala social demócrata la que logra imponer la discusión en el Althingi sobre la decisión de solicitar la adhesión a la Unión. El Parlamento islandés fue representativo de la indecisión general aprobando la solicitud por 33 votos contra 28.Del otro lado del océano, no se puede pasar por alto el hecho de que fuera Suecia quien ostentara la Presidencia rotativa del Consejo y un finlandés el comisario encargado de la ampliación. Como ya mencionamos, el proceso de adhesión está abierto y las negociaciones en marcha. Éstas consisten en 35 capítulos de los cuales casi la mitad ya están cubiertos por la participación de Islandia en el EEE y, de los restantes, al menos tres se presentan muy complicados: la pesca, la agricultura y la caza de ballenas. Por otro lado, existe un contencioso no menor entre Inglaterra y Holanda, contra Islandia, por las pérdidas causadas por el banco islandés Icesave a sus ciudadanos y cuyos gobiernos se vieron obligados a compensar.La discusión sobre si adherir o no a la Unión no es nueva en Islandia y es interesante revisarla ya que el electorado parece haber estado siempre en desacuerdo con la clase política (hasta ahora) que es, en definitiva, su elegida.En un contexto histórico reciente, Jean Jacques Fol (5), dice que los países nórdicos, en referencia a la política exterior que llevan adelante, podrían distribuirse en dos grupos: por una parte, Islandia, Noruega y Dinamarca; por otra, Suecia y Finlandia. Islandia, Noruega y Dinamarca se orientan hacia Occidente, aunque con matices. Islandia y Noruega son más "atlantistas", y Dinamarca más "europea". Por su parte, Suecia y Finlandia son estrictamente neutralistas. Por su parte Baldur Thorhallsson (6), de la Universidad de Islandia, explica el escepticismo histórico de la clase política frente a una adhesión a la Unión Europea a través de tres factores: la influencia del sector primario en la economía combinada con el sistema electoral y el rol de los grupos de interés en la toma de decisiones del gobierno; en el discurso político islandés sobre la independencia y la soberanía y, finalmente, en la ubicación geográfica de Islandia sumado al tratado de defensa que mantiene con los Estados Unidos. Y agrega, desde el punto de vista del electorado, que "the willingness of around half of the electorate to apply for the EU membership is explained by the looser connection of the populace with the primary sectors compared with the political elite, the electorate's greater concern with their economic prosperity than the political discourse of the elite, and the electorate's anxiety about isolation from Europe, particularly the other Nordic states". Los grupos de interés con más peso en Islandia están relacionados con la agricultura y la pesca y tienen una mayor influencia en este país que en los otros países nórdicos. Esto se explica porque el electorado de las zonas rurales si bien representa una minoría (32%), mantuvo, hasta las últimas elecciones, la mayoría en el Parlamento. El Althingi no había puesto al día la redistribución de asientos con respecto a la representatividad poblacional. También explica Thorhallson que será un cambio progresivo dado que gran parte de la élite política tiene algún tipo de relación con los dos sectores que mueven la economía islandesa, constatando que de cada seis ministros, dos son granjeros o provienen de una región donde estos sectores son importantes.Por otra parte, la tardía independencia de Islandia hace que el discurso a propósito de la soberanía tenga un impacto mayor, una retórica que ha moldeado inclusive el debate político. Durante el siglo XX un rol fundamental de la clase política ha sido lograr, primero y mantener luego, la libertad y la soberanía. Cabe destacar, además, que Islandia es de los países europeos, el más homogéneo en todos los niveles y, a nivel político, esta nación debe mantenerse unida. En este sentido la participación en el espacio económico europeo y en el espacio Schengen se presentó no como una transferencia de poder a Bruselas sobre algunos aspectos específicos sino como una participación de Islandia en algunas áreas de la Unión, al punto de que el gobierno que negoció la entrada en Schengen fue como una especie de salvador que lograba que los islandeses pudieran moverse libremente dentro de la Unión y sobre todo, a través de los otros países nórdicos.Por último, mencionamos la importancia geoestratégica de Islandia y un relacionamiento especial con Estados Unidos que dificulta y hace dudar a la élite política sobre la aproximación a Europa. Islandia fue un importante enclave geoestratégico durante la Guerra Fría, en el medio de lo que se llamó el GIUK-gap(Groenlandia-Islandia-Reino Unido). Esta situación geográfica ha hecho que Islandia base su política de seguridad y defensa en el tratado de defensa firmado con Estados Unidos (1951) y su participación en la OTAN. De esta manera los partidos políticos y su élite mantienen cierta resistencia a extender la participación de su país en el capítulo de la política de seguridad y defensa de la UE, en la medida de que su defensa se encuentra asegurada por los Estados Unidos.El problema de la crisis y la banca no deja de ser un ítem que preocupa a la UE ya que las medidas tomadas por Islandia aún no satisfacen a las víctimas continentales de la quiebra de los tres principales bancos islandeses. Claudí Pérez resumía en un párrafo lo sucedido para el diario El País, en abril de este año: "…bajo el influjo de Ronald Reagan y Margaret Thatcher, el país se convirtió en la quintaesencia del modelo liberal, con una política económica de bajos impuestos, privatizaciones, desregulaciones y demás: la sombra de Milton Friedman, que viajó durante esa época a Reikiavik, es alargada. Aquello funcionó. La renta per cápita se situó entre las más altas del mundo, el paro se estabilizó en el 1% y el país invirtió en energía verde, plantas de aluminio y tecnología. El culmen llegó con el nuevo siglo: el Estado privatizó la banca y los banqueros iniciaron una carrera desaforada por la expansión dentro y fuera del país, ayudados por las manos libres que les dejaba la falta de regulación y por unos tipos de interés en torno al 15% que atraían los ahorros de los dentistas austríacos, los jubilados alemanes y los comerciantes holandeses. Una economía sana, asentada sobre sólidas bases, se convirtió en una mesa de Black Jack", sentencia al final. Cuando cayó Lehman Brothers fueron de los primeros en entrar en el colapso financiero mundial. Como les pasó a otros, la inflación trepó descontrolada, el desempleo se multiplicó rápidamente, el PBI cayó 15% y los bancos perdieron más de cien mil millones de dólares. El Icesave, una banca de ahorro operada por el Landsbanki, concentraba los ahorros británicos y holandeses y, cuando el gobierno permite el quiebre de los bancos y los nacionaliza, decide consultar por referéndum la devolución del dinero. De por sí, esto generó polémica en Europa, más cuando el resultado fue negativo: Holanda e Inglaterra debieron hacerse cargo de 4.000 millones de euros, que sus nacionales reclamaban les fueran devueltos. Esto estancó las negociaciones de entrada de Islandia a la UE.En definitiva, Islandia hoy en día sufre las consecuencias de la crisis económica que también afecta a Europa continental, obligada a tomar medidas de severa austeridad, a partir del rescate del FMI, con la clásica receta de más impuestos y menos gastos, pero que compensa con un aumento de sus exportaciones (a partir del desplome de la corona) lo que igualmente permitirá un crecimiento del 3% de la economía islandesa en este año. Es como si el país volviera a sus orígenes, retrocediera 10 años, con la apuesta en la pesca y la industria del aluminio.El futuro es incierto aunque queda claro que Islandia deberá trabajar duro para solucionar los pocos, pero importantes, obstáculos que le impiden aún ingresar a la Unión, por un lado, y para convencer a su electorado de los beneficios que implica sumarse al proyecto europeo, por el otro (7). En este sentido, la propia Unión se ha comprometido, a través de la Comisión, a realizar una campaña conjunta para explicarle a la población dichos beneficios: una estabilidad financiera que la isla necesita y mucho; un crecimiento del mercado de exportaciones y la participación directa en la toma de decisiones.No será tarea fácil, Islandia le teme al ingreso de pesqueros comunitarios a sus aguas territoriales y la competencia que esto implicaría; la caza de ballenas deberá ajustarse a las normas comunitarias afectando una tradición antiquísima de la isla; el problema con Inglaterra y Holanda deberá quedar saldado y ajustar el déficit y la deuda a las exigencias de la UE (Criterios de Copenhague) se presentan como duros desafíos.(1) www.iceland.is(2) Es así que el islandés como idioma es muy similar al antiguo noruego.(3) A pesar de emplear apenas el 8% de la fuerza laboral (agricultura y pesca).(4) Datos tomados de www.statice.is(5) Fol, Jean Jacques. 1984. Los países nórdicos en los siglos XIX y XX. Ed. Labor. Barcelona. (pp.195)(6) El autor hace un estudio sobre el tema en su artículo The skeptical elite versus the pro-European public: The case of Iceland; publicado en 2002 en la revista Scandinavian Studies 74 (pp349).(7) Según datos de la Comisión Europea, el 60% de la población dice estar en contra de la adhesión y sólo un 26% está explícitamente a favor. *Mag. en Relaciones Internacionales por la Universidad Técnica de Lisboa y docente de FACS – Universidad ORT Uruguay. BibliografíaFOL, Jean Jacques. 1984. "Los países nórdicos en los siglos XIX y XX." Ed. Labor. Barcelona.GOODEVE, Emily. 2005. "Iceland and the European Union. An in-depth analysis of one of Iceland's most controversial debates." En Scandinavian Studies. N°77 (p. 85-104).GRANELL, Francesc. 2009. "El proceso de ingreso de Islandia a la UE como reto para la Presidencia española." ARI N° 158/2009. Real Instituto Elcano.KATSIOLOUDES, Marios; THORDARDOTTIR, Steinunn; BALSMEIER, Phillip. 1996. "Iceland drifting towards International integration: the pros and cons of joing the UE". En International Journal of Commerce & Management Vol. 6 N°3&4 (p. 41-56).PÉREZ, Claudi. 2011. "Islandia enjaula a sus banqueros: la primera víctima de la crisis financiera hace un valiente intento de pedir responsabilidades." Reportaje diario EL PAÍS (03/04/2011).THORHALLSSON, Baldur. 2002. "The Skeptical Political Elite Versus the Pro-European Public: The case of Iceland". En Scandinavian Studies N°74 (p. 349-378). Sitios web consultados:http://eeas.europa.eu/iceland/index_en.htm http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/11/1215&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/candidate-countries/iceland/key-documents/index_en.htm http://ec.europa.eu/spain/novedades/ampliacion/ampliacion-islandia-union-europea_es.htm www.iceland.is www.statice.is
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chik Sulikeri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 540 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 93 per cent is covered by soils, 5 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 18 soil series and 35 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm). About 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 36 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 54 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 23 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 13 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 73 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping(1-3% slope) lands and 7 per cent area of microwatershed has gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands. An area of about 52 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 41 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 0.75%) in 15 per cent area. An area of about 93 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 33 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 5 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 16 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content. Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content. An area of about 25 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content. The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 24(4) 188(35) Sapota 15(3) 65(12) Maize 15(3) 198(37) Pomegranate 15(3) 97(18) Bajra 37(7) 235(44) Guava 15(3) 65(12) Groundnut 37(7) 227(42) Jackfruit 15(3) 65(12) Sunflower 24(4) 60(11) Jamun - 111(20) Cotton 9(2) 204(38) Musambi 24(4) 88(16) Red gram 15(3) 69(13) Lime 24(4) 88(16) Bengalgram 13(2) 218(40) Cashew 13(2) 52(9) Chilli 15(3) 151(28) Custard apple 59(11) 294(54) Tomato 15(3) 151(28) Amla 59(11) 294(54) Brinjal 36(7) 216(40) Tamarind - 61(11) Onion 36(7) 164(30) Marigold 15(3) 198(37) Bhendi 36(7) 216(40) Chrysanthemum 15(3) 198(37) Drumstick 28(5) 136(25) Jasmine 15(3) 166(31) Mulberry 28(5) 155(29) Crossandra 15(3) 141(26) Mango - 29(5) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMU s by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Results indicated that 37 farmers were sampled in Chik Sulikeri micro watershed among them 5(13.51%) were landless, 4 (10.51%) were marginal farmers, 15 (40.54%) were small farmers, 7 (18.92%) were semi medium farmers, 5 (13.51%) were medium farmers and 1 (2.70%) were large farmers. The data indicated that there were 101(59.06%) men and 70 (40.94%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 3, marginal, small, medium and large farmers' was 5b and semi medium farmers' was 6. The data indicated that, 29 (16.97%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 80 (46.78%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (29.82%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11(6.43 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Chik Sulikeri had 37.43 per cent illiterates, 44.44 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.17 per cent of them had middle school education, 6.43 per cent of them had high school education, 5.26 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.17 per cent of them did diploma, 2.34 per cent of them had degree education and 1.75 persons were doing others. The results indicate that, 91.89 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 8.11 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 25.73 per cent of the household members, 51.46 per cent were agricultural laborers, 20.47 per cent were students and 1.17 housewives and children. In case of landless farmers, 21.43 per cent were doing agriculture, 64.29 per cent were agricultural laborers, and 14.29 per cent were housewives. In case of marginal farmers 26.32 per cent were agriculturists, 31.58 per cent were agricultural laborers and 36.84 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 28.99 per cent were agriculturists, 53.62 per cent were agricultural laborers and 17.39 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers, 25.64 per cent were agriculturists, 48.72 per cent were agricultural laborer and 23.08 per cent were students. In case of medium farmers, 20 per cent were agriculturists, another 60 per cent were agricultural laborers and 20 per cent were students. In large farmers 20 per cent were agriculturists, another 40 per cent were agricultural laborers and 40 per cent were students. The results show that 100 per cent of the populations in the micro watershed have not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 13.51 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 75.68 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 10.81 per cent of them possess Pucca house. The results shows that 89.19 per cent of the households possess TV, 67.57 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 32.43 per cent of the households possess 2 bicycle, 37.84 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 97.30 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.4151, mixer grinder was Rs.1396, motor cycle was Rs.1500 and mobile phone was Rs.31285 and mobile was Rs.1472. The data showed that, about 10.81 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 18.92 per cent of them possess plough and sprayer, 94.59 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.70 per cent of them possess harvester and chaff cutter respectively. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18250, plough was Rs.1250, the average value of weeder was Rs. 23, the average value of sprayer was Rs.4571, the average value of harvester was Rs.45000 and the average value of chaff cutter Rs.3000. The results indicate that, 16.22 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 24.32 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.70 per cent of the households possess buffalo and sheep respectively. In case of marginal households, 25per cent possess local cow. Among small farmers, 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullock and 26.67 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 14.29 per cent of households possess bullock, 28.57 per cent of households possess local cow and 14.29 per cent of households possess buffalo. In medium farmers 20 per cent local cow and in large farmers 100 per cent of the household possess local cow. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 9.19, average own labour (women) available was 5.66, average hired labour (men) available was 8.05 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.13. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 31, average own labour (women) was 16, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.81, average own labour (women) was 1.69, average hired labour (men) was 9.27 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.63. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 25, average own labour (women) was 15.71, average hired labour (men) was 11.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.57. In case of medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.20, average own labour (women) was 2.60, average hired labour (men) was 9 and average hired labour (women) available was 10. In case of large farmers, average own labour men available was 1, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 8. 3 The results indicate that, 8.11 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 94.59 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Chik Sulikeri micro watershed possess 22.83 ha (35.54%) of dry land and 41.42 ha (64.46%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.06 ha (80.95%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (19.05%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 13.89 ha (77.44%) of dry land and 4.05 ha (22.56%) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 6.88 ha (52.80%) of dry land and 6.15 ha (47.20%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 12.52 ha (100%) of irrigated land, large farmers possess 3.64 18.21 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 262,672.81 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 183,427.89. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 435,882.36 for dry land and was Rs. 1,029,166.63 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 251,893.94 for dry land and Rs. 592,800. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 232,470.59 for dry land and Rs. 325,000 for irrigated land. In case of medium and large famers, the average irrigated land value was Rs. 215,546.22 and Rs. 220,000 respectively. The results indicate that, there were 17 functioning and 16 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45.95 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 77.04 meters. The results indicate that, marginal farmers were having 0.40 ha irrigated land, small farmers were having 3.24 ha of irrigated land, semi medium were having 9.39 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers had irrigated area of 12.52 ha and large farmers were having 1.62 ha of irrigated land respectively. On an average there was 27.17 ha of irrigated land. The results indicate that, farmers have grown groundnut (17.05 ha), maize (12.55 ha), bajra (4.05 ha), paddy (3.68 ha), navane (3.24 ha), mango (1.62 ha), sorghum (1.30 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha), cotton (0.81 ha) and tomato (0.40 ha) in kharif season and also grown groundnut (1.21 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, navane and tomato. Small farmers have grown groundnut, bajra, paddy, navane, horsegram and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, bajra, navane and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize and paddy. Large farmers have grown mango. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chik Sulikeri micro watershed was found to be 88.79 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 98.36 per cent, for small farmers it was 99.54 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 4 89.11 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 72.90 per cent and in large farmers it was 100 per cent. The results indicate that, 86.49 per cent of the households have bank account and 86.49 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 86.49 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 31771.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34174.67. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 2403.04, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 35771.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48158.68. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 12387.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 27138.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33379.73. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 6240.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 14751.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32604. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 17852.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.21. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 43450.70. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73850.81. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 30400.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.7. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 48854.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 25245.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.52. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 45006.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 53793.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 19144.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25177.99. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 6033.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.32. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 30875.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 203775. The net income from 5 mango cultivation was Rs. 172899.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:6.6. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 141928.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 137399.96. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -4528.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97. The results indicate that, 21.62 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.51 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. Around 2.70 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that, in landless farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 103,000, in marginal farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 27,500 and agriculture was Rs.42837.50. In small farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs. 2000, wage was Rs.22333.33, agriculture was Rs.71713.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5060.67.In semi medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 32,142.86, agriculture was Rs. 71,542.86 and dairy farm was Rs. 1,285.71. In medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 19400 and agriculture was Rs. 298400 and dairy farm was Rs. 600. In large farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 10000 and agriculture was Rs. 30000. The results indicate that, in land less farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs. 42000. In marginal farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.8333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 23,750. In small farmers the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.9000, agriculture was Rs.32266.67 and dairy farm was Rs.6600. In semi medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.9500, agriculture was Rs.31428.57 and dairy farm was Rs.2000. In medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.9,250, agriculture was Rs. 59,000 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In large farmers the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.5000 and agriculture was Rs.10000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 areca nut, 11 coconut and 607 mango trees in their field and also planted 2 coconut trees in their back yard. The results indicate that, households have planted 3 teak trees and 43 neem trees in their field and 1 neem trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7243.24 for land development, Rs. 2513.51 in irrigation facility and 162.16 for improved crop production. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7000 for land development. Small farmers have an average 6 investment capacity of Rs. 7866.67 for land development, Rs. 3066.67 in irrigation facility and Rs.400 for improved crop production. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8571.43 for land development and Rs. 3285.71 in irrigation facility. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10,400 for land development and Rs. 3,200 in irrigation facility. large farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10,000 for land development and Rs. 8,000 in irrigation facility. The results indicate that, for land development, 31.58 per cent of the farmers were dependent on government subsidy and 42.11 per cent of the farmers were dependent on loan from bank. For irrigation facility 15.79 per cent of the farmers were dependent on government subsidy and loan from bank respectively. For improved crop production 2.63 per cent of the farmers were dependent on loan from bank. The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, horsegram, maize, mango, navane, paddy, sorghum and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut was sold to the extent of 95.50 per cent. The results indicated that, about 8.11 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in agent/traders. 91.89 per cent farmers also sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that, 2.70 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, and 97.30 per cent have also used tractor. The results indicated that, 62.61 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 50 per cent of marginal farmers, 80 per cent of small farmers, 57.14 per cent of semi medium farmers, 80 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 75.68 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 89.19 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 10.81 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 51.35 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, marginal, medium and large farmers, 13.13 per cent of small farmers and 28.57 per cent of the semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 97.30 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.70 per cent did not possess PDS card. 7 The results indicated that, 64.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.30 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 54.05 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 35.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 48.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 78.38 per cent, milk was adequate for 54.05 per cent, eggs were adequate for 54.05 per cent and meat was adequate for 5.41 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.70 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 45.95 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 56.76 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 45.95 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 24.32 per cent, milk was inadequate for 13.51 per cent and eggs were inadequate for 16.22 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 75.68 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (64.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (29.73%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (43.24%), high rate of interest on credit (8.11%), low price for the agricultural commodities (16.22%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (13.51%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (24.32%), less rainfall (40.54%) inadequate extension services (24.32%) and source of agri technology information (13.51). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Timmapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 501 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 84 per cent is covered by soils, 14 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 12 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 5 Land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. About 43 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface and 41 per cent loamy soils at the surface. About 13 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in organic carbon. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 71 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in about 13 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 65 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (320 ppm) in 11 per cent soils. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 83 per cent area and 4.5 ppm) in the entire area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 42 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 160 (32) Sapota - 19 (4) Maize - 159 (32) Pomegranate - 78 (15) Bajra - 200 (40) Musambi - 78 (15) Groundnut - 107 (21) Lime - 78 (15) Sunflower - 75 (15) Amla - 237 (47) Red gram - 66 (13) Cashew - 36 (7) Bengalgram - 176 (35) Jackfruit - 19 (4) Cotton - 160 (32) Jamun - 69 (14) Chilli - 101 (20) Custard apple - 237 (47) Tomato - 101 (20) Tamarind - 66 (13) Brinjal 16 (3) 135 (27) Mulberry - 113 (23) Onion 16 (3) 62 (12) Marigold - 159 (32) Bhendi 16 (3) 120 (24) Chrysanthemum - 159 (32) Drumstick - 93 (18) Jasmine - 101 (20) Mango - 16 (3) Crossandra - 110 (22) Guava - 19 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Timmapur-2 microwatershed among them 4 (11.43%) were marginal farmers, 14 (40%) were small farmers, 8 (22.86 %) were semi medium farmers, 4 (11.43%) were medium farmers and 5 (14.29%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that there were 191 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 106 (55.50%) men and 85 (44.50 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 6, marginal farmer was 4, small and semi medium farmers were 5 and medium farmers were 7. On an average the family size was 5. The data indicated that 40 (20.94%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 91 (47.64 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 47 (24.61 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (6.81%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Timmapur-2 had 37.17 per cent illiterates, 35.08 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.38 per cent of them had middle school, 11.52 per cent of them had high school education, 5.76 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.52 had diploma education and 1.05 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicated that, 80 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 17.14 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were general labour. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 45.55 per cent of the household members, 24.61 per cent were agricultural labourers, 4.71 per cent were general labours and 23.56 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers 54.84 per cent of them were agriculture labours, 29.03 per cent of them were general labour and 12.90 per cent of them were students. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers 58.82 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 17.65 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 23.53 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 51.35 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 20.27 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 28.38 per cent of them were student. In case of semi medium farmers, 76. 92 per cent of them were agriculturist, 10.26 per cent of them were agriculture labour and students. In medium farmers 30 per cent of them were agriculturist, 26.67 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 40 per cent of them were students. The results showed that 100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. The results indicated that 45.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 42.86 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 11.43 per cent of the households possess Pucca house. 2 The results showed that, 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 91.43 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 42.86 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 37.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6800, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1656, bicycle was Rs.1750, motor cycle was Rs.29230 and mobile phone was Rs.1544. The data showed that about 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 45.71 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households possess tractor, 25.71 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of the households possess weeder and 11.43 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.16800; the average value of plough was Rs. 910, the average value of tractor was Rs. 500000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3500, the average value of weeder was Rs. 59 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 2325. The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 28.57 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of marginal farmers, 25 per cent of the households possess bullock. In case of small farmers, 50 per cent of households possess bullock and 28.57 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 62.50 per cent of the households possess bullock and 50 per cent of the households possess local cow. 75 medium farmers possess bullock and 50 farmers possess local. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.13, average own labour (women) available was 1.65, average hired labour (men) available was 8.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.16. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was also 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 6.50 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.71, average hired labour (men) was 9.71 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.21. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.38, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 9.13 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.50. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.25, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 6 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.50. The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the household opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicated that, households of the Timmapur-2 microwatershed possess 20.72 ha (45.57%) of dry land and 24.75 ha (54.43%) of irrigated land. Marginal 3 farmers possess 2.51 ha (86.11%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (13.89%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 16.19 ha (86.21 %) of dry land and 2.59 ha (13.79 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 0.81 ha (6.97 %) of dry land and 10.81 ha (93.03%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 1.21 ha (9.98%) of dry land and 10.95 ha (90.02%) irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 390,761.72 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 501,592.55. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 597,580.64 for dry land and Rs. 1,976,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 333,450 for dry land Rs. 810,468.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 741,000 for dry land and Rs. 573,558.06 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 494,000 for dry land and Rs. 303,045.09 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 19 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 54.29 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 45.37 meters. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.40 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 2.59 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 12.02 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.11 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 21.13 ha of irrigated land. The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (4.45 ha), chilly (1.21 ha), cotton (2.91 ha), groundnut (8.22 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), maize (14.40 ha), paddy (4.57 ha), sesamum (0.81 ha), sorghum (1.21 ha), sunflower (0.81 ha) and tomato (1.21 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown groundnut, maize and sesamum. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, horsegram, maize and sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown chilly, cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy and tomato. Medium farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy and sunflower. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Timmapur-2 microwatershed was found to be 98.07 per cent. In case of marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers it was 100 per cent and in semi medium farmers it was 93.03 per cent. The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have bank account and 48.57 per cent of the households have savings. 60per cent of the landless farmers have bank account. In marginal farmers 100 per cent of them have bank account and 50 per cent of them had savings. In case of small farmers 100 per cent of them had bank account and 71.43 per cent possess savings. In case of semi medium farmers, 4 100 per cent of possess bank account and 62.50 per cent farmer's savings. In Medium farmers, 100 per cent of farmers possess bank account. The results indicated that 54.29 per cent of the farmers have borrowed credit from different sources which includes 75 per cent of marginal, 57.14 per cent of small, 75 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers. The results indicated that, 31.58 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 15.79 per cent have availed loan in cooperative Bank, 5.26 per cent have availed loan from friends/relatives, 89.47 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 42.11per cent have availed loan from money lender and 10.53 per cent have availed loan in SHGs/CBOs. The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs. 55,000, Rs. 110,062.50, Rs. 74,166.67 and Rs, 195,000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed was Rs. 108,447.37. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, 27.27 per cent of the household's barrowed private credit for agriculture production which includes 40 per cent of the small and 50 per cent of the semi medium farmers. Results indicated that 19.23 per cent of households were partially paid their loan, 61.54 per cent of households were unpaid their loan and 19.23 per cent of households were fully paid their loan. Results indicated that 63.64 per cent of the households have partially paid their loan, 27.27 per cent have unpaid their private credit and 9.09 per cent of the households have fully paid their loan. The results indicated that 30.77 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 46.15 per cent of the households were opined that higher rate of interest, 7.69 per cent of the households were opined that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time . The results indicated that, 9.09 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations and higher rate of interest and 36.36 per cent of the households were not given any opinion. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27597.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29830.49. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 2232.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 61186.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75699.47. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 14512.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24. 5 The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 62877.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73035.07. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 10157.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 17933.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25454.72. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 7521.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.42. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 28537.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 103740. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 75202.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.64. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 11451.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26840.67. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 15389.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.34. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 28542.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 71784.37. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 43242.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.52. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 34933.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63232. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 28298.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.81. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 23059.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 181133.33. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 158074.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.86. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 13146.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34382.40. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 21235.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.62. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sesamum was Rs. 15380.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21612.50. The net income from sesamum cultivation was Rs. 6231.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.41. The results indicated that, 62.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 34.29 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The table indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 26000. In marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 26071.43 and agriculture was Rs. 37600. In small farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 6 26071.43, agriculture was Rs. 49050 and dairy farm was Rs. 2112.14. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 14,375, agriculture was Rs. 117,562.50 and dairy farm was Rs.625. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 15000, agriculture was Rs. 71500 and dairy farm was Rs. 750. The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 13000, in marginal farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.5666.67 and agriculture was Rs.14750. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 11111.11, agriculture was Rs. 23285.71 and dairy farm was Rs. 10,000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 5750, agriculture was Rs. 47875 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 3,000 and agriculture was Rs. 35,000. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 20 coconut and 49 mango trees in their field. The results indicated that, households have planted 50 neem, 6 tarmind, 1 banyan and 1 peeple trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.2257.14 for land development, Rs. 1171.43 in irrigation facility, Rs.1314.29 for improved crop production, Rs.600 for improved livestock management and Rs.142.86 for subsidiary enterprises. The data showed that Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2500 for land development, Rs. 1500 for irrigation facility and Rs.1250 for improved crop production. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2357.14 for land development, Rs. 785.71 in irrigation facility, Rs.1642.86 for improved crop production and Rs.357.14 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2000 for land development, Rs. 1750 in irrigation facility, Rs.1250 for improved crop production and Rs.750 for improved livestock management. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5000 for land development, Rs. 2500 for irrigation facility, Rs.2000 for improved crop production, Rs.2500 for improved livestock management and Rs.1250 for subsidiary enterprises. The results indicated that, for land development, 20 per cent were depending on loan from the bank and 2.86 per cent of the households were depending on soft loan. For irrigation facility 5.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank and 11.43 per cent were depending on soft loan. Similarly for improved crop production, 5.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank, 2.86 per cent were dependent on their own funds and 14.29 per cent of the households were depending on soft loan. For improved livestock management 2.86 per cent were dependent on own funds and 11.43 per cent were dependent on soft loan. For subsidiary enterprises 2.86 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan. 7 The results indicated that, chilli, cotton, horsegram, sesamum, sorghum, sunflower and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, maize and paddy were sold to the extent of 85.71 per cent, 96.27 per cent, 97.23 per cent and 94.33 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, 62.86 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 31.43 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 14.29 percent of the households sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that 11.43 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 57.14 per cent of them have used tractor and 40 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport. The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 50 percent of marginal farmers, 42.86 per cent of small farmers, 37.50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 percent of medium farmers. The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 100 per cent of marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers and 87.50 per cent of the semi medium farmers respectively. The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG. The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households and 17.14 per cents of the households were using bore well for drinking water. The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 21.43 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium and 25 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 100 percent of the marginal, 21.43 per cent of the small, 12.50 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 94.29 per cent, 60 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 85.71 per cent, 80 per cent, and 65.71 per cent respectively. Vegetables and fruits were adequate for 48.57 per cent of the households. 8 The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 5.71 per cent, 40 per cent, 80 per cent, 42.86 per cent, 40 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 17.14 per cent and 31.43 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 65.71 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 42.86 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 60 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 60 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 65.71 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households and less rainfall was experienced by 25.71 per cent of the farmers. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hanumanahatti microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 469 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and 3 per cent by rock outcrops, habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 15 soil series and 32 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. About 15 per cent has sandy soils at the surface, 43 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and 38 per cent has clayey soils at the surface. About 35 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 8 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 87 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 2 per cent has gently sloping (3-5%) lands. An area of about 30 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 67 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 20 per cent are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 20 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 53 per cent are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 5 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 89 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is high (>57 kg/ha) in the entire cultivated area in the microwatershed. About 96 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (320 ppm) in the area of about 5 per cent soils. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 95 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 2 per cent area. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 93 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 72 (15) 148 (31) Sapota 30 (6) 112 (24) Maize 8 (2) 212 (45) Pomegranate 30 (6) 177 (38) Bajra 88 (19) 190 (41) Musambi 95 (20) 112 (24) Groundnut 25 (5) 281 (60) Lime 95 (20) 112 (24) Sunflower 72 (15) 99 (21) Amla 126 (27) 304 (65) Red gram 8 (2) 164 (35) Cashew 8 (2) 135 (29) Bengalgram 65 (14) 186 (40) Jackfruit 30 (6) 112 (24) Cotton 65 (14) 156 (33) Jamun - 207 (44) Chilli 11 (2) 148 (31) Custard apple 161 (34) 269 (57) Tomato 11 (2) 148 (31) Tamarind - 134 (29) Brinjal 107 (23) 235 (50) Mulberry 59 (13) 262 (56) Onion 43 (9) 206 (44) Marigold 8 (2) 213 (45) Bhendi 43 (9) 299 (63) Chrysanthemum 8 (2) 213 (45) Drumstick 59 (13) 255 (54) Jasmine 8 (2) 148 (31) Mango - 69 (15) Crossandra 8 (2) 121 (26) Guava 8 (2) 134 (29) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 90 (52.94%) men and 80 (47.06%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 3, marginal farmers' was 5.85, small farmers' was 4.8, semi medium farmers' was 5.25, medium farmers' was 6 and large farmers' was 5. The data indicated that, 52 (30.59%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 54 (31.76%) were in 16-35 years of age, 49 (28.82%) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (8.82%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Hanumanahatti had 37.06 per cent illiterates, 25.88 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.71 per cent of them had middle school education, 20 per cent of them had high school education, 2.35 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.59 per cent had diploma, 1.18 per cent of them did ITI and 2.94 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicate that, 66.67 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 19.44 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 13.89 per cent were general labour and 2.78 per cent of them were students. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 48.24 per cent of the household members, 5.88 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.59 per cent were in private service, 30.59 per cent were students and 5.29 per cent were children. The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 13.89 per cent of the households possess thatched house and 86.11 per cent of the households possess Katcha house. The results show that 2.78 per cent of the households possess radio, 25 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.33 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.56 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 41.67 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 91.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of radio was Rs.500, television was Rs.8555, mixer grinder was Rs.2000, bicycle was Rs. 2500, motor cycle was Rs.37000 and mobile phone was Rs.2281. About 13.89 per cent of the households possess plough and 8.33 per cent of them possess weeder. The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1500 and the average value of weeder was Rs.80. The results indicate that, 5.56 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 19.44 per cent of the households possess local cow and 5.88 per cent of them possess buffalo. 2 The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.56, average own labour (women) available was 1.35, average hired labour (men) available was 7.65 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.26. The results indicate that, 88.89 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Hanumanahatti micro-watershed possess 13.17 ha (35.54%) of dry land and 23.89 ha (64.46%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.03 ha (100%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (7.44%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 8.13 ha (47.21%) of dry land and 9.10 ha (52.79%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.29 ha (100%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.83 ha (100%) of irrigated land and large farmers possess 5.26 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 500,983.41 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 464,458.75. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 675,080.38 for dry land and Rs. 1,482,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 393,233.83 for dry land and Rs. 725,177.93 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 397,106.11 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 211,714.29 for irrigated land and in case of large farmers it was Rs. 152,000 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 18 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 50 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 48.26 meters. The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 9.10 ha, 6.30 ha, 2.83 ha and 5.26 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (4.86 ha), chilly (0.81 ha), green gram (0.81 ha), red gram (0.81 ha) and maize (27.66 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, chilly and maize. Small farmers have grown bajra, green gram, maize and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown chilly and maize. Medium farmers have grown maize. Large farmers have grown bajra and maize. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hanumanahatti micro-watershed was found to be 82.62 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 100.09 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 85.85, medium farmers it was 100 per cent and in case of large farmers it was 38.46 per cent. The results indicate that, 36.11 per cent of the households have bank account and 22.22 per cent have savings. 3 The results indicate that, 36.11 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 84.62 per cent of the households availed loan from loan from grameena bank, 7.69 per cent of the households obtained loan from friends/relatives and another 7.69 per cent borrowed from cooperative bank. The results indicate that the average credit borrowed was Rs.162692.31. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was also agricultural production. The results indicated that 91.67 per cent of the households did not repay their loan and 8.33 per cent of the households partially paid the loan that they borrowed from institutional sources. Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources. The results indicate that, around 91.67 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 8.33 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirements. The results indicate that, around 100 per cent of the households opined that the credit borrowed from private sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 25583.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38552.82. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 12969.43, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.51. The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 33089.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167466. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 134376.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:5.06. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 18570. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28775.50. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 10205.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.55. The total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 19969.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 123500. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. 808.47. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:6.18. the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 56285.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 93860. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 37574.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67. The results indicate that, 13.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.89 per cent opined that green fodder is adequate. 4 The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 63,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 100,000, for small farmers it was Rs. 112,941.18, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 118,500, for medium farmers it was Rs. 120,000 and for large farmers it was Rs. 135,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 14,982.43. For landless households it was Rs. 7,583.33, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 7,836.73, for small farmers it was Rs. 9,603.56, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 21,437.50, for medium farmers it was Rs. 80,000 and for large farmers it was Rs. 110,000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 31 coconut and 5 mango tree in their fields. They have also planted 6 coconut trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 69 neem trees, 2 tamarind trees, 2 acacia and 5 banyan trees in their backyard. The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. The results indicated that, about 16.67 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 66.67 per cent of the farmers have sold to local/village merchants and 2.78 per cent have sold their produce to agent/traders. The results indicated that, 86.11 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 28.57 per cent of the marginal farmers, 58.82 per cent of the small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium, 100 per cent of medium and large farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 83.33 per cent have shown interest in soil test which accounts for 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. The results indicated that, 94.44 per cent of the households used firewood and 5.56 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 5.56 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 47.22 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 47.22 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 47.22 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 50 per cent of the landless, 42.86 per cent of the marginal, 47.06 per cent of the small, 25 per cent of the semi medium, 100 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers. The results indicated that, 91.67 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 11.11 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card. 5 The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 97.22 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 11.11 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 19.44 per cent, fruits were adequate for 8.33 per cent, milk was adequate for 94.44 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 16.67 per cent. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 5.56 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 88.89 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 80.56 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 91.67 per cent, milk was inadequate for 2.78 per cent and meat was inadequate for 83.33 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 80.56 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (33.33%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (80.56%), inadequacy of irrigation water (80.56%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.56%), high rate of interest on credit (80.56%), low price for the agricultural commodities (83.33%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (83.33%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (77.78%) and inadequate extension services (83.33%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
La presente tesis doctoral consiste en un estudio historiográfico de la erotología árabe e islámica medieval, para el cual hemos tomado como referencia el Kitāb al-īḍāḥ fī asrār al-nikāḥ escrito por el erudito 'Abd al-Raḥman Ibn 'Abd Allah Ibn Naṣr al-Šayzarī, durante el siglo XIII. Para entender la información contenida en este tratado, previamente exploramos la literatura sexual como un espacio histórico desde el nacimiento del islam, a fin de comprender cómo este corpus textual se ha configurado con el paso de los siglos. A partir de aquí, realizamos una traducción completa del Kitāb al-īḍāḥ fī asrār al-nikāḥ siguiendo la edición llevada a cabo por Muḥammad Sa'īd al-Ṭarīḥī. El Kitāb al-īḍāḥ fī asrār al-nikāḥ que traducimos como El Manifiesto sobre los secretos del coito o Elucidación de los secretos del matrimonio viene a sumarse al género de la erótica árabe medieval, conocido este como kutub al-bāh o "libros eróticos". Entendemos por kutub al-bāh un acervo de escritos, caracterizados por su estilo multidisciplinar y misceláneo, en los que se relata sobre el arte del coito, afrodisíacos, ventajas y perjuicios del sexo, cuidado e higiene sexual, descripción del deseo carnal, el goce y el apetito, etc., independientemente de su orientación sexual e implicación transgresiva, producidos a partir del siglo IX, en el espacio geográfico que el islam ocupaba en estos siglos. Es a partir de la época mencionada que la sociedad abasí de Bagdad se convierte en un campo fecundo para los tratados eróticos árabes, una costumbre que se mantendría a lo largo de los siglos. La emergencia de los kutub al-bāh surge en la sociedad árabe e islámica, como consecuencia del cambio de costumbres de los árabes debido esencialmente al contacto con otras culturas y a la transformación histórico-política que coloca en primer plano a la corte y al estado, lo que da lugar al establecimiento de una cultura árabe más refinada y lujuriosa. En el caso de la obra que nos ocupa, esta es una compilación principalmente de afrodisíacos, afeites, preparados alimenticios, vendajes, ungüentos, etc., que estimulan la potencia y el apetito sexual, engrosan el pene, mejoran la higiene sexual y embellecen el cuerpo de las mujeres. Se trata igualmente de una gran compilación sobre las características de la belleza femenina, lo cual ha valido a su autor cierta popularidad y reconocimiento. La estructura de la tesis consta de cinco capítulos en los que se vislumbran los objetivos principales de los que partimos: por un lado, en los dos primeros capítulos ofrecemos un estudio dedicado a los aspectos históricos, religiosos, sociales, lingüísticos y literarios que han influido al desarrollo de los kutub al-bāh. De esta manera, pretendemos proporcionar un análisis exhaustivo de un género singular en el conjunto de la literatura árabe medieval que hasta el momento no había recibido una investigación en profundidad. Por otro lado, en los tres capítulos restantes ofrecemos a la comunidad investigadora el primer estudio sobre su biografía y la obra erótica de 'Abd al-Raḥman Ibn 'Abd Allah Ibn Naṣr al-Šayzarī, y completamos esta tesis aportando la traducción al castellano de su tratado erótico Kitāb al-īḍāḥ fī asrār al-nikāḥ. Las razones por las que hemos elegido esta temática y en especial la obra de al-Šayzarī son la distinción del erotismo como género propio de la literatura árabe medieval, la evolución de este género y como no, la necesidad de aportar una nueva traducción al castellano de una obra erótica. Conclusiones No cabe duda de que el Kitāb al-īḍāḥ posee un valor innegable como fuente de documentación, pues su carácter multidisciplinar, educativo y misceláneo se expande a lo largo de obra. Es incuestionable además la evidente vinculación que esta tiene con el género del erotismo. Su estructura, contenido, finalidad, temática y léxico empleados en ella siguen los patrones propios de los tratados eróticos árabes. De esta manera, si bien su contenido formal la adscribe al repertorio de los kutub al-bāh, podemos concluir que el fondo del Kitāb al-īḍāḥ es un ejemplo más para el subgénero de los afrodisíacos y la fisiognomía femenina. De igual manera, el autor, con el recurso a los alimentos potenciadores del apetito sexual y a las numerosas recetas afrodisíacas, no solo pretende causar exaltación en el lector masculino, sino que, como bien se ha explicado a lo largo de esta investigación, es también una meta lícita por parte de los musulmanes. De ahí que planteemos el por qué de su composición y cómo esta se relaciona con el contexto en el que fue redactada. Por esta razón, concluimos que existe una estrecha conexión entre el espacio temporal en el que se redactó la obra y el factor sociopolítico islámico de expansión y absorción de las culturas iranias y turcas, que son la clave principal y de motivación que impulsaron a nuestro autor a redactar esta obra. De manera que al-Šayzarī a través de su obra se coloca al mismo nivel que sus contemporáneos al-Ṭūsī y al-Tīfāšī. En cuanto a la enigmática figura de al-Šayzarī, desde un principio, hemos contado con escasos datos extraídos de enciclopedias en las que se presenta una información harta dispersa. Es más, ni siquiera los mismos enciclopedistas árabes se han puesto de acuerdo a la hora de establecer un dato fijo y preciso: fecha de muerte, ocupación y otros datos. Al-Šayzarī aparece situado en dos siglos distintos: s. XII y s. XIV. Sin embargo, esto no ha sido un óbice para la investigación que nos ocupa. Como resultado, después de todo este largo recorrido y de poner en cuestión un largo trasiego de hipótesis e ideas, hemos llegado a la conclusión de que todas las investigaciones anteriores a la nuestra resultan cuanto menos inconclusas. Al-Šayzarī no fallece en la misma fecha que Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn (m. 1193), al igual que rechazamos la posibilidad de que este pudiera morir a finales del siglo XIV. Llegados a este punto y sin poder afirmar tajantemente cuál fue su fecha de deceso, concluimos que nuestro autor vivió a lo largo del siglo XIII, habiendo podido morir a inicios del siglo XIV. De igual modo, cabe la posibilidad de que el autor del Kitāb al-īḍāḥ no coincida con el resto de obras que se le han atribuido, lo cual queda abierto para futuras investigaciones. Respecto del género erótico árabe, en general, podemos decir que el factor de la medicina es el eje vertebrador en los tratados eróticos árabes, deudor asimismo de la erudición griega hipocrática, aristotélica y galénica. Por lo cual, la literatura erótica, con todo el repertorio de recetas afrodisíacas que en ella aporta para promover la actividad sexual y mejorar su higiene, bebe directamente de la literatura médica precedente. Como resultado, nos ha llegado hasta hoy un amplio corpus literario, en el que son protagonistas reyes, califas, médicos, ulemas e incluso, el mismo Profeta. El islam pues se muestra receptivo a establecer unas normas y conductas sexuales, tanto en el ámbito del matrimonio como en el concubinato. En suma, se cosifica una literatura sexual, gestionada bajo el beneficio masculino en la que la imagen de las mujeres es el único objeto sexual. Sin embargo y pese a que la sociedad islámica actual ofrece una imagen silenciada y tabuizada de los asuntos sexuales desde cualquier punto en el que se estudie, una de las constantes a lo largo de la historia árabe e islámica ha sido la actitud positiva y receptiva hacia la sexualidad, al contrario de lo que parece ocurrir en otras culturas en las que ha predominado, por ejemplo, la imposición del cristianismo. En la cultura islámica se reconoce la importancia del amor, la pasión, el placer y el deseo y es por ello que la erudición en materia erótica resulte tan elevada como la de otros géneros. Con todo esto, estudiar la sexualidad en el islam y el esparcimiento en la literatura es explorar el islam oculto. El discurso erótico en el ámbito islámico académico está totalmente silenciado a causa del rigorismo al que ha sido sometido en el último siglo. Por ende, hoy en día la literatura árabe carece del género erótico. Fuentes y bibliografía abreviadas Fuentes: AL-ĀBĪ, Abū Sa'd Manṣūr. Naṯr al-durr, 7 vols. Ed. Muḥammad 'Alī Qarna. El Cairo: Hašiy'a li l-Miṣriyya al-'Āmma li l-Kitāb, 1985. AL-ANṢĀRĪ, Muḥammad Ibn Ibrāhīm. Al-Siyāsa fī 'ilm al-firāsa. Ed. Aḥmad Farīd al-Mazīdī. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya, 2005. AL-BAGDĀDĪ, Muḥammad al-Kātib. Kitāb al-ṭabīj. Mu'ŷam al-ma'kil al-dimašqiyya. Ed. Fajrī al-Barūdī. S. l.: Dār al-Kitāb al-Ŷadīd, 1964. IBN 'ABD RABIHI, Muḥammad. Al-'Iqd al-farīd, 8 vols. Ed. 'Abd al-Maŷīd al-Raḥīnī. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya, 1987. IBN FALĪTA. Rušd al-labīb ilā mu'āšarat al-ḥabīb. Ed. Salah Addin Khawwam, trad. Adnan Jarkas y Salah Addin Khawwam. An Intelligent Man's Guide to the Art of Coition. Toronto: Aleppo Publishing, 1977. IBN ḤABĪB, 'Abd al-Mālik. Kitāb adab al-nisā'. Ed. 'Abd al-Maŷīd Turkī. Beirut: Dār al-Garb al-Islāmī, 1992. IBN LŪQA, Qusṭā. Qusṭā Ibn Lūqā's medical regime for the pilgrims to Mecca: The Risāla fī tadbīr safar al-ḥaŷŷ. Ed. Gerrit Bos. Leiden: Brill, 1992. IBN SAHL, Sābūr. Dispensatorium Parvum (al-Aqrābādhīn al-ṣaghir). Ed. Oliver Kahl. Leiden: Brill, 1994. IBN SĪNĀ. Al-Qānūn fī l-ṭibb, 3 vols. Ed. Muḥammad Amīn al-Ḍannāwī. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya, 1999. IBN AL-ŶAZZĀR, Abū al-Ŷa'far. Zād al-musāfir wa-qūt al-ḥāḍir. Ed. Gerrit Bos. Ibn al-Yazzār on sexual diseases and their treatment: a critical edition Zād al-musāfir wa-qūt al-ḥāḍir. Provisions for the traveler and nourishment for the sedentary. The original arabic text with an english translation, introduction and commentary. London, New York: Kegan Paul International, 1997. AL-IṢFAHĀNĪ, al-Rāgib. 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Granada: Universidad de Granada, 1998. LUCENA ROMERO, Miguel Ángel. "La metonimia en el Corán y la legitimación islámica del sexo". El Genio Maligno. Revista de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales, 19, 2016, pp. 73-78. ---. "Una enciclopedia de deseo: el término coito en las fuentes árabes y el léxico sexual, a través del Kitāb al-iḍāḥ fī asrār al-nikāḥ de al-Šayzarī". Miscelánea de Estudios Árabes y Hebreos, 66, 2017, pp. 195-212. ---. "Concupiscencia en el islam medieval: el exceso sexual y las desviaciones carnales". Miscelánea de Estudios Árabes y Hebreos, 67, 2018, pp. 153-174. MARÍN, Manuela. "Marriage and Sexuality in Al-Andalus". En Marriage and Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia. Ed. Eukene Lacarra Lanz. Londres: Routledge, 2002, pp. 3-20. MERNISSI, Fátima. El harén político. El profeta y las mujeres. Trad. Inmaculada Jiménez Morell. Ediciones del oriente y del mediterráneo. Madrid: 1987. AL-MUNAŶŶID, Salāḥ al-Dīn. Al-ḥayāt al-ŷinsiyya 'inda l-'arab. Beirut: Dār al-Kitāb al-Ŷadīd, 1975. MYRNE, Pernilla. "Pleasing the Beloved: Sex and True Love in a Medieval Arabic Erotic Compendium". En Beloved: Love and Languishing in Middle Eastern Literatures. Eds. Michael Beard, Alireza Korangy y Hanadi al-Samman. London, New York: I.B. Tauris, 2017, 215-236. ---. "Of Ladies and Lesbians and Books on Women from the Third/Ninth and Fourth/Tenth Centuries". Journal of Abbasid Studies, 4, 2017, pp. 187-210. RODICA FIRANESCU, Daniela. "Revisting Love and Coquetry in Medieval Arabic Islam: Al-Suyūṭī's Perspective". En Al-Suyūṭī, a Polymath ot the Mamlūk Period: Proceedings of the Themed Day of the First Conference of the School of Mamlūk Studies. Ed. Antonella Ghersetti. Boston: Brill, 2016, pp. 241-259. ROSENTHAL, Franz. "Ar-Rāzī on the Hidden Illness". Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 52, 1978, pp. 45-60. ROSNER, Fred. Sex Ethics in the Writings of Moses Maimonides. New Jersey: Jason Aronson Inc., 1994. ROWSON, Everett K. 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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Raghunathahalli West-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 384 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 7 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. Entire area of about 99 per cent has clayey soils at the surface. About 33 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 89 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 10 per cent has gently sloping (3-5%) lands. Entire area of about 99 per cent has soils that are moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 48 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 51 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is medium in about 66 per cent area and high (>320 ppm) in 33 per cent soils. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 83 per cent area, 14 per cent are medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) and 1 per cent area is high (>1.0 ppm). Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 97 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in about 1 per cent area. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of about 99 per cent soils. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 74 (19) 129 (34) Sapota - - Maize - 202 (53) Pomegranate - 196 (51) Bajra - 202 (53) Musambi 74 (19) 122 (32) Groundnut - - Lime 74 (19) 122 (32) Sunflower 74 (19) 122 (32) Amla - 203 (53) Red gram - 116 (30) Cashew - - Bengalgram 74 (19) 129 (34) Jackfruit - - Cotton 74 (19) 129 (34) Jamun - 117 (30) Chilli - - Custard apple 74 (19) 129 (34) Tomato - - Tamarind - 116 (30) Brinjal - 203 (53) Mulberry - 196 (51) Onion - - Marigold - 203 (53) Bhendi - 203 (53) Chrysanthemum - 203 (53) Drumstick - 196 (51) Jasmine - 7 (2) Mango - 41 (11) Crossandra - 119 (31) Guava - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 121 (56.28%) men and 94 (43.72%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 4.9, small farmers' was 4.2, semi medium farmers' was 4.25 and large farmers' was 5. The data indicated that, 43 (20%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 83 (38.60%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (29.77%) were in 36-60 years of age and 25 (11.63%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Raghunathanahalli west-3 had 17.67 per cent illiterates, 0.93 per cent were functional literates, 26.98 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.05 per cent of them had middle school education, 21.86 per cent of them had high school education, 12.09 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.47 per cent had diploma, 2.79 per cent of them did ITI, 4.19 per cent of them had degree education and 1.86 per cent did masters. The results indicate that, 22.92 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 72.92 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 4.17 per cent were general labourers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 14.88 per cent of the household members, 49.77 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.86 per cent of the households general laborers, 0.47 per cent of the households were in government service, 5.12 per cent were in private service, 22.33 per cent were students and 4.65 per cent were children. The results show that 98.60 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions, 0.93 per cent of the population participated in gram panchayat and 0.47 per cent participated in raitha sangha. The results indicate that 8.33 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 85.42 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 2.08 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 4.17 per cent possessed semi pucca house. The results show that 93.75 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.33 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 12.50 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 39.58 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 93.75 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs.8066, mixer grinder was Rs.1950, bicycle was Rs. 1183, motor cycle was Rs.32000 and mobile phone was Rs.2449. About 6.25 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 4.17 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.08 per cent of them possess chaff cutter, 2.08 per cent of them possess tractor, 4.17 per cent of them possess sprayer, 20.83 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.08 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster. 2 The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.17666, the average value of plough was Rs.1500, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2000, the average value of tractor was Rs.200000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2450, the average value of weeder was Rs.43 and the average value of earth remover/duster was Rs.16000. The results indicate that, 12.50 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 6.25 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.08 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, buffalo, goat and poultry. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.69, average own labour (women) available was 1.36, average hired labour (men) available was 6.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.16. The results indicate that, 91.67 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Raghunathanahalli west-3 microwatershed possess 72.35 ha (98.57%) of dry land and 1.05 ha (1.43%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 10.89 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 22.62 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 28.72 ha (96.47%) of dry land and 1.05 per cent (3.53%) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 10.12 ha (100%) of dry land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 230,046.99 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 570,000.02. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 440,579.71 for dry land. In case of small famers it was Rs. 256,324.93. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 189,678.74 for dry land and Rs. 570,000.02 for irrigated land and in case of large farmers it was Rs. 59,280 for dry land. The results indicate that, there were 2 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 4.17 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 4.78 meters. The results indicate that, semi medium and large farmers had irrigated area of 1.05 ha and 10.12 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (9.5 ha), bajra (5.34 ha), sunflower (6.73 ha), Bengal gram (12.29 ha), sorghum (13.05 ha), Greengram (1.54 ha), onion (3.34 ha), groundnut (2.43 ha) and wheat (1.76 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, bengalgram, maize, onion, sesamum and sunflower. Small farmers have grown bajra, bengal gram, green gram, onion, sorghum, sunflower and wheat. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, bengal gram, groundnut, maize, onion, sorghum and sunflower. Large farmers have grown bengal gram, sorghum and maize. 3 The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Raghunathanahalli west-3 microwatershed was found to be 63.84 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 96.28 per cent, small farmers it was 93.51 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 69.21 and in case of large farmers it was 20 per cent. The results indicate that, 37.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 8.33 per cent have savings. The results indicate that, 37.50 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 16.67 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, another 16.67 per cent have availed loan from cooperative bank and 66.67 per cent of the households obtained loan from grameena bank. The results indicate that, average credit availed in the micro watershed was Rs.83,611. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources. The results indicate that, around 88.89 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 5.56 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Bengalgram was Rs. 22652.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23722.16. The net income from Bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 1069.81, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.05. The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 30663.02. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32269.82. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 1606.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.05. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 39536.05. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 66690. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 27153.95. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.69. The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 25726.99. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19694.17. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -6032.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 22831.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47412.41. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 24580.92. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.08. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 29291.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25004.27. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 4286.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85. 4 The total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 19834.44. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29250. The net income from greengram cultivation was Rs. 9415.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.47. The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 28636.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 417048.32. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 388411.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:14.56. The total cost of cultivation for sesamum was Rs. 18627.44. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 79849.14. The net income from sesamum cultivation was Rs. 61221.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.29. The total cost of cultivation for wheat was Rs. 30216. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 137529.60. The net income from wheat cultivation was Rs. 107313.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.55. The results indicate that, 12.50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 14.58 per cent opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 23,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 92,785.71, for small farmers it was Rs. 72,100, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 125,333.33 and for large farmers it was Rs. 180,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,392.55. For landless households it was Rs. 6,250, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,076.53, for small farmers it was Rs. 3,292.97, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 6,152.78 and for large farmers it was Rs. 126,000. The results indicate that, households have planted 68 neem trees, 5 teak and 16 banyan trees in their fields. The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except jowar (96.67%) and maize (97.8%). The results indicated that, about 22.92 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 75 per cent of the farmers have sold to local/village merchants, 6.25 per cent have sold their produce to agents/traders and 4.17 per cent have sold their produce to cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that, 89.58 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 16.67 per cent have used cart as a mode of transport and 2.08 per cent have head loads of their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 27.08 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 21.43 per cent of the marginal farmers, 31.25 per cent of the small farmers and 41.67 per cent of semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 62.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test i.e 64.29 per cent of marginal, 75 per cent of small and 75 per cent of semi medium farmers. 5 The results indicated that, 75 per cent of the households used firewood and 25 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 18.75 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 47.92 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 33.33 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 18.75 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 7.14 per cent of the marginal farmers, 25 per cent of the small farmers, 16.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 31.25 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 91.67 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 4.17 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 14.58 per cent, fruits were adequate for 12.50 per cent, milk was adequate for 87.50 per cent, eggs were adequate for 89.58 per cent and meat was adequate for 10.42 per cent. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 6.25 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 89.58 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 85.42 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 77.08 per cent, milk was inadequate for 8.33 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 4.17 per cent and meat was inadequate for 83.33 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, pulses were market surplus for 2.08 per cent, oilseeds were market surplus for 6.25 per cent and milk was market surplus for 4.17 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 45.83 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (79.17%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (66.67%), inadequacy of irrigation water (70.83%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (70.83%), high rate of interest on credit (75%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.08%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (70.83%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (22.92%), inadequate extension services (14.58%), less rainfall (12.50%) and source of agri-technology information (10.42%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Handrahalu-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 442 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 10 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. Entire area of about 99 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface at the surface. About 78 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 18 per cent has nearly level sloping (0-1%) and 81 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 68 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 31 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 3 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 63 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 33 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 14 per cent and 85 per cent are high (>20 ppm) in the microwatershed. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 96 per cent area, 3 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in soils. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in entire area of about 99 per cent. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 2 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 174 (39) 229 (52) Sapota - - Maize - 392 (89) Pomegranate - 305(69) Bajra - 392 (89) Musambi 122 (27) 183 (42) Groundnut - - Lime 122 (27) 183 (42) Sunflower 122 (27) 177 (40) Amla - 408 (93) Red gram - 251 (57) Cashew - - Bengalgram 174 (39) 229 (52) Jackfruit - - Cotton 174 (39) 12 (3) Jamun - 199 (45) Chilli - - Custard apple 174 (39) 235 (53) Tomato - - Tamarind - 205 (46) Brinjal - 409 (93) Mulberry - 162 (37) Onion - - Marigold - 403 (91) Bhendi - 409 (93) Chrysanthemum - 290 (66) Drumstick - 305 (69) Jasmine - 104 (24) Mango - - Crossandra - 177 (40) Guava - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF STUDY Results indicated that 32 farmers were sampled in Handrahalu-3 micro watershed among them 2 (6.25%) were landless, 8 (25%) were marginal farmers, 9 (28.13%) were small farmers, 10 (31.25%) were semi medium farmers and 3(9.38%) were medium farmers. The data indicated that there were 74 (54.81%) men and 61 (45.19%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers was 4, marginal farmers were 4, small farmers were 3.33, semi medium farmers were 4.80 and medium farmers were 5.67. The data indicated that, 28 (20.74%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 59 (43.70%) were in 16-35 years of age, 34 (25.19%) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (10.37%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Handrahalu-3 had 25.93 per cent illiterates, 1.48 per cent functional literates, 32.59 per cent of them had primary school education, 17.78 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.37 per cent of them had high school education, 3.70 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.22 per cent of them did ITI, 1.48 per cent of them had degree education and 0.74 persons were doing masters. The results indicate that, 81.25 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 6.25 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers and 3.13 per cent of the households were students. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 22.22 per cent of the household members, 14.63 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.96 per cent were general laborers, 20 per cent of them were student and 2.96 per cent of them were children's. In case of landless farmers, 25 per cent were agricultural labour, 50 per cent of them were general laborers and 12.50 per cent were in private service and were housewives respectively. In case of marginal farmers 25 per cent were agriculturists, 50 agricultural labours and 12.50 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 30 per cent were agriculturists, 43.33 agricultural labours and 26.67 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers 58.33 per cent were agriculturists, 20.83 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 54.17 per cent were agriculture labours and 25 per cent were students. In case of medium farmers 17.65 per cent were agriculturists, 58.52 per cent were agricultural labours and 17.65 per cent were students. The results show that 100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 3.13 per cent of the households possess thatched house and Pucca house respectively and 93.75 per cent of the households possess Katcha house. The results shows that 87.50 per cent of the households possess TV, 9.38 per cent of them possess DVD/VCD player, 71.88 per cent of the households possess Mixer 2 grinder, 6.25 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 68.75 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 28.13 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.25 per cent of the households possess auto and 87.50 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results shows that the average value of television was Rs.2533, that the average value of DVD/VCD Player was Rs.933, the average value of mixer grinder was Rs.473, the average value of refrigerator 9000, the average value of bicycle was Rs. 669, the average value of motor cycle was Rs.24755, the average value of Auto was Rs.58500 and the average value of mobile phone was Rs.1354. About 46.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 46.88 per cent of them possess plough, 3.13 per cent of them possess tractor, 43.75 per cent of them posses sprayer, 56.25 per cent of them possess weeder, 37.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 3.13 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster. The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.2046, bullock cart was Rs.12400, tractor was Rs.250000, sprayer was Rs.2342, weeder was Rs.19, chaff cutter was Rs.1441 and earth remover/duster was Rs.8000. The results indicate that, 43.75 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 15.63 per cent of the households possess local cow, 12.50 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 9.38 per cent of the households possess buffalo. Results showed that in case of landless 50 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, in marginal households, 50 per cent possess bullocks, 12.50 per cent possess local cow and 25 per cent possess buffalo. In case of small farmers, 22 per cent of the households possess bullock and 11.11 per cent possess local cow, cross bread cow and buffalo respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 60 per cent of households possess bullock, 30 per cent of households possess local cow, 20 per cent possess cross bread cow. In case of medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the households possess bullocks. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 6.74, average own labour (women) available was 6.52, average hired labour (men) available was 24.85 and average hired labour (women) available was 27.57. The data indicated that in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 1.38, average hired labour (men) was 3.25 and average hired labour (women) available was 3.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.44, average own labour (women) was 1.11, average hired labour (men) was 6 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.22. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.80, average own labour (women) was 1.70, average hired labour (men) was 6.60 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.10. In case of medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour 3 (women) was 2.33, average hired labour (men) was 9 and average hired labour (women) available was 11. The results indicate that, 93.75 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate which includes 100 per cent of the marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers respectively. The results indicate that, households of the Handrahalu-3 micro watershed possess 51.68 ha (88.08%) of dry land and 7 ha (11.92%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.01 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 14.17 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium possess 19.28 ha (81.54%) of dry land and 4.37 ha (18.46%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 13.21 ha (83.40 %) of irrigated land, 2.63 ha (16.60%) of dry land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 183,750.98 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 357,142.86. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 458,514.94 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 190,488.43 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 186,610.70 for dry land and Rs. 457,831.33 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 68,085.76 for dry land and Rs. 190,000 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning and 4 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 12.50 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 54.36 meters. The results indicate that, small farmers had irrigated area of 4.37 hectares and medium farmers had 2.63 hectares. On an average there were 7 ha of irrigated land. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (26.19 ha), greengram (11.42 ha), sunflower (9.31ha), sorghum (6.01ha), wheat (2.63 ha), Bengal gram (1.78 ha) and bajra (1.37 ha) in kharif season. Farmers also grown onion (2.51 ha), sunflower (2.14 ha), sorghum (8.42 ha), maize (5.64 ha), Bengal gram (5.56 ha) and cotton (2.93 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, sunflower, Bengal gram, sorghum and bajra. Small farmers have grown maize, green gram, sunflower, Bengal gram, sorghum and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, green gram, sunflower, sunflower and bajra. Medium farmers have grown maize, green gram, wheat, Bengal gram and cotton. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Handrahalu-3 micro watershed was found to be 87.64 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 106.14 per cent, for small farmers it was 91.03 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 90.89 per cent and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 72.10 per cent. The results indicate that, 43.75 per cent of the households possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. 4 The results indicate that, 50 per cent of landless, 25 per cent of marginal, 33.33 per cent of small, 70 per cent of semi medium and 33.33 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 7.14 per cent have availed loan from friends/ relatives. The results indicated that, land less farmers have availed Rs. 10000. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 30366.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31685.56. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 1319.14, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.04. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 40775.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27194.66. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -13580.68. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.67. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 13154.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18405.48. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 5250.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.4. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 35865.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63438.51. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 27573.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.77. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 27463.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31779.38. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 4315.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 20733.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60315.65. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 39581.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.91. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 30122.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 53332.44. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 23209.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.77. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 16713.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50605.60. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 33892.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.03. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for wheat was Rs. 18954.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42560.00. The net income from wheat cultivation was Rs. 23605.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.25. The results indicate that, 15.63 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 34.38 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.50 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. 5 The data regarding the average annual gross income in Handrahalu-3 micro watershed is indicated that in case of landless the average income from wage was Rs.37500 and from dairy farm was Rs.17500. In case of marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.24000, business was Rs.15375, wage was Rs.4000, agriculture was Rs.44325, non farm income was Rs.1500 and dairy farm was Rs.8640.In small farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.23866.67, business was Rs.17222.22, wage was Rs.2666.67, agriculture was Rs.114900 and non farm income was Rs.6777.78. In case of semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.22200, business was Rs.14500, wage was Rs.11340, agriculture was Rs.114900, non farm income was Rs.600 and dairy farm was Rs.3276. in medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs.2000, agriculture was Rs.177566.67 and non farm income was Rs.5333.33. The results indicate that in case of landless, the average annual expenditure from wage and dairy farm was Rs.25000 respectively. In case of marginal farmers the average annual expenditure from business was Rs.26500, agriculture was Rs.16664.29 and dairy farm was Rs.7500. In case of small farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.22500; business was Rs.18000 and agriculture was Rs.46750. In semi medium farmers the average annual expenditure from business was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.2500, agriculture was Rs.58800 and dairy farm was Rs.8000. In case of medium farmers the average annual expenditure from agriculture was Rs.100000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 14 coconut and 1 mango trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 7 coconut trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 29 neem trees, 4 tamarind trees and 8 banyan trees. The results indicated that, bajra, Bengal gram, cotton, green gram, onion, sunflower and wheat were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Sorghum and Maize was sold to the extent of 60.98 per cent and 98.15 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, about 65.62 per cent of the households sold their produce to regulated market and another 28.13 per cent have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that 28.57 per cent have used cart, 71.43 per cent have used tractor and 22.86 per cent of the farmers have used truck as a mode of transport. The results indicated that, 40.63 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 40.63 per cent of the households are interested in soil testing. The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 93.75 per cent of the households and 3.13 per cent of the households were dependent on open well and canal/nala for drinking water. 6 The results indicated that, 90.63 percent used fire wood, and another 9.38 percent of the households used LPG. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 96.88 per cent of the households in micro watershed and 3.13 per cent of the households were using kerosene lamp as a source of light. The results indicated that, 53.13 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 62.50 per cent of marginal, 33.33 per cent of small, 40 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 84.38 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 9.38 per cent did not possess BPL card and 3.13 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card. The results indicated that, 40.63 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, milk, eggs and meat was adequate for 90.63 per cent, 15.63 per cent, 6.25 per cent, 12.50 per cent, 3.13 per cent, 12.50 per cent, 9.38 per cent and 3.13 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 6.25 per cent, 84.38 per cent, 68.75 per cent, 50 per cent and 90.63 per cent of the households. Milk and egg were inadequate for 68.75 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk and egg were market surplus for 25 per cent, 34.38 per cent, 9.38 per cent, 3.13 per cent and 6.25 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 31 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (69%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (31%), high rate of interest on credit (13%), low price for the agricultural commodities (19%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9%), Inadequate extension services (9%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88%), less rainfall (94%) and inadequate extension services (91%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Issue 34.5 of the Review for Religious, 1975. ; Revtew ]or Rehgtous ts edited by faculty members of the School of DIvlmty of St Louts University, the edttorlal ol~ces bemg located at 612 Humboldt Buddmg, 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copy-right (~) 1975 by Review [or Religious. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. S!ngle copies: $1.75. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $6.00 a year; $11.00 for two years; other countries, $7.00 a year, $13.00 for two years (for airmail delivery, add $5.00 per year). Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order payable to Review ]or Religious in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming .to represent Review ]or Religious. Change of address requests should include former ad~ciress. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Galicn, S.J. Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor September 1975 Volume 34 Number 5 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to Review for Religious; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts and books for review should be sent to Review for Religious; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's College; City Avenue at 54th Street; Philadelphia, Pennsyl-vania 19131. / ;" ~: :°~Vith these ,words Po o ~t only for Jesmts,~but-~f6r all~rehg~ous;~ )s wh6, .in ~varyingways, ~dentff, y:.o. 671 A Survey of the Thirty-second General Congregation John R. Sheets, S.J. Fr. Sheets, chairman of the theology department of Creighton University and director of its new Masters Degree in Christian Spirituality program, was an elected delegate of his province (Wisconsin) at the 32nd General Congregation. He resides at Creighton University; 2500 Califor-nia St.; Omaha, NB 68178. The Thirty-second General Congregation of the Society of Jesus began on December 2, 1974. It finished its work on March 7, 1975. The Holy See authorized the promulgation of its decrees on May 2, 1975. In this article I will attempt to set down in an intelligible way a description of what went on during those ninety-six days, especially for (hose who are not Jesuits but who are in-terested in the congregation. Having gone over once again both the official documents and the Acta of the congregation, and having tried to recapture.my own experience over those days, I feel keenly the limitations of what follows. In the first place, it is difficult to give a survey of the vast amount of material covered by the various commissions;-secondly, it is hard to detail my own ex-perience without writing an autobiography; thirdly, it would take someone with both a sense of historical detail and a journalistic flair to present the in-terplay that took place among the various identifiable groups within the con-gregation, and also what took place between the Vatican and the congregation. In spite of these reservations, I hope that the observations that follow might provide some insight into what happened, and at the same time provide a counterweight to impressions given to the public through the general press. For me personally the congregation was the peak experience of my life. I am still trying to sort out the reasons for this. There is the obvious fact of hav-ing been part of a decision-making body whose decrees could have momentous importance for the Societ), of Jesus and for the Church at a very critical mo- A Survey of the Thirty-Second General Congregation / 673 ment in history. Again there was the experience of being "companions in the Lord" with two hundred and thirty-six other Jesuits from all over the world, united in the same Ignatian vision, sharing a common purpose, praying and working together to formulate with the help of the Holy Spirit responses to what the Church and the world ask of the Society today. The "honeymoon experience" of the first days gave way, as the weeks went on, to the .experience of fatigue, the perplexities of the search for the proper wording, the experience of working on disparate problems at the same time, without any clear point of convergence. Added to these was the experience of the interaction between the Vatican and the congregation which brought with it great anguish. However, it was also perhaps the experience that changed the congregation from a group of planners relying much on our own wisdom into something approximating an instrument of the Holy Spirit. The whole experience of the congregation in many ways paralleled what a person goes through in making the Spiritual Exercises, where one is subject to the movement of different spirits. On the one hand, it was the occasion of the greatest consolation; on the other, 1 have never in my life experienced such heaviness of heart. There were moments when one could almost feel the presence of the Holy Spirit, particularly at the concelebrated liturgies where one was drawn into the mystery of the communio jesuitarum, both the living and the dead, ~hrough our sharing in the Eucharist. Certainly the con-celebrated Mass, celebrated on the opening day of the congregatiofi in the Gesu, a church hallowed by the memories of Ignatius, Xavier and the early history of the Society, with seven hundred Jesuits participating, was one such moving experience. But if there were consolations, there were also periods of desolation, the worst desolation I have ever experienced. These came from the pall of uncer-tainty cast over the congregation from the communications of the Holy Father through Cardinal Villot in reference to the way the congregation had proceeded on a particular point concerning the Fourth Vow in the Society. This was also the occasion for the Holy Father to remark with pain that he detected from the Acta of the congregation attitudes among the delegates which were at variance with the kind of disposition a Jesuit should have toward the Pope. To be frank, however, it was not so much the interventions of the Holy Father that depressed me. In fact, as events would show, he was under the im-pression that we had received a specific communication on the subject that he had given to one of the delegates to be transmitted to us. But because of a mis-understanding the delegate did not in fact communicate it, and the congrega-tion learned about it only after we had taken a step which seemed to con-travene directly the explicit instruction of the Holy Father. To me the tone of his and Cardinal Villot's letter, while severe, was comprehensible in the light of this misunderstanding on the communication of their earlier message. What was far more upsetting was the sudden change in the mental climate of the congregation. Somewhere Kierkegaard mentions that the sudden is the 1574 / Review for, Religious, Volume 34, 1975/5 category of the demonic. In the course of only minutes, the demon of rumor, suspicion and recrimination was let loose. Suddenly it all fitted into a kind of master plot to discredit Fr. Arrupe, bring about his resignation, and bring to nothing the efforts of the congregation. No one knew who the enemies were, but some gave the impression that there was one hiding behind every column in the Vatican. Among the memories which will always be with me are the occasions when I used to walk in St. Peter's Square at night, when it was deserted, except for a police car and a few pa~sers-by. The majestic beauty of the facade of St. Peter's, bathed by the light of the moon, the beauty of the fountains flashing in the lights, the Vatican apartments with a light here and there, formed a setting of peace which seemed to overflow into me, particularly when events occurred which plunged the congregation into gloom. Looking back over those difficult periods I am certain that if it were not for the example and leadership of Fr. Arrupe we would have lost courage. He transmitted to us both by word and example a sense of the working of God's providence and the life-through-death process in which we were engaged. We were faced with the humbling and humiliating fact that we experts who were supposed to discern the signs of the times could not discern a sign that was much closer to us. In many ways the misunderstandings did not "have to be," when one looks at them from a human point of view. The reports from the press about con-frontation, maneuver and counter-maneuver were the product of journalistic imagination. The sad fact is that pain was caused by people who were trying their utmost to act with responsibility to the Holy Father and to the Society. But I have probably got ahead of myself. All I wanted to do in these in-troductory remarks was to point out that for me personally the experience of those three months led by the diverse paths of joy and anguish to a deeper ex-perience of the ways of God, that "If Yahweh does not build the house, in vain the masons toil." The Procedure Followed in the Business of the Congregation In preparation for this congregation there had been four years of highly organized participation on the level of the local communities and the provinces. The extent of this participation varied. In general, however, it had a beneficial result in creating the awareness that this congregation would grow out of the discernment that took place on the local level rather than work from the top down. Perhaps some might consider that this was a waste of time and money when we measure the results of those years of preparation, and the little impact that it had directly on the congregation. However, the minimal result of this preparation was that at least we did not come into the work of the congregation cold, but had some awareness of the problems that confront us, as there were seen by a large segment of the Society. For those who are not familiar with the structure of the Society of Jesus, a few words of explanation may be helpful. In the Society of Jesus the supreme A Survey of the Thirty-Second General Congregation / 675 authority is vested in the General Congregation. It does not meet at regular in-tervals, but only on two occasions, either to elect a new superior general, or to face a particular state of affairs which can be handled only by the highest authority of the Society. Of the thirty-two congregations that have met in the four hundred and thirty-five years of the Society's history, all except seven have been called to elect a new superior general. When, therefore, in 1970 Fr. Arrupe decided to call a General Congregation to convene after appropriate preparation, he felt that the state of the Society needed to be reviewed. It was an opportune time, since ten years would have elapsed since Vatican II and our last congregation. Delegates to a General Congregation are basically of two kinds: the provincial superiors, who attend by right of office, who make up ap-proximately one-third of the membership of a congregation and the other two-thirds who are elected. The only delegates who were unable to attend the 32nd General Congregation were a few from behind the Iron Curtain. Their unoc-cupied desks remained an ever-present symbol to the assembly of the oppres-sion of the Church in various areas. In spite of these absences, there were two hundred thirty-six delegates present. In the Society of Jesus the agenda is made up after the congregation con-venes. It is based mainly on the postulates (requests) submitted either from in-dividual Jesuits or provinces. Contrary to what one might suspect, there is probably no more democratic legislative group than is to be found in the General Congregation. Any Jesuit can send in postulates either through his province or directly, as an individual to the General Congregation. All of these are considered on their merits independently of their source. Over one thousand postulates were submitted. After a preliminary analysis, it was seen that they could be organized according to ten categories. Ten commissions were set up roughly corresponding to these ten categories. Initially the commissions had a membership of about twenty-five each, com-posed of representatives from different parts of the Society. Later, for the sake of efficiency in composing the documents emerging from the commissions, the number was reduced to four or five. The amount of work that went into the final draft of the documents was enormous. The work of the commission would be submitted to the whole assembly, receive revisions (or even be re-jected), be returned to the commission; then again be submitted to the assembly, with a repetition of the same procedm:e, until the assembly was satisfied with it. The whole assembly convened in a large hall that had been especially renovated for the congregation. Electronic equipment was installed to provide simultaneous translation. Voting was done by means of a small switch at each desk. In the front of the hall in full view of all the delegates was a large elec-tronic board, with indicator lights arranged accordihg to the seating plan in the hail. This board registered the votes with a green light if affirmative or a red, if negative. At the top of the board was a place where the total affirmative and negative vote would register immediately after the vote was taken. All ~'~' ~ ~.~. 676;~ R~i~.w for Religious, Volume 34, 1975/5 voting~'~bhe exception," was public. The exception came at the request of the congregatiori ~hen it came to vote on the question of grades in the Society. Doubtless this pr0ce.dure was intended to provide the general with the oppor-tunity to vote in a way that would not compromise him in whatever future ac-tions he would have to take.as a result of the vote. The Main Themes Seventeen documents issued from the congregation, most of them originating from the ten commissions which had been established. Other documents came from special commissions appointed as the need arose. Though the documents differ in content, some common themes run throughout. Perhaps the main theme reflected in the documents is that of mission. Related to this is a reawakened awareness of the Society as a whole, of which the local communities are part. The Society, while it exists also for the sanc-tification of its members, takes its special meaning from its apostolic orienta-tion. This apostolic orientation is specified by its relationship to the Holy See, particularly through the Fourth Vow, and in its service to the Church through the promotion and defense of the faith. A characteristic of this apostolic orienta-tion is adaptability to the needs of particular times and places. In our day this involves an overriding concern to overcome the injustices which oppress so many millions of people. However, in all of its apostolic work, the goal and the means it uses are to be consistent with the tradition of the Society as set forth in its Formula of the Institute which sets forth its fundamental pontifical law. This ties in with the identity of the Society, a theme that is both the subject of one particular document and one that runs through all of the others as well. The Society is a priestly, apostolic body, bound to the Holy See in a special way for the defense and promotion of the faith. The sense of mission involves not only working with those who are op-pressed but it also involves becoming identified with them as far as this is possible. Our poverty, therefore, which has its juridical as well as evangelical aspects, takes on a particular experiential mode in so far as, by it, we can iden-tify with the poor. The decree that has to do with union of hearts and minds is also intimately related to the nature of the Society as an apostolic body. Ignatius clearly saw that the Society's apostolate depended first of all on the union of the members with God, and then derivatively on their union with one another. One theme which is conspicuous is that of repentence. The Society acknowledges that it has failed in recent years to live up to those characteristics which were suppose to distinguish it, such as obedience, loyalty to the Holy See, fidelity tO the principles of the religious life. The State of the Society One of the commissions set up early in the order of business was the one charged to examine the state of the Society. Its purpose was to form some A Survey of the Thirty-Second General Congregation / 677 kind of an evaluation of the condition of the Jesuit order at this point in its history, assessing both its weaknesses and its strengths. To provide this com-mission with input, the delegates met in small groups over a period of several days. These small groups were of two kinds: what were called "assistancy groups" (for example, all of the American Jesuits belong to one "assistancy," the French to another, etc.), and "language groups," composed of people from different countries who had some facility in their own and other languages (German-English, French-English, Spanish-French, etc.) These groups dis-cussed the state of the Society in reference to key points such as formation of Jesuits, religious observance, the apostolate. These sessions broadened the practical knowledge each of us had of the Society and helped to create among us an awareness of community. They were also informative, first of all in bringing us to realize that many of the problems were common, with varying degrees of acuteness, while others were peculiar to a particular section of the Society. A criticism which many of us in the western world resonated with came from one of the German provincials in my group when he said that the image that the Society in Germany gives is that of B~rgerlichkeit, which in English connotes a comfortable, gentlemanly, middle-class existence. On the other hand, the situation of the Jesuits from behind the Iron Cur-tain, some of whom were also in my language group, has spared them some of the enervating effects of secularization. For one reason, their apostolate, where they are able to exercise it, is mostly pastoral work; secondly, their precarious existence serves to keep their faith at a high level of vitality. The delegates from the Third World countries brought other emphases. From the Spanish speaking countries there was a strong orientation toward social change, bringing with it problems of political involvement and the degree to which such involvement could subscribe to an ideology which often had Marxist overtones. In other regions, such as Africa, Indonesia and the Far East, one of the main problems is "inculturation," embodying the faith and the spirit of the Society in forms peculiar to their own cultures. As part of this evaluation on the state of the Society, Fr. General himself gave a picture of the way he sees the Society at the present, as a body which is very much alive, but with certain illnesses. He also gave a detailed description of his own relationship with the Holy See and the other officials in the Vatican, providing afterwards an opportunity for the delegates to question or discuss any of the points he had brought up. The document on the state of the Society which came out as a result of all this exchange is not one of the papers published to the Society. It was intended only for the delegates and their work in the congregation itself. However, the document is not in fact that useful. Its main value was in providing the oppor-tunity for the delegates to familiarize,themselves with the state of the Society through their live exchanges with one another. A document of this kind by its nature remains general, and gives little sense of the extent and import of either the positive or negative points. 671~ / Review for Religious, l/olume 34, 1975/5 The Work of the Commissions As was mentioned above, ten commissions were formed, more or less along the lines of the categories of material received in the postulates. While a few others later came into being and some of the original ones were changed, these ten commissions formed pretty much the working base of the Congrega-tion. Risking over-simplification, they could be divided into those which looked mainly inward, for example, about our "grades," the Fourth Vow, for-mation, final incorporation into the Society (final vows), central government, the constitution of provincial and general congregations; those which looked outward, namely, the mission of the Society today, inculturation, the service of the Society to the Church; and finally those which look both inward and outward, for example, on union of hearts, the Jesuit today. Some comments on a few of the documents might contribute to a better understanding of them. 1. The Mission of the Society Today The decree which took up the lion's share of the time, and which provided the platform for most of the rhetoric was the one that dealt with the mission of the Society today. The very nature of the topic explains why it took so long to come up with a satisfactory formulation. It involves an articulation that had to bring together the old and the new: fidelity to the essentials of the Society's apostolic nature, and coming to grips with the needs of today. While such a formulation has its own difficulties, the problem was exacer-bated by an initially one-sided approach and by the impression that some gave of using language more appropriate to political parties than to a religious group attempting to clarify its mission. The initial approach was largely horizontal, too much concentrated on the socio-economic aspects, with too lit-tle of the priestly. In the effort to make the congregation conscious of the urgency of these problems there was a tendency to absolutize what was in fact only one aspect of the Society's apostolate. One of the observations offered by Cardinal Villot in the letter in which he com-municated the Pope's authorization to promulgate the work of the congregation pertains to this decree. He stresses an important point, which is already present in the decree, but which deserves emphasis, namely, that the total work of evangelization has a comprehen-sion that cannot be reduced to working for social justice, and secondly that there is a priestly way of working for social justice that is distinct from the proper role of the laity. No one can judge from the final document how much work went into it. If one were tothink of a carpenter shop filled with shavings, and one tiny cabinet to show for the work, the comparison would be apt. The final decree, though somewhat diffuse, manages to relate the fundamental apostolic orientation of the Jesuit life as a priestly order to the promotion of faith which in the real-life situation is inseparable from the promotion of justice. 2. Poverty The. subject of poverty has continued to bedevil our recent congregations. A Survey of the Thirty-Second General Congregation ] 679 As everyone knows, there are two main aspects to what is called religious poverty: the juridical and the evangelicalwor the personal appropriation of the values of evangelical poverty. The decree on poverty, probably the most im-portant document to come out of the congregation, has two parts, the first be-ing more inspirational and exhortatory, while the second is juridical, setting down a basic reform in the structures of our institutional practice of poverty. It is not possible to enter into the technicalities of the juridical part of the decree since it presupposes some knowledge of the structure of the Society. Suffice it to say that the decree formulates what is, to my mind, a creative way of realizing for our own times the Ignatian ideal of poverty, taking into con-sideration the different socio-economic conditions of the twentieth and six-teenth centuries. On the personal side, frugality, the sense of being part of the kenotic mystery of Christ, dependence on the community, and identification with the poor are stressed. in his letter, Cardinal Villot makes two points concerning this decree. After commenting on the fact that the Holy Father was aware of the immense amount of work that had gone into this decree, which attempts to relate the traditional practice of poverty in the Society to the needs of our times, he says that considering the newness of the approach, it would be better to promulgate the decree ad experimentum, to be reviewed in the next General Congregation. He also cautions that the decree should not jeopardize the Society's traditional approach to gratuity of ministries. 3. Grades and the Fourth Vow No other subject discussed by the congregation received as much attention from the press as that of our "grades" and the Fourth Vow. As I remarked above, the delegates had proceeded in a spirit of obedience to the Holy Father's wishes, but in the spirit of Ignatian obedience which allows represen-tation of one's case to the superior, with full openness, however, to the final decision of the superior. But, as I mentioned above, the delegates were not aware of an important communication from the Holy Father which he had given to one of the officials manifesting his mind clearly on the topic. We were made aware of this special communication only after we had proceeded in good faith to take up the question, and to give an "indicative" votewone that is not definitive, but from which it is possible to infer the mind of the delegates. The indicative vote was overwhelmingly in favor of abolishing grades. One can imagine the consternation of the Holy Father when he read of the results of this in the Acta, a copy of which he received regularly, especially when he learned that we had not been given his specific directive on this matter which had been communicated to one of the officials of the congregation. This unfortunate series of events precipitated a strong response from the Vatican. First there was a letter from Cardinal Villot in the name of the Holy Father expressing his consternation at the proceedings. Later there was a letter from the Holy Father himself, tin which he expressed his wonderment, pain, disappointment. What the delegates found particularly difficult to understand in Cardinal Viilot's letter was the strong language used about the failure of Fr. Arrupe to exercise the proper kind of leadership that could have headed off this series of unfortunate events. I~1~0 / Review for Religious, Volume 34, 1975/5 While the delegates were still reeling from this unexpected turn of events, they learned of the directive that had been given by Cardinal Villot to one of the officials to be given to the congregation. The official explained before the whole congregation that he had not understood that he was supposed to transmit this directive to the delegates in any official way. This was a costly mistake. Yet in some ways I think it was a felix culpa because of the benefits which came out of it, as I shall comment below. At this point I should say something about the meaning of the grades and the Fourth Vow for those unfamiliar with the Society's structure and legisla-tion. When the idea of the Society was evolving in the mind and experience of Ignatius, one of the features that emerged was a conception of having membership in the Society on different levels, or "grades." For those with their final vows, there were to be three levels or grades. First of all, there are the "solemnly professed," with solemn vows of poverty, chastity, obedience, and a Fourth Vow of special obedience to the Holy Father in regard to mis-sions, that is, apostolic commissions. In the past one hundred years about 40% of Jesuit priests have belonged to this grade. In the mind of Ignatius the professed were supposed to exemplify to a special degree what he looked for in every Jesuit, proficiency in learning, a high degree of virtue, mobility, a life supported only by free-will offerings, exemplifying in their lives a similar relationship to the Vicar of Christ that the disciples showed toward Christ Himself. In addition, key positions in government were reserved to the professed, such as the office of provincial. Again, only the professed could take part in a General Congregation. In the second place, there were priests whose final vows were simple, not solemn. Without going into detail on the differences between solemn and sim-ple vows, it is sufficient to remark here that for one thing they differ accord-ing to the seriousness of the reasons needed for dispensation. This grade is that of "spiritual coadjutor." Members of this grade do not take the vow of special obedience to the Holy Father. In the third place, there are "temporal coadjutors" or brothers. Their final vows are also simple vows of poverty, chast.ity, and obedience. They have the same apostolic purpose as the priests, but have a different way of contributing to the realization of it. The grades are a feature that are peculiar to the Society. As one would sur-mise, the distinction has not been an unmixed blessing in the history of the Society. Though Ignatius never conceived of a Society which would have privileged and unprivileged castes, human nature being what it is, the results were predictable. Since human nature associates power with authority, the professed came to be considered as a kind of first-class type of Jesuit, and the non-professed as second-class. In recent years there has been much historical research on the origin of the ~grades. Also there has been considerable discussion whether the distinction of ~the grades was inextricably tied up with the vision of St. Ignatius, or whether it was something that with the change of times no longer served a purpose. The A Survey of the Thirty-Second General Congregation Thirty-first General Congregation did not face the question head-on. It con-tented itself with broadening the norms by which a person could be admitted to profession. It also transmitted the final solution of the problem to the Thirty-second General Congregation. The intervention of the Holy Father did not directly concern grades. He limited himself to the question of the Fourth Vow, which he said could not be extended to non-priests. This intimates that the Holy Father was concerned not simply about a juridical division in the Society which could be changed by another law, but about a theological question concerning the relationship between the priestly identity of those who take the Fourth Vow and the mis-sions which are the direct object of the vow. Again (I am speculating) the intervention of the Holy Father might be a healthy reminder in this age of blurring all distinctions for the sake of dubious notions of equality, that differentiation in functions does not necessarily mean division. Reserving the Fourth Vow to priests helps to keep the priestly focus of the apostolic work of the Society which has characterized it from the begin-ning. This need not create first- and second-class citizens, but it could engender an awareness that there are different gifts within the same body by which the same goal is realized. 4. The Union of Hearts A commission without a name was set up as a kind of catchall to handle four topics that on the surface had little unity: the question of union and pluralism, communal discernment, religious life, and community life. Since I was a member of this commission from beginning to end, I feel more in touch with it than with the other commissions. It was a kind of a "Benjamin" com-mission compared with those set up to handle the "important" topics like mis-sion, grades, poverty, etc. Ironically, Benjamin was suddenly given an importance late in the con-gregation. The Holy Father in his intervention had commented on the fact that he had heard a lot about mission and justice, but little about renewal of the religious life, even though we had already been at it for two months. So all of a sudden the pressure was on to come up with something significant along those lines. The final document on union of hearts is a contemporary commentary, on Chapter One of Part VIII of our Constitutions, "Aids Toward the Uniori of Hearts." Under this heading the commission found a focus which could unite the various topics given to it. Much effort was spent in an attempt to formulate a clear statement on the subject of union and pluralism. Many of the postulates asked for such a state-ment, some of them stressing the harm coming from internal divisions, others emphasizing the need for a "healthy pluralism." Eventually the commission decided that a theoretical statement would not be helpful. Instead it for-mulated, along with principles on which union of hearts is based, certain prac-tical directives on prayer, community life, sacraments, and communal discern-ment. 682 / Review for Religious, Volume 34, 1975/5 The subject of communal discernment received a lot of discussion. Some wanted to turn it into a kind of Aladdin's lamp which could call forth some kind of a jinni. Others were more skeptical over the possibility of univer-salizing the practicableness of such a process. The final statement in the docu-ment attempts to locate communal discernment within the spectrum of various kinds of spiritual exchange within a community, not exaggerating its role, but on the other hand recognizing the value that it has when the right dispositions and circumstances are present. Incidentally about midway through the congregation, an ad hoc commis-sion was also established to see whether the congregation itself could not carry on its work through a method of communal discernment. After a couple of meetings, it dissolved, because it felt that proceeding according to a formal method of communal discernment was impractical for the congregation because of the large numbers involved and the wide range of subjects on the agenda. 5. The Jesuit Today In the light of the diversity that has appeared in Jesuit life over the past ten years, it was felt necessary to have a statement which would describe the meaning of being Jesuit today. The congregation was presented with five different papers, each of which approached the subject of Jesuit identity from different points of view. They opted for the one which now appears among the official decrees. The decree relates Jesuit identity today in a very simple way to our Igna-tian tradition, to our apostolic mission, and to the source, center, and goal of Jesuit life, which is the imitation of Christ. The Holy See and the General Congregation We have already commented on the intervention of the Holy See in regard to the subject of extending the Fourth Vow to non-priests. However, this is only an application of something which is much broader. The interest of the Holy See in this congregation is unparalleled in the whole history of the Society. Perhaps this comes from the fact that Pope Paul had a keen sense of its importance for the Society and for the Church itself. I have just finished once again going over the papal documents, beginning with the letter written to Fr. Arrupe on September 15, 1973, which the Holy Father wrote after Fr. General had announced the convening of the General Congregation, and concluding with the covering letter which was added to the approbation of the decrees. There is one theme running through all of these communications: the necessity of being faithful to the distinctive nature of the Society as it is expressed in the Formula of the Institute, a distinctiveness which has proved its fruitfulness over hundreds of years of experience. Specifically, the Society is described time and time again as a priestly apostolic order, with a special bond of obedience to the Holy See. There is, to be sure, a stress on the need to adapt to the needs of our times, but such adap- A Survey of the Thirty-Second General Congregation I 683 tation must always maintain the essentials as these are to be found in the For-mula. 1 Pope Paul wrote of his concern for the Society not only as the Vicar of Christ who has responsibility for the whole Church, but in terms which, unless I am mistaken, are unprecedented in the history of this relationship between the Society and the Holy See. He speaks of himself as the one who has the chief responsibility for the preservation of the Formula of the Institute, "supremus 'Formulae Instituti' fideiussor," and the chief protector and preserver of the Formula, "Formulae Instituti supremus tutor ac custos." It would not be true to say that all of the delegates responded with un-qualified enthusiasm to the interventions of the Holy Father. Though all recognized his right in abstracto to intervene, a~nd the corresponding attitude of obedience to which we were obliged and, which all gave without contesta-tion, nevertheless when the interventions came in this particular way, with these particular words and in this particular timing, there were signs of ruffled feelings. In case anyone needed reminding, we learned in the process that the delegates as a whole, while good and responsible men, are not yet ready for canonization. However, we did see in an exemplary way the incarnation of Jesuit obedience in at least one person, Fr. Arrupe. This was not something he did just "to give good example." His whole life has been so totalized by his faith that even his perceptions pick up the reality beneath the appearance. He senses the presence of the Vicar of Christ beneath the appearance of Pope Paul. The concern of the Holy Father shown in so many ways over the past few years and in a special way through his vigilance over the activities of the con-gregation are to my way of thinking a special grace for the Society. In a way that we never planned on, the interventions of the Holy Father brought us to a level of faith we would not have reached by ourselves. It also brought us to a realization that the Society is a servant of the Church. In some small way the history of this congregation parallels the description of Peter's death, about whom our Lord said, "You will stretch out your hands, and somebody else will put a belt round you and take you where you would rather not go" (Jn 21:18). Father Arrupe I have already mentioned that if it were not for Fr. Arrupe's example and leadership the congregation would have capsized under the difficulties it ran into. He constantly called us to a vision we needed in order to see what was happening from a supernatural point of view, and in order to avoid the traps of tNot many Jesuits are aware either of the content or the importance of the Formula of the Institute. Yet, even more than the Constitutions, it is the basic rule or fundamental code of legisla-tion in the Society. It contains the results of the deliberations of Ignatius and his companions in 1539 which provided the first sketch of the Institute of the Society of Jesus. It was first approved by Paul Iil in 1540, then again by Julius 111 in 1550 in a slightly revised form. 684 / Review for Religious, l/olume 34, 1975/5 self-pity or recrimination that were only too present. Like one of th~ prophets, he reminded us to see what was happening as coming from the hand of God, and to use it for our own purification and conversion. In a talk given to the delegates on the second day of the congregation, he spoke of the answer that we had to give to the needs of our times. It should be the foolishness of the cross by which Christ redeemed the world, which is the wisdom of God. "In the absolute foolishness of the Cross, the emptying of all things, we find the key to the ultimate solution to the problems of today." In a way we did not foresee, those words were prophetic. Again, he exercised his leadership by leaving the congregation free to follow the paths where its deliberations would take it. In its authority, the General Congregation is superior to the general. Fr. Arrupe always acted with full awareness of this fact. On occasion he would let the delegates know how he felt about certain things, not to pressure them, but in order to make this part of the input of their deliberations. The congregation showed its appreciation of his leadership over the past ten year,s in many ways. There are few who have had to pilot a ship through such a stormy period. The burden has not been easy. But there is always evi-dent in him the same buoyancy and infectious joy that somehow puts him in touch with the Stillpoint that is beyond, above, beneath the storm. Yet, while realizing his outstanding qualities, the delegates did not apotheosize Fr. Arrupe. They realized that with all of his gifts there were also limitations. In fact, the decree which set up a council for the general was framed mainly to supply the kind of help which might balance out the one-sidedness of some of his gifts. Differences Between This Congregation and the Previous Ones The Thirty-second (2ongregati0n had many characteristics which made it very different from any preceding General Congregation. Some of the more important ones might be the following. As was mentioned above, there was a four-year period of preparation for this congregation which was unprecedented. Similarly a few months before the actual opening day a special preparatory commission met to organize the material. This was the first General Congregation where, from the start, traditional rules of secrecy were lifted, except for the prohibition against making public either the names of delegates who spoke on the different questions, or the tally of the votes. Five Jesuit journalists were given free access to the meetings. They published a report about every week that kept the Society informed of the progress of affairs. In this Congregation for the first time the voices of the Third World were not only heard in larger numbers, but they showed a vitality that added zest to the meetings. However, even among these voices there were different accents. All of them were keenly aware of the injustices which oppress their peoples by reason of the exploitation of the capitalistic countries. However, the Spanish- A Survey of the Thirty-Second General Congregation / 685 speaking delegates tended to stress political and social involvement; the Africans continually reminded us of the need for the sense of the transcendent, the specifically God-and-Christ-centered nature of our apostolate; and those from the Far East, while keeping these same perspectives, also stressed the need for approaches that were directed both toward personal conversion and change of the structures. No other congregation has met at a period when there has been such a crisis in vocations. Over the past ten years, the Society has diminished from about 36,000 to 30,000 members. While in some places the number of novices has begun to pick up again, the overall picture remains dim. In 1965 there were 1902 novices compared to 705 in 1974. In the United States there are about 200 novices, showing a slight increase over the past few years. In some coun-tries, however, the picture is dismal. Spain, for example, had 269 novices in 1965. In 1974 it had only 30. Germany had 114 in 1965. At present it has about 30. Similar figures could be given for France, Belgium, Holland, Italy. When one compares the number of scholastics presently in their training with the number of priests engaged in apostolic work, there is only one scholastic for every five priests. This will seriously change the scope of our apostolic work over the next fifty years. Another unique factor was the everpresent concern of the Holy See in regard to the preparation for the congregation, the things taken up, and the final results, as I have mentioned above. The theme was repeated over and over again: be faithful to yourselves, especially to your identity as it is ex-pressed in your Formula of the Institute. The only specific feature which was singled out in the expressions of this concern was fidelity to the lgnatian idea of the Fourth Vow, both positively in the fact that it should be a vital factor in the life of the Society, and negatively in that it should not be extended to non-priests. Again, the fact of asking the congregation to submit its decrees to the Holy See for its approval before they were promulgated was unprecedented. The approbation was given with, in some instances, a few qualifications. Another characteristic which distinguishes this congregation from begin-ning to end and is evident in the decrees is thee theme of repentance. There is a mea culpa, mea maxima culpa evident in the Introductory Decree, the Decree on Mission, on The Jesuit Today, as well as in others. The Society is painfully conscious of its failings over the past ten years. Particularly in contrast to the Thirty-first Congregation, with its stress on freedom, subsidiarity and conscience, this one stressed the complementary features of the limits of pluralism, the need for norms that are applicable for Jesuit life as a whole, the responsibility of superiors for a greater firmness in governing, the importance of the manifestation of conscience both for the spiritual direction of the individual, and the good of the apostolate, the value of communal discernment when the proper conditions are realized. This congregation, unlike others, had a unifying theme throughout: the mission of the Society today. This did not happen because it was planned. There was a kind of unconscious dynamic at work which imperceptibly gave 686 / Review for Religious, Volume 34, 1975/5 this orientation to the various decrees. The consciousness of mission, if fully appropriated in all of its richness, could do much to revivify the Society, over-coming in the first place a great deal of individualism and self-will, and bring-ing about a greater sense of the living presence of Christ sending through His Church, and through superiors. In the actual procedure of the congregation there were unique features arising from the sharing that took place in smaller groups. One of the most im-portant parts of our daily life was the concelebrated Mass which was celebrated according to the different language groupings. Finally this congregation is probably distinctive in the fact that a little over half of the delegates were under forty-nine years old (122 out of the 236). Strengths and Weaknesses of the Congregation Like all meetings of this kind there are both strengths and weaknesses to be found. I could not resist the temptation to say that one of the strengths was un-doubtedly sheer psychological tenacity to "keep at it" for over three months when everyone was exhausted both from the work itself and the emotional strain. But the main strength of the congregation is the sense of solidarity manifest among the delegates and throughout the Society, a solidarity coming from a vision based on faith and brought into an Ignatian focus through the Spiritual Exercises and our Jesuit tradition. However, I think that there are also some deficiences evident in the work and structure of the congregation. Some way has to be found to expedite the carrying out of business. Though it was an attempt to get the input from the whole Society, on balance, the analysis of the postulates took up too much time. And questions of order consumed interminable hours. In regard to particular questions, in retrospect, it might have been a serious mistake not to have separated in some way the question of the Fourth Vow from that of grades. While they are related, they are distinct. And the interven-tion of the Holy See was concerned with the Fourth Vow, and not directly with grades. Again the expression given to the relationship of the Society to the Holy Father is "safe," but it creates the impression of one who is driving a car with one foot on the accelerator and the other on the brake. It does not seem to ex-press the 61an of Jesuit spirituality in its fullness. One reason for this inade-quacy stems from the fact that the congregation came to the topic only in the last few days before it ended, and the members did not have the mental energy or the time to do justice to it. Another difficulty is in the formulation itself. Attempts to combine both the unreserved expression of the spirit of loyalty and the juridical aspect of limits tend to cancel one another out. For example, there were numerous attempts, all sterile, to speak of "mission" in relationship to "doctrine," wherein loyalty would be unreserved in regard to mission, but conditioned in regard to doctrine. Consequently the resulting statement is bland, not nuanced. This will probably be one of the main topics that will have to be taken up at the next General Congregation. A Survey of the Thirty-Second General Congregation Another deficiency is the fact that the congregation treated those problems which are more obvious because they have a certain shrillness--the problem, for example, of global injustice. Just as important, however, but without the volume being turned up, are questions touching man and technology, par-ticularly the genetic manipulation of man. Again, these questions will probably have to be faced by the next congregation. What to Hope For If the Society as a whole could translate what is set down in the decrees from formulation into fact, it would be renewed. In turn it would become a great force in renewing the Church and the world. What hope is there for such a renewal? The parable of the sower and the seed has its application to the Society as well as to the Church. There are those whose roots are not deep enough to withstand trials. There are others whose life of faith is choked by cares and riches. But then there are the many who do yield fruit, some, a hundredfold, some sixty, some thirty. Decrees, however excellent, are no substitute for the gospel-call to totality. To the degree that individuals open themselves to the radical call of the gospel will they also open themselves to the decrees, which after all are only a faltering attempt to express this radical call in a way that is both Ignatian and contemporary. There are many factors which will contribute to energizing this renewal. Many feel a need for a deeper life of prayer. The importance of spiritual direc-tion is expressing itself strongly. A fuller appropriation of the Spiritual Exercises ¯ through the directed retreat is a great blessing. Again, an important factor is the reinforcement and leadership given to the Society by other religious con-gregations which have already led the way in the renewal of religious life by bringing their lives more in conformity with gospel simplicity and single-mindedness. We can also hope that we will not repeat the mistakes of the past ten years. Considering the turmoil and confusion coming from "future shock," these mistakes are perhaps understandable. But no organization can exist in a state of continuous convulsion. Many of the delegates, in searching for answers to the problems which faced us "discovered" our Thirty-first Congregation, which someone described as the great congregation in the history of the Society. We found that in many cases we could not do better, in fact could hardly come up to the decrees of the Thirty-first. But we also felt like a traveler who had spent hours trying to find his way only to discover after much meandering that there was a map in his glove compartment. The documents of the Thirty-first General Congreg -tion were such a map. The logical question, then, is: why were not the decrees implemented? A still more haunting question is: will the same thing happen to the decrees of this congregation? This was a problem which preoccupied the delegates throughout the whole time. Meetings were held to discuss implementation. But as the saying goes, 61~! / Review for Religious, l/olume 34, 1975/5 there is many a slip,between the cup and the lip. How much will the Society be able to drink in from the decrees? One of the main sources of hope, in addition to those mentioned above, is a renewed sense of solidarity and confidence among the provincials, and a strong sense of support in Fr. General. In the past ten years very often inaction resulted not from a failure of courage or faith, but because of a blurring of ideas concerning the fundamentals of religious life, often enough because of contradictory views bandied by theologians. The provincials obviously have not suddenly received some formula of universal application to solve all problems, but there is a greater sense of assurance and direction. The weight of implementation turns around the local superiors with the support of the provincials. There is hope here also, because the superiors themselves have a greater sense of their solidarity and of their role as spiritual leaders of the local communities. Ultimately the problem is always the same: conversion. It is something never accomplished once and for all, but continues to repeat its call. There are the perennial obstacles to conversion: inertia, self-love, self-will, the evil spirits that affect us all as individuals. However, it especially in the way that the collectivity reenforces the inertia in individuals that we find the main obstacle today. Group-think and group-feel, in large part created through the media, produce a kind of closedness that filters down from a collective level to in-dividuals, bringing about imperceptibly a closedness in the individual. Each one, young or old, is caught in some degree on this split level of collectivity and self, and suffers from the unfreedom of the collectivity. Jesuits already engaged in the apostolate have to discern how much this group-think affects their personal lives, impeding their personal conversion and the fruitfulness of their apostolate. Jesuits who are in formation have to do the same. The responsibility of those who are in charge of training the younger Jesuits is great. The importance of the congregation comes not from the written decrees but from the support that these decrees give to creating in the Society a different kind of group-think, a "group-feel" based upon the gospel. "My name is legion." Legions can be driven out only by legions. The demonic in collectivity can only be driven out by the embodiment of holiness in collec-tivity. The Society will rise or fall to the extent that the good will of the in-dividual is supported and sustained by a corporate realization of sanctity. No individual can abdicate the responsibility for his own conversion. But in a special way superiors have a responsibility for the whole group. Newman remarked somewhere that good is never done except at the expense of those who do it, and truth is never enforced except at the sacrifice of its propounders. Reformers and prophets have never been well received. Perhaps superiors are destined to enter into that role, not, however, with a martyr complex or heaviness of heart. We have a living example in Fr. Arrupe that it is a role that is compatible with a deep joy. Aiding and facilitating the work of the superiors are the communities A Survey of the Thirty-Second General Congregation / 689 themselves which are called upon, through community meetings and prayerful discernment, to face their own response to the gospel call to simplicity, and to bridge the gap between the radical response to which we have vowed our lives and the actual way in which we live them. When I asked one of the delegates who was in great part responsible for the formulation of the decree on poverty how optimistic he was about its im-plementation, he said: "When I think of human nature, I am not very op-timistic. But when I think of the power of the Spirit, 1 am hopeful. Everything depends on the Spirit. Legislation can support; it cannot convert. Of ourselves we are weak, but with the power of the Spirit we can overcome, overcome even ourselves." POSITION OPEN The Department of Theology in the School of Religious Studies of the Catholic University of America announces the opening, beginning January, 1976, for: Assistant, Associate or Full Professor in the field of Christian Spiritual Theology. Applications should be sent to:Chairperson Department of Theology Catholic University of America Washington, DC 20064 The Catholic University of America is an equal ol~portunity employer. The Recovery =of Religious Life Bro. Raymond L. Fitz, S.M. Bro. Lawrence J. Cada, S.M. Both authors belong to the Marianist Training Network. Brother Raymond Fitz is director of the Marianist Institute of Christian Renewal and associate professor of Engineering Management and Electrical Engineering at the University of Dayton. He lives at 410 Edgar Avenue; Dayton, Ohio 45410. Brother Lawrence Cada is chairman of the Department of Science and Mathematics at Borromeo College of Ohio and lives at 315 East 149 Street; Cleveland, Ohio 44110. I. Introduction~ How long will the turmoils now besetting religious life last? Are they almost over, and has the process of returning to a more normal situation begun? Or will things stay unsettled for some time to come? This article will argue for the likelihood of the latter alternative. On the basis of the models and analyses presented, the article will try to show that religious life in America is undergo-ing a profound transition, which will take another twenty to twenty-five years to run its full course. Moreover, the study will seek to demonstrate that social disintegration (loss of membership, lack of vocations, collapse of institutions, etc.) of religious communities in the Church will probably continue for at least the next ten to fifteen years. The most significant questions facing religious life in those ten to fifteen years will center on "death and dying." Many aspects of the life as it has been known will be passing away. Only after these questions are accepted and creatively answered can religious life be expected to be revitalized and renewed within the Church. This process will demand both a recovery of that deep dynamic impulse which first gave rise to religious life in the Church and a recovery from the malaise through which it is now passing: tThis is a draft of a work in progress. Feedback on the content and style of this paper would be ap-preciated. 690 The Recovery of Religious Life hence the title "The Recovery of Religious Life." Although much of this arti-cle argues for the plausibility of these assertions and their implications for the future of religious life, there will also be provided an explanation of how the data were collected and organized, and of what was called important or unim-portant. In this sense, these assertions represent a starting bias that informs the entire article. As such, this bias merits being stated at the outset. The approach taken in this article2 is to explore the questions about the future of religious life from a historical and sociological point of view. In the first two parts of the article, two models are developed: a historical model of the evolution of religious life as a movement in the Church and a sociological model dealing with the organizational life cycle of an individual religious com-munity. Then, in the final sections of the article, these two models will be used to address questions about the present condition of religious life and its future. Every model represents a simplification of reality, and the models in this arti-cle are no exception. To arrive at the questions posed in the final sections, the article will digest and condense large amounts of material drawn from a variety of sources that are partially indicated in the notes. It is hoped that this simplification is not a serious distortion of the facts and that it will arrange the historical and other data in such a way as to provide an overview from which some tentative generalizations can be made. II. The Evolution of Religious Life: A Historical Model Religious communities in the life of the church are not fixed and static en-tities. Taken together they make up a historical process unfolding over time, and religious life can be viewed as a significant social movement in the history of Western Culture. As parts of a movement, religious communities arose in response to dramatic social change in the Church and in the larger cultural and political arena of Western Civilization. They became a dynamic force in shap-ing and cha~ging the Church and secular culture. They have been both a cause and an effect of social change: the founding of religious communities has fre-quently been a response to major developments of society, and the evolution of the Church and Western Culture has been significantly influenced by the life and work of religious communities. As in all social movements, the role of myth, the emergence of belief systems, the fashioning of institutions and social structures, and the role of personal transformation and commitment are central to the evolution of religious life. The dynamic interplay of all these elements creates, sustains and limits the histo~'ical unfolding of religious communities. ~This article grew from a variety of experiences over an extended period of time with multiple presentations at workshops and reflections from many religious. Especially helpful were Fr. Norbert Brockman, S.M., Sr. Gertrude Foley, S.C., Bro. Thomas Giardino, S.M., and Sr. Carol Lichtenberg, S.N.D. The scheme of dividing the history of religious life into the five eras presented in the second part of this article was first suggested in a lecture given by Fr. David Fleming, S.M., at the University of Dayton in December, 1971. 692 / Review for Religious, Volume 34, 1975/5 A. Organizing Concepts One way to view the unfolding of religious life within the Church is to look at how the image of religious life has evolved over time and what implications this evolution has had for the functioning of individual religious communities.3 The term dominant image of religious life is used here to name a multifaceted reality that includes how religious view their life and its functions and role within the Church and the world during a given period. The term is also meant to indicate the sense of history which permeates religious life at a given time. How do people, both the religious and the members of society at large, picture the past of this way of life? What kind of future are religious supposed to be creating? The process by which the dominant image of religious life evolves in time can be characterized by a repeated sequence of identifiable phases of change: - Growth Phase. A relatively long period of elaboration and develop-ment of the dominant image of religious life and its implications. - Decline Phase. A period of crisis in which the dominant image of religious life comes under strong question. Religious communities seem no longer suited to the aspirations of the age. Religious com-munities lose their purpose, drift into laxity, and disintegrate. Transition Phase. A comparatively short period of revitalization in which variations of the dominant image of religious life emerge and one of these is gradually selected as the new dominant image. - Growth Phase under a New Image. A period of elaboration and development under the new dominant image of religious life. The supposition that religious life has passed through a succession of such phases of growth, decline, and transition is the basis of a model that can be used to organize and interpret the data of the history of religious life.4 The remainder of this section is devoted to illustrating a way this model might be constructed. 3Some sources used to clarify the notion of dominant image were Fred Polak, The hnage of the Future, translated and abridged by Elise Boulding (San Francisco: Jassey-Bass, 1973); Changing Images of Man, Policy Research Report No. 4, Center for the Study of Social Policy, Stanford Research Institute, May, 1974; and Kenneth E. Boulding, The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961). *Some sources used to clarify the notion of social evolution were Stephen Toulmin, Human Understanding-I (Princeton: P. U. P., 1972); Anthony F. C. Wallace, "'Paradigmatic Processes in Cultural Change," American Anthropologist (Vol. 74, 1972), pp. 467-478; Donald T. Campbell, "'Variation and Selective Retention in Socio-Cultural Evolution," in H. R. Barringer, G. I. Blanksten, and R. W. Mack (¢ds.), Social Change in Developing Areas (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1965); Edgar S. Dunn, Economic and Social Development." A Process of Social Learn-ing (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U. P., 1971); and Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). The Recovery of Religious Life / 693 The following questions have been used in fashioning the model. First, there are questions about variation that deal with searching and experiment-ing. Under what conditions do variations appear in the dominant image of religious life? If these variations lead in certain directions, what factors in culture, the Church, or religious life itself influenced the choice of those direc-tions? Second, there are questions about selection. What determines which variations in the dominant image of religious life are selected out to serve as essential elements of a new image of religious life? How do members of religious communities distinguish well-founded and properly justified variations from those which are precipitous, not well thought out, and hasty? ¯ Finally, there are questions about retention that deal with incorporating and establishing the new. How are selected variations incorporated into religious communities? What processes are needed? What set of factors distinguishes in-novations which endure from those which disappear quickly? B. Major Eras in the Evolution of Religious Life Using the concepts described above, the history of religious life can be divided into five main periods: the eras of the Desert Fathers, Monasticism, the Mendicant Orders, the Apostolic Orders, and the Teaching Congregations) The description of these eras given in this section constitutes the historical model that will be used in the final portion of this article. 1. Era of the Desert Fathers The first period was the Era of the Desert Fathers. Following the earliest manifestations of religious life in the mode of consecrated virgins and widows within the Christian communities of the persecuted Church, ther~ emerged the image of the religious as the ascetic holy person. The description of the her-mit's life given by Athanasius in his Life of Anthony crystallized an ideal which inspired both solitary anchorites and many communities of cenobites. The desert was seen as the domain of the demons to which they had retreated after being driven out of the cities by the triumph of the recently established Church. It was to this "desert" that generous men and women withdrew to 5Factual and historical data on the history of religious life were gathered from such standard sources as The Catholic Encyclopedia (1907), The New Catholic Encyclopedia (1967), the An-nuario Pontificio, The Official Catholic Directory, and The Catholic Almanac. Some of the other sources on this topic were Raymond Hostie, S.J., Vie et mort des ordres religieux (Paris: Descl~e de Brouwer, 1972); David Knowles, O.S.B., Christian Monasticism (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969); Humbert M. Vicaire, O.P., The Apostolic Life (Chicago: Priory Press, 1966); Derwas J. Chitty, The Desert a City (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1964); Owen Chadwick, John Cassian, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: C. U. P., 1968); William Hinnebusch, O.P., "'How the Dominican Order Faced Its Crises," Review for Religious (Vol. 32, No. 6, November, 1973), pp. 1307-1321; William A. Hinnebusch, O.P., The History of the Dominican Order, 2 vols. (New York: Alba House, 1966, 1973); Teresa Ledochowska, O.S.U., Angela Merici and the Company of St. Ursula, 2 vols. (Rome: Ancora, 1969); William V. Bangert, S.J., A History of the Society of Jesus (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1972); and Adrien Dansette, Religious History of Modern France, 2 vols. (New York: Herder and Herder, 1961). 69t~ / Review for Religious, lZolume 34, 1975/5 carry on the Church's important work of doing battle with the devil in the wilderness as Christ had done long ago. In this way the desert came to be seen as a place of austere beauty, where the monk was trained in the ways of perfec-tion. He returned from time to time into the midst of his fellow Christians, who saw in him the power to do good--healing the sick, casting out demons, comforting the sorrowful with gentle words, reconciling the estranged, and above all urging everyone to put nothing in the world before the love of Christ. This image captured the imagination of the Christian world as news about the Desert Fathers spread from Egypt to all points of the Roman empire. Throughout the 4th century monasteries sprang up on all the shores of the Mediterranean. By the 5th century, the golden age had begun to fade. In the East, the monks had become embroiled in doctrinal controversy. In the West, TABLE 1: ERA OF THE DESERT FATHERS (200-500) Dominant Image of Religious Life. The ideal of religious life is the holy ascetic who seeks " the perfection of Christ as a solitary or in community with a group of monks. Disciples withdraw into the "desert" and place themselves under the care of a master ascetic who teaches them the ways of perfection. They live nearby as hermits or gather in cenobia or monasteries where the master is the superior. The monk prays, mortifies himself, does battle with the devil for the sake of the Church, and spends his life seeking union with Christ. 2nd and 3rd Centuries 251 Anthony horn Consecrated virgins and widows live a form of 271 Anthony withdraws into the desert RL within Christian communities of the early 292 Pachomius born Church during the persecution. 4th Century 313 Edict of Milan 325 Pachomius founds cenobium 356 Anthony ~lies 357 Athanasius writes Life of Anthony 360 Basil founds monastery in Cappadocia 363 Martin founds monastery in Gaul 376 Melania founds monastery on Mount of Olives 393 Augustine founds monastic group in Hip-po 399 Cassian, disciple of Evagrius, migrates from Egypt to West Hermits and cenobites flourish in the Egyptian desert. Various forms of solitary and com-munity RL spread around eastern rim of the Mediterranean (Palestine, Syria, Cappadocia). First monasteries are founded in the West. 5th Century 410 Alaric sacks Rome RL continues to expand in the East. Spread of 415 Cassian founds monastery in Marseille wandering monks and various kinds of 455 Vandals sack Rome monasteries in the West while the western half 459 Simon the Stylite dies of the Roman Empire crumbles. 476 End of western Roman Empire 1st TRANSITION: SPREAD OF BENEDICT'S RULE The Recovery of Religious Life / 69t~ the foundations of Roman civilization weakened under the onslaught of the barbarian tribes, and the ties between the eastern and western halves of the Empire began to break apart. The monasteries in Gaul and other parts of the moribund West became refugee cloisters, where the monks gathered the few treasures of civilization they could lay hold of. As dusk settled on the glories of imperial Rome, the stage was set for the rise of feudal Europe and with it the next period in the evolution of religious life. 2. Era of Monasticism The next period was the Era of Monasticism. In his attempt to regularize religious life as "a life with God in separation from the world," Benedict produced a new dominant image of religious life. This image was not only a correction of the abuses which had crept in during the 5th and 6th centuries, it also, and more importantly, turned out to be a successful adaptation of religious life to the feudal society of the Dark Ages and the early medieval period. Benedict's short and practical Rule furnished workable guidelines for all monastic activity and every age and class of monks. It combined an uncom-promising spirituality with physical moderation and flexibility. It emphasized the charity and harmony of a simple life in common under the guidance of a wise and holy abbot. By the 9th century, this new image had spread to virtually all the monasteries of Europe. The ideal of the Benedictine monk became the model for Christian spirituality and played a part in the stabilization and unification of society. Various modifications, such as the Cluniac, Carthusian, and Cister-cian Reforms, maintained and adapted the dominant image to the developments in European society. Cluny and the Cistercians devised methods of uniting monasteries into networks that became harbingers of the modern order. However, by the time the 'first stirrings of urbanization began at the end of the 12th century, the dominant image began to show its inadequacies and once again laxity in religious life was not uncommon. There was also a great debate between monks and canons about which form of religious life was a more authentic embodiment of the apostolic ideal. As the civilization of the high Middle Ages began to emerge, new possibilities were felt in society and with them came the opportunity for a transition in religious life. 3. Era of the Mendicant Orders When Francis and Dominic launched their communities, they ushered in the next period, the Era of the Mendicant Orders. As mendicant friaries sprang up in towns across Europe, they met with an initial hostility which could not fathom how this new style could be an authentic form of religious life. Gradually, though, the new image of religious life became acceptable, and it proved to be a much better adaptation of ~:eligious life to the needs of urban society than was possible for the monasteries in their rural settings. During the course of the 13th century, even the monastic orders established studia close 696 / Review for Religious, l/olume 34, 1975/5 to the new universities, where the mendicants were flourishing. As Christen-dom was passing through its zenith, the image of a religious life unen-cumbered with landed wealth played a key role in the cultivation of the in-tellectual life by the Church within society and in the preaching of the Gospel for the Church. TABLE 2: ERA OF MONASTICISM (500-1200) Dominant Image of RL. Life in a monastery is the ideal of the religious. The daily round of liturgical prayer, work, and meditation provides a practical setting to pursue the lofty goals of praising God and union with Christ. Within the Church and society, the monks set an example of how deep spirituality can be combined with loving ministry to one's neighbor and dutiful fidelity to the concrete tasks of daily living. 6th Century 529 Benedict founds a monastery to live ac- Spread of monasteries throughout western cording to his Rule Europe (Gaul, Spain, Ireland, etc.). Various 540 Celtic monasticism takes root in Irela'nd formats. Excesses and laxity are common--as 590 Columbanus founds monastery in Lu~r are wandering monks. euil 7th and 8th Centuries 642 Arab conquest of Egypt Gradual spread of Benedict's Rule to.more and 700 Venerable Bede more monasteries of Europe. Missionary 746 Boniface founds monastery in Germany journeys of Celtic monks to evangelize 755 Canons of Chrodegang founded northern Europe. 9th Century 816 Regula Canonicorum of Aix-la-Chapelle Observance of Canons Regular is made uni- 817 Charlemagne's son decrees that form by the spread of the Rule of Aix. Con- Benedict's Rule is to be observed in all solidation of Benedict's Rule. Virtually all monasteries. This project coordinated by monasteries are "Benedictine." Benedict of Aniane. 910 Cluniac Reform 1084 Carthusian Reform 1098 Cistercian Reform 10th and llth Centuries Various reforms breathe new life into Benedict's ideal and introduce organizational variations. 1111 Bernard joins the Cistercians 1120 Premonstratensians founded 12th Century Canons Regular unite into orders which are a variation of the monastic networks of Cluny and Citeaux. Military orders attempt a new form of RL which is temporarily successful (Knights of Malta, Templars, Teutonic Knights, etc.). 2nd TRANSITION: RISE OF THE MENDICANTS After a rapid flowering, the mendicant orders were affected by the same changes which spread across the Church and European society in the 14th and 15th centuries. As the Renaissance presaged the new humanism, the secularization of European society, and the breakup of the unity of Christen-dom, there emerged the conditions for yet a new kind of religious life. The Recovery of Religious Life / 697 TABLE 3: ERA OF THE MENDICANT ORDERS (1200-1500) Dominant Image of RL. The simple friar who begs for his keep and follows in the footsteps of the Lord is the ideal of RL. He prays as he goes, steeping himself in the love of Christ. Unencumbered by landed wealth, the mendicants are free to travel on foot to any place they are needed by the Church. They hold themselves ready to preach, cultivate learning, serve the poor, and minister to the needs of society in the name of the Church. 1211 Franciscans founded 1216 Dominicans founded 1242 Carmelites founded 1256 Augustinians founded 13th Century Mendicant friaries spring up in medieval towns across Europe. These foundations lend themsel~,es to work in the new universities and the apostolate of preaching. Rapid expansion of the mendicant orders. Monastic orders make some attempts to take up the style of the mendicants. 1325 75,000 men in mendicant orders 1344 Brigittines founded 1349 Black Death 1400 47,000 men in mendicant orders 1415 Hus burned at the stake 1450 Gutenberg 1492 Columbus 1500 90,000 men in mendicant orders 14th Century ~tabilization and slow decline of the mendicant orders. Abuses in RL are prevalent. 15th Century Various reforms restore the mendicant ideal and produce a gradual increase in membership. First stirrings of the Renaissance introduce an uneasiness into the Church and RL. 3rd TRANSITION: THE COUNTER-REFORMATION 4. Era of the Apostolic Orders The transition to the next period in religious life, the era of the Apostolic Orders, happened with the Counter-Reformation. Not long after Luther sparked the Protestant Revolt, the new image of religious life appeared with the foundation of various orders of Clerics Regular, the chief of which were the Jesuits. The verve and style of this new foundation set the pace for religious life, The mendicant orders had taken up this ideal in part by joining in the mis-sionary conquests,of the Church in the newly discovered lands. The new image also spurred religious to come to terms with the secularizing trends of the scientific revolution, modern philosophy, and the rise of nationalism in Europe. Jesuits, for example, could be found in the royal courts of almost all of Europe's Catholic kingdoms, in the laboratories of the new scientists, and teaching the youthful Descartes at La Fl~che. As the proponents of the Enlightenment testily challenged the very ex-istence of the Church, a slow decline descended upon religious life. Large and nearly empty monasteries dotted the European countryside. Jansenist and Enlightened thought undermined the.rationale for religious life from opposite directions. The Bourbon kings succeededin persuading Rome to suppress the 69~! / Review for Religious, l/olume 34, 1975/5 Jesuits in 1773. On the eve of the French Revolution, worldwide membership in all the men's religious orders stood at about 300,000; by the time the Revolution and the secularization which followed had run their course, fewer than 70,000 remained. Many orders went out of existence. As the 19th century began, there was need of a thorough-going revival of religious life, which could realistically cope with the new consciousness of Europe. TABLE 4: ERA OF THE APOSTOLIC ORDERS (1500-1800) Dominant Image of RL. Religious are an elite of dedicated and militant servants of the Church with a high level of individual holiness, a readiness to defend the Church on any front, and the zeal to win new expansion for the Church to the very ends of the earth. 1517 Luther sparks the Reformation 1535 Ursulines founded 1540 Jesuits founded 1541 Francis Xavier sails for Far East 1545 Trent starts 1562 Discalced Carmelite Reform 16th Century RE virtually wiped out in Protestant Europe. Founding and expansion of a new kind of RL in the format of the Clerics Regular. These groups work at shoring up the Church's political power in Catholic Europe, reforming the Church, and spreading the Gospel in the foreign missions. 17th Century 1610 Visitation Nuns founded 1625 Vincentians founded 1633 Daughters of Charity founded 1650 St. Joseph Sisters founded 1662 Ranc6 launches Trappist Reform 1663 Paris Foreign Mission Society founded 1681 Christian Brothers founded 1700 213,000 men in mendicant orders Flowering of spirituality, especially in French School, leads to new foundations such as the various societies of priests and clerical con-gregations. Bulk of men religious still belong to mendicant orders. 1725 Passionists founded 1735 Redemptorists founded 1770 300,000 men in RL in world 1773 Jesuits suppressed by Rome 1789 French Revolution starts 18th Century A few clerical congregations emerge, but RL as a whole seems to be in decline due to the in-roads of Enlightenment thought, Jansenism, wealth, and laxity. Weakened RL is given the coup de gr?tce by the French Revolution, which sets off a wave of political suppression and defection in France and the rest of Catholic Europe. 4th TRANSITION: FRENCH REVOLUTION 5. Era of the Teaching Congregations The revival of religious life which occurred in the next period, the Era of the Teaching Congregations, set off in a new direction. There were about 600 foundations of new communities in the 19th century. They were, for the most part, dominated by the movement of educating the masses. For the first time The Recovery of Religious Life / 699 in European history, the idea of educating everyone had the possibility of be-ing concretely realized. The new congregations joined in this movement in hopes of planting the seeds of a hardy faith in the souls of the children they taught by the thousands. This zeal for the education of children was combined with a cleansed Jansenistic spirituality to form the new image of religious life. While the activity of religious spilled over into other apostolic works such as hospitals, teaching set the pace. Even the few pre-Revolution orders which were managing a slow recovery took on many of the trappings of the typical 19th century teaching congregation. For the first time in the history of religious life, recruitment of adult vocations was almost completely displaced by the acceptance of candidates just emerging from childhood. Through the end of the 19th century and on into the 20th the religious who gave themselves to this demanding work of teaching edified the Church and produced a brand of holiness which was most appropriate for a Catholicism which sought to strengthen a papacy denuded o.f worldly power and to care for the masses of the industrialized wor.ld in need of christianization. By the mid-1960's membership in religious communities reached the highest point in the history of the Church. In the last decade, this trend was reversed for the first time in more than a century. Crises have set in which some ascribe to a loss of identity TABLE 5: ERA OF THE TEACHING CONGREGATIONS (1800-present) Dominant Image of RL. Religious dedicate their lives to the salvation of their own souls and the salvation of others. The style of life of religious men and women blends in intense pursuit of personal holiness with a highly active apostolic service. Identity with the person of Christ unites this two-fold objective into a single purpose. 19th Century 1814 French Restoration; Jesuits restored by Rome 1825 Fewer than 70,000 men in RL in world 1831 Mercy Sisters founded 1850 83,000 men in RL in world 1859 Salesians founded 1870 Papal infallibility declared Revival of RL after widespread state sup-pressions. Numerous foundations of con-gregations dedicated to a return to authentic RL blended with service, principally in schools. Old orders, such as Jesuits and Dominicans, rejuvenated in the format of the teaching con-gregations. Church gradually centralizes around the papacy and isolates itself from secular trends of the modern world 20th Century 1950 275,000 men in RL in world 1962 Vatican II starts; 1,012,000 women in RL in world 1965 335,000 men in RL in world 1966 181,500 women in RL in U.S. 1972 879,000 women in RL in world 1973 143,000 women in RL in U.S. 1974 227,500 men in RL in world Expansion and solidification. In the sixties, crises set in from within RL due to loss of iden-tity and inroads of secularizing process. Numerous defections and decreasing numbers of new members. 5th TRANSITION: (?) 700 / Review for Religious, Volume 34, 1975/5 and the inroads of secularism. It seems that another transition in the long history of religious life has begun. Further considerations will be undertaken in the remainder of this article to better analyze the present situation. 11I. The Life Cycle of a Religious Community: A Sociological Model The previous section of this paper focused on a historical model for the evolution of religious life as such within the Church; in this section attention is turned toward the life of the individual religious community or institute. To this end, a sociological model for the life cycle of individual religious com-munities which organizes the important dimensions of each period in the life of the communities is developed.6 This model allows further probing of the questions concerning the plausibility of a revitalization of religious life, since revitalization of present religious communities is one way that religious life as a whole will be renewed. A. Organizing Concepts To date, only thirteen men's religious orders in the entire his.tory of the Church have ever surpassed a membership figure of 10,000 at some point of their existence. The membership pattern of three of these orders--the Dominicans, the Minims, and the Jesuits--is graphed in Figure 1 below. Although these three examples are taken from among the largest orders of the Church, they are representative of the membership pattern in most religious communities, large or small. Typically one finds one or more cycles of growth and decline in the number of members. These membership patterns suggest a dynamic of inner vitality that goes on in a religious community. Using such analogies as the human life cycle and other cycles of growth and decline, a sociological model has been devised which divides the life cycle of an active religious community into five periods: foundation, expansion, stabilization, breakdown and transition. The model is shown schematically in Figure 2. The shape of this curve is intended to repre-sent the over-all vitality of the community as it passes from one period to the next. In the following section salient events and characteristics which typify each of these periods are described. An attempt is also made to isolate the crises which occur during each period. ~Some sources used to clarify the notion of a life cycle were Hostie, Vie et mort; Wallace, "'Paradigmatic Processes"; Gordon L. Lippitt and Warren H. Schmidt, "Crisis in a Developing Organization," Harvard Business Review (Vol. 45, No. 6, November-December, 1967), pp. 102- 112; and Lawrence E. Greiner, "Evolution and Revolution as Organizations Grow," Harvard Business Review (Vol. 50, No. 4, July-August, 1972), pp. 37-46; Thomas F. O'Dea, The Sociology of Religion (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1966); Luther P. Gerlach and Virginia H. Hine, People. Power and Change: Movements of Social Transformation (Indianapolis: Bobbs- Merrill, 1970). The Recovery of Religious Life / 701 _z 20 LLI ~ lO 30 1200 1300 ! \/ , st 1400 1500 1600 1700 I t I t I I I II ! I ! 1800 1900 2000 Figure 1: Membership of Dominicans, Minims, and Jesuits IFOUNDATIONIEXPANSION ISTABILIZATION BREAKDOWN TRANSITION Figure 2: Life Cycle of a Religious Community B. The Periods of the Life Cycle 1. The Foundation Period The first period in the life of a religious community centers around a found-ing person and his or her vision. The founder or foundress undergoes a radically transformi,ng experience, which can usually be pinpointed to an event or series of events, and .which is perceived as an abrupt shift in the founding 702 / Review for Religious, I/olume 34, 1975/5 person's identity and a timeless moment in which a vision or dream is received. Contained in the transforming experience is a new appreciation of the message of Jesus which leads to innovative insight on how the condition of the Church or society could be dramatically improved or how a totally new kind of future could be launched. A new impetus to live the religious life in all the totality of its demands is felt, and a new theory emerges that is at once a critique of the present, an appropriation of the past, a compelling image of the future, and a basis for novel strategies. The founding person's transforming experience is followed by the initial emergence of the community. A fortuitous encounter takes place between the founder or foundress and some contemporary men or women in which the founding experience, the innovative insight, the emerging theory, and the call to holiness are shared. The group unites under the guidance of the founding person to search for and invent new arrangements for living the Gospel together and working toward the realization of the Kingdom of God. The foundation period may last ten to twenty years or longer and fre-quently coincides with the last part of the founding person's lifetime. Integra-tion and cohesion center on the founding person and still more deeply on the person of Christ. The structural identity of the community appears in seminal form, and authority in the community springs from the wisdom of the found-ing person. Founding events of religious communities have a uniqueness about them which has caused them to be especially treasured as significant moments in the Church's past. Examples of founding persons and their visions readily come to mind: Angela Merici's dream of a new kind of religious life for women that centered on an active apostolate; the hopes of Robert of Molesme to restore fervor through the primitive observance of Benedict's Rule in the wilderness of C~teaux; Don Bosco's contagious vision of loving Christ and joyfully serving the poor. The more striking cases of founding persons receiving their in-spirations have become part of the common heritage of all religious: Anthony hearing in a Sunday Gospel the words which were the key to his life's aim; Ignatius retiring to Manresa to receive his visions. For the most part the foundation period is a time of grace and charism for a new religious community. But there are also crises that must be faced. The crisis of direction forces the community to decide which undertakings are im-portant and which must be sacrificed. The crisis of leadership confronts the community with the problem of finding out how it will live beyond the time of its founding person. The crisis of legitimization engulfs the nascent community in the question of whether or not the Church will approve it as an authentic form of religious life. The Waldensians, for example, showed some signs of becoming a new religious order on the pattern of the mendicants, but they never overcame the crisis of iegitimization. Instead of becoming a religious community, they ended up as renegades who had to hide out in the woods of medieval Europe. The Recovery of Religious Life / 70a 2. The Expansion Period When the community has emerged from the foundation period, it un-dergoes a fairly long period of expansion, during which the founding charism is institutionalized in a variety of ways. A community cult and belief system solidifies, a community polity is fashioned, and community norms and customs take hold. As members of the community's second generation mature and grow older, they recount stories of the foundation, which they have heard from the pioneers or have themselves experienced in their youth. These stories enshrine decisive events which set the community's direction or establish its characteristic traits. Gradually, rituals and symbols which express and com-memorate the most treasured facets of the foundation are fused with the.iore of the older members into a sort of sacred memory and cult that begins to be passed on from generation to generation as the community's "founding myth." Attempts are made at thinking through the founding myth and expressing it in terms of contemporary thought patterns. Eventually these efforts result in theories, interpretations, and social models which coalesce into a belief system and give a rational structure to the more intuitive thrust of the founding myth. Simultaneously, procedures are devised for community decision making and communication, and bit by bit the community's polity.takes shape. Norms are set down and customs emerge which cover all aspects of the community's life, such as membership criteria, leadership standards, and apostolic priorities. The members of the young community experience an excitement about the growth and success which characterizes the expansion period. Large numbers join the community, and new works are rapidly taken on which enhance the possibility of a still broader recruitment. Major interpreters of the founding vi-sion are recognized. Patterns of spiritual practice are determined, and the community's spirituality is made concrete in manuals of direction or other written documents. With expansion come certain organizational crises. How is authority to be delegated? What means will be used to integrate and tie together the rapidly expanding network of establishments and the burgeoning membership. When Bernard joined the Cistercians thirteen years after their foundation, he led the community through this kind of organizational crisis. In the process, a new en-tity, the general chapter, was invented to cope with the situation, and this in-novation is still a standard feature.of most religious orders today. Another crisis of this period centers on maintaining the pristine vigor of the founding vision. As rival interpretations arise, which will be discarded? A classic exam-ple of this kind of crisis occurred in the great debates about poverty among the early Franciscans just after Francis died. 3. The Stabilization Period After a fairly long expansion, which may last two to three generations or "/04 / Review for Religious, l/olume 34, 1975/5 longer, there ensues a period of stabilization. Numerical increase in membership may continue, but geographical expansion usually slows down. The stabilization period may last a century or more, but it is sometimes as brief as fifty years or so. A feeling of success pervades the community during the stabilization period. Members experience a high degree of personal satisfaction from simply being in the community. The prevailing image of religious life is clear and accepted. It provides a basis for describing unambiguous social roles for religious. The community is accomplishing its purpose and this purpose is self-evident. The need to improve is not seen as a need to change things but simply to do better what is already being done. Gradually, as stabilization sets in, more and more of the community assumes that religious life has always been the way it is now and that it will always remain so in the future. There is little need to elaborate the understanding of the founding vision or penetrate into it more deeply. It is simply accepted and repeated to new members who join. No one is left in the community who knew the founding person or the first dis-ciples personally. Memory of the founding events takes on the cast of past his(ory that is separate from the present moment. Formation of new members emphasizes their conformity to standard patterns of external behavior that are seen as the best means of cultivating interior commitment. The over-all feeling of success which is so typical of the stabilization period is not illusory. There is in fact a job that is being done and done well by the many generous religious who devote themselves to its accomplishment. The kinds of crises that Crop up during the stabilization period are linked to the other characteristics of the period. The crisis of activism occurs. Members become so absorbed in work that they lose sight of its spiritual and apostolic underpinning. They allow the satisfactions of accomplishment to dis-place a centeredness in Christ. Loss of intensity is another crisis of the stabilization period. Is it possible to maintain the intensity of vision and com-mitment among members, now that the community has become so highly in-stitutionalized? They can often be simply carried along by the sheer inertia of the community's activity and held in place by the pressure of social expecta-tion placed on their role as religious from people in the Church. Another danger stems from the crisis of adaptation. In the midst of success the com-munity is seldom open to adaptation, and any changes that have to be made are fraught with difficulty. Quite often, even the most legitimate changes are rejected, and their proponents are righteously and intolerantly silenced. The failure of later Jesuit missionaries to implement the ideas of Matteo Ricci con-cerning Confucian practices among Chinese Catholics is perhaps a good ex-ample of the sort of resistance to adaptation that can be found during the stabilization period. 4. The Breakdown Period Eventually the seeming immutabilities of the stabilization period start to give, and the religious community enters the breakdown period. The The Recovery of Religious Life / 705 breakdown may be gradual and last a half a century or more, or it may be rapid and run its course in a few decades. In either case, what happens is a dis-mantling of the institutional structures and belief systems that arose in the ex-pansion period and served the community so well during the stabilization period. This collective decline gives rise, in turn, to stress and doubt in the in-dividual members. Initially .a number of persons become dissatisfied with the current state of the community. Perhaps they are simply struck by what they judge to be the silliness of some of the community's customs or procedures. Or they may come to see that the community's life and work are not equipped to handle im-portant new challenges. Unanswered questions about the function and purpose of the community begin to accumulate and start to raise doubts. Levels of in-dividual stress increase slowly at the beginning, but then rise rapidly as doubt spreads to more and more levels of the community's social structure. To handle the growing problems, standard remedies are tied. All that is needed, it seems, is to get back to doing well what has always been done and to renew commitment to the community's mission. However, the usual problem-solving techniques become increasingly ineffective. A sense of crisis grows as community authority and decision-making structures become confused. The community's belief system begins to appear archaic and bound in by the trap-pings and articulations of a bygone age. The founding experience and myth, which had been internalized by the community's early generations, is no longer felt by the members. As the community loses its sense of identity and purpose, service to the Church becomes haphazard and lacks direction. Moral norms in the com-munity are relaxed and some members perhaps distract themselves with sex and a misuse of wealth. There is a net loss of membership through increased withdrawals and decreased recruitment of new members. The crises that arise during the breakdown period center on the various phenomena of decline in the community. The crisis of polarization can become acute when those who have faith in the community as it was align themselves against those who in varying degrees reject the community as it is. The crisis of collapsing institutions sets in as the community is forced to stop doing "business as usual" and abandon long-established works. The resulting demoralization leads to the crisis of the community's impending death. What is to be done as the chilling awareness grows in the community that it is inex-orably listing into disintegration on all sides? 5. The Transition Period The breakdown is followed by a period of transition. Three outcomes are possible for religious communities during this period: extinction, minimal sur-vival, or revitalization. Extinction, the first of these outcomes, occurs when all the members of a community either withdraw or die and it simply passes out of existence. This happened, for example, to 76% of all men's religious orders founded before 706 / Review for Religious, l/olume 34, 1975/5 1500 and to 64% of those founded before 1800. From a historical perspective, then, a reasonable expectation would seem to be that most religious com-munities in the Church today will eventually become extinct. A religious community which does not die out may go into a long period of low-level or minimal survival. If the membership pattern of presently existing religious orders founded before the French Revolution is examined, one finds that most of them enter into a period lasting across several centuries in which the number of members is very low. In fact, only 5% of all men's orders founded before 1500 and only 11% of the orders founded before 1800 have a current membership which is larger than 2,000. The Minims (Figure 1) are typical of the orders which once were quite large and now have a small membership. This type of outcome should not be interpreted as a dis-appearance of vitality in every case. The Carthusians, for example, follow this membership pattern. Yet they seem to be living UP to their reputation of never having relaxed their observance--never reformed and never needing reform. To this day the order's spiritual impact appears greater than its numerical strength. There is also a small percentage of religious communities which survive the breakdown period a~d enter into a period of revitalization. At least three characteristics can be singled out in all communities which have been revitalized in this way: a transforming response to the signs of the times; a reappropriation of the founding charism; and a profound renewal of the life of prayer, faith, and centeredness in Christ. The time in history fn which revitalization occurs seems to make a difference. If the revitalization occurs during one of the shifts in the dominant image of religious life singled out in the historical model above, the com-munity takes on many of the characteristics of the emerging image, and the transforming response to the signs of the times seems central to the revitaliza-tion. If the revitalization occurs midway during one of the major eras in the history of religious life identified earlier in this article, the revitalization takes on the characteristics of a reform with the reappropriation of the founding charism playing a central role. In either case the community experiences the revitalization as a second foundation. Personal transformation or conversion is central to revitalization. With personal transformation comes innovative insight and a new centering in the person of Christ. The innovative insight allows the transformed individuals within the community to develop critical awareness of the assumptions un-derlying the traditional meaning of the community and functioning of that community within the Church and the world. This innovative insight brings with it a focusing of energies through a new positive vision of what the com-munity should be in the future. The vision allows the emergence of a new theory which gives meaning to the experiences of individuals and the shared events lived within the community and spurs the community to building and creating its future. Such a new theory guides the community in the search for The Recovery of Religious Life / 707 and the invention of new models ~of living together as a community bound by. the evangelical conditions of discipleship in the service of the Church. A more complete sketch of the human dynamics of revitalization will be given in the last section of this article. The essential components of this dynamic, namely, insight and vision, and new theory and new models, are mentioned at this point to complete the picture of the life cycle of a religious community. Some limitations of this sociological model and the historical model of the previous section are given in the next section together with some generalizations that can be drawn from the models. IV. Some Limitations and Generalizations A. Limitations of the Models Before proceeding, some concluding and cautionary remarks must be made. Evidently the rapid overview of the history of religious life given in the first portion of this article should not be taken as anything more than a demonstration of how the evolution of religious life can be interpreted so as to fit the model of the five main eras that are being postulated in the proposed historical model. The account is far too compressed and over-simplified to provide an adequate and proi~erly nuanced telling of the story of religious life. For example, little attention was given to the Canons Regular, who constituted a significant portion of men religious from the Middle Ages to the French Revolution. There was no discussion of the medieval military orders nor of Orthodox monasticism. A still more gaping lacuna is the almost complete absence of any analysis of the way women's religious life differed from or followed the same pattern as that of the men. It may be that the sources used in this study were not sensitive to the distinctive role women actually played in the evolution of religious life. On the other hand, it may be that up to the present time the trends of women's religious life have been very parallel to those in the men's orders. The models proposed for the evolution of religious life and for the life-cycle of a religious community are also both simplifications. Some might validly question, for example, whether there were just five major eras in the history of religious life and whether the transitions between the eras occurred as clearly as the historical model suggests. The description of the dominant image of religious life for each era is a simplification of what was in every case a rather complex phenomenon. Hopefully, the liberties that have been taken are justified by the intention of trying to synopsize the history of religious life in such a way as to make some tentative insights more easily accessible to someone who is not a professional historian. Similarly, the breaks between the successive periods in the life cycle of a religious community are nowhere near as clear-cut as the proposed sociological model suggests. In .history, breakdowns sometimes occur within one order in different geographical locales at different times. Revitalizations often occur in some places for an order, while it decays elsewhere. At times 708 / Review for Religious, Volume 34, 1975/5 there are orders in which the role of the founding person is rather minor and does not have the decisiveness described in the model. Some communities have been founded in rather modest historical circumstances that were not accom-panied by the profound inspiration described in the model. These and similar qualifications must be kept in mind when the sociological model is used to in-terpret the life cycle of any particular community. B. Generalizations The models presented in the previous sections suggest some generalized conclusions. These conclusions can be helpful in exploring the present crisis of religious life. The historical evidence suggests that there have been significant shifts in the dominant image of religious life across the centuries. These shifts seem to occur when there are major societal changes astir and when the Church is un-dergoing major changes. The first transition happened as the Roman Empire fell in the West and feudal Europe was beginning; at the same time the rift between western and eastern Christianity was starting. The second transition occurred as feudal Europe was giving way to medieval urbanization and as the Church was gathering all of Europe into the unity of Christendom. The third transition took place at the start of the modern period of Western Civilization as the Church underwent the shock of the Reformation. The fourth transition resulted from a direct attack of society on the Church as a whole and on religious life in particular. Admittedly each of these changes in the culture and the Church differed from one another in many respects. However, the pattern seems clear enough at least to permit one to ask whether perhaps another shift in the dominant image of religious life would happen if major changes in society and the Church should come to pass. Although religious communities have been founded in almost every cen-tury of Christian history, it seems that each major shift in the dominant image of religious life is heralded by some significantly new foundations which em-body a new image in an especially striking way. This could be said of the earliest Benedictine monasteries for the first transition, of the Franciscans and Dominicans for the second transition, of the Jesuits for the third transition, and of the plethora of 19th century foundations for the fourth transition. It also seems to be the case that many communities go out of existence at each transition. Those that survive either continue in a diminished form or somehow blend the new dominant image with the charism of their own foun-dation to get another lease on life. The mendicant orders, for example, grew numerically stronger during the Era of Apostolic Orders as they adapted their own special gifts to the new style of religious life. The culture of the high Mid-dle Ages was rapidly and irretrievably passing away, but the mendicants adapted and flourished. One might ask, then, if the Church would witness the death of many religious communities and the foundation of new and different ones if a shift in the dominant image of religious life were to occur. The remainder of this article will explore the plausibility of maintaining that The Recovery of Religious Life / 709 another major transition has in fact begun in the history of religious life. Should this hypothesis be true, it would be appropriate to pose questions about h6w religious life is dying and how a recovery and revitalization might happen. Another observation that suggests itself from this brief survey concerns the continuity that underlies the shifts of the dominant image of religious life. As the image evolves it continues to hold up the impelling ideal of a radical following of the conditions set forth by Christ for an evangelical discipleship embedded in a life of prayer and deep faith. While the contemporary religious would probably not feel called to take on the externals of the life of the Desert Fathers, he or she will surely understand and be drawn to the stark beauty of the life of radical discipleship that moved Anthony to withdraw into the desert. Similar remarks could probably be made about the ultimate aims of the first Franciscans and the first rugged band of Jesuits. Through all the twists and turns in the make up and style of religious life, there is a deep core of seeking union with Christ in a special and total way that endures century after century. A great deal of historical precedent would have to be explained away by anyone who would wish to maintain that religious life is about to disappear as a separate and distinguishable way of life in the Church. The historical pattern seems to be one of repeated recovery. The present moment is indeed a time of trouble for religious communities, but religious life as a whole will doubtlessly survive. Turning to the sociological model, some further generalizations can be made. In the evolution of a religious community the non-rational elements of transforming experience, vision, and myth play a central role. This is es-pecially true during the periods of foundation and revitalization. Although necessary for each period in the life-cycle of a community, the techniques of rationality (long-range planning, leadership training, etc.) will never be suf-ficient to found a religious community or to revitalize one. The renewed vitality that comes to some religious communities during the time of transition finds its source in plumbing the depths of.the mythic and non-rational and in-tegrating them with the more rational dimensions of human life. A central insight of the myth of original sin is that humankind is not capable of sustained development; breakdown and disintegration are ever-recurring manifestations of the human condition. Since religious men and women exist within the human condition, it should not be surprising that, from time to time, all religious communities experience an extensive period of significant breakdown and disintegration. These bleak realities should be em-braced with humble acceptance of th~ human condition and a faith-filled hope that the Lord will in time resurrect life-giving initiatives from the death-dealing processes of breakdown. V. Where Does Religious Life Stand Today? In the previous sections of this article, the history of the religious-life movement in the Church and of particular religious communities was ex-amined to determine the major factors within culture, the Church, and 710 / Review for Religious, Volume 34, 1975/5 religious communities themselves that significantly influence the evolution of this movement. Generalizations from the proposed models indicate that major. transitions are likely to occur in religious life when secular culture is in the midst of a major crisis, and when religious life has experienced a period of major breakdown. The factors can serve as a useful matrix for answering the question, "Where does religious life stand today?" As was mentioned in the in-troduction, the answer proposed in this article is that religious life is undergo-ing a pervasive transition that will last for the next twenty to twenty-five years and which will significantly change the style of life and service of religious communities. The plausibility of this assertion is developed in this section. A. Signs of Transition in Secular Culture Many writers have noted that contemporary culture is in the midst of a societal transition. Some compare the present time to the Renaissance. Others claim that the present multifaceted change is equal to if not greater in magnitude than the agricultural and industrial revolutions. Many strands of societal transition have been pointed out. Spiritual, intellectual, philosophical, psychological, political, economic, and many other crises in society have been described by writers from a wide range of disciplines. For the purposes of this article, a cluster of these difficulties, which might be broadly termed the socio-economic crisis, will be summarized below as a sample of the sort of comment on contemporary society being made today. Catastrophic events and critical trends are continually reported by the news media. These reports range from widespread famine in the Sahel and South Asia to the continued downward spiral of the national economy. Careful analysts and writers have noted that these events and trends are a manifestation of the parallel growth of a set of interrelated critical issues which they have designated as the "world problematique.''7 A list of the critical issues that make up the "world problematique" would include: Energy Problems: Runaway growth in domestic and worldwide use of energy; shortages and scarcity of energy; insufficient capital resources to develop new energy sources. Food Problems: Food supply unable to meet the demand for food; worsening of weather conditions through pollution; increasing food prices due to food scarcity and increasing cost and consumption of energy; deterioration of arable land through increased urbaniza-tion and ecological undermining; actual widespread famine; potential long term problems of hunger and famine. Pollution Problems: Rise of pollution-induced illness; exponential increhse in the pollu-tion of the air and seas; denuding of natural environment through strip mining. 7.Some sources used to examine the "world problematique" were Kenneth E. F. Watt, The Titanic Effect: Planning for the Unthinkable (Stanford, Conn.: Sinauer Associates, Inc.); Donella H. Meadows, et al., The Limits to Growth (Washington: Potomac Associates, 1972); Mihajlo Mesarovic and Eduard Pestel, Mankind at the Turning Point (New York: Reader's Digest Press, 1974); Lester R. Brown, In the Human Interest (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974); and Lester R. Brown with Eric P. Eckholm, By Bread Alone (New York: Praeger, 1974). The Recovery of Religious Life / 711 Economic Problems: Growing world inflation; market saturation (e.g. airplanes, elec-tronic equipment, automobiles); instability and manipulation of monetary system, lack of alternatives to growth economics; increasing gap between the "have's" and the "have not's." Work Problems: Increasing unemployment and underemployment; saturation of the labor market; decreased productivity; increasing alienation and dissatisfaction with work; depersonalization of work environments. Problems of Urban Areas: Deterioration of urban areas; increasing crime rates; in-creasing cost of essential urban services. Problems of International Order." Hazards of international competition and war; com-petitive economic policies. What makes the "world problematique" different from problems en-countered in previous eras is its complexity and the pervasive interrelationship of its elements. Hence, the "world problematique" is not amenable to normal methods of problem solving. Attempts to address such critical issues in a singular or joint fashion introduce fundamental dilemmas that do not appear resolvable within conventional modes of thought. Among such dilemmas which seem to be plaguing the contemporary politico-economic situation, four might be singled out: the dilemmas of growth, guidance, global justice, and social roles.8 These dilemmas are delineated more fully in Table 6. One may ask if these problems and dilemmas have not been present during most of the Industrial Era. Are not the problems of the 20's and 30's very much the same as those of the 70's and 80's? What makes the above mentioned problems and dilemmas different is that they have not been ameliorated through the use of conventional wisdom and standard problem-solving ap-proaches. In fact, one may argue that application of these approaches has led to many unanticipated and undesirable consequences. Resolution of the problems and dilemmas is dependent upon a thorough-going shift in social perceptions, involving restructuring of beliefs, images, and human aspirations at a fundamental level. B. Crisis in the Church and the Breakdown in Religious Life The Catholic Church in America has been profoundly influenced by con-temporary change. For at least fifteen years the Church has been experiencing a transition of its life. The Second Vatican Council (1962-1964) was a result of the early stages of this transition and a triggering event for its later stages. The Church began to open itself to a world which was undergoing a dramatic secularization. This opening up or aggiornamento had significant impact on all dimensions of Church life. Parish life and parochial education are no longer the only shapers of the values and beliefs of American Catholics. The once-clear norms and social roles ~vithin the Church no longer seem to serve their original purpose. For example, the Vatican's official position on birth 8The schematization presented in Table 6 is based on the work of Bill Harmon, Director of the Center for the Study of Social Policy, Stanford Research Institute. 712 / Review for Religious, I~'olume 34, 1975/5 TABLE 6: SOME DILEMMAS OF CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY Growth The fundamental "new scarcity" of fossil fuels, minerals, fresh water, arable land, habitable surface area, waste-absorbing capacity of the natural environment, fresh air, and food come from approaching the finite limits of the earth. These limits demand a radical slow down or leveling off in material.growth and energy-use curves of the past.' Yet, the present economic and political system is built around a growth hypothesis. The economic and political consequences of limiting growth appear unbearable. Guidance Dilemma Ecological considerations along with awesome power of modern technology to change any and all aspects of the human environment establish a mandate for greater guidance of technological and social innovation. Yet, the political price of such guidance is very high. Such guidance is perceived as con-trary to man's fundamental right to freedom and as an inhibition to economic growth. Global Justice Dilemma Further advances by the industrialized nations make the rich nations richer and the poor nations relatively poorer. The impressive ac-complishments of the industrial economy are largely built on a base of cleverness plus cheap energy, the latter from the world's limited stockpile of fossil fuels. Yet, the costs of not redressing these inequities may be serious political and economic world instabilities as well as widespread famine and inhuman suffering in the poorer nations. Social Roles Dilemma Present economic system is failing to provide Yet, the absence of satisfying and personally an adequate number of satisfying social roles meaningful roles for women, youth, the especially for women and minorities. The aged, and minorities along with worker employment market is saturated; there is a dissatisfaction in general results in in-need to keep youth and the aged out of the creased I~ersonal alienation and erodes labor market, the morale of the nation. control is considered unacceptableto an increasingly large number of Catholics. Difficulties are arising in the functioning of such Church structures as the priesthood and the traditional role of the laity and of such Church institutions as parishes, schoo|s, and hospitals. Their once-unquestioned role within the Church no longer seems to satisfy the needs of an increasingly large number of church members. This crisis and transition within the Church has had a dramatic effect on religious communities of women and men. Religious communities have begun to experience all of the signs of entering into the breakdown and disintegration period described earlier in this article. There has been a sharp decline in membership due to increased withdrawals and a decrease in new recruits. Re- The Recovery of Religious Life / 713 cent literature9 gives a statistical picture of this breakdown in the United States. - A recent National Opinion Research Center study indicated there is a larger relative number of resignees among those already established in church careers than in any other equivalent period of time since the French Revolution. - For the years between 1965 and 1972 66% of the yearly decrease in communities of religious women was due to dispensation or termination of vows. In communities of religious women the average annual net increase over these years was approximately 768 members, the average annual net decrease was 3841, with only one-third of that loss caused by deaths. - The total number of Sisters in 1974 had declined 17% from 1960 and 23% since their peak membership year in 1966. - The total number of religious Brothers in 1974 had decreased 12% since 1960 and 26.5% since their peak membership year in 1966. The purposes of religious communities which were once clear and widely understood have become vague and meaningless to some in the midst of the modern church crisis. The structures of authority and process of communica-tion and decision making within religious communities seem no longer to fit the needs of the individuals within the community or suit the evolving work of the communities. The processes of formation to religious community have sometimes become disorganized and seem to lack purpose. These and other signs indicate that the last fifteen to twenty years have been a time when most religious com-munities have begun to experience breakdown. This cluster of the signs of breakdown in virtually all communities seems to indicate that we are ap-proaching the end of another major era in the history of religious life. C. Restatement of the Bias This review of the transitions in secular culture as well as the current crisis of the Church allows us to use the historical and sociological models of the evolution of religious life and religious communities outlined in the previous sections to answer the question "Where does religious life stand today?" In the introduction of this article, an answer was given in what was called the fun-damental bias of the article, namely, that religious life in America is undergo-ing a profound transition, which will take another twenty or twenty-five years to run its full course. The arguments leading up to this bias can be set forth as follows: 1. The dominant image of religious life has undergone several major tran-sitions as religious life has evolved as a movement within the Church. 2. The occurrence of these major transitions is associated with a number 9Carroll W. Trageson and Pat Holden, "Existence and Analysis of the 'Vocation Crisis' in Religious Careers," (pp. 1-3) in Carroll W. Trageson, John P. Koval, and Willis E. Bartlett (eds.), Report on Study of Church Vo
VON TANNENBERG BIS HELLINGFORS. POLEN. RUMÄNIEN. VON DEN KARPATHEN ZUM KAUKASUS. DIE SERBISCHE-MAZEDONISCHE FRONT. ITALIENFRONT. DER ORIENT Die unsterbliche Landschaft (-) Von Tannenberg bis Hellingfors. Polen. Rumänien. Von den Karpathen zum Kaukasus. Die serbische-mazedonische Front. Italienfront. Der Orient (I. / 1935) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ( - ) Impressum ( - ) Von Tannenberg bis Helfingfors ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Ostpreußen (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Wahrzeichen des deutschen Ostens, die Marienburg, im 14. Jahrhundert als Sitz des Hochmeisters erbaut. (2)Landschaft aus dem nördlichen Ostpreußen, Gegend Gumbinnen, dem Schauplatz der ersten Kämpfe an der Ostfront. (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schloß und Dom Marienwerder. (2)Das Ordensschloß Heilsberg. - Beide Burgen wurden bereits um die Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts erbaut. (2) [2 Abb.]: Das mit ausgedehnten Wäldern bedeckte Seengebiet im Süden und Südosten des Landes wurde der Schauplatz der großen Schlachten in Ostpreußen. (3) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ostpreußisches Dorf. (2)Auch in der Landeshauptstadt Königsberg erinnert der 1333 ursprünglich als Wehrkirche erbaute Dom an die große Kampfzeit des Ordens. (4) Der Russeneinfall / Tannenberg (5) [2 Abb.]: Alarm! (5) [3 Abb.]: Die nach Westen führenden Straßen waren bedeckt mit Flüchtlingen, die ihr Vieh und auf hochbeladenen Wagen ihre bewegliche Habe mit sich führten. (6) [2 Abb.]: Ostpreußen sollte geräumt werden! Die Truppen traten den Rückmarsch zur Weichsel an. (7) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hindenburg beobachtet auf dem Schlachtfelde den Verlauf des Gefechts. Hinter ihm Ludendorff und der Oberstleutnant Hoffmann. (2)"Im Kampf für deutsches Wesen, deutsches Recht starb hier der Hochmeister Ulrich von Jungingen am 15. Juli 1410 den Heldentod." - Denkstein zur Erinnerung an die Schlacht von Tannenberg im Jahre 1410. Die vernichtende Niederlage des Ordensheeres brachte den deutschen Osten für Jahrhunderte unter slawische Herrschaft. (8) [3 Abb.]: (1)Die alte Dorfkirche von Tannenberg. In ihrer Nähe weilte Hindenburg mit seinem Stabe am 24. Juli 1914. (2)Besuch Hindenburgs auf dem Gefechtsstande des Generalkommandos des XX. Armeekorps, das sich mehrere Tage lang allein des russischen Ansturms zu erwehren hatte, bis auf beiden Flügeln die Umfassung der russischen Front wirksam wurde. (3)Truppenverbandplatz in der Nähe Tannenbergs. (9) [Abb.]: Zerstörte Kirche in Soldau. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)Neidenburg. Das Ordensschloß selbst blieb wie durch ein Wunder fast unversehrt. (2)Wo blühende Gehöfte standen, ragten jetzt nur noch die Schornsteine aus den Trümmern. (11) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Bauer kehrte zum Hof zurück (2)Der Handwerker nahm seine Arbeit wieder auf. (12) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im zerstörten Ortelsburg wurde zwischen zerschossenen Häusern wieder Markt abgehalten. (2)Russische Gefangene halfen unter Aufsicht deutscher Soldaten beim Wiederaufbau der zerstörten Dörfer. (13) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lyck wurde in dieser Zeit halb zerstört. (2)An der mit größter Beschleunigung befestigten masurischen Seenkette beiderseits Lötzen brach sich der russische Ansturm. Die Stadt selbst entging so der Zerstörung. (14) [2 Abb.]: (1)Etagenförmig gebaute Unterstände vor Lötzen, in denen die Russen im Winter 1914/15 hausten. (2)Ein von den Russen zur Verteidigung eingerichtetes Gehöft. (15) Die Winterschlacht in Masuren (16) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die größten Schwierigkeiten bereitete die Nachführung von Munition und Proviant. Tausende Schlitten waren vorsorglich bereitgesetellt. (2)Feldbäckereikolonne auf dem Marktplatz in Pillkallen vor dem Ausmarsch (16) [2 Abb.]: Auf verschneiten Wegen begann im Norden über Stallupönen, im Süden über Johannisburg der Vormarsch. (17) [Abb.]: Zum zweiten Male wurden die Russen aus dem Lande gejagt. - Ostpreußen war endgültig frei! (18) [2 Abb.]: Rastlos ging die Verfolgung durch Schnee und Eis weiter. Wieder, wie bei Tannenberg, nahmen die beiden deutschen Flügeltruppen die auf Grodno zurückflutenden russischen Massen (in doppelseitiger Umfassung) in die Zange. In den Wäldern von Augustow und Suwalki wurden sie umzingelt und gefangengenommen. (19) [2 Abb.]: In Augustow und in Suwalki strömten ungezählte Tausende von Gefangenen zusammen. (20) [2 Abb.]: (1)In die Gefangenschaft (2)Nach der Schlacht im Augustower Forst. (21) [2 Abb.]: (1)Straße im zerstörten Gerdauen. Im Hintergrund die im 15. Jahrhundert erbaute Pfarrkirche. (2)Dieselbe Straße nach dem Wiederaufbau, vom gleichen Standort aus aufgenommen. (22) Der Feldzug nach Litauen (23) [3 Abb.]: (1)In frischem Draufgehen jagten die deutschen Reiter den schwachen Feind vor sich her. (2)Es öffnet sich das weite Land. (3)Durch die nachfolgende Infanterie wurde der Anschein erweckt, daß hier, im äußersten Norden, eine große deutsche Offensive geplant sei. (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bauerngehöft in Litauen, aus Holz gebaut und mit Stroh gedeckt. (2)Litauische Bauern in ihrer charakteristischen Tracht. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Litauische Landstadt: Hauptstraße in Rossijeni. Bezeichnend ist die holprige Straßenpflasterung und der Bürgersteig mit Holzbelag. Wie fremdartig wirkt dieses Straßenbild im Vergleich mit dem in Ostpreußen und Kurland! (2)Litauische Juden, die vielfach noch streng an ihren alten Trachten festhalten. Sie bilden einen hohen Prozentsatz der polnisch-litauischen städtischen Bevölkerung. (25) [2 Abb.]: Gefechtsbilder aus Schaulen. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Bevölkerung war nur schwer zu bewegen, die brennende Stadt Schaulen zu verlassen. (2)Schließlich wurde die Stadt aufgegeben. - Doch das Täuschungsmanöver war geglückt. (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick über Stadt und Hafen Libau. (2)Mächtige Steindämme schützen den künstlich ins Meer hinausgebaute Hafen. (28) Der Feldzug nach Kurland im Sommer und Herbst 1915 (29) [2 Abb.]: Baltische Landschaft. Der starke Einfluß deutscher Kultur tritt in der Bauart der Dörfer Kirchen und Gutshäuser und in der Bewirtschaftung des Bodens deutlich zutage, wenn auch die Deutschen nur eine dünne Oberschicht der Gesamtbevölkerung bildeten. (29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mitau. Das Stadtbild ähnelt durchaus dem einer kleinen deutschen Residenz. Mitau war der kulturelle Mittelpunkt der deutsch-baltischen Bevölkerung Kurlands. (2)Bis zur äußersten nördlichen Spitze Kurlands drangen die deutschen Truppen vor: Der zerstörte Leuchtturm von Domesnäs. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Langrohrgeschütz in den Wäldern vor Riga. (2)Landschaftsbild von der Dünafront. Die deutschen Stellungen lagen auf dem niedrigeren linken Ufer. (31) Die Eroberung Rigas im September 1917 (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Brückenschlag bei Uexküll südlich Riga. (2)Übergang über die Düna auf einer Pontonbrücke. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nach kurzem schweren Kampf gaben die Russen Riga preis. Über die gesprengte Eisenbahnbrücke machierten deutsche Truppen in die Stadt ein. (2)Riga, nach Petersburg die bedeutendste Stadt an der russischen Ostseeküste, zugleich die Hauptstadt des Baltentums. Blick auf Stadt und Düna. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vor der Rigaer Petrikirche. (2)Das "Schwarzhäupterhaus" in Riga, eines der ältesten Gebäude der Stadt, Gildehaus der Rigaer Kaufmannschaft. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Küstenbatterie in Dünamünde, nördlich Riga. (2)Russische Waldstellungen im Jakobstadter Brückenkopf, der wenige Wochen später erstürmt wurde. (35) Die Besetzung von Ösel (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Transportflotte im Libauer Hafen. (2)Infanterie geht an Bord. (36) [3 Abb.]: (1)Erkundungsfahrt eines Zeppelinluftschiffes. (2)Verladen der Pferde. (3)Während der Überfahrt. (37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Anlandbringen der Infanterie. (2)In großen Kisten werden die Pferde von Bord gelassen und auf Prahmen an Land befördert. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)An der Landungsstelle. (2)Das alte Ordensschloß Arensburg auf Ösel. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eroberte Küstenbatterie größten Kalibers bei Kuivast auf der Insel Moon. (2)Das Wrack des zwischen der Insel Moon und dem estländischen Festland in Brand geschossenen russischen Panzerkreuzers "Slawa". (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Uralte Holzkirche skandinavischen Charakters auf der von nur wenigen Fischerfamilien schwedischer Abkunft bewohnten Insel. (2)Auch die Tracht der Bewohner der einsamen Insel erinnert an ihre skandinavische Herkunft. (41) Der Feldzug nach Livland im Februar und März 1918 (42) [2 Abb.]: Auf dem Vormarsch nach Dorpat. (42) [3 Abb.]: Kämpfe mit Bolschewistenbanden in der Gegend von Dorpat. (43) [3 Abb.]: (1)Das estnische Reval am finnischen Meerbusen gelegen, war neben Petersburg und Riga eine der wichtigsten Handels- und Hafenstädte an der russischen Ostseeküste. - Alte Stadtbefestigung und St. Olaikirche. (2)Narwa, zwischen Peipussee und finnischem Meerbusen, spielte als Festung in den Kämpfen des Deutschen Ordens und der Schweden und Russen eine wichtige Rolle. Im Weltkrieg endet hier der deutsche Vormarsch. - Blick von Narwa auf die alten ehemaligen Festungswerke. (3)Dorpat, der geistige Mittelpunkt Livlands, war seit alters her eine Hochburg deutscher Wissenschaft. - Blick über den Embach auf den Kaufhof, das Rathaus und die Universität am Fuße des Domberges (44) Nach Finnland (45) [3 Abb.]: (1)Vereiste Minensuchboote. (2)Die frühe Jahreszeit erschwert die Landung. - Im Packeis vor dem Hafen Hangö. (3)Die deutsche Transportflotte im Landungshafen Hangö. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Beschleunigung des Vormarsches durch Benutzung von Draisinen. (2)Die finnischen Freischärler übten schnelle Justiz: Standrechtliche Erschießungen von aufgegriffenen Rotgardisten. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bayrische Gebirgsartillerie im Kampf mit Rotgardisten. (2)Bei Lathi und Tavastehus erreichte die roten Truppen ihr Schicksal. Sie wurden von den deutschen und finnischen Truppen umzingelt und gefangengenommen. - Gefangenenlager bei Lathi. (47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der finnländische General von Mannerheim dankt den deutschen Truppen für die treue Waffenhilfe. (2) (48) [4 Karten]: (1)Umgebung v. Danzig (2)Königsberg (3)Ostpreussen (4)Baltische Staaten ( - ) Polen ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Der Feldzug im südwestlichen Polen, Herbst 1914 (1) [Abb]: Südpolnische Landschaft in der Gegend von Kielce, halbwegs zwischen Kattowitz und Iwangorod, an den nördlichen Ausläufern der Lysa Gora. Das Gelände ist hier hügelig und auf weite Strecken stark bewaldet. - Die deutschen Truppen marschierten bei schlechtem Oktoberwetter und hatten unter dem ungünstigen Zustand der Wege sehr zu leiden. (1) [2 Abb]: (1)Polnische Landschaft. - Auf schlechten Wegen marschierten die Deutschen in Gewaltmärschen auf Iwangorod und Warschau. (2)Czenstochau. Blick von dem berühmten Kloster der "Schwarzen Mutter Gottes" auf die Stadt. (2) [2 Abb]: (1)Endlose Züge flüchtender Bauern, die ihre ärmliche Habe auf ihren Wagen mit sich führten, bedeckten die Straßen. (2)Sie fanden ihre Dörfer bei der Heimkehr oft genug als Trümmerstätten wieder. (3) [Abb]: Durchmarsch österreichischer Truppen durch Radom. Zwischen Radom und Iwangorod spielten sich schwere Kämpfe ab. (4) [2 Abb.]: (1)Weiter nördlich gelangten die deutschen Divisionen bis nahe an die Fortlinie von Warschau heran. Um bei dem trostlosen Zustand der Wege den Vormarsch zu beschleunigen, benutzte die Truppe, wo es irgend möglich war, die Bahndämme. (2)Rastendes Kavallerieregiment. - Die Industriegebiete Südpolens waren für Kavallerieverwendung meist sehr ungünstig. (5) Die Kämpfe in Westpolen (6 - 7) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lodz, die größte Industriestadt Polens, liegt mit ihrem Wald von Fabrikschornsteinen breit gelagert in der polnischen Ebene. Der rechte Flügel der russischen Angriffsgruppe wurde im Raum von Lodz durch den deutschen Gegenstoß völlig umfaßt und schien verloren. (2)Durch russische Verstärkungen, die aus Warschau herbeieilten, trat die Wendung der Schlacht ein. Der deutsche Umfassungsflügel. jetzt selbst umzingelt, mußte sich bei Brzeziny durch die Russen durchschlagen. - Das Gelände am Südrand von Brzeziny. (6 - 7) [2 Abb.]: (1)Während der Schlacht von Lodz. - In den erbitterten Kämpfen gingen zahlreiche polnische Ortschaften in Flammen auf. (2)Deutsche Bagagen in einem Jagdschloß in der Nähe von Lowicz. (8) [2 Abb.]: (1)Sochaczew, eine Stadt an der Bzura, die wiederholt im Brennpunkt schwerer Kämpfe stand. Sie wurde während der Operationen von Lodz und in den anschließenden Stellungskämpfen im Winter 1914/15 zum großen Teil zerstört. (2)Rawa, südlich von Skierniewice. Im Vordergrund die Ruine einer alten polnischen Burg. (9) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Stellungen an der Bzura. Der durch die Flußniederung führende Weg ist mit Bohlen belegt. Es war dies in dem an Steinen armen Land oft die einzige Möglichkeit, die Wege in einen kriegsbrauchbaren Zustand zu bringen. (2)Brückenkopfstellung auf dem Ostufer der Bzura, die durch einen Brückensteg mit dem diesseitigen Ufer verbunden ist. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Stellungen am hohen Uferrand der Rawka. Sie hatten durch ihre Lage eine außerordentliche Widerstandskraft. (2)Gestürmter russischer Graben mit Gräben gefallener Russen, kenntlich gemacht durch Russenmütze und Heiligenbild. (11) [3 Abb.]: (1)Russische Massengräber an der Rawka, ein in seiner schlichten Einfachheit erschütterndes Bild, das Zeugnis ablegt für die Schwere der Kämpfe an der Bzura und Rawka. (2)Die deutschen Kriegerfriedhöfe redeten eine andere Sprache. Sie wurden mit größter Sorgfalt und Liebe gepflegt. (3)Nach dem Sturm. - Die Verluste der Russen, die sich meist mit großer Zähigkeit schlugen, waren oft ungewöhnlich schwer. (12 - 13) Das nördliche Polen (14) [2 Abb.]: (1)Prasznysz. - Bis hierher fließen wiederholt die deutschen Truppen vor, um das südliche Ostpreußen zu decken. (2)Verbranntes Dorf südlich Mlawa. Nur die aus Stein gemauerten Essen ragen aus den Schutthaufen noch empor. (14) [2 Abb.]: (1)Landschaftsbild an der Strwa, nördlich Plozk. (2)Russische Winterhütten. Die russischen Unterstände bestanden in der ersten Zeit nur aus ganz primitiven Erdhöhlen. (15) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die polnischen Bauerngehöfte befinden sich auf einer wesentlich niedrigeren Kulturstufe als die benachbarten deutschen. (2)Kirchgang. - Ebenso wie die meisten Häuser, sind auch die Kirchen in den polnischen Dörfern häufig aus Holz gebaut. (16) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bauernstube. Das Bild zeigt die primitive Wohnkultur des polnischen Bauern und die Dürftigkeit seines Hausrats. (2)Keine polnische Stadt ist ohne die Juden zu denken. Oft bilden sie ein Drittel, ja die Hälfte der Gesamtbevölkerung. (17) Sommeroffensive 1915 - Die Kämpfe am Narew. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das kleine polnische Städtchen Makow nördlich des Narew (südöstlich Prasznysz) nach der Besetzung durch die Deutschen. (2)Deutsche Fuhrparkkolonnen überschreiten auf rasch wiederhergestellter Brücke und Zufahrtstraße den Narew bei Roshan. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Narewlandschaft. (2)Der Marktplatz der kleinen Narewfestung Pultusk. Die Stadt hatte durch die Kämpfe nur wenig gelitten. (19) Der Kampf um Warschau - Iwangorod (20 - 21) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Weichselübergang bei Ryczywol zwischen Iwangorod und Warschau. (2)Vor Iwangorod: zerstörte Brücken und gewaltige Explosionen und Brände kündigten den nahenden Deutschen die kampflose Preisgabe der Festung an. (3)Weiter östlich befanden sich deutsche Truppen bereits im Vormarsch in Richtung Brest-Litowsk. - Deutsche Kavallerie überschreitet westlich Cholm den Bug. (20 - 21) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine der beim Abzug der Russen zerstörten Weichselbrücken in Warschau. (2)Rastlos wurde die Verfolgung fortgesetzt. Der Bau von Kriegsbrücken vollzog sich in wenigen Stunden. (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)deutscher Wachtposten vor der Warschauer Zitadelle. (2)Blick vom Warschauer Weichselfort auf die Eisenbahnbrücke und die Straßenbrücke. Ihre Erneuerung kostete viel Zeit. (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Unter lebhafter Anteilnahme der Bevölkerung zogen die deutschen Truppen am 6. August in das geräumte Warschau ein. (2)Deutsche Soldaten vor einem der gesprengten Warschauer Forts am Morgen der Einnahme. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Prinz Leopold von Bayern nimmt vor der russischen Kathedrale in Warschau die Parade der deutschen Truppen ab. (2)Der Schloßplatz in Warschau. rechts das alte polnische Königsschloß, in dem während des Krieges das deutsche Generalgouvernement seinen Sitz hatte. Links das Denkmal des Königs Sigismund III. (25) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf die Nordostfront von Nowogeorgiewsk. Das Bild ist vom Nordufer des Narew in der Nähe der Wkramündung aufgenommen. (2)Abtransport gefangener Russen aus der Zitadelle, nach Übergabe der Festung. Im Hintergrund ausgebrannte Kasernen. (3)Blick von der Betonbrustwehr eines Forts in das völlig offene, für einen Infanteriekampf schwierige Vorgelände. (26 - 27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Grabenstreiche eines Werkes der Nordostfront. Nowogeorgiewsk war, wie das Bild zeigt, ganz modern ausgebaut. (2)Zerstörte russische Batterie im Zwischengelände zwischen den Forts. Die deutsche Artillerie hatte glänzend gewirkt. (28) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vernichtende Wirkung schwerster deutscher und österreichischer Geschütze auf ein neuzeitliches russisches Betonwerk. (2)Ein völlig zerstörtes Werk. Der Panzerbeobachtungsturm ist aus dem Beton herausgerissen und beiseite geschleudert. (29) An der Njemenfront. (30 - 31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die in der Sumpfniederung des Bobr liegende, fast unangreifbare Festung Osowiec mußte sich, durch den Vormarsch südlich des Narew im Rücken bedroht, im August ergeben. (2)Njemenlandschaft. Blick auf Olita, eine kleinere Sperrbefestigung zwischen Rowno und Grodno. (30 - 31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fliegeraufnahme der Stadt Grodno. Grodno war neben Nowogeorgiewsk und Rowno die modernste Festung Rußlands. (2)Die Zerstörung der auf mächtigen Pfeilern ruhenden Eisenbahnbrücke konnte zwar nicht den Vormarsch aufhalten, erschwerte aber den Nachschub ungemein. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)An Stelle der zerstörten Eisenbahnbrücke wurde zunächst eine hölzerne Ersatzbrücke über den Njemen gebaut; sie bildete ein Ruhmesblatt der deutschen Eisenbahnkompanien. Die Brücke führte in 32 Meter Höhe über den Fluß. (2)Von den Russen gesprengte Betonbrustwehr in einem grodnoer Fort. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Rowno, die Hauptstadt Litauens, das den nördlichen Eckpfeiler des russischen Festungssystems an der Weichsel und am Bobr-Narew bildete. Es wurde am 17. und 18. August nach kurzer Beschießung aus schwerstem Geschütz gestürmt. (2)Das Njemental bei Rowno mit der gesprengten Eisenbahnbrücke. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Älteres Rownoer Fort. Ein Treffer aus schwerstem Geschütz hat hier genügt, um das Mauerwerk in Trümmer zu schlagen. (2)Rowno hat im Krieg Napoleons gegen Rußland im Sommer 1812 eine wichtige Rolle gespielt. Von hier aus trat der französische Kaiser den Vormarsch gegen Rußland an. Nur Trümmer seines Heeres kehrten im Winter auf Rowno zurück. Zur Erinnerung hat man auf dem Marktplatz eine gußeiserne Pyramide aufgestellt. - Im Hintergrund das Rathaus, dessen weißer spitzer Turm das Stadtbild überragt. (35) Die Verfolgung durch Polen und Litauen im Herbst 1915 (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Wilna; neben Riga und Warschau der bedeutendste Ort Westrußlands. Die an den Ufern der Wilija und Wileika schön gelegene Stadt ist im Stellungskrieg 1916-18 unzähligen deutschen Soldaten als Hauptetappenort bekannt geworden. (2)Wilna ist berühmt durch seine Kirchen. - Die orthodoxe Hauptkirche, ein gutes Beispiel moderner russischer Kirchenbaukunst. (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die St. Annenkirche, eins der schönsten Bauwerke auf polnisch-litauischem Boden, und die Bernhardinerkirche. (2)Die Ostrabrama, mit einem wundertätigen Muttergottesbild, über einem Straßendurchgang gelegen, genießt in Wilna ganz besondere Verehrung. Zu jeder Tageszeit sieht man vor ihr die Gläubigen auf dem Straßenpflaster knien. (37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bialystok ist mit seiner überwiegend jüdisch-proletarischen Bevölkerung der unerfreulichste Typ polnischer Mittelstädte. (2)Straßenleben in Bialystok. Gemüsemarkt. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Urwald von Bialowies. Der ungeheure Waldkomplex war Jagdgebiet des Zaren. Er enthielt selten gewordene Wildarten. - Die unerschöpflichen Holzvorräte dienten in den Jahren 1915-1918 den Bedürfnissen der deutschen Kampffront. (2)Zahllose Holzflöße fanden auf dem Njemen, der schon im Frieden eine wichtige Transportstraße für die Holzausfuhr Polens war, den Weg auch nach Deutschland. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das von den Russen vor ihrem Abzug in Brand gesteckte und von einem Teil der Einwohner verlassene Brest-Litowsk. (2)Vor den brennenden Lagerräumen der Zitadelle von Brest-Litowsk. Deutsche Soldaten retten die bedrohten Vorräte. (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Südtor der Zitadelle, die dem Oberbefehlshaber Ost bis zum Ende des Krieges als Hauptquartier gedient hat. (2)Im Winter 1917/18 wurde Brest-Litowsk weltberühmt durch die dort stattfindenden Friedensverhandlungen zwischen den Mittelmächten und Sowjetrußland. - General Hoffmann im Gespräch mit Mitgliedern der Friedenskommissionen. (41) Stellungskrieg im Raum Pinsk-Dünaburg 1916 - 1918 (42 - 43) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Blick von Pinsk in die Sumpfebene zwischen dem Pripjet und der Jasiolda. (2)Rokinolandschaft. Auf weiten Strecken genügten für die Bewachung der fast ungangbaren Sümpfe blockhausartige Befestigungsanlagen. (3)Stützpunkt auf einer Sumpfinsel an der Szczara. (42 - 43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Landschaft bei Smorgon. Im Hintergrund sind die zerschossenen Fabrikanlagen der Stadt Smorgon erkennbar. (2)Russischer Stellungskrieg im Winter. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auch außerhalb der Sumpfgebiete mußten die Stellungen oft wegen des hohen Grundwasserstandes aufgesetzt werden. (2)Nach Ausbruch der russischen Revolution im Februar 1917 kam es auf vielen Teilen der Front zu Verhandlungen, häufig auch zu Verbrüderungsszenen von Schützengraben zu Schützengraben zwischen deutschen und russischen Soldaten. (45) Vormarsch in Weißrußland im Frühjahr 1918 (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Minsk, die Hauptstadt Weißrußlands. (2)Unten: Truppenparade in Minsk. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bobruisk, eine veraltete Festung, am Ufer der sumpfigen Beresina, eines Nebenflusses des Dnjepr. (2)Der Dnjepr ermöglicht einen weit ins Innere Rußlands sich verzweigenden Schiffsverkehr. - Schiffsanlegestelle in Bobruisk. (47) [Abb.]: Deutscher Posten an der Demarkationslinie gegen Sowjetrußland im Sommer 1918. Blick über Orscha in die weite russische Ebene. (48) [Karte]: Polen ( - ) Rumänien ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Der Siebenbürger Kreigsschauplatz (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Siebenbürgen, in das vor Jahrhunderten deutsche Bauern aus dem Westen und Süden des Reiches eingewandert sind, hat in zahlreichen Städten und Dörfern bis heute seinen deutschen Charakter bewahrt. - Schäßburg, neben Hermannstadt und Kronstadt ein Mittelpunkt deutschen Lebens und deutscher Kultur. (2)Siebenbürger Landschaft: Blick von der Törzburg in das Burzenland bei Kronstadt. Die Törzburg liegt am Nordeingang des von Kronstadt über die Transylvanischen Alpen nach Campolung und Pitesti führenden gleichnamigen Passes. (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Rosenau, eine der noch vom Deutschen Orden im 13. Jahrhundert errichteten Burgen. Die Bauart der Dorfstraße ist kennzeichnend für die Siebenbürger Sachsendörfer. Die Gehöfte haben eine geringe Straßenfront, die Giebelseite des Wohnhauses liegt nach der Straße zu. Die rundbogenförmige Toreinfahrt führt in den schmalen Wirtschaftshof. (2)Die Kirchen der Sachsendörfer sind mit Ringmauern und Wehrtürmen umgeben. Sie dienten in Kriegszeiten der gesamten Dorfbevölkerung als Zufluchtsort. - Kirchenburg in Tartlau, deren Bau um Anfang des 13. Jahrh. begann. (2) [2 Abb.]: (1)Siebenbürger Dorfanlage: Fliegeraufnahme von Honigberg. Wenige breite Straßen führen zum Mittelpunkt des Dorfes, der Kirche. Auch auf diesem Bild ist die schmale Straßenfront der Gehöfte erkennbar. Die deutschen Ortsteile sind von denen der Ungarn und Rumänen streng geschieden. Sie heben sich durch Stattlichkeit und Behäbigkeit hervor. (2)Das Schloß von Fogaras. Die gewaltigen Mauern und Türme, die das Schloß umschließen, weisen auf die häufigen Einfälle der Mongolen und Türken hin, gegen die sich die Siebenbürger Deutschen und Ungarn schützen mußten. (3) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gebirgslandschaft am Roten-Turm-Paß. Durch dieses Gelände führte die Umgehungsbewegung des deutschen Alpenkorps und der ihm beigegebenen österreichisch-ungarischen Gebirgsformationen in den Rücken der bei Hermannstadt kämpfenden 1. rumänischen Armee. (2)Rundbildaufnahme der Fogaraser Alpen zwischen Hermannstadt und Kronstadt. Das Überschreiten der schroff ansteigenden Gebirgswände war für Truppen mit Kanonen und Trains nur auf den wenigen Paßstraßen möglich, die das Gebirge überqueren. (4 - 5) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ausgeladene deutsche und österreichisch-ungarische Truppen in Versammlung in Gegend Mühlbach, südlich von Karlsburg. (2)Das Kampfgelände bei Heltau, südlich Hermannstadt. Im Hintergrunde die Vorberge der Transylvanischen Alpen. (6) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die ersten rumänischen Gefangenen in der Schlacht bei Hermannstadt. (2)Der Zustand des Schlachtfeldes ließ über die Panik des Rückzuges keinen Zweifel. (7) [2 Abb.]: Oben und unten: Aufstieg des Alpenkorps ins Gebirge. Der Marsch erfolgte unter Zurücklassung aller Fahrzeuge auf Hirtenpfaden, deren Sicherung die Rumänen nicht für nötig gehalten hatten. (8) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Wetter war Ende September im Hochgebirge bereits sehr wechselnd. Zeitweise herrschte schon empfindliche Kälte. (2)Der Rote-Turm-Paß hat seinen Namen nach einem aus der Türkenzeit stammenden, rot angestrichenen mächtigen Turm. Der Paßübergang wird durch das Tal der nördlich der Transylvanischen Alpen entspringenden Aluta gebildet, die das Gebirge quert und dadurch einen ungemein bequemen Verkehrsweg zwischen Ungarn und Rumänien herstellt. (9) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der sächsische Obergespan begrüßt in Anwesenheit des Erzherzogs Karl die in Hermannstadt einziehenden Truppen. (2)Marktplatz mit Rathausturm in Hermannstadt. Die Stadt erweckt durchaus den Eindruck einer deutschen Mittelstadt. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf das malerisch inmitten bewaldeter Höhen gelegene Kronstadt. In der Stadtmitte die berühmte Schwarze Kirche mit ihrem mächtigen Dach, das "am weitesten gegen Südosten vorgeschobene Denkmal germanischer Baukunst in Europa". (2)Die Törzburg, ein von den Kronstädtern im 14. Jahrhundert zur Beherrschung des Gebirgspasses erbautes Kastell. (11) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Geisterwald ist ein bewaldeter Gebirgsausläufer der Fogaraser Alpen zwischen Fogaras und Kronstadt. Die Rumänen versuchten hier vergeblich, den deutschen Vormarsch gegen Kronstadt aufzuhalten. (2)Blick auf das Gefechtsfeld von Kronstadt. Die Aufnahme ist von der Brücke östlich Helsdorf gemacht worden. Kronstadt liegt etwa 3 km südlich vom Standort am Fuße des Gebirges durch die Bäume verdeckt auf der rechten Bildseite. (12 - 13) Der Durchbruch der westlichen Walachei (14 - 15) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Szurdukpaß bildet wegen seiner geringen Steigung neben dem Rotenturmpaß die beste Verbindung zwischen Rumänien und Ungarn. Die Rumänen erwarteten hier keinen ernsten Angriff mehr, nachdem sie in den schweren Kämpfen bei Petrosenv zu Beginn des Feldzuges in diesem Gebiet einige Vorteile errungen hatten. - Das Gefechtsfeld der 9. Armee bei Bumbesti am Südende des Szurdukpasses. Die Straße tritt hier aus dem Hochgebirge. (2)Der Paß verläuft in dem tief eingeschnittenen und engen Tal des nördlich des Gebirges entspringenden Jiuflusses. (3)Gebirgslandschaft aus dem Gebiet des unweit westlich des Szurdukpasses über das Gebirge führenden Vulkanpasses. (14 - 15) [3 Abb.]: (1)Das Gefechtsfeld bei Targu Jiu. (2)Biwakplatz deutscher Truppen auf der Südseite des Szurdukpasses. (3)Verlassene rumänische Stellung im Gebirge. (16 - 17) Der Übergang über die transylvanischen Alpen (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Rumänische Panzertürme im Törzburger Paß. - (2)Unten: Übergang über die Aluta bei Caineni im Rotenturmpaß. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bei Calimanesti am Ausgang des Rotenturmpasses weitet sich das Tal der Aluta und senkt sich zur walachischen Ebene. (2)Blick von Gebirgshöhen in Gegend südlich Kronstadt auf die rumänischen Südhänge der transylvanischen Alpen. (19) [2 Abb.]: (1)Predeal, ein auf der Paßhöhe gelegener Villenort, der in den wochenlangen Kämpfen fast völlig zerstört wurde. (2)Am Südausgang des Predealpasses liegt Sinaja, die Sommerresidenz des rumänischen Königs. Das Schloß in Sinaja. (20) [2 Abb.]: (1)Südlich von Sinaja führt die Paßstraße hinab in das Erdölgebiet von Campina. Der Anblick der zahllosen Bohrtürme und des von schwarzen Öllachen getränkten Bodens war für die aus dem Hochgebirge kommenden Truppen sehr überraschend. - Es dauerte Monate, bis die unbrauchbar gemachten Bohrlöcher wenigstens teilweise wieder ergiebig wurden. (2)Ploesti, südlich Sinaja, wichtiger Bahn- und Straßenknotenpunkt zwischen Kronstadt und Bukarest. Hier durchbrachen im Dezember deutsche Truppen erneut die rumänische Abwehrfront und ermöglichten den Vormarsch auf Buzau und Braila. (21) Die Dobrudscha (22 - 23) [3 Abb.]: (1)Norddobrudschalandschaft: Blick auf das östliche Donauufer bei Cernavoda. (2)Bulgarische Truppe auf dem Vormarsch in der Dobrudscha. (3)Die berühmte Brücke über die Donau bei Cernavoda, eine der größten Kunstbauten der Welt. (22 - 23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben Konstanza. Blick von der Mole auf die Stadt. (2)Unten: Die riesigen Getreidesilos im Hafen. (24) [2 Abb.]: Oben und unten: Konstanza von der Seeseite. - Tagelang waren Stadt und Land weithin durch die brennenden Öltanks in Rauch und Asche gehüllt. Die ungeheure Hitze machte die Einschränkung der Brände unmöglich. (25) Donauübergang und Vormarsch auf Bukarest (26) [Abb.]: Bei dichtem Nebel begann am 23. November der Brückenschlag. Feldmarschall v. Mackensen wohnte dem Übergang selbst bei. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bei Kustschuk wurde später ein zweiter Übergang hergestellt. - Im Vordergrund eine Flotille österreichischer Donaumonitore, die sich an der Bekämpfung der rumänischen Batterien auf dem Nordufer während des Übergangs beteiligten. (2)An der Landungsstelle bei Kustschuk. - Das Zusammenwirken der Verbündeten Truppen vollzog sich meist reibungslos. (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Donaulandschaft unmittelbar westlich Svistov. Man hat von dem mehrere hundert Meter hohen Ufer auf der südlichen Flußseite einen weiten Blick über die Donauniederung mit ihren zahllosen Nebenarmen, Altwassern und Sümpfen und über die walachische Ebene. (2)Blick auf das Kampfgelände bei Calugareni, südlich des Argesch, wo die Rumänen dem Vormarsch der Donauarmee noch einmal entgegentraten. Es kam während der Schlacht zu einer schweren Krise, die mit Mühe durch das Eingreifen der 9. Armee behoben wurde. (28 - 29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Reiterpatrouille in einer walachischen Stadt. (2)Der Verwundetentransport gestaltete sich oft sehr mühsam und qualvoll. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Brückenbau über den Argesch bei trübem Novemberwetter. (2)Vormarsch auf Bukarest. (31) Vormarsch zum Sereth (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Vormarsch zur Serethfront. (2)Unten: In Focsani. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)An den Kämpfen in den Südkarpathen waren auch türkische Truppen beteiligt. - Türkische Artillerie bei Focsani. (2)Fliegeraufnahme von Buzau, halbwegs Ploesti-Focsani. Auch hier waren zahlreiche Öltanks in Brand geraten. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durch den Regen sind die Wege grundlos geworden. Nur mittels Ochsenbespannung sind die Fahrzeuge vorwärts zu bringen. (2)Ganz besondere Schwierigkeiten hatte der Lastkraftwagen auf den fast unbrauchbar gewordenen Straßen zu überwinden. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Jägerradfahrerkompagnie auf dem Schloßplatz in Bukarest. (2)Aufziehen der deutschen Hauptwache in Bukarest. Das große Gebäude rechts war als deutsches Soldatenheim eingerichtet. (35) [2 Abb.]: Oben und unten: Auf dem Schlachtfeld zwischen Buzau und Rimnicul Sarat. (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)In den Kämpfen an der Susita, nördlich von Focsani zusammengeschossene rumänische Batterien. (2)Kameraden. (37) Die Militärverwaltung in Rumänien (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Der deutsche Landsturm nahm gern selbst die Sense zur Hand. (2)Unten: Erntearbeit. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Rumänische Bauern bei der Flachsernte. (2)Unten: Heimkehr von der Erntearbeit. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Verkauf rumänischer Stickereien. (2)Rumänische Bauern auf dem Markt. (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Pferdemarkt. (2)Rumänien ist das Land der Zigeuner. (41) Stellungskrieg an der Donau-Sereth-Karpathenfront 1917/18 (42) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Führer der 9. Armee, General von Falkenhayn, besichtigt im Winter 1916/17 die Stellungen in den Südkarpathen. (2)Österreichisches Proviantdepot in einem Südkarpathendorf. (42) [2 Abb.]: (1)Karpathenlandschaft. - Rechts am Hang: Unterstände für einen Bataillonsstab. Links: Endstation einer Drahtseilbahn. (2)Russische Gefangene aus den Südkarpathenkämpfen. (43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Braila. (2)Unten: Fliegeraufnahme von Braila. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bei Tulcea beginnt das eigentliche Donaudelta. Blick von dem steilen Südufer auf das Mündungsgebiet der Donau. (2)Blick auf das Städtchen Tulcea. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Donaulandschaft zwischen Braila und Tulcea. (2)Donaudeltalandschaft. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bauerngehöft in der Norddobrudscha. (2)Schützengraben am Donauufer. (47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türkischer Posten an der Donau. (2)Bis zum Frieden von Bukarest stand der deutsche Soldat auch in diesem abgelegenen Winkel Europas auf treuer Wacht. (48) [Karte]: Der rumänische Feldzug ( - ) Von den Karpathen zum Kaukasus ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Die Kämpfe in den Karpathen 1914/15 (1) [2 Abb.]: Oben und unten: Österreichische Stellungen in der Gegend des Dunajez im westlichen Galizien im Winter 1914/15. (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)Den ganzen Winter hindurch wurde in den Karpathen erbittert gekämpft. Die Österreicher behaupteten sich nur mit Mühe. (2)Die Stellungen folgten den Hauptkämmen des Gebirges. Die Berghänge waren mit ausgedehnten Waldungen bedeckt. (2) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Anstieg zu den Stellungen war überaus beschwerlich, da es den Soldaten an der nötigen Gebirgsausrüstung fehlte. (2)Die Ablösung der vorgeschobenen Posten verlangte in dem unübersichtlichen Waldgelände schärfste Aufmerksamkeit. (3) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf dem Wege zum Duklapaß, dem Hauptübergang der Beskiden. (2)In den Karpathendörfern hinter der Front spielte sich ein lebhaftes Kommen und Gehen von Kolonnen und Trains ab. (4) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Winterkrieg in den Karpathen: Österreichische Stellung auf dem Gebirgskamm. (2)Munitionsempfang. (5) [3 Abb.]: (1)Karpathenlandschaft aus dem Kampfraum der Südarmee. Die Bergformen der Waldkarpathen erinnern an das deutsche Mittelgebirge. - Charakteristisch für das dortige Gelände ist die Auflösung des Waldes in einzelne Baumgruppen und Waldparzellen. (2)Deutsche Artilleriekolonne auf dem Vormarsch zur Front. (3)Karpathenwinter. - Eingeschneites Gehöft in den Waldkarpathen. (6 - 7) [3 Abb.]: (1)Rundbild des Kampfgeländes am Zwinin I und Ostrog, das erst nach langem erbitterten Ringen von den Deutschen genommen wurde. Zwischen beiden liegt das Orawatal, das bei den Kämpfen eine große Rolle spielte. (2)Deutsche Schützengräben am Nordhang des eroberten Zwinin. (3)Der Gipfel des Zwinin. (8 - 9) Die Gorlice-Offensive 1915 (10 - 11) [3 Abb.]: (1)Rundbild des Kampfraumes um Gorlice. Hier war die Haupteinbruchstelle der deutschen 11. Armee. Das Gelände kennzeichnet sich als weitgeformtes Hügelland mit flachen Höhenzügen und breiten Tälern. Ackerflächen wechseln mit Waldzügen (2)Gorlice nach dem Angriff. Im Vordergrund ein quer über die Straße gezogener russischer Schützengraben. Links vor dem Haus verwundete Russen. Auf der Straße hält eine aufgesessene Munitionskolonne. Im Hintergrund Brandwolken. (3)Die vordersten stark zerschossenen Häuser von Gorlice. Das Bild ist wenige Stunden nach dem Sturm aufgenommen worden und zeigt die Spuren der schweren Kämpfe. Vor den Häusern liegen noch die Leichen der gefallenen Russen. (10 - 11) [3 Abb.]: (1)Rundbild des Kampfgeländes etwa fünf Kilometer südlich Gorlice. - Diese Aufnahme wurde, ebenso wie die anderen Rundbilder, durch eine deutsche Vermessungsabteilung für kriegsgeschichtliche Zwecke im Jahre 1917 hergestellt. (2)Nach dem Sturm: Aufbruch zur Verfolgung. (3)Vormarsch: Deutsche Infanterie schließt sich aus der Schützenlinie wieder zur Marschkolonnen zusammen. (12 - 13) [3 Abb.]: (1)Verfolgungskämpfe: Blick in das Tal der Ropa bei Biecz, nordöstlich Gorlice. (2)Vormarsch österreichischer Kavallerie gegen den San. (3)Österreichische Infanterie auf der Verfolgung in Richtung Przemysl. (14 - 15) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vorbeimarsch des 4. Garderegiments z. F. vor Prinz Eitel Friedrich, dem Kommandeur der I. Garde Infanterie-Division. (2)Ein deutsches Garderegiment, auf rastloser Verfolgung in Galizien, durchwatet bei Sulatvcze das Flüßchen Swica. (16) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichischer Meldereiter zieht bei jüdischen Ortseinwohnern Erkundigungen über den Feind ein. - Die galizischen Juden bildeten im Kriege ein Element von zweifelhafter Zuverlässigkeit, das häufig auch den Feind mit Nachrichten versorgte. (2)Bei den Verfolgungskämpfen erlitten die Russen, die die nachdrängenden Deutschen mit Geschick und großem Opfermut immer wieder aufhielten, starke Verluste. - Das Bild zeigt eine russische Nachhutstellung und gibt einen Begriff von der Härte der vorausgegangenen Kämpfe. Der flüchtig ausgehobene Graben ist mit Toten und weggeworfenen Gewehren wie besät. (17) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abtransport russischer Gefangener aus Przemysl (2)Blick auf die galizische Landeshauptstadt Lemberg, die im Juli 1915 durch den Vormarsch der österreichischen und deutschen Karpathenarmee befreit wurde. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durchmarsch deutscher Truppen durch Zolkiew. (2)Auf dem Vormarsch nach Tzernowitz: Bau einer Kriegsbrücke über den Dnjestr. (19) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ungarische Kavalleriepatrouille in einem südpolnischen Dorf. (2)Einmarsch österreichischer Truppen in Lublin, wo 1914 eine der großen Entscheidungsschlachten geschlagen worden war. (20) [2 Abb.]: (1) (2)Die fast völlig zerstörte Stadt Josefow an der Weichsel (Südpolen). Im Hintergrunde Kriegsbrücke aus Pfahljochen. (21) Stellungskämpfe in Galizien in den Jahren 1916 und 1917 (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Hinter der Front: Soldaten im Ruhequartier. (2)Unten: Straße in einem ruthenischen Dorf in Ostgalizien. (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)In den ruthenischen Bauernhäusern fanden die deutschen Soldaten in der Regel behagliche und saubere Unterkunft. (2)Einrücken einer österreichischen Batterie in eine in der Nähe der Kampffront gelegene ostgalizische Stadt. (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Wolhynische Winterlandschaft. (2)Unten: Schneeschmelze. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Wolhynisches Gehöft. (2)Unten: Russischer Soldatenfriedhof in Wolhynien. (25) Die Offensive in Zloczow (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gefechtsstand eines Divisionsstabes an der von Zloczow nach Tarnopol führenden Straße (23. Juli 1917). (2)Nach gelungenem Durchbruch setzte eine rastlose Verfolgung ein: Deutsche Truppen durchschreiten ein ostgalizisches Dorf. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Lysoniahöhe bei Brzezany spielte in den Kämpfen eine wichtige Rolle. Im Hintergrund russische Stellungen. (2)Die verlassene russische Hauptstellung südöstlich Brzezany am Fuß der Lysoniahöhe und an der Straße nach Podhajce. (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Artillerie wetteifert mit der Infanterie im Drange der Verfolgung; diesmal sollte ein Ende gemacht werden. (2)Auch die schwere Artillerie wollte nicht zurückbleiben. Schwieriger Übergang einer Mörserbatterie über einen Bachlauf. (28) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das ostgalizische Land litt schwer unter den Schrecken des Krieges. In Brand geschossenes Dorf; auf der linken Bildseite zahlreiche Geschoßtrichter erkennbar. Im Dorfe sind anscheinend Tücher als Erkennungszeichen für die Flieger ausgelegt. (2)Marktplatz in dem fast völlig zerstörten Podhajce. Eine Eigentümlichkeit bildeten die vielfach mit Blech gedeckten Dächer. (29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf das eben geräumte, in Rauchwolken gehüllte Tarnopol. Die Stadt hatte durch die Kämpfe schwer gelitten. (2)Deutsche truppen im Vormarsch durch Tarnopol, in dem sich schon wieder lebhaft der Trieb zu Handel und Geschäft regt. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Biwak deutscher Truppen auf der Zlota-Gora-Höhe. Ein sehr glücklich erfaßter Moment: Alles ist in voller Tätigkeit. (2)Östlich vom Serethfluß, an der russischen Grenze, wurde die Verfolgung angehalten. Es lag nicht im Plan der deutschen Obersten Heeresleitung, dem Feind nach Rußland hinein zu folgen. - Rast deutscher Truppen am Ufer des Sereth. (31) Die Besetzung der Ukraine im Frühjahr 1918 (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mit Maschinengewehr ausgerüsteter deutscher Kraftwagen auf Erkundungsfahrt. (2)An vielen Stellen versuchten bolschewistische Banden Widerstand zu leisten. - Zerschossenes russisches Panzerauto. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein mit leichtem Funkgerät ausgerüsteter deutscher Panzerkraftwagen nimmt funkentelegraphische Verbindung auf. (2)Die deutschen und österreichischen Kriegsgefangenen erhielten zum größten Teil die Freiheit zurück. Sie fuhren auf überladenen Zügen den einrückenden Truppen entgegen. Das Bild zeigt sie noch in ihrer russischen Lazarettbekleidung. (33) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick von dem auf dem Steilufer des Dnjepr gelegenen Alt-Kiew auf die am flachen West- und Ostufer liegenden Stadtteile. Die beiden über den Dnejpr führenden zerstörten Brücken sind (Frühjahr 1918) noch nicht wieder hergestellt. (2)Das berühmte Kloster Lawra, eine der heiligsten Stätten Rußlands, zu dem jährlich zahllose Pilger wallfahrten. (3)Am 6. Juni 1918 ereignete sich in Kiew, wahrscheinlich durch Bolschewiken verursacht, eine ungeheure Explosion, der die dort lagernden Munitionsvorräte zum Opfer fielen. Die Fliegeraufnahme zeigt die durch die Explosion verursachten Brände. (34 - 35) [2 Abb.]: (1)Straßenleben in Kiew. - Die "breite Natur" des Russen äußert sich auch in der für europäische Verhältnisse ungewöhnlichen Weiträumigkeit der Straßen. - Charakteristisch sind die zahlreichen Droschken, die die Straßenränder säumen. (2)Die Uspensky-Kathedrale im Kloster Lawra. (36) [2 Abb.]: (1)Truppenparade vor dem österreichisch-ungarischen Armeeführer Böhm-Ermolli am Hafen von Odessa. - Die Österreicher hatten den südwestlichen Teil der Ukraine besetzt, in dem Odessa, der russische Haupthafen am Schwarzen Meer, liegt. (2)Die Quarantänestation am Hafen in Odessa. (37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Hafen von Sewastopol. Am jenseitigen Ufer erbeutete russische Kriegsschiffe. Im Hintergrund die Marinekaserne. (2)Balaklawa, ein Städtchen unweit südlich Sewastopol, das durch die Kämpfe im Krimkrieg (1854) berühmt geworden ist. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)An der Küste der Krim, die man die "russische Riviera" nennt, liegen höchst malerische Villenorte: Alupka bei Jalta. (2)Die russischen Zaren hatten sich an der schönsten Stelle der Küste, bei Livadia, ihre prunkvollen Schlösser erbaut. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Soldaten auf der Krim: Truppenfähre über eine Meerenge. (2)Tatarisches Bauerngehöft. (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Marktplatz einer südrussischen Stadt. (2)Typisches Bild einer russischen Bahnstation während des Krieges. (41) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Charkow, die Hauptstadt der östlichen Ukraine. (2)Floßbrücke über den Don bei Rostow, unweit der Flußmündung in das Asowsche Meer. (42) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nowotscherkaffk am Don: Triumphbogen zur Erinnerung an die Kriege 1813 - 1815. (2)Aus dem Gebiet der Domkosaken: Deutsche Kompanie hält in einem Kosakendorf Appell ab. (43) Die Besetzung der Kaukasusländer (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Tiflis, die Hauptstadt von Georgien. Hier hatte der deutsche Militärbevollmächtigte für die Kaukasusländer seinen Sitz. Die Stadt ist rings von hohen Bergwänden umgeben und wird von der "brausenden Kura" durchflossen. (2)Straßenleben in Tiflis. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Kura, die die Stadt in starkem Gefälle durcheilt, hat sich ein teifes Bett in den Felsboden gegraben. (2)Ankunft deutscher Truppen in Tiflis. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feierlicher Trauerzug für den während der deutschen Besatzungszeit in Tiflis verstorbenen georgischen Metropoliten Hieron II. In dem Prunk der Gewänder zeigt sich das Streben der orthodoxen Kirche nach höchster Prachtentfaltung. (2)Deutsche Kolonne auf dem Vormarsch im Kaukasus. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Kaukasus, einer der großen Grenzwälle Asiens und Europas, bildet zwischen dem Elbrus und dem Kasbek einen fast lückenlosen riesigen Gebirgskamm von 3000 - 5000 Meter Höhe. - Fliegeraufnahme der kaukasischen Gebirgswelt. (2)Georgische Reiter in ihrer Nationaluniform. (47) [Abb.]: Der Kasbek, der in ewiges Eis gehüllte höchste Berg des Kaukasusgebirges, unweit der von Tiflis nach Wladikawkas führenden Grusinischen Heerstraße, erhebt sich bis 5600 Meter. (48) [Karte]: Polen ( - ) [2 Karten]: (1)Mittleres Russland (2)Kaukasusfront ( - ) Die serbisch-mazedonische Front ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Der Donauübergang (19) [Abb.]: Besonders heftig waren die Kämpfe um den Besitz der Stadt Belgrad, die sich auf einer Hügelkette am Südüfer der Donau und Save über die flache ungarische Ebene erhebt. Der wichtigste Punkt der Flußverteidigung war hier der Kalemegdan, die aus den Türkenkriegen bekannte Burg, seit Jahrhunderten das Wahrzeichen der Stadt. Auf steilem felsen hoch über der Einmündung der Save in die Donau gelegen, beherrscht sie weithin die Stadt und ihre Umgebung. Ihre Widerstandskraft erlag jedoch bald der Wirkung deutschen und österreichischen schweren Geschütze. (19) [3 Abb.]: (1)Übergang österreichischer Truppen über die Save westlich Belgrad. Der Charakter der Landschaft auf dem Nordufer der Save und Donau - weite und wenig bewaldete Ebene - sowie das Anstauen der Truppen vor dem Flußübergang ist gut zu erkennen. (2)Übersetzen deutscher Truppen auf Fähren über die Donau bei Ram in der Morgedämmerung des 7. Oktober. Das Südufer des Flusses steigt steil zu beträchtlichen Höhen an. Trotz der schwierigen Uferverhältnisse vollzog sich der Übergang hier am besten. (3)Rechts unten: Das Dorf Ram kurz nach dem Übergang der ersten Truppen. Der Ort ist als Truppenverbandplatz eingerichtet. Die Sanitätssoldaten sind dabei, Landesfuhrwerke zum Rücktransport der Verwundeten zu requirieren. (20 - 21) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Übergang bei der alten Türkenfestung Semendria glückte nur an einer der beiden Übergangsstellen, und zwar östlich der Semendriainsel (auf der linken Bildseite an dem bewaldeten Ufer erkennbar). Hier wurde später die auf dem Bild sichtbare Kriegsbrücke gebaut. - Das weitere Vorgehen der deutschen Truppen geriet in das versumpfte Gelände zwischen der Morawa-Mündung und der Stadt. - Vorne links zwei österreichische Donaumonitore. (2)Links: Die Übergangsstelle auf der Ostseite von Belgrad. Im Vordergrund die ungarische Stadt Semlin. Dahinter eine große flache Insel im Mündungsdreieck der Donau und Save. Im Hintergrund Belgrad mit dem Burghügel des Kalimegdan. Die hier angesetzten Truppen stiegen nördlich Semlin auf Pontonfähren, fuhren die Donau abwärts und landeten links von der Insel am Fuß des Kalimegdan. (3)Rechts: Herstellung einer für die schwersten Lasten bestimmten österreichischen Kolonnenbrücke über die Donau, nahe bei Belgrad. Das Bild läßt das Einfahren der aus je vier großen Kähnen bestehenden Brückenglieder mit Hilfe von Dampfern erkennen. - Es laufen zwei getrennte Fahrbahnen über die Brücke, für jede Fahrtrichtung eine. (22 - 23) Der Vormarsch durch Serbien bis zur Schlacht auf dem Amselfeld (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)zerstörte Moravabrücke bei Cuprija. - Die schnelle Wiederherstellung der Eisenbahnbrücken über die Save und die Morawa war zur Gewinnung einer Eisenbahnverbindung nach der schwer bedrängten Türkei von höchster Wichtigkeit. (2)Unten: Abtransport serbischer Gefangener vom Schlachtfeld. sehr bezeichnednes Bild: Ein deutscher Musketier voraus, hinter ihm ein langer Zug von gefangenen, von denen neimand daran denkt, fortzulaufen oder zurückzubleiben. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Die Wege waren infolge andauerenden Regens grundlos geworden. Oft mußten sich lange Reihen von Soldaten vor die Seile spannen, um Geschütze und Fahrzeuge vorwärts zu bringen. - (2)Unten: Deutsche Truppen beziehen in einem kleinen serbischen Landstädtchen Quartier. (25) [2 Abb.]: (1)Freudige Begegnung: Erstes Zusammentreffen der im Moravatal vormarschierenden deutschen Truppen mit bulgarischer Kavallerie bei Paracin. (2)Typisches Bauernhaus in Nordserbien: flach nach den vier Seiten abfallendes Ziegeldach; loggiaartige Hausveranda. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die durch den Regen hochangeschwollenen Gebirgsbäche verursachen auf den Gebirgswegen vielfach Zerstörungen. Landeseinwohner mußten, um den Kolonnenverkehr in Gang zu halten, zur Hilfestellung aufgeboten werden. (2)Serbische Flüchtlinge. - Angst vor der Rache der Bulgaren trieb in den Kampfgebieten viele Bauern von Haus und Hof. (27) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf das Tal der Westmorawa und auf das hoch aufsteigende Gebirge südlich des Flusses. Im Hintergrunde die Stadt Kraljevo, bei der, aus dem Gebirge kommend, der Ibarfluß in die Westmorawa mündet. (2)Mitte: In dem engen, von hohen Gebirgen umschlossenen Ibartal läuft eine wichtige Straße nach Süden in die Gegend von Mitrovitza-Pristina und von hier aus weiter über das Umfeld nach dem südwestlichen serbien. Der Weg führte beschwerlich an Steilhängen und Abgründen entlang. (3)Rechts: Kolnnenverkehr in dem unweit der Einmündung der Westmorawa in die Morawa gelegene Krusevac. - Die Tragtierkolonnen bewährten sich in dem schwierigen Gelände Serbiens besser als das Armeefuhrwerk. - Die auf dem Platze stehende griechisch-katholische Kirche ist ein charakteristisches Beispiel neuserbischer Bauart. (28 - 29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Landschaftsbild vom Amselfeld. - (2)Unten: Bulgarische Infanterie auf dem Schlachtfelde während einer Gefechtspause. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nach gewonnener Schlacht: Österreicher auf der Verfolgung. - (2)Unten: Bulgaren am Weißen Drin (Nordalbanien). (13 [31]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Der kranke serbische König Peter flüchtete, auf einem Sessel getragen, zusammen mit seinem Generalstabschef, dem General Putnik, über das Gebirge zur albanischen Küste. - (2)Unten: In die Gefangenschaft. (14 [32]) [Abb.]: Der österreichische Vormarsch in der unwegsamen montenegrinischen Gebirgslandschaft war außerordentlich mühsam. (15 [33]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichische truppen auf dem Vormarsch durch Plewlje im nördlichen Montenegro. - (2)Unten: Ein Teil der Albaner schloß sich den Österreichern an. Albanische Freischärler auf dem Vormarsch gegen die Hafenstadt Durazzo. (16 [34]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Truppenfähre über den weißen Drin. Im Hintergrund eine der charakteristischen hochgewölbten steinernen Bogenbrücken, die für den Truppenverkehr umgebaut wird. - (2)Unten: Ein harter Winterfeldzug. Im Schneesturm. (17 [35]) Der mazedonische Kriegsschauplatz: das Etappengebiet (18 - 19 [36 - 37]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die wichtigste Stadt im nordöstlichen Mazedonien, Üsküb, bis vor wenigen Jahren noch türkische Provinzhauptstadt, hatte in den kurzen Jahren der serbischen Herrschaft ihren Charakter nur wenig geändert. Mit dem überaus bunten Gemisch ihrer Bevölkerung, ihren Moscheen und Basaren machte sie noch durchaus den Eindruck einer orientalischen Stadt. - (2)Unten: Weiter südlich hatte Prilep, eine malerisch zwischen hohen Gebirgen gelegene Stadt als zentraler Mittelpunkt der Hauptkampffront von Monastir und am Cernabogen besondere militärische Bedeutung. (18 - 19 [36 - 37]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die noch aus der Zeit des alten Serbenreichs stammende Brücke bei Üsküb. Im Hintergrunde die Zitadelle, die während des Krieges hauptsächlich als Lazarett benutzt wurde. (2)"Kurschumly Han", eine ehemalige Karawanserei in Üsküb. Die unteren Räume des zweigeschossigen, viereckig geschlossenen Arkadenhofs dienten als Magazine und Ställe, die oberen als Wohnräume für die durchreisenden Kaufleute. (20 [38]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf das Zigeunerviertel. Die winzig kleinen, in bunten Farben angestrichenen Häuser ziehen sich regellos am Hange des Burghügels hinauf. Das Leben der Zigeuner, die heute fast durchweg in bürgerlichen Berufen ihren Lebensunterhalt verdienen, spielt sich noch immer nach eigenen Sitten und Gebräuchen und in strenger Absonderung von der übrigen Bevölkerung ab. (2)Zigeunertracht. - Die Zigeunerinnen fallen durch die grellen Farben ihrer Tracht stark unter der übrigen Bevölkerung auf. Sie tragen bunte Tücher und Pluderhosen, die an den Knöcheln eng geschlossen sind. (21 [39]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türkischer Friedhof bei Üsküb. Die Form der Grabsteine läßt erkennen, ob der Bestattete ein Mann oder eine Frau war. Die Grabsteine der Männer tragen eine Erhöhung in Form eines Turbans. Bei den Frauen fehlt dieses Kennzeichen. (2)Gemüsemarkt bei Üsküb. - In den mazedonischen Landstädten entwickelte sich ein lebhafter, für alle Teile befriedigender Handelsverkehr zwischen den deutschen Besatzungsbehörden und den Bauern, die ihre Erzeugnisse auf den Markt brachten. (22 [40]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mazedonische Frauen und Mädchen beim Rundtanz (Rolo). (2)Unten: Volkstrachten der Männer. (23 [41]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Für die Kampffront beiderseits des Vardar-Flusses war Veles der Hauptort des Etappengebiets. Die Stadt steigt zu beiden Seiten des engen Flußtals an den Hängen empor. - (2)Unten: Bulgarische Truppen überschreiten den Vardar. (24 [42]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein mazedonisches Wohnhaus in Veles. Im Unterstock der übliche offene Handwerksladen, der in der Nacht durch Holzläden geschlossen wird. Der obere Stock hat eine gedeckte Veranda, die für viele häusliche Verrichtungen und als Schlafplatz dient. Am Oberstock des Nachbarhauses läuft eine für ähnliche Zwecke bestimmte offene Holzgalerie entlang. - (2)Unten: Die Vardaenge von Demir Kapu südwestlich Veles. Der Vardar durchbricht das Gebirge in einem sehr engen Tal. Bei Demir Kapu treten die Felswände so dicht zusammen, daß der Raum für die Bahn künstlich geschaffen werden mußte. (43) [2Abb.]: (1)Kriegsbrücke über den Vardar. - (2)Unten: Der Babunapaß war ein wichtiger Gebirgsübergang zwischen Veles und Prilep. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Auf den steilen mazedonischen Gebirgsstraßen kam man am besten mit Büffel- und Ochsengespannen vorwärts. - (2)Unten: Typische Handwerkerstraße in einer mazedonischen Kleinstadt. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von Prilep aus führte eine Drahtseilbahn über hohe Gebirge hinweg nach dem an der Bahnlinie Nisch - Saloniki gelegenen Gradsko. Diese Verbindung war, mangels einer Eisenbahn, für die Versorgung des Kampfgebietes von Monastir von ganz besonderer Wichtigkeit. (2)Unten: Straßenbild in Prilep. (46) [Abb.]: Kleinere Moschee, wie man sie in den mohammedanischen Dörfern Mazedoniens häufig trifft. - Der Niedergang der türkischen Herrschaft auf dem Balkan hinterläßt seine Spuren auch in dem Verfall vieler mohammedanischer Gotteshäuser. (47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein charakteristisches Bild aus dem mazedonischen Gebirge: Hirte, der lediglich durch seinen Schafpelz und eine Decke gegen die Unbilden der Witterung geschützt, monatelang mit seiner Herde unter freiem Himmel lebt. (2)Unten: Mazedonischer Bauer, der sein in der Kampfzone liegendes Heimatdorf verlassen muß. Beachtenswert ist der schöne Wuchs und die freie stolze Haltung dieses kräftigen und gesunden Menschenschlags. (48) [2 Abb.]: (1)Trauerandacht an serbischen Kriegsgräbern. (2)Unten: Flüchtlinge vor einem mazedonischen Bauerngehöft. (49) Die Kampffront Albanien (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Straßenbild aus Mitrowitza. (2)Unten: albanische Gebirgslandschaft westlich des Ochridasees. (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durazzo, der wichtigste albanische Hafen am Adriatischen Meer. Südlich der Stadt begann die albanisch-mazedonische Kampffront. - (2)Unten: Prizrend. Das Bild gibt eine Vorstellung von dem bunten Straßenleben und den Volkstrachten einer kleinen südserbischen Stadt. Die Bevölkerung ist zum größten Teil albanisch und mohammedanisch. (51) Die Front am Ochrida- und Presbasee (52 - 53) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Der Ochridasee mit der Stadt Ochrida. Im Hintergrund die albanischen Berge. (2)Unten: Blick auf das Nordwestufer des Presbasees. (52 - 53) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Hauptgipfel des Peristeri, der, die Ebene von Monastir mächtig überragend, sich zu einer Höhe von 2500 m erhebt. Der Berg bildete den Schlüsselpunkt der Stellungen zwischen dem Presbasee und der Cernaniederung. (2)Blick auf die Stadt Ochrida. (3)Am Ufer des Ochridasees. (54 - 55) [3 Abb.]: (1)Gesamtansicht von Monastir, der Hauptstadt des südlichen Mazedonien. Die Stadt mußte im Jahre 1916 während der Herbstschlacht in Mazedonien der Orientarmee überlassen werden. (2)Mit deutschen und bulgarischen Fahnen geschmückte Straße von Monastir beim Einzug des bulgarischen Königs. (3)Die hart umkämpften bulgarischen Stellungen auf den zur Ebene von Monastir abfallenden Hängen des Peristerigebirges. (56 - 57) Der Frontabschnitt Cernabogen (58 - 59) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Cernabogen von Süden gesehen. - Der halbkreisförmige Lauf der Cerna, die zunächst in der Ebene von Monastir nach Süden fließt und dann in kurzem Bogen sich nach Norden zurückwendet, ist auf dem Bild deutlich erkennbar. Links die Ebene von Monastir. Rechts die Senke, in der die Cerna das Gebirge in nordöstlicher Richtung durchbricht. - Der Versuch der Bulgaren, hier den Ansturm der Orientarmee im Herbst 1916 aufzuhalten, mißlang. (2)Blick von Westen (aus Gegend Kenali) auf den Cernabogen. Das Bild zeigt die üppige Vegetation in der Flußniederung der Cerna. (3)Blick auf das Gebirgsmassiv des Kaimakcalan. Der Schneeberg im Hintergrund ist der Hauptgipfel des Kaimakcalan. (58 - 59) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick von Bobiste, einem nordöstlich der Höhe 1050 gelegenen 130 Meter hohen Gipfel, auf die endgültige von den verbündeten gehaltene Kampfstellung im Cernabogen. Hinter der Höhe 1050 ist die Ebene von Monastir sichtbar. (2)Die Höhe 1050. - Auf der anderen Seite der Ebene von Monastir ragt die mächtige Bergkette des Peristeri empor. (3)Die Stellung auf dem "Stabsberg". Links führt ein sehr schmaler Grat zu dem Felsengipfel der Höhe 1050. (60 - 61) [3 Abb.]: (1)Landschaftsbild aus der Cernaebene nördlich von Monastir. Im Hintergrund der schmale Gebirgskamm der Seleska Planina, der sich zu beiden Seiten von der Cerna umflossen, nach Süden zieht. Das Gebirge erreicht in dieser Gegend Höhen von 1500 m. Sie spielten während des bulgarischen Rückzugs im Herbst 1918 eine erhebliche Rolle. - Im Vordergrund ein bauernhof typisch mazedonischer Bauart. (2)Bulgaren beim Bau ihrer rückwärtigen Stellungen im Cernabogen, an den Hängen des Bobiste. Nur durch Sprengungen und mit Hilfe von Stemmeisen und Spitzhacken gelang es, in das harte Gestein einzudringen. (3)Bulgarische Befehlsstellung im Cernabogen. Die Anlage des Telephonunterstandes läßt auch hier die Schwierigkeiten der Felsbearbeitung erkennen. Der Unterstand ragt halb aus dem Felsboden heraus und ist nur durch Steinanschüttung geschützt. (62 - 63) Die Vardafront (64 - 65) [2 Abb.]: (1)Landschaft in der Gegend von Ghevgeli, der amzedonischen Bahnstation an der griechischen Grenze. Im Hintergrunde links der Vardarfluß. Nach rechts zu steigen die zum Gebirgsstock des Dudica hinüberführenden Bergzüge an. - Auf den Hügeln im Vordergrunde sind Geschützstände und Depotanlagen erkennbar. (2)Die Stellungen am Doiransee, östlich des Vardar, standen zeitweilig im Mittelpunkt heftiger Kämpfe, ohne daß es den Truppen der Alliierten gelang, hier wesentliche Vorteile zu erringen. (64 - 65) Die Strumafront (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gefechtsstand eines bulgarischen Stabes im Belasiza-Gebirge. (2)Die kleine griechische Stadt Ziliahovo, östlich des Tahinosees. (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Griechische Bauern. Auch hier, wie in vielen anderen Landstrichen des Balkan, wird noch mit dem Holzpflug gepflügt. - Das Auftauchen der Pinie, die im Inneren des Landes nur selten zu finden ist, weist darauf hin, daß diese Landschaft schon unter dem Einfluß des Mittelmeerklimas steht. (2)Griechische und türkische Bevölkerungstypen auf dem Marktplatz der 1916 von den Bulgaren eroberten Stadt Drama. (67) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Türkische Kamelkolonne an der Tränke. - (2)Unten: Türkische Soldaten im Biwak in der Gegend von Drama. (68) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: In der Etappe: Mit Ochsen bespannte Fuhrparkkolonne. - (2)Unten: Die Hafenstadt Kawalla am Ägäischen Meer. Blick auf die nur durch einen schmalen Damm mit dem Festlande verbundene Altstadt und auf das Kastell. (69) [Abb.]: Deutscher Soldatenfriedhof bei Prilep. ( - ) [3 Karten]: (1)Die Kämpfe in Serbien (2)Albanien südl. Teil (3)Die Kämpfe in Mazedonien ( - ) Italienfront ( - ) Vorwort ([1]) Am Isonzo (17) [Abb.]: Das "Becken von Flitsch", ein fruchtbares Hochgebirgstal zwischen mächtig sich auftürmenden Felswänden, breitet sich, dem oberen Isonzo in ost-westlicher Richtung folgend, zwischen den Gebirgszügen des Monte Rombon und Monte Canin und dem Krnmassiv. - Das zur Zeit der deutsch-österreichischen Herbstoffensive 1917 aufgenommene Bild gibt Flitsch von Südosten wieder. Hinter dem halbzerschossenen Ort erhebt sich der Monte Canin. Die Hänge rechts führen zum Rombon hinauf. In den Wiesen diesseits von Flitsch sind die vordersten italienischen Stellungen erkennbar. (17) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick von der Hochfläche von Bainsizza-Heiligengeist nach Norden auf den Krn (rechts) und auf die Gebirgsgruppe des Monte Canin (links). Im Vordergrunde die Berge von Tolmein und Sta. Luzia. Das Absinken des Gebirges von Norden nach Süden ist auf diesem Bild deutlich erkennbar. (2)Landschaft aus dem Kampfgebiet des Krn. Auf halbem Hange Drahthindernisse und Gräben. Vorn links eine Flankierungsanlage (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mühsam mußte das Kriegsgerät, im Sommer oft auch das Trinkwasser, durch Tragtiere auf die Gipfel geschafft werden. In den schweren Schneestürmen des Winters mußte der Transport bisweilen wochenlang ganz aussetzen. (2)Kampfgrabenbesatzung im Hochgebirge. - Gefährlicher fast noch als die Durchschlags- und Sprengwirkung der Geschosse war die Steinsplitterwirkung. (19) [2 Abb.]: (1)Charakteristisches Bild einer Kampfgrabenbesatzung in 2000 Meter Höhe. - Zur Abschwächung der Steinsplitterwirkung ist die Brustwehr mit Sandsäcken belegt. - In der Mitte des Bildes eine Schulterwehr gegen Flankenfeuer; die Steinpackung wird durch Bretter und Drahtgeflecht zusammengehalten (2)Für die Bereitschaften wurden oft tiefe Höhlen in den Fels gesprengt. - Eine behagliche Mittagsstunde. (20) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hinter der Stellung. - Wasser war im Sommer auf den Berggipfeln des Krn eine Kostbarkeit. Mühsam wurde es in Fässern durch Tragtiere hinaufgebracht. - Hier erlaubt der kleine Gebirgssee sogar den Luxus des Wäschewaschens. (2)Ein "bombensicheres" Stabsquartier im Krngebirge. Der Steinbruch ist zu einer Offiziersmesse mit Tischtüchern und Geschirr, mit gedieltem Boden und Ziersträuchern umgestaltet. - Ein Idyll, das freilich mit den ersten kalten Herbststürmen sein Ende fand. (21) [2 Abb.]: (1)Stellung auf der Hochebene von Bainsizza-Heiligengeist. An Stelle von Gräben hat man sich hier mit aufgesetzten Mauern aus Feldsteinen begnügt. (2)Halb zerstörtes Kampfgebiet im mitteleren Isonzo. (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kampfstellung auf der Hochebene von Bainsizza-Heiligengeist. Auch hier haben starke Sandsackpackungen gegen die Steinsplitterwirkung Verwendung gefunden. Die Anlage läßt erkennen, daß auf diesem Teil der Front längere Zeit Kampfruhe geherrscht hat. Auffallend ist der hohe Aufbau der Beobachtungs- und Maschinengewehrstände (2)Im rückwärtigen Gebiet: Die Berge sind hier bereits niedriger, die Hänge flacher. Der Antransport des Kriegsgeräts zu den vorderen Stellungen erfolgte nicht mehr durch Tragtiere auf Saumpfaden, sondern auf Gebirgsstraßen durch Fuhrparkkolonnen. (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Unten: der Kampfraum von Görz von Süden, von der Hochebene von Doberdo aus, gesehen. Im Vordergrunde, am Fuß der Hochebene, das Wippachtal; in der Mitte des Bildes, von den niedrigen Höhen der Podgora (links) und San Marco (rechts) eingerahmt, die Stadt. Dahinter der Monte Sobotino und Monte Santo (rechte Bildseite) und weiterhin die Südhänge der Alpen. - Aus der Lage der rings von Bergen umschlossenen Stadt ergibt sich, daß ihr Besitz nur von beschränktem strategischem Wert war; viel wichtiger war der Besitz der Berge. (2)Blick in südlicher Richtung auf Görz. Im Vordergrund der Isonzo zwischen den Hängen des Monte Sabotino (rechts) und des Monte Santo (links). Hinter der Stadt der langgestreckte Nordhang der Hochfläche von Doberdo mit San Michele (rechts), an deren Fuße sich, noch sichtbar, der Isonzo entlang windet. (24 - 25) [3 Abb.]: (1)Schweres Feuer auf die österreichischen Stellungen bei Sankt Peter und San Marco hart östlich Görz am 1. November 1916. Das Bild ist ungefähr vom gleichen Standpunkt aufgenommen wie das vorige. (2)Das halb zerstörte Görz im Sommer 1916, kurz vor der Eroberung durch die Italiener. Im Hintergrund das alte Kastell. (3)Sankt Peter, wenige hundert Meter südlich des Görzer Kastells auf einer Anhöhe gelegen, ein Wahrzeichen der Stadt, weithin sichtbar, fiel dem italienischen Feuer im Jahre 1916 zum Opfer. (26 - 27) [3 Abb.]: (1)Flammenwerferangriff im kahlen Karstgebiet. (2)Maschinengewehr im Feuer. (3)Die Hochfläche von Doberdo. Blick von der Hermada, einer Hügelgruppe am Südrande der Hochfläche, nach Nordwesten in Richtung auf das Vallone, auf das Dorf Doberdo und den Monte San Michele. Die Hochfläche hat eine durchschnittliche Höhe von 200 m. Die Entfernung vom Standort bis Doberdo beträgt 8,5 bis Jamiano 4, bis zum Monte San Michele etwa 10 km. (28 - 29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Artilleriekampf. (2)Kampfgelände auf der Hermada bei S. Giovanni. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick von der Hermada auf die Sdobba, das Mündungsgebiet des Isonzo. Im Hintergrund rechts die Stadt Monfalcone, links das Adriatische Meer. (2)Küstenlandschaft am Adriatischen Meer: Das während des Krieges fast völlig zerstörte Schloß Duino am Südrande der Hermada. (31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der junge Kaiser Karl im Gespräch mit dekorierten Mannschaften bei einem Besuch an der Kampffront von Doberdo. - Typisches Bild einer Doline auf der Karsthochfläche, mit etwas angeschwemmtem Boden, auf dem sich nur eine mäßige Vegetation entwickelt. (2)Conrad von Hötzendorf, der österreichische Generalstabschef, bis zur Thronbesteigung Kaiser Karls allmächtig in der k. u. k. Armee, auf einer Besichtigungsreise an der Isonzofront. Conrad wurde von Kaiser Karl seines Amtes enthoben und mit dem Kommando der österreichischen Front in Tirol betraut. (32) Die österreichische Offensive in Südtirol (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Rovereto im Etschtal. Im Vordergrund das im 13. Jahrhundert errichtete Kastell Dante. (2)Österreichische Kampfstellungen an der Südtiroler Grenze im Raum Vielgereuth - Lafraun. Am Horizont über den Wäldern die italienischen Grenzstellungen. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feuervorbereitung für die Frühjahrsoffensive. - Österreichische Langrohrbatterie. (2)Sturm der österreichischen Infanterie auf die italienischen Grenzstellungen nördlich Asiago. - Beide Bilder zeigen gut den landschaftlichen Charakter des Angriffsgeländes. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vorbringen von Gebirgsschützen durch die Sturmtruppen (2)Ein durch österreichisches Artilleriefeuer völlig zerstörtes italienisches Panzerwerk. (35) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nach der Offensive: Die neuen italienischen Stellungen östlich von Asiago, hart südlich des Monte Meletta. Man erkennt vier hintereinanderliegende Grabensysteme. Die dunklen Streifen vor den Gräben sind die Drahthindernisse. (2)Das Gelände westlich von Asiago in Richtung Arsiero. Die Aufnahme wurde von dem italienischen Werk Campolongo aus gemacht. Auf der rechten Bildseite das schroff abfallende Tal des Astico. In der Bildmitte die dunsterfüllte Assaschlucht; diesseits von ihr die österreichischen, jenseits die italienischen Stellungen. - beide Bilder stammen aus dem Jahre 1917. (36) Im Kampfgebiet der Hochalpen (37) [Abb.]: Auf der Dolomitenstraße zwischen Welschnofen und Karerseepaß, im Hintergrund der Latemar. Als einzige west-östliche Querverbindung war diese Straße von hohem strategischem Wert. (37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Ortlergebiet. - Rundblick vom Monte Cevedale (Zufallspitze) auf die Ortlergruppe. (2)Im Gebiet der Adamellogruppe. - Blick vom Monte Pasquale nach Süden. (38 - 39) [Abb.]: Auf den höchsten Bergzinnen, die nur durch geübte Bergsteiger bezwungen werden konnten, nisteten die Tiroler Scharfschützen sich ein. (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichische Alpentruppen beim Aufstieg. (2)Unten: Vor einer Gletscherspalte. (41) [Abb.]: An der Dolomitenfront: Übersicht über die Marmolatagruppe. Das Bild gibt eine Vorstellung von der Großartigkeit der Gebirgslandschaft, in der die Kämpfe sich abspielten. Zugleich aber läßt es die Beschränkungen erkennen, unter denen der Gebirgskrieg hier stand. Da, wo Gebirgswände unersteiglich emporstarrten, gab es keine durchlaufenden Stellungen und keine regelrechte Besatzung, sondern nur eine Art Feldwachstellung. An den Gebirgsscharten und an den Hängen, wo feindliche Annäherung und Angriff möglich waren, wurden Stützpunkte angelegt, deren Verteidigungsanlagen und Unterkunftsräume in den Fels oder in das Gletschereis eingesprengt waren. Es entstanden auf diese weise kilometerlange Tunnels und ganze unterirdische Kasernements. - Einzelne Geschütze in Felskasematten bestrichen der Länge nach das während der Nacht unter Scheinwerferbeleuchtung liegende Vorgelände. - Für den Transport der Verpflegung und der Kampfmittel spielten die über schwindelnde Abgründe bis zu den höchsten Gipfeln hinaufgeführten Drahtseilbahnen eine entscheidende Rolle. (42 - 43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fahrt mit einer Drahtseilbahn in den Dolomiten. (2)Österreichische Patrouille in der zerklüfteten Eiswelt des Marmolatagletschers. - Nur ausgebildete Bergführer können diese schwierigen Patrouillengänge unternehmen. (44) [Abb.]: Artilleriebeobachtungsstand auf einer der Felsspitzen des Adamellogebiets. (45) [Abb.]: Die italienischen Stellungen in den Dolomiten am Zwölferkofel. Der Verlauf der Stellungen ist durch die eingezeichneten Linien besser kenntlich gemacht. - Das Strichnetz in diesem und einigen der folgenden Bilder zeigt, daß diese Aufnahmen von einer Kriegs-Vermessungsabteilung stammen. (46 - 47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Italienische Truppen beim Stellungsbau im Hochgebirge. (2)Österreichische Gebirgskolonnen-Batterie auf dem Wege zur Frontstellung. (48) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf Saumpfaden. (2)Rast in der Hochgebirgssonne und - Entlaufen. (49) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf der Marmolata. Unterstände am rückwärtigen Hange. - Die Leiter an der mittleren Felsspitze endigt an einem durch den Felsen hindurchführenden Beobachtungs- oder Maschinengewehrstand. Auch der in den linken Felsen gehauene Unterstand scheint unmittelbaren Kampfzwecken zu dienen. (2)Im ewigen Eis der Marmolatagruppe. - Geschütz in einer ausgebauten Gletscherhöhle. Die ins Eis gebrochene Öffnung feindwärts ist mit Sandflächen und Bohlen geschützt und halb geschlossen. (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von den Gletscherhöhlen aus wurden Eisstollen gegen die feindliche Stellung vorgetrieben, dabei mußten tiefe Gletscherspalten, wo sie die Stollenquerten, überbrückt werden. (2)Unten: Mineure bei der Arbeit. Verdämmen der Bohrladung. - Selbstverständlich wurden beim Bau der Stollen die modernsten Mittel der Technik verwendet: elektrisches Bohrgerät, künstliche Luftzuführung. (51) [Abb.]: Der Col di Lana, "Blutberg" genannt, zwischen der Marmolatagruppe und den Drei Zinnen, wurde von den Italienern unterminiert und in die Luft gesprengt. Es war die erste große Gipfelsprengung. Die Sprengstelle zwischen den beiden Berggipfeln ist an der gewaltigen Schutthalde deutlich erkennbar. Rechts und links von ihr führen die österreichische und italienische Stellung in das Tal hinab. - Auch hier sind die Stellungen durch eingezeichnete Linien hervorgehoben. (52 - 53) Die deutsch-österreichische Offensive in Oberitalien (54 - 55) [4 Abb.]: (1)Wenige Gebirgsstraßen standen für den Anmarsch und Vormarsch der deutschen und österreichischen Angriffstruppen zur Verfügung. Nur durch schärfste Straßendisziplin war es möglich, den Marsch der Truppenmassen und den gewaltigen Kolonnenverkehr ohne Stocken und ernste Reibungen durchzuführen. (2)Rast deutscher Truppen an einer der Paßstraßen. Um diese Zeit lag in den höheren Gebirgsregionen bereits Schnee. (3)Trommelfeuer auf die italienischen Stellungen. (4)Abschuß eines 30,5-cm-Mörser, des schwersten Geschützes der k. u. k. Artillerie. Man ahnt die ungeheure Lufterschütterung. (54 - 55) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Soldaten beobachten bei Sta. Luzia das Artilleriefeuer. (2)Unten: Die vernichtende Wirkung der Spreng- und Gasmunition zwang einzelne italienische Soldaten, ihre zerstörten und vergasten Gräben zu verlassen und zu den österreichischen Stellungen hinüber zu laufen. (56) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Hinter einer Wand von Rauch und Feuer stürmen die deutschen Truppen 9 Uhr morgens über das Tal des Isonzo. (2)Unten: Die ersten Gefangenen - froh, dem Tode entronnen zu sein - werden durch die vordersten Stellungen zurückgebracht. (57) [3 Abb.]: (1)Vormarsch der deutschen 12. Infanteriedivision nach Karfreit. (2)Blick in das Isonzotal aus der gegend südlich Tolmein. Der Infanterieangriff ist bereits im Gange, das Abwehrfeuer der Italiener ist schwach. Die Aufnahme gibt einen Eindruck von dem trüben regnerischen Wetter und der geringen Sichtigkeit, die den Italienern das Erkennen des Marsches der Deutschen im Tal von Karfreit außerordentlich erschwerte. (3)Das Aufmarsch- und Angriffsgelände der deutschen Truppen im Tal des Isonzo zwischen Karfreit und Tolmein. (58 - 59) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Die feindlichen Stellungen am Kolovratrücken westlich Tolmein, gegen die die Deutschen über das breite Isonzotal hinweg anstürmen mußten. (2)Der Monte Matajur, ein Berggipfel von über 1600 Meter Höhe, Schlüsselpunkt des Eingangs in das Tal des Natisone und damit in die Oberitalienische Ebene. (60) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Natisonetal. Am Hange italienische Barackenlager. (2)Wirkung eines Volltreffers in eine italienische Munitionskolonne auf der Vormarschstraße nach Cividale. (61) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf dem Paßübergang. (2)An der dampfenden Feldküche. (62) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abtransport gefangener Italiener. (2)Ein Trunk nach anstrengendem Marsch. (63) [2 Abb.]: (1)Rechts: Cividale. Über dem Natisone steigen die Türme des uralten Doms und des ehemals deutschen Benediktinerklosters Sta. Maria in Valle empor. (2)Unten: Der Marktplatz von Cividale. Im Hintergrunde der Dom. (64) [2 Abb.]: (1)Udine. Die Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. (2)Die deutsche Ortskommandantur im Rathaus von Udine, das eine Nachahmung des Dogenpalastes in Venedig darstellt. (65) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Dom von Udine mit seinem mächtigen achteckigen Turm. Im Vordergrund der Marcuslöwe von Venedig, zu dessen Staatsgebiet Udine lange Zeit gehörte. (2)Auf der Vormarschstraße von Udine zum Tagliamento. (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Am Tagliamento. Das etwa 1000 m breite Flußbett führt meist nur wenig Wasser, schwillt aber bei Regenwetter plötzlich mächtig an. Das Ufer, mit Heeresgerät aller Art bedeckt, trägt deutlich die Spuren der Panik beim Übergang der italienischen Truppen. Die Brücken wurden am Westufer von den Italienern gesprengt, die dadurch Teilen ihrer eigenen Truppen den Rückzug abschnitten. (2)Zahllose Pferdekadaver bedeckten das Flußbett. (67) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf der Straße von Cadroipo zu den Tagliamentobrücken. Ein Bild, das mehr sagt als unzählige Worte. (2)Italienische Gefangene in einem Lager bei Cividale. Im Hintergrund die Stadt und die Vorberge der Alpen. (68) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Vormarsch über den Tagliamento. (2)Pioniere beim Bau einer Kolonnenbrücke über die Meduna, einen Fluß zwischen dem Tagliamento und der Piave. (69) [2 Abb.]: (1)Dem Oberlauf der Piave folgend erreichten die Verbündeten Belluno. (2)Straße in Belluno. (70) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Truppen rückten in Vittorio ein, die Stadt, nach der die Italiener ein Jahr später ihren leichten Sieg über die moralisch zusammengebrochene und sich auflösende österreichische Armee benannten. (2)Unten: Luftbildaufnahme von der oberen Piave. Auch hier, wie beim oberen Tagliamento, ein breites Geröllbett, das bei normalem Wasserstand nur von dünnen Wasseradern durchzogen wird. Bei Regenwetter ist es von tosenden Wassermassen gefüllt. - Die Kraft der verbündeten Armeen reichte nicht mehr aus, auch dieses mächtige natürliche Hindernis noch zu überwinden. Die deutsch-österreichische Offensive fand hier ihr Ende. (71) [Abb.]: Soldatenfriedhof auf dem Pordoijoch (2250 m) in den Dolomiten. (72) [2 Karten]: (1)Italien. Nördliche Hälfte. (2)Unteres Isonzogebiet. ( - ) Der Orient ( - ) Vowort ([1]) Am Bosporus (3) Fahrt ins Heilige Land (5) An der Palästinafront (8) Im Zweistromland (17) Bosporus und Dardanellen (23) [Abb.]: Eine weit in das Land einschneidende Bucht, das "Goldene Horn", seit alters her der Hafen von Konstantinopel, teilt die Stadt. Südlich der Bucht liegt das alttürkische Stambul, nördlich die mehr europäischen Stadtteile Pera und Galata. Das Bild zeigt den Blick über die das Goldene Horn überquerende "neue Brücke" auf Stambul. Links an der Brücke (Schiffsbrücke, die geöffnet werden kann, um den Schiffen den Eingang in den Hafen zu ermöglichen) befinden sich die Anlegestellen der Lokaldampfer. Aus der Häusermasse von Stambul heben sich heraus: die Gebäude des ehemaligen Kriegsministeriums mit dem schlanken Turm (rechts), in denen sich jetzt die Universität befindet; weiterhin die Suleiman-Moschee, die Jeni-Valide-Moschee (am Ende der brücke) und die Bajesi-Moschee (links von der Brücke). (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Achmedie-Moschee ist eins der gewaltigsten Bauwerke Konstantinopels und der islamischen Welt überhaupt. Sie wird von sechs hochragenden Minaretts flankiert. Zahllose Nebenkuppeln türmen sich übereinander zur Hauptkuppel empor. (2)Blick von der Stambuler Seite auf das Hafenviertel Galata, auf Pera und den Bosporus. Am Ufer ziehen sich die in schneeweißem Marmor gebauten Paläste der Sultane und der Großwürdenträger entlang. Links das Goldene Horn. (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Übersetzen einer deutschen Fliegerabteilung über den Bosporus. - Die für Palästina und Bagdad bestimmten deutschen Truppen verließen in Konstantinopel den Balkanzug und bestiegen in Skutari, auf der kleinasischen Seite den Zug der anatolischen Bahn. (2)Türkische Infanterie erwartet in einer der Straßen des Hafenviertels Galata die Verladung nach den Dardanellen. Ein charakteristisches Bild: Da während der Dardanellenkämpfe die Unterkünfte für die in und um Konstantinopel zusammengezogenen Truppenmassen nicht annähernd ausreichten, lagen die Truppen oft tagelang auf der Straße. (25) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französisches Munitionsdepot bei Sidd el Bahr. Im Hintergrund die halbzerstörten alten türkischen Befestigungen. (2)Küste an der Halbinsel Gallipoli. Vor dem Ufer liegen gestrandete oder während der Kämpfe versenkte Schiffe. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Australische Kampfreserven in einer dicht hinter der Kampffront bei Sidd el Bahr liegenden Schlucht. Das Bild läßt den Charakter der Landschaft Gallipoli - steile, mit Buschwerk bewachsene Hänge und tiefe Schluchten - gut erkennen. (2)Australische Lager in der Bucht von Anzak unweit Ari Burnu. An der Küste sind Landebrücken gebaut. Links Feldlazarett mit dem Rote-Kreuz-Zeichen. In der Bildmitte Stapelplätze für Munition und Proviant. Rechts oben Truppenzeltlager. (27) Durch Anatolien und Syrien (28) [2 Abb.]: (1)Haidar Pascha, der Anfangsbahnhof der anatolischen Bahn bei Skutari, brannte 1917 mit ungeheuren Vorräten nieder. (2)Auf der anatolischen Hochebene. - Die von den Deutschen erbaute anatolische Bahn, die von Konstantinopel bis Konia führt, überwindet die Geländeschwierigkeiten der kleinasiatischen Gebirgslandschaft auf sehr zahlreichen Kunstbauten. (28) [Abb.]: Typische Landschaft im Taurusgebirge. - Die anatolische Hochfläche wird nach Osten abgeschlossen durch den Taurus, ein Kalkgebirge, das in tiefzerissenen schluchten nach der kilikischen Ebene abfällt. Dem Durchmarsch von Truppen hat dieses Gebirge von jeher große Schwierigkeiten entgegengesetzt. Die alte Straße, die schon von Alexander dem großen benutzt worden ist, hat auch im Weltkrieg vielen deutschen, österreichisch-ungarischen und türkischen Truppen als Marschweg gedient. Bemerkenswert ist der hier an unzugänglichen Stellen noch vielfach erhaltene Baumbestand. (29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Kamelkolonne auf dem Marsch über das Taurusgebirge. (2)Unten: Verladung des Kriegsmaterials auf Kamele. (30) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Lager einer deutschen Kraftfahrabteilung in Bozanti. (2)Unten: der Eingang zum Taurusgebirge bei Bozanti. (31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bau eines Eisenbahnviadukt im Taurusgebirge. (2)Unten: Die Burg Aleppo, die sich auf einem aus der Ebene steil aufsteigenden Hügel mächtig erhebt. (32) [2 Abb.]: (1)deutsche Kraftwagenkolonne auf der durch das Amanusgebirge führenden Heerstraße. (2)Blick vom türkischen Friedhof auf Aleppo. (33) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Der Bacchustempel, das am schönsten erhaltene Bauwerk der Ruinenstadt. (2)Unten: Fliegeraufnahme des Tempelbezirks von Baalbek. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oben: Fliegeraufnahme auf die Ebene zwischen dem Libanon und dem Antilibanon und gegen die Schneeberge des Libanon. (2)Unten: Burgeingang in Aleppo. Die Burg stammt aus der Zeit der Kreuzzüge, wo sie eine wichtige Rolle spielte. (35) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Damaskus; im Hintergrund die steil in die Wüstenebene abfallenden Hänge des Antilibanon. Die Stadt ist mit einem Gürtel blühender Gärten und fruchtbarer Gemüsefelder umgeben. Damaskus zeigt im Stadtbild merkwürdige gegensätze halb orientalisch, halb europäisch gerichteter Kultur. (2)Truppentransport durch das Antilibanongebirge. (3)Blick auf die Küstenstadt Haifa vom berge Karmel aus. (36 - 37) Das Heilige Land (38) [Abb.]: Bethlehem. - Am Weihnachtstag vor der Geburtskirche. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nazareth, bekannt als Wohnort der Eltern Jesu. - Das große Gebäude auf dem Hügel war im Jahre 1918 das Hauptquartier des Generals von Falkenhayn, der die türkische Heeresgruppe in Palästina und Mesopotamien kommandierte. (2)Tiberias, ein Städtchen in Galiläa, am See Genezareth. (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Turm an der Nordostecke der Stadtmauer ("Storchenturm"). - (2)Unten: Blick vom Ölberg über das Kidrontal auf Jerusalem. (40) [Abb.]: Fliegerbild der Stadt und ihrer nächsten Umgebung. Aus der enggedrängten Häusermasse haben sich die mohammedanischen Gotteshäuser, die Omarmoschee und die Aksamoschee (ehemaliger Tempelplatz), heraus. Die christlichen Heiligtümer, die Grabeskirche und die Erlöserkirche, liegen in der Mitte der alten Stadt. Nach dem unteren Bildrand zu, zwischen der Stadtmauer und dem Ölberg, verläuft das Kidrontal und das Tal Josaphat, erkennbar an den Terrassenrändern der Hänge. (41) [2 Abb.]: (1)Typisches Araberdorf am Rande der Syrischen Wüste. Die Bauweise ist, den Lebensformen entsprechend, sehr primitiv. (2)Fliegeraufnahme einer palästinischen Berglandschaft. Das Bild läßt die dort häufige Schichtbildung deutlich erkennen. (42) [Abb.]: Ramle oder Ramleh, kleinere arabische Stadt, an der Straße und der Eisenbahn Jafa - Jerusalem, aber bereits innerhalb der Küstenebene gelegen; im Kriege wichtiger Etappenort hinter der Sinaifront. Die enggedrängte Bauweise, gartenlos und baumlos, ist charakteristisch. trotz dürftiger Verhältnisse sind die Häuser von alters her massiv gebaut, weil das Bauholz fehlt. Fenster sind verhältnismäßig selten, dagegen fällt die häufige Anwendung von Kuppeln auf. (43) An der Sinaifront. (44) [2 Abb.]: (1)An der Grenze zwischen Palästina und Sinai. Kamelreiterkolonne begegnet aus der Stellung zurückkommender Infanterie. (2)Wüstengebirge zwischen dem Südende des Toten Meeres und dem Meerbusen von El Akaba. Die Täler sind durch Sand halb ausgefüllt. Die Vegetation fehlt fast völlig. Einzelne ausgetrocknete Wasserinnen sind im Sandfelde erkennbar. (44) [Abb.]: Fliegeraufnahme einer großen englischen Kamelreiterformation in der Kolonne zu vieren. Im oberen Teil des Bildes, zum Teil durch die Wolkenschatten halb verdeckt, sind Truppenlager erkennbar. Das Bild gibt eine Vorstellung, über welche Transportmöglichkeiten die englische Truppenleitung verfügte. Sie standen in keinem Verhältnis zu den türkischen. (45) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türkische Marschkolonne in der Sinaihalbinsel auf dem Weg zum Suezkanal. Rechts ein höherer Kommandostab. (2)Wasserstelle Magdaba im Wadi El Arisch, einem trockenen Flußtal im nördlichen Teil der Sinaihalbinsel. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Artilleriekolonne überschreitet den Wadi El Arisch. - Als Zugtier diente vorzugsweise der Büffel. Jedoch war seine Verwendbarkeit in der Wüste beschränkt, da er zu seiner Erhaltung zeitweise Gelegenheit haben muß, ins Wasser zu gehen. (2)Charakteristisches Bild einer Palmenoase in der Sinaiwüste mit einer im Schwarm reitenden Beduinenhorde ("Stammesreiter"), gemischt aus Pferde- und Kamelreitern. Der militärische Wert dieser arabischen Reiterschwärme war gering. (47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Frage der Erschließung von Wasser spielte an der Palästinafront eine äußerst wichtige Rolle. Bei den Expeditionen gegen den Suezkanal in den Jahren 1915 und 1916 traf man in dieser Hinsicht sorgfältige Vorbereitungen. An einigen Stellen wurde durch Grabungen Wasser festgestellt und durch Handpumpen in Pontons gefördert, die als trinkbehälter für die Kamele und Pferde bestimmt waren. Trotzdem blieb der Marsch durch die Wüste ein großes Wagnis. (2)An die Stelle der mit Pferden bespannten Munitionskolonne, die in der Wüste meist versagte, trat die Kamelkolonne. (48) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Suezkanal bei Tussum südlich Ismailie. - Nachdem es unter großen Schwierigkeiten gelungen war, die Wüste Sinai zu durchqueren, versuchte man, den Kanal mit Truppen zu überschreiten. Im hohen Sandufer sind noch die Stellen erkennbar, wo die Pontons zu Wasser gelassen wurden. Die Versuche mißlangen infolge überlegener feindlicher Gegenwehr. (2)Bis tief nach Ägypten hinein flogen die an der Suezfront angesetzten deutschen Flieger. Das Bild zeigt eine Fliegeraufnahme der Pyramiden von Gizeh in der Nähe von Kairo. Zugleich gibt es eine eindrucksvolle Vorstellung von dem gegensatz der toten lybischen Sandwüste und des sehr fruchtbaren Niltales, die unmittelbar aneinanderstoßen. (49) An der Palästinafront (50) [Abb.]: Gefechtsbild aus dem Gebirgsgelände. Die Formen, an anderen Stellen von großartiger Öde und Wildheit, sind hier sanfter. Doch lassen die breiten Felsbänke erkennen, daß eine Bearbeitung des Bodens oder ein Eingraben auf größte Schwierigkeiten stößt. Im Vordergrund zwischen den natürlichen Mauern der Kalkriffe australische Schützen. (50) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Soldaten in einer dem unmittelbaren Kampfe entzogenen Schutzstellung. Auch hier ließen sich tiefe Unterstände häufig nicht herstellen. Man begnügte sich daher mit aufgespannten Zeltbahnen zum Schutz gegen die Sonnenstrahlen. (2)Türkische Feldartillerie in Feuerstellung in der Küstenebene. Leichte Wellen und Dünen, zwischen denen flache Mulden verlaufen, boten die Möglichkeit guter Beobachtung und gewährten zugleich ausreichende Deckung. Auf Eingraben konnte bisweilen völlig verzichtet werden. Hier sind Haufen von Hirsestroh zur Tarnung benutzt worden. (51) [3 Abb.]: (1)Ansicht von Tul Karm. Arabische Landstadt am Gebirgsrande halbwegs zwischen Jafa und Haifa. Hier befand sich im Frühjahr und Sommer 1918 das Hauptquartier der 8. türkischen Armee. - Im Hintergrund die weite Fläche der Küstenebene. (2)Deutscher Trupp mit leichtem Maschinengewehr. Dort, wo das Gebirge an die Küstenebene stieß, boten sich häufig überhöhende, die Ebene weithin beherrschende Stellungen, die ohne besondere Vorbereitungen ausgenutzt werden konnten. (3)Entladen eines Dampfers an der freien Küste. Die Landestelle (Nahr Sukrer) liegt etwa 20 km südlich Jafa. Da der Engländer die See vollkommen beherrschte, war es ihm möglich, dem Vormarsch nach Norden mit Dampfern zu folgen und am flachen Strande auszuladen. Arbeitskräfte standen ihm reichlich in dem "ägyptischen Arbeitskorps" zur Verfügung. (52 - 53) [Abb.]: Jordanlandschaft in der Gegend nordöstlich von Jerusalem. der Ort im Vordergrund rechts ist Jericho, das etwa 10 km nördlich vom Toten Meer liegt. Diesseits des Flusses die Berge von Judäa, jenseits die Höhen von Ammon. - Das Bild gibt eine sehr deutliche Vorstellung von der Eigenart der palästinensischen Landschaft. (54 - 55) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mit deutschem Sanitätsmaterial beladene Kamelkarawane. (2)Im östlichen Palästina: Türkische Tragtierkolonne rastet auf einer Talstraße an einem der Nebenflüßchen des Jordan. (56) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fähre bei Ed Damije, etwa 40 km nördlich vom Toten Meer. Für die Operationen war der von Norden nach Süden fließende Jordan umbequem. Die Anlage von festen oder schwimmenden Brücken wurde indessen durch den Holzmangel und durch die ganz ungenügende Ausstattung des türkischen Heeres mit Kriegsbrücken-(Ponton-) Material verhindert. (2)Eine der wenigen, auch für schwere Lasten brauchbaren Kriegsbrücken über den Jordan in der Gegend südlich des Sees Genezareth. Hin und wieder fanden sich Furten, die einen Übergang auch außerhalb der Brücken gestatteten. (57) [Abb.]: Englisches Zeltlager, für etwa ein Bataillon, im südlichen Palästina. Die Engländer zogen solche Zeltlager dem Wohnen in den unsauberen Fellachendörfern vor. Sie waren der Fliegererkundung freilich nur schwer zu verbergen und wurden häufig bombardiert. - Die auf dem Bild erkennbaren Befestigungsanlagen scheinen älteren, vielleicht türkischen Ursprungs zu sein, da sie z. T. schon zugeweht sind. Auf dem untern Teil des Bildes lange Drahthindernisse. (58) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine türkische Kavallerieabteilung auf dem Marsche in der Küstenebene von Gaza, südwestlich von Jerusalem. (2)Deutscher Beobachtungsposten bei Tell Nimrin im Ostjordanland, da, wo die von Es Salt nach Jericho und Jerusalem führende Straße aus dem Gebirge in die Talebene des Jordan eintritt. Alte verfallene Befestigungsbauten, wie der hier sichtbare Turm, sind in dieser Gegend, die früher eine stärkere Besiedlung aufzuweisen hatte, nicht selten. (59) [2 Abb.]: (1)Miltärzug auf einer Station der Hedschas-Bahn, die Damaskus mit Medina verbindet. Bei der spärlichen Besiedlung und dem äußerst geringen örtlichen Verkehr dienen solche oft mitten in der Wüste liegenden Haltestellen vorzugsweise der Wasser- und Brennstoffversorgung. Die Hedschas-Bahn führt größtenteils durch Gelände, dessen Bevölkerung feste Wohnsitze überhaupt nicht kennt. - Die europäisch gebauten Bahngebäude wirken in dieser Landschaft fremd. (2)Apell einer Kompanie des nur aus wenigen tausend Mann bestehenden "Asienkorps" in Amman (Ostjordanland). Der Kompanieführer prüft den Zustand der Segeltuchstiefel, die neben dem schweren Marschschuh zur Ausrüstung gehörten. (60) [Abb.]: Charakteristisches Landschaftsbild südlich des Toten Meeres. Derartige aus den Mergelbergen tief herausgewaschene Schluchten bilden in dieser Gegend die einzigen Verkehrswege und besaßen als solche auch militärische Bedeutung. (61) [Abb.]: Die Kamele sind, während sie auf dem Boden liegen, beladen worden. Links oben auf dem Bilde beginnt bereits der Abmarsch der vordersten Teile der Kolonne. - Die Lastkamele marschieren im Durchschnitt mit 150 kg Last 12 Stunden, und legen dabei Entfernungen von 40 bis 50 Kilometer zurück. - Das Bild gibt eine Vorstellung von der Menge der Tragtiere, über die die Engländer zu Beginn ihrer Offensive verfügten. Sie sicherten ihnen eine große Beweglichkeit. (62) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englisches Kamelreiterkorps auf der Verfolgung nach dem Durchbruch in der Küstenebene westlich Jerusalem. Die Marschkolonne wird in beschleunigter Gangart in Deckung geführt. Dort sitzen die Schützen ab und entwickeln sich zum Angriff gegen die deutsch-türkischen Truppen, die den Rückzug decken; die Kamele bleiben unter Bewachung zurück. (2)Australische Kavallerie trifft auf der Verfolgung in Schenin südlich Nazareth am Südrand der Ebene Jesreel ein. (63) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die scharf nachdrängende Kavallerie erreichte frühzeitig den See Genezareth. Von hier aus ging sie weiter in Richtung Damaskus vor. - Man sieht auf dem Bild die nach Norden führende Straße, auf der lange Reiterkolonnen marschieren, während im Vordergrund mehrere Schwadronen, zuvorderst anscheinend eine M.-G.-Schwadron, rasten. (2)Auf der Verfolgung. - Die Pferde der zum Schützengefecht abgesessenen Reiter werden der Schützenlinie nachgeführt. (64) [Abb.]: Englisches Truppenlager in der Gegend von Damaskus. Man sieht, wie eine große, aus allen Waffen zusammengesetzte Abteilung sich nach der Verfolgung zur Rast anschickt. Bei Damaskus brach der letzte türkische Widerstand zusammen. Bald darauf erreichten englische Truppen Aleppo und durchschnitten dort die Bagdadbahn, die Lebensader der Bagdadfront. (65) Die Bagdadfront (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Östlich Aleppo überschritt die Bagdadbahn bei Djerablus den Euphrat. Im Vordergrund ein deutscher Flußleichter. (2)Die alte Schiffs- und Steinbrücke über den Tigris bei Mosul. Gegenüber die Ruinen der einstigen Weltstadt Ninive. (66) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mardin, ein wichtiger Etappenort an der Grenze zu Mesopotamien. Über Mardin führt der Weg von Mosul durch Armenien ans Schwarze Meer, den die deutschen Kraftwagenkolonnen im Herbst 1918 auf ihrem Rückzug benutzten. (2)Kriegstransport deutscher und türkischer Soldaten auf dem Euphrat bei Der es Sor. Die prahmartigen Schiffsformen stellten ein geeignetes Transportmittel auf dem Euphrat und Tigris mit ihren zahllosen Untiefen und Stromschnellen dar. (67) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bereitstellung einer auf Tragetiere verladenen deutschen Funkerformation in Bagdad zum Abmarsch nach Kut el Amara. (2)Kut el Amara am Tigris, wo sich im Frühjahr 1916 eine englisch-indische Division den Türken ergeben mußte. - Blick auf die durch Artillerie und Fliegerbomben zerstörten Straßen mit ihren schönen alten Bäumen und Gärten. (68) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bagdad. Im Vordergrund die Kazimen-Moschee, ein moderner Bau aus der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts. (2)Englisch-indische Truppen ziehen im Frühjahr 1917 in das eroberte Bagdad ein. (69) [Abb.]: (70) [4 Karten]: (1)Türkei, Syrien u. Nord-Irak (2)Smyrna und Umgebung (3)Palästina (4)Jerusalem ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )
ILLUSTRIERTE GESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES 1914/15. VIERTER BAND. Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Vierter Band. (Vierter Band) ( - ) [Einband]: ( - ) [Abb.]: Erstürmung und Säuberung des Dorfes Douaumont nach kräftiger Artillerievorbereitung am 2. März 1916. ( - ) [Titelblatt]: Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. ( - ) [Impressum]: ( - ) Kriegskalender zur Original=Einbanddecke der Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Vierter Band enthaltend die Ereignisse vom 1. Januar bis 31. Juli 1916. ( - ) Januar. Februar. ( - ) März ( - ) April. ( - ) Mai. ( - ) Juni. ([I]) Juli. ([I]) Ergebnis der zwei Kriegsjahre vom 1. August 1914 bis 31. Juli 1916. ([II]) Besetztes Gebiet: Kriegsgefangene: Kriegsbeute in Deutschland, Kriegsschiffsverluste Feindliche Handelsschiffsverluste: ([II]) Inhaltsverzeichnis. ([III]) Kunstbeilagen. (IV) Karten. (IV) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 76 (Heft 76) ([1]) [Abb.]: Bayrische Gebirgsartillerie eine Passhöhe in Serbien überschreitend. ([1]) [Abb.]: Serbische Flüchtlinge verlassen mit ihrer Habe das Kampfgebiet. (2) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus Serbien (1)Deutsche Trainkolonnen auf den durch Schnee und Regen überschwemmten Strassen des Moravatales. (2)Schweres Vorwärtskommen einer deutschen Munitionskolonne auf der grundlosen serbischen Landstrasse. (3)Erbeutete schwere Mörser mit Munition in Krusevac. (3) [Abb.]: Der Einzug deutscher und bulgarischer Truppen in Monastir, der Hauptstadt von Neuserbien, am 4. Dezember 1915. ([4 - 5]) [Abb.]: Griechisches Militär in Saloniki. (6) [Abb.]: Ein griechischer Transportdampfer lädt im Hafen von Saloniki Truppen des Vierverbandes aus. (7) [Abb.]: Strassenkampf zwischen Serben und Bulgaren. (8) [Abb.]: Kampf um den Brückenkopf von Görz. ( - ) [Abb.]: Vor der Morava: Deutsche Transportkolonne auf der Rast. ([9]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Trainkolonne passiert eine Brücke über den Ibar, einen Nebenfluss der Morava, der in den albanischen Alpen entspringt und sich durch die Schluchten= und wälderreichen Gebiete der "Schunadija" durchzwängt. Die Truppenbewegungen werden durch diese Eigenart des Geländes vielfach ungemein erschwert. ([9]) [Abb.]: Görz, das von den Italienern ganz nutzlos in einen Trümmerhaufen verwandelt wurde. - Von Podgora aus gesehen. (10) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (10) Der Kampf um den Brückenkopf von Görz. (10) [Abb.]: Abteilungen des Krainer Infanterieregiments Nr. 17 erobern die bei Oslavija vorübergehend von den Italienern besetzten Gräben zurück. ([11]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte von Görz und Umgebung (12) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarischer Soldat mit einem Sauerstoffapparat als Schutzmittel gegen die Gase der italienischen Chlorbomben. (13) [Abb.]: Gneraloberst Erzherzog Eugen, der Führer der heldenmütigen österreichisch=ungarischen Armee gegen Italien, und Erzherzog Joseph bei einer Besichtigung an der Isonzofront. (13) Die Versenkung eines italienischen Seglers durch ein österreichisch=ungarisches U=Boot im Beisein eines deutschen U=Bootes. (14) [Abb.]: Abzeichen und Kriegsauszeichnungen. Wiedergabe in etwa halber Grösse. 1. Deutsche Fliegerabzeichen. Abzeichen für Flugzeugführer (a), Abzeichen für Flugzeugbeobachter (b). 2. Hanseatenkreuze. Hamburg (a), Band rot=weiss=rot; Bremen (b), Band fünf weisse und vier rote Streifen; Lübeck (c), Band weiss=rot. 3. Reussische Kriegsverdienstmedaille für Frauen und Jungfrauen (a). Aufschrift: Für treues Wirken in eiserner Zeit; Band gelb, rot=schwarz eingefasst. Abzeichen der Mackensen=Armee (b). 4. Württemberg. Kriegsverdienstkreuz mit Schwertern (a). Kriegsverdienstmedaillen (b u. c). Band gelb mit schwarzen Streifen. (14) Das Passwesen im Kriege. (14) [Abb.]: Ein italienisches Segelschiff mit Karbidladung wird im Mittelmeer durch ein österreichisch=ungarisches Unterseeboot im Beisein eines deutschen Unterseebootes in die Luft gesprengt und versenkt. ([15]) [Abb.]: Einzug eines deutschen Infanterieregiments in Peronne (Nordfrankreich). (16) Ein weiblicher Kraftwagenführer an der Ostfront. (16) [Abb.]: Passzwang in den besetzten Gebieten Nordfrankreichs. Aufnahme einer Gruppe von Müttern mit kleinen Kindern. Die Bilder werden dem von der Behörde des besetzten feindlichen Gebietes ausgestellten Pass der betreffenden Person beigefügt. (17) [Abb.]: Bewohner eines französichen Dorfes werden von der deutschen Militärverwaltung zwecks Austellung der Pässe photographiert. (17) [Abb.]: Fuhrparkkolonne auf dem Marktplatz in Pillkallen. (18) Militärbrieftauben. (18) [Abb.]: An der Kirche in Laugszargen (zwischen Tilsit und Tauroggen), deren Turm von den Russen gesprengt wurde. ([19]) [Abb.]: Verwendung der Brieftauben im Kriege. Den Tauben werden Nachrichtenblättchen am Kiele der mittleren Schwanzfeder befestigt. Dann kommen sie in einen Korb und werden in demselben auf ein freies Feld geschafft.; hier wird der Korb geöffnet, worauf die Tauben ihrem Ziele zufliegen. (20) [Abb.]: Im Kampf um eine serbische Ortschaft. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 77 (Heft 77) ([21]) [Abb.]: Truppenbesichtigung nach einer Feldmesse vor dem Vormarsch gegen Pleblje. ([21]) [Abb.]: Montenegrinische Artillerie bringt ein schweres Geschütz durch einen Fluss. (22) [4 Abb.]: Bilder aus Albanien (1)Gesamtansicht von Skutari, der Haupstadt Albaniens. (2)Die Befestigungen auf dem Tarabosch bei Skutari. (3)Die Basarstraße in Skutari. (4)Eine Gruppe von Albaniern aus der Gegend von Skutari. ([23]) [Abb.]: General Todoroff, der bulgarische Sieger in Mazedonien, Oberbefehlshaber der zweiten bulgarischen Armee. (24) [Abb.]: Das Wardartal. (24) [Abb.]: Siegreicher Angriff der Bulgaren auf die Franzosen am Wardar. ([25]) [Abb.]: Gebirgsartilleriestellung an der montenegrinischen Grenze. (26) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Tragtierkolonne auf dem Vormarsch gegen den Lim (Serbien). (27) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (28) General Todoroff. (28) [Abb.]: Leere Munitionswagen bringen verwundete Franzosen aus der Schlachtfront mit. (28) Eine Parade vor unserem glorreichen Generalfeldmarschall. (28) Erstürmung eines englischen Schützengrabens bei Hooge. (28) [Abb.]: Einnahme und Besetzung eines englischen Schützengrabens südlich von Hooge. (29) Die Niederlage der Engländer bei Ktesiphon. (30) [Abb.]: Zur Niederlage der Engländer bei Ktesiphon. (30) [Abb.]: Djemal=Pascha, der Oberkommandierende der türkischen Armee in Mesopotamien, mit seinem Stabe im Hauptquartier. (31) [Abb.]: Unsere Verbündeten an der Trakfront: Türkische Truppen auf dem Vormarsch südlich Bagdad. (31) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen um Bagdad: Die Engländer werden auf Rückzuge nach ihrer Niederlage bei Ktesiphon von freiwillger türkischer Reiterei angegriffen. ([32 - 33]) Der Sturm auf Hennemont. (34) [Abb.]: Der Oberkommandierende der zweiten türkischen Armee, Feldmarschall v. der Goltz=Pascha (X), im Quartier des Oberstleutnants Wilhelmi bei einer Beratung. Links neben v. der Goltz: dessen Stabschef Oberst Schülri=Bey, Major Redschid, Stabschef des Oberstleutnants Wilhelmi, und als letzter links Hauptmann Adil, Adjutant des Feldmarschalls. Rechts neben v. der Goltz: Oberstleutnant Wilhelmi=Bey, Kommandeur der Arillerie an der Küste des Schwarzen Meeres (im Range eines Divisionskommandeurs), und sein Adjutant Hauptmann Riza=Bey. (34) [Abb.]: Die asiatische Türkei mit der Bagdadbahn. ([35]) [Abb.]: Eine der neuen mannsgrossen französischen Fliegerbomben. (36) [Abb.]: Französisches Kampfflugzeug und eine neue französische Fliegerbombe. (36) Vormarsch durch die Wildnis. (36) [Abb.]: Französischer Kampfdoppeldecker im Fluge. (37) [Abb.]: Eines der neuen französischen Kampfflugzeuge vor dem Aufstieg an der Front in Flandern. (37) [Abb.]: Zu dem Artikel "Die Sachsen in den Vogesen". (38) Die Sachsen in den Vogesen. (38) [Abb.]: Gefecht im Urwald von Bialowieska. (38) [Abb.]: Mit Schneeschuhen ausgerüstete deutsche Gebirgstruppen beim Vormarsch über eine Hochfläche in den Vogesen. (40) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 78 (Heft 78) ([41]) [Abb.]: Italienischer Artilleriemunitionstransport auf enwegsamen, schwierigem Gelände im Gebirge. ([41]) Übersichtsskizze zu den Kämpfen am Isonzo (42) [Abb.]: Die vor ihrer Vertreibung innegehabte Stellung der Engländer und Franzosen auf der Halbinsel Gallipoli. (43) [Abb.]: An den Dardanellen gefangen genommene Engländer in ihrem Nachtquartier. (44) [Abb.]: Vertreibung der Engländer von der Suvlabucht auf Gallipoli. Blick gegen Nordwesten mit dem Kap Bujuk Kernikli und der Strandebene von Kutschuk Anafarta. ([45]) [Abb.]: Admiral v. Usedom Pascha, der Leiter der türkischen Dardanellenverteidigung, erhielt das Eichenlaub zum Orden Pour le Mérite. Der Orden selbst war ihm wegen seiner hervorragenden Leistungen im Chinafeldzuge verliehen worden. (46) [6 Abb.]: Bei unseren türkischen Verbündeten. (1)Das europäische Dardanellenschloss Kilid el Bahr. Im Vordergrund Steinkugeln für 72=cm=Bronzemörser, mit denen die Dardanellenstrasse zur Zeit der Segelschiffahrt an ihrer engsten Stelle gesperrt wurde. (2)Türkisches Truppenlager in einem der neuzeitigen Dardanellenforts. Die Aufnahme fand statt nach der grossen Seeschlacht vom 18. März 1915, bei der dieses Fort 6 Stunden unter dem Feuer der 38=cm=Kanonen der "Queen Elizabeth" gelegen hatte. (3)Blick vom Grossen Turm des Forts Tschimenlik auf die Dardanellenstadt Tschanak Kale nach der grossen Seeschlacht am 18. März 1915. (4)Der Hafen von Gallipoli mit Lazarettschiffen und Transportdampfern, auf denen die türkischen Truppen nach der Gallipolihalbinsel gebracht wurden. (5)Türkischer Transport auf dem Marmarameer wird von einem englischen Unterseeboot verfolgt. (6)Das erste deutsche Unterseeboot in den Dardanellen, befehligt von Oberleutnant zur See v. Voigt, wird von einem türkischen Torpedoboot durch das Marmarameer nach Konstantinopel geleitet. ([47]) [Abb.]: Deutschfreundliche Kundgebung in Konstantinopel. (48) [Abb.]: Sturm auf die Höhe 192 bei Tahure in der Champagne. Das Einbrechen der Bayern in die feindlichen Schützengräben. ( - ) [Abb.]: Ein türkischer Laufgraben an den Dardanellen, der bis zu den vordersten Schützengräben führt. (49) [Abb.]: Rast türkischer Truppen auf Gallipoli. (49) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (50) Erstürmung der Höhe 192 bei Tahure in der Champagne durch die Bayern. (50) Bulgarische Küstenwache am Ägäischen Meer. (50) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Küstenwache am Ägäischen Meer. Im Hintergrund die Bucht von Dedeagatsch und die Maritzamündung. (51) [Abb.]: Englische Soldaten in Ostafrika flüchten vor dem Angriff der Deutschen auf einen bewaffneten Zug der Ugandabahn. ([52 - 53]) Die Vorstösse der Deutschen gegen die britische Ugandabahn. (54) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser in Ostgalizien beim Besuch der Truppen an der Strypa. Österreichisch=ungarische Soldaten werden vom Kaiser ausgezeichnet. (54) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser in Ostgalizien beim Besuch der Truppen an der Strypa. Der Kaiser zeichnet einen jungen Soldaten durch Überreichung des Eisernen Kreuzes aus. (55) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser in Ostgalizien beim Besuch der Truppen an der Strypa. Der österreichisch=ungarische Divisionskommandeur bringt ein Hoch auf den Deutschen Kaiser aus. Hinter diesem General Graf Bothmer. (55) [Abb.]: Die Front der Verbündeten in Südserbien. ([56]) Der Misserfolg der Orientarmee. ([56]) [Abb.]: Die Trümmer des serbischen Heeres nach der Schlacht auf dem Amselfelde. (57) [Abb.]: Von den Deutschen gefangen genommene französische Sanitätsoldaten werden von schweizerischen Truppen durch die Schweiz geleitet, um nach Frankreich zurückzukehren. (58) Deutscher Einspruch gegen die französische Kriegführung. (58) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten vom Roten Kreuz, die von Belgiern gefangen genommen wurden. (58) [Abb.]: Eine Gruppe in deutscher Gefangenschaft befindlicher Soldaten vor ihren Baracken. (59) [Abb.]: Leben und Treiben der Gefangenen des grossen internationalen Gefangenenlagers zu Königsbrück (Königreich Sachsen). (59) [Abb.]: Kriegsopferstock in der Vorhalle zu den Geschäftsräumen der Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft in Stuttgart. (60) Kriegsopferstöcke. (60) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 79 (Heft 79) ([61]) [Abb.]: Die Einweihung der wichtigen Eisenbahnstation Birseba an dem gegenwärtigen Endpunkte der im Anschluss an die Bagdad= und die Hedjazbahn durch das Heilige Land bis in die Wüste südlich von Gaza geführten Bahnlinie, von Djemal Pascha und anderen hohen Offizieren und Beamten, deutschen und österreichisch=ungarischen Konsuln. ([61]) Karte von Westasien (Persien und Afghanistan) (62) Karte von Vorderindien. (63) [Abb.]: Bewaffnete Perser überschreiten die russische Grenze. (64 - 65) [Abb.]: General Botha im Gespräch mit dem Bürgermeister von Windhuk bei Übergabe der Stadt. (66) [Abb.] Boote, die für die Vierverbandsmächte in Greenport in Amerika erbaut wurden und bestimmt sind, Jagd auf die deutschen Unterseeboote zu machen, zur Abfahrt nach Archangelsk bereit. (67) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarisches Unterseeboot in der Adria. Der zweite Seeoffizier von rechts ist Linienschiffsleutnant Singule. (68) [Abb.]: Krieger des Scheichs der Senussi vertreiben die Engländer aus Matruh, östlich von Solum. ( - ) [Abb.]: Beschiessung und Vernichtung italienischer Transportschiffe im Haften San Giovanni di Medua an der albanischen Küste durch ein Österreichisch=ungarisches Geschwader. ([69]) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen in Westägypten. (70) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (70) Der Angriff der Araber und Senussi auf Solum und Matruh an der westägyptischen Grenze. (70) [Abb.]: Vom Besuch des Erzherzogs Friedrich bei der deutsche Südarmee. Vorbeimarsch der deutschen Ehrenkompanie vor dem Erzherzog. Der dritte in der Reihe der hinter ihm stehenden Offiziere ist General Graf Bothmer. (71) Sappensturm. (71) [Abb.]: Sappensturm. ([72 - 73]) [Abb.]: Das Ausladen von Stacheldraht in einem Pionierpark. (74) In einem Pionierpark. (75) [Abb.]: Blick in den Pionierpark eines sächsischen Armeekorps im Westen. (75) Eröffnungsfeier der Bahnstation Birseba. (76) Kriegszeitungen. (76) [5 Abb.]: Die Gazette des Ardennes", eine in französischer Sprache von den Deutschen herausgegebene Zeitung für die Bevölkerung des besetzten Gebietes. Sie erscheint wöchentlich dreimal in einer Auflage von 100 000 Exemplaren. (1)Der Setzmaschinensaal. Zwei "Maschinensetzer" sind beschäftigt, das Manuskript für die Zeitung auf der Maschine abzusetzen. (2)Der Handsetzersaal. (3)Anfuhr des Rotationsdruckpapiers für die Druckerei. (4)Der Zeitungsverkäufer. (5)Die Druckerei mit den Rotationsmaschinen. ([77]) Versenkung italienischer und montenegrinischer Transportdamper im Hafen von San Giovanni di Medua durch die österreichisch=ungarische Flotte. (78) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehrabteilung marschiert über ein schneebedecktes Feld in der Bukowina. (78) [Abb.]: Vernichtung eines russischen Reiterregiments bei Zaleszczyki. ([79]) [Abb.]: Die deutschen Postwertzeichen im besetzten Belgien. (80) Von den Kämpfen an der bessarabischen Front. (80) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16 Heft 80 (Heft 80) ([81]) [Abb.]: Explodierendes schweres Geschoss in flandrischer Landschaft. ([81]) [Abb.]: Französische Soldaten verladen eine 220 Zentimeter lange Bombe auf ein Kampfflugzeug. (82) [Abb.]: General Foch, der neu ernannte Stellvertreter des französischen Oberbefehlshabers Joffre. (83) [Abb.]: Sir Douglas Haig, als Nachfolger des Feldmarschalls French Befehlshaber der englischen Truppen in Frankreich und Flandern. (83) [Abb.]: General Castelnau, der neu ernannte Kommandeur der französischen Truppen an der Nordwestfront. (83) [Abb.]: Der große Kriegsrat der Verbündeten. Nach einer französischen Aufnahme im Hauptquartier zu Calais am 8. Dezember 1915. General Pellé. General Porro (Italien). Marschall French (England). General Joffre (Frankreich). General Gilinsky (Russland). Oberst Stefanowitsch (Serbien) (83) [Abb.]: Zurückeroberung des Hartmannsweilerkopfes durch die 82. Landwehrbrigade am 22. Dezember 1915. ([84 - 85]) [Abb.]: Schloss Hollebeke bei Ypern, der Schauplatz erbitterter Kämpfe in Flandern, gehörte früher dem König der Belgier. (86) [Abb.]: Das Westendhotel in Westende=Bad, das von den Deutschen als Verbandplatz eingerichtet war und von den Engländern zerschossen wurde, ungeachtet der Fahne des Roten Kreuzes, die auf dem Gebäude angebracht war. Vor dem Gasthaus ist ein kleiner Friedhof mit Soldatengräbern angelegt. (86) [Abb.]: Angeschossenes englisches Flugzeug, das bei Middelkerke in Flandern zum Landen gezwungen wurde. (87) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehr=Vorposten an der flandrischen Küste. (87) [Abb.]: Ein französisches Truppenlager bei Saloniki. (88) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Landwehr vertreibt die in einen Kirchhof nördlich von Czartorysk eingedrungenen Russen am Januar 1916. ( - ) [Abb.]: Vergeblicher Ansturm der Russen auf die österreichisch=ungarischen Verschanzungen bei Toporoutz am 1. Januar 1916. Der Soldat rechts von der Mitte des Bildes schleudert ein Handgranate gegen den mit elektrischem Starkstrom geladenen Drahtverhau, um diesen durch Explosion zu sprengen. ([89]) [Abb.]: Novipazar. (90) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (91) Die Erstürmung von Bjelopolje durch österreichisch=ungarische Truppen. (91) [Abb.]: Krusevac. (91) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen auf der Rast an der serbisch=albanischen Grenze. (92) [Abb.]: Ein verlassenes Schlachtfeld im serbischen Gebirge. Im Vordergrunde serbische Gefallene, hinten eine deutsche Patrouille. (92) [Abb.]: Einnahme von Bjelopolje in Montenegro. ([93]) [Abb.]: Vom Rückzug der Serben. Beförderung von Verwundeten über eine fast ganz zerstörte Holzbrücke über die Morava. (94) Von Südserbien nach Montenegro und Albanien. (94) Die vierte Isonzoschlacht. (95) [Abb.]: König Peter I. von Serbien auf der Flucht in einem Ochsenkarren. (95) [Abb.]: Artilleriebeobachtungstand und Offizierunterstand an der Isonzofront. (96) [Abb.]: Aufklärungsflug über dem Isonzo. Rechts im Hintergrund am Fuss der Berge die Stadt Görz, dann isonzoabwärts Gradisca, daneben bei der Brücke Sagrado, weiter vorne, an dem mit dem Meere durch eine Kanal verbundenen Hafen, Monfalcone, rechts davon das vielumstrittene Doberdoplateau. Im Vordergrund die Bucht von Panzano ([97]) [Abb.]: Übersicht über die vom Zentralkomitee des Roten Kreuzes in den Austellungshallen des Berliner Zoologischen Gartens veranstaltete Austellung von Kriegsbeutestücken, die beinahe sämtliche von unseren Feinden gebrauchten Waffenarten umfasst: Panzerautomobile, Riesengeschütze und =geschosse, Mörser und Minenwerfer, Handfeuerwaffen, Kampfflugzeuge, zerschmetterte Geschützrohre und durchlöcherte Panzerplatten. (98) Pioniere als Taucher. (98) [Abb.]: Ein Taucher in voller Ausrüstung. (99) [Abb.]: Englands Missachtung fremder Hoheitszeichen. (99) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte des Gebietes Lovcen=Cetinje. (100) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 81 (Heft 81) ([101]) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zur Eroberung des Lovcen. ([101]) [Abb.]: Die Bucht von Cattaro. Im Hintergrund das Grenzgebirge Montenegros mit dem Lovcen in der Mitte. ([101]) [Abb.]: Die Hauptstrasse der montenegrinischen Hauptstadt Cetinje. (102) [Abb.]: Gesamtansicht von Cetinje. (102) [Abb.]: König Nikolaus I. von Montenegro. der am 17. Januar 1916 vor der österreichisch=ungarischen Armee bedingungslos die Waffen streckte. (103) [Abb.]: Das königliche Schloss in Cetinje nach der Einnahme der Stadt durch die österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen. (103) [Abb.]: Ein österreichisch=ungarisches Regiment bezieht seine Stellungen in schneebedeckter Höhe des Karstes. (104) [Abb.]: Tiroler Kaiserjäger beim Sturm auf eine Passhöhe. ([105]) [Abb.]: Ein italienischer Posten in Winterausrüstung in den tiefverschneiten Alpen. (106) [Abb.]: Gesamtansicht des Col di Lana von Buchenstein (italienisch Pieve die Livinallongo) bis zum Pass von Falzarego. (107) [Abb.]: Italienische Belagerungsbatterie nach achtstündigem ununterbrochenem Feuer gegen die feindlichen Stellungen. (107) [Abb.]: Englische 1=Pfund=Note mit türkischem Überdruck, wie solche von den Engländern zum Umlauf in der Türkei vorbereitet waren in der sicheren Voraussetzung der Einnahme der Dardanellen, Konstantinopels und weiterer türkischer Gebiete. Wie sehr die Engländer dort auf einen Erfolg gerechnet hatten, geht auch aus der Tatsache hervor, dass auf der Insel Mudros mehr als tausend Beamte versammelt waren, die sofort nach der Einnahme Konstantinopels die ihnen zugeteilten Ämter antreten und die Zivilverwaltung übernehmen sollten. (108) [Abb.]: Blick über das Deck des englischen Linienschiffes "Eduard VII." (108) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Lovcen durch österreichisch=ungarische Infanterie nach dreitägigem Ringen am 10. Januar 1916. ( - ) [Abb.]: Eine deutsche Abteilung zieht durch Novipazar ([109]) [Abb.]: Beobachtungsballon steigt über einem bukowinischen Gehöft auf. (110) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (110) Die Erstürmung des Lovcen. (110) [Abb.]: Zu dem Artikel: "Der Fesselballon im Kriege". (110) [Abb.]: Zu dem Artikel: "Der Fesselballon im Kriege". (110) [Abb.]: Fesselballon im Westen, zum Aufstieg bereit. (111) [Abb.]: Einholung eines Fesselballons auf einer Waldlichtung in den Argonnen wegen Beschiessung durch feindliche Flieger. ([112 - 113]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Organisation in Flandern: Registratur des Generalkommandos des Marinekorps in Brügge. (114) Die Einnahme von Novipazar. (114) Der Feselballon im Kriege. (115) [Abb.]: Ein ehemaliger Pfedestall in Flandern wurde als Mannschaftskantine ausgebaut. (115) [Abb.] Maschinengewehr=Abteilung der Marineinfanterie mit belgischen Ponys auf dem Vormarsch. (116) Küstenwacht in Flandern. (116) [Abb.]: Ein Landsieg deutscher Marinetruppen in Flandern. ([117]) [Abb.]: Blick auf ein zerschossenes Dorf in Flandern. Die Schützengräben ziehen sich mitten durch den Ort. (118) [Abb.]: Durch englische Schiffsgeschütze zerstörte Häuser in Middelkerke. (119) Englands Missachtung fremder Hoheitszeichen. (119) Geistesgegenwart bei einer Erkundung. (120) [Abb.]: Geistesgegenwart bei einer Erkundung. (120) [Abb.]: Die Bucht von Phaleron. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 82 (Heft 82) ([121]) [Abb.]: Eine der eigenartigen, aus Holz erbauten russischen Dorfkirchen bei Buczaz an der Struypa. ([121]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte zur Neujahrschlacht bei Czernowitz und Toporoutz. (122) [Abb.]: Russische Wolfsgrube. (123) [Abb.]: In Galizien gefangen genommene Russen lagern vor ihrer Abführung auf einem Kartoffelfelde. (123) [Abb.]: Auffahren schwerer russischer Artillerie zur Schlachtfront in Ostgalizien. (124 - 125) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser in Nisch. Links der Kaiser im Gespräch mit General Schekow, dem Oberbefehlshaber des bulgarischen Heeres, rechts König Ferdinand von Bulgarien mit Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen. (126) [Abb.]: Junger persischer Soldat. (127) [Abb.]: Truppenbesichtigung unter Salar ed Dauley, dem Anführer der persischen Truppen. (127) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (128) Die Eisnacht an der Raska. (128) [Abb.]: Saloniki und Umgebung aus der Vogelschau. (128) [Abb.]: Fliegerangriff auf das französische Lager von Saloniki. ([129]) [Abb.]: Gesamtansicht des Piräus, des Kriegshafens von Athen. (130 - 131) [Abb.]: Gesamtansicht von Athen mit der Akropolis. (130 - 131) [Abb.]: Die Terrassen des Schlosses Achilleion, des Besitztums des Deutschen Kaisers, auf der griechischen Insel Korfu. (130 - 131) [Abb.]: Zum deutschen Fliegerangriff auf die englische Festung Dover in der Nacht vom 22. zum 23. Januar 1916. Blick auf den Hafen. (132) Die Verluste der Engländer in den afrikanischen Kolonialkämpfen 1914/15. (132) [Abb.]: Englischer 8000=Tonnen=Dampfer vor der Versenkung durch ein deutsches Unterseeboot. ([133]) Vogesenkämpfe. (134) [Abb.]: Der Grossherzog von Baden hält eine Ansprache an seine Landeskinder in den Vogesen. (135) [Abb.]: Hinter der französischen Front in den Vogesen. Präsident Poincaré schreitet auf dem Kamm eines Berges die Front eines Alpenjägerregiments ab. (135) [Abb.]: Von deutschen Pionieren neu hergestellter Brückenübergang. (136) Unsere Eisenbahner im Felde. (136) [Abb.]: Die größte von deutschen Pionieren erbaute hölzerne Eisenbahnbrücke in Nordfrankreich. (136) [Abb.]: Eisenbahner beim Bahnbau in Feindesland. ([137]) [Abb.]: Sprengung der Eisenbahnbrücke Kraglanken. (138) [Abb.]: Die Eisenbahnbrücke bei Nagybocsko in Oberungarn wurde beim Nahen eines russischen Truppentransports zerstört und dadurch 300 Russen der Rückzug abgeschnitten. (138) Panzerzüge und Panzerkraftwagen. (139) [Abb.]: Eine von den Franzosen gesprengte Eisenbahnbrücke der Strecke Thiaucourt-Toul, von der noch die Schienen in der Luft schweben. (139) [Abb.]: Eines der neuen italienischen Panzerautomobile. (140) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarischer Panzerzug. (140) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 83 (Heft 83) ([141]) [Abb.]: Der sinkende englische Kreuzer "Hermes", der schon am 31. Oktober 1914 8 Uhr morgens, als er von Dünkirchen aus die Straße von Dover passierte, von einem deutschen Unterseeboot torpediert wurde und innerhalb 45 Minuten versank. Unser Bild, das nur durch Zufall jetzt in die Öffentlichkeit gelangt ist, stellt die letzten Augenblicke des Untergangs dar. Die Besatzung bestand aus 418 Mann, von denen etwa 40 umgekommen sind. ([141]) [Abb.]: Amerikanische Kriegslieferungen für unsere Feinde auf dem Hafenkai in New York. Verpackte und sorgfältig verschalte Automobile und Teile von Lastwagen. (142) [Abb.]: Große Kupferplatten auf einem amerikanischen Dampfer im Eriebecken in Brooklyn (New York). Die Platten, deren jede 250 Pfund wiegt, sind zur Munitionsfabrikation für unsere Feinde bestimmt. (143) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches Marineluftschiffgeschwader belegt in der Nacht vom 31. Januar zum 1. Februar 1916 die Industrieanlagen einer englischen Hafenstadt mit Bomben. ([144 - 145]) [Abb.]: Französischer Gasangriff. Von einem Flieger aufgenommen in dem Augenblick, als die Gasbehälter geöffnet und das Gas vom Wind gegen die feindlichen Stellungen getrieben wurde. Hinter den Gasbehältern befanden sich die anstürmenden Truppen. (146) [Abb.]: Ein Kampfplatz bei Tahure in der Champagne. (147) [Abb.]: Flugzeugbeförderung in Flandern. (147) [Abb.]: Prinz Mirko (X), der zweite Sohn des Königs von Montenegro, der nach dessen Flucht im Lande verblieben ist. (148) [Abb.]: Von der Waffenstreckung der montenegrinischen Armee: Gewehrablieferung. (148) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen der Armee Kövesz im montenegrinisch=albanischen Gebiet. Skipetaren (mohammedanische Albanier) führen österreichisch=ungarische Infanteristen ins Gefecht. ([149]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (150) Der Abschluss der Kämpfe gegen Montenegro. (150) [Abb.]: Albanier vor einem Zeitungsverkaufstand in Durazzo. (151) Was kostet ein Kanonenschuss? (151) [Abb.]: Der Hafen von Durazzo mit albanischen Typen. (151) [Abb.]: Zusammenbruch eines russischen Waffenangriffs in der Neujahrsoffensive in Ostgalizien. ([152 - 153]) Die Neujahrschlacht an Pruth, Onjestr und Strypa. (154) [Abb.]: Die Kämpfe an der Strypa. (154) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Patrouille mit Schneemänteln in der Bukowina. (154) [6 Abb.]: Bilder aus dem zerstörten Dirmuiden. (1)Stellung am Yserkanal (2) Stellung in der Nähe des Yserkanals (3)In den Ruinen der Nikolaikirche (4)Stellung im alten Friedhof (5)Marktplatz mit Rathaus (6)Bataillonsunterstand in Dirmuiden. ([155]) [Abb.]: Generalmajor Tappen, Abteilungsvorstand beim Stabe des Generalstabs des Feldheers, erhielt den Orden Pour le Mérite (156) Die Ypernfront. (156) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen um Ypern: Schwere Munitionskolonne in Deckung hinter einer Ferme in Fortnin. ( - ) [Abb.]: Rettung der Fahne des 61. Reserve=Infanterieregiments. ([157]) Rettung einer Regimentsfahne. (158) Marineluftfahrwesen und Flotte im modernen Kriege. (158) [Abb.]: Wasserflugzeug von der Seite. (158) [Abb.]: Wasserflugzeug im Fluge. (159) [Abb.]: Curtiss=Flugboot in Fahrt. (159) [3 Abb.]: Bilder von der Marinefliegerschule in Kiel. (1)Der Führer eines Wasserflugzeuges wird an der Landungstelle durch einen Matrosen in wasserdichtem Ölanzug an Land gebracht. (2)Ein Wasserflugzeug, zur Abfahrt bereit, wird von Matrosen auf das Wasser gebracht, wobei diese bis ins Wasser hineingehen. (3)Matrosen beim Einbringen eines Wasserflugzeugs am Landungsteg. (160) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 84 (Heft 84) ([161]) [Abb.]: Vom Zeppelinbesuch in Paris am 29. Januar 1916. Ein fünfstöckiges Haus wurde von einer Bombe glatt durchschlagen. ([161]) [Abb.]: Frankreichs letzte Reserven. Einziehung der Jahresklasse 1917. Die jungen Leute, die fast noch Kindern gleichen wurden zu Beginn des Jahres 1916 in Frankreich unter die Waffen gerufen, um so rasch wie möglich zu Soldaten ausgebildet und an die Front geschickt zu werden. (162) [Abb.]: Zum grossen Erfolg bei Péronne und Frise. Über 900 gefangene Franzosen auf dem Marsche zum Bahnhof von Péronne. (163) [Abb.]: Durchmarsch französischer Gefangener durch eine von den Deutschen besetzte Stadt in der Champagne. (163) [Abb.]: Die Verladung der französischen Gefangenen zur Fahrt nach Deutschland. (163) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Artillerie auf dem Vormarsch in Albanien. (164 - 165) [Abb.]: Die grosse Holzbrücke bei Sjak (die einzige Zufahrtstrasse nach Durazzo), die von dem zurückweichenden feindlichen Heer abgebrochen wurde. (166) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (167) Soziale Kriegsfürsorge. 1. (167) 1. (167) [Abb.]: Gesamtansicht von Durazzo. (167) [Abb.]: Deutscher Landsturm auf dem Marktplatz einer mazedonischen Stadt. (168) 2. (168) 3. (168) [Abb.]: Rettung der Insassen eines beschossenen österreichisch=ungarischen Flugzeuges aus Seenot bei Valona durch den Führer des Luftgeschwaders, Leutnant Konjovic, der trotz des Nahens feindlicher Zerstörer auf das Meer niederging und unbeschädigt mit den Geretteten landete ([169]) Schwebebahnen zur Beförderung Verwundeter. (170) Russische Kulturarbeit auf französischem Boden. (170) [Abb.]: Besuch des Grossherzogs Ernst Ludwig von Hessen an der Front. Der Grossherzog vor dem Unterstand eines Regimentstabes. (170) Das Ringen am Isonzo. (171) [Abb.]: Von einer Eisenbahn zu einem Magazin abzweigende Feldseilbahnlinie. (171) [Abb.]: Die Baukompanie an Station Falkenhausen der Bismarckfeldseilbahn bei deren Inbetriebnahme. (171) [Abb.]: Russische Kulturarbeit auf französischem Boden. ([172 - 173]) [Abb.]: Italienischer Pionieroffizier von der "Todeskompanie" in gepanzerter Rüstung und mit einer Drahtschere an langem Schaft. (174) [6 Abb.]: Vom Kriegschauplatz an der österreichisch=italienischen Grenze. (1)Schwere Haubitze (Lafette), auf Schlitten verpackt, wird auf 2500 Meter Höhe in Stellung gebracht. (2)Gebirgskanone auf 2500 Meter Höhe in gedeckter Feuerstellung. (3)Im Schützengraben auf 2400 Meter Höhe. (4)General N. (X) auf dem Weg zu seinen Truppen. (5)Heizbarer Behälter für die Wasserversorgung. (6)Der brave "Hektor" im Kriegsdienste. ([175]) Wie die Franzosen Sturm laufen. (176) [Abb.]: Ein italienischer Gasangriff am Isonzo. (176) [Abb.]: Niederlage der italienischen Garde durch österreichisch=ungarische Truppen, hauptsächlich Bosniaken, an der nördlichen Isonzofront. ( - ) [Abb.]. Ein missglückter französischer Bajonettangriff. ([177]) Marineluftfahrwesen und Flotte im modernen Kriege. 2. Erfolge im Marineflugwesen beim Bekämpfen der feindlichen Flotte. (178) [Abb.]: Flugzeugangriff gegen ein Geschwader. (178) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarisches Marineflugzeug steigt zu Erkundungszwecken und zur Bekämpfung feindlicher Kriegsfahrzeuge in der Adria auf. (179) [Abb.]: Luftblockade. (179) [2 Abb.]: (1)Königreich Sachsen. Kriegsverdienstkreuz, Band Mitte grün, weiß=hellblau=gelb eingefasst. Grossherzogtum Oldenburg. Auszeichnung für Verdienste um das Rote Kreuz. Band dunkelblau mit zwei roten Streifen. (2)Fürstentum Lippe=Detmold. Kriegsverdienstmedaille. Band weiss mit rot=gelber Einfassung. Militärverdienstmedaille mit Schwertern. Band rot mit schmalem gelbem Rand. Grossherzogtum Hessen. Ehrenzeichen für Kriegsfürsorge. Band rot mit weissen Streifen. (180) [Abb.]: Neue Kriegsauszeichnungen. Königreich Bayern. König=Ludwig=Kreuz. Band hellblau, in der Mitte weiss durchwirkt. (180) [Abb.]: Türkische Flugzeuge auf einer Erkundungsfahrt am Suezkanal. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 85 (Heft 85) ([181]) [Abb.]: Eine Abteilung der nach Hunderten griechischen Arbeiter, die unter Befehl und Aufsicht englischer Soldaten bei den Befestigungsarbeiten in der Gegend von Saloniki helfen mussten. Die Arbeiter wurden dafür mit einem Franken für den Tag entschädigt. ([181]) [Abb.]: Der französische Panzerkreuzer "Admiral Charner", der am 8. Februar 1916 an der syrischen Küste südlich Beirut von einem deutschen Unterseeboot versenkt wurde. (182) [Abb.]: Kut=el=Amara am Ostufer des Tigris unterhalb Bagdads. In der Umgegend wohnt der Stamm der Amaras, nach denen die Stadt benannt ist. (183) [Abb.]: Englischer Schützengraben bei Kut=el=Amara (183) [Abb.]: Ausbau der englischen Stellungen am Suezkanal. (184 - 185) [Abb.]: Ein indischer Fürst mit seinem Stabe nimmt Abschied von französischen und englischen Offizieren beim Verlassen des westlichen Kriegschauplatzes. (186) [Abb.]: Beduinenlager in der ägyptischen Wüste in der Gegend von Solum. (187) [Abb.]: Höhlenwohnungen von Angehörigen des Stammes der Bischarin am oberen Nil. (187) [Abb.]: Eine Gruppe von Offizieren in Kamerun. In der Mitte Oberst Zimmermann, der den englischen Eindringlingen wirksam entgegentrat. Die andern Offiziere sind Distriktskommissare. (188) [Abb.]: Hauptmann v. Raben, der Held von Mora, der mit einer kleinen Schar deutscher und eingeborener Truppen bis zur letzten Möglichkeit den äußersten Nordwinkel Kameruns verteidigte. (188) [Abb.]: Deutsches Unterseeboot im Gefecht mit bewaffneten französischen Fischerdampfern im Mittelmeer. ([189]) [2 Abb.]: (1)General der Artillerie v. Lauter, Generalinspekteur der Fussartillerie. (2)Generalmajor v. Schoeler, Generalintendant des Feldheeres. (190) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (190) Fischerbarken an Stelle von Dreadnoughts. (190) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feldoberpostmeister Domizlaff. (2)Generalstabsarzt der Armee Dr. v. Schjerning, Chef des Feldsanitätswesens. (191) Charakterköpfe aus dem Grossen Hauptquartier. (191) [Abb.]: Fürst Solms=Buruth, Kaiserl. Kommissar und Militärinspekteur der freiwilligen Krankenpflege. (192) [Abb.]: Rückzug der Russen aus der Gegend von Czartorysk. ([193]) [Abb.]: Der lang entbehrte, bar bezahlte Gänsebraten. ([193]) Rückzug der Russen aus der Gegend von Czartorysk. (194) Soziale Kriegsfürsorge. (194) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten kommen mit Gänsen von einem Markte in Russisch=Polen. (194) [Abb.]: Parade in einem von den deutschen Truppen besetzten russischen Ort hinter der Front. (195) [6 Abb.]: Zum Wiederaufbau Ospreussens. Das erste wieder aufgebaute Gut in Ospreussen: Neu=Waldeck.(1)Die Ruine des früheren Gutshauses. (2)Das Gutshaus Neu=Waldeck nach dem Wiederaufbau. (3)Die Ruine des früheren Pferdestalles. (4)Der Pferdestall nach dem Wiederaufbau. (5)Die Ruine des früheren Arbeiterhauses. (6)Das Arbeiterhaus nach dem Wiederaufbau. (196) [6 Abb.]: Neues Leben in dem zerstörten Ostpreussen. (1)Verkaufsstände vor zerstörten Häusern in Hohenstein. (2)Blick auf den Marktplatz in Lyck. (3)Händler hält an einer Strassenecke in Johannisburg seine Waren feil. (4)Zerstörung in Lyck. (5)Hauptstrasse in Ortelsburg, das unter der russischen Herrschaft sehr gelitten hat. (6)Marggrabowa: Deutsche Bauern bringen das ihnen von der Regierung zur Verfügung gestellte Vieh in die Heimat. ([197]) [Abb.]: Ein neuer deutscher Flugzeugtypus: Fokker=Eindecker, der durch seine grosse Schnelligkeit und eine Steigkraft von 24,4 Metern in der Minute dazu beitrug, den Deutschen die Überlegenheit im Luftkrieg zu verschaffen. Der deutsche Fokker=Eindecker ist ein kleines Flugzeug mit ausserordentlich schmalen Tragflächen und daher sehr wenig stabil. Er ist mit einem Mercedesmotor von 150 PS ausgerüstet. Seine Eigenart gestattet die oben dargestellte Angriffsweise. Der Fokker steigt sehr schnell und greift den flüchtenden Gegner von rückwärts unten an, indem er mit dem Maschinengewehr besonders gegen den Benzinbehälter unter dem Sitz des Beobachters feuert, dabei die Flieger verwundet und oft den Motor zerstört. Misslingt dieser Angriff, so wendet der Fokker, und während der Flieger mit der einen Hand einen neuen Ladestreifen in das Maschinengewehr einführt, wendet er mit der anderen das Flugzeug und greift im Steigen wieder von rückwärts an. Ein englischer Apparat in 2500 Meter Höhe wurde von einem startenden Fokker in verhältnismässig kurzer Zeit eingeholt und angegriffen. Der Fokker ist ein reines Verteidigungsflugzeug und erfordert eine sorgfältige Auswahl des Flugzeugführers. (198 - 199) Ostpreussen im Wiederaufbau. (198 - 199) Die deutschen Fokker. (198 - 199) [Abb.]: Eine englische Darstellung des neuen deutschen Fokker=Eindeckers mit Bezeichnung der einzelnen Teile nach englischen Angaben. Das Besondere dieses neuen Flugzeuges besteht neben der grossen Steigkraft und Schnelligkeit in dem vorn eingebauten unbeweglichen Maschinengewehr, mit dem zwischen den Flügeln des sich drehenden Propellers hindurchgeschossen werden kann, ohne sie zu beschädigen. (200) [Abb.]: Deutsche Torpedobootsbesatzungen retten englische Mannschaften nach dem Seegefecht an der Doggerbank in der Nacht vom 10. zum 11. Februar 1916. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 86 (Heft 86) ([201]) [Abb.]: Exzellenz Dr. Karl Th. Hefferich, kaiserlicher Staatssekretär im Reichsschatzamt. ([201]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte des Hauptindustriegebietes in England, auf das der grosse deutsche 29. Luftangriff (siehe Seite 143) erfolgte. (202) [Abb.]: Kapitänleutnant Odo Löwe, Kommandnat des in der Nordsee untergegangenen "L 19", das von vorbeifahrenden englischen Seeleuten feige im Stich gelassen wurde. (203) [Abb.]: Der Untergang des Marineluftschiffes "L 19", dessen Besatzung mit dem Kommandanten, Kapitän Löwe, ertrinken musste, weil der Kapitän des englischen Dampfers "King Stephen", der der Katastrophe aus der Nähe zusah, die Rettung der Deutschen aus Feigheit verweigerte. ([204 - 205]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (206) Austauschverwundete. (206) Unsere Torpedos. (207) [ 3 Abb.]: Aufnahmen von unserer Torpedobootflotte, die sich stets in Bereitschaft halten muss, um als Schutz= und Begleitboote für unsere grossen Panzerschiffe auf hohe See zu fahren und den schweren Dienst als Vor= und Wachtposten auszuüben. (1)Das Laden eines Torpedos. (2)Das Abfeuern eines Torpedos. (3)Blick in einen grossen Torpedolagerraum. (207) [Abb.]: Leutnant z. S. der Seew. II Hans Berg (Kapitän bei der Reederei Arentiel u. Klausen, Apenrade), der als Führer der Prisenbesatzung des gekaperten englischen Dampfers "Appam" diesen in kühner Fahrt über den Ozean brachte und in Norfolk in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika landete. (208) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zur Kaperung des englischen Dampfers "Appam", der von dem Prisenkommando des deutschen Kreuzers "Möve" von Madeira nach Norfolk, einem Hafen des Staates Viginia an der Westküste Amerikas, gebracht wurde. (208) [Abb.]: Die Kaperung des englischen Schiffes "Appam" durch den deutschen Kreuzer "Möve" im Atlantischen Ozean am 16. Januar 1916. ([209]) Die Niederwerfung Montenegros und der Feldzug in Albanien. (210) [Abb.]: Der Hauptplatz in Skutari mit der katholischen Kirche. (210) Unser Reichsfinanzminister. (211) [Abb.]: Die Besatzung von "S. M. S. Möve" nach der Rückkehr in einen deutschen Hafen. Nach einer Aufnahme vom Atelier Kloppmann am 5. März 1916. Vorderste Reihe: 1. Assistenzarzt Dr. Pietsch. 2. Leutnant z. S. Meisel. 3. Leutnant z. S. Köhler. 4. Oberleutnant z. S. Bethke. 5. Oberleutnant z. S. Niedermaier. 6. Korvettenkapitän Burggraf und Graf zu Dohna=Schlodien (erhielt vom Kaiser persönlich den Orden Pour le Mérite überreicht). 7. Kapitänleutnant Fritz Wolf. 8. Oberleutnant z. S. d. Ref. Pohlmann. 9. Torpeder Oberleutnant Kuhl. - Zweite Reihe, von links nach rechts: 1. Vizewachtmeister d. Ref. Rosenbrock. 2. Zahlmeisteraspirant Schönwald. 3. Vizewachtmeister d. Res. Wellensliek (an Bord als Vizesteuermann eingestellt). (211) [Abb.]: Blick auf die albanische Stadt Tirana mit dem Marktplatz. (212) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Truppen, die in Podgoritza einziehen, befreien gefangene Kameraden. ([213]) [3 Abb.]: Aus österreichisch=ungarischen Flüchtlingslagern. (1)Schuhverteilung an italienische Flüchtlinge in einer salzburgischen Gemeinde. (2)Mädchengruppe aus dem Lager für ruthenische Flüchtlinge in Gmünd (N.=Ö.). (3)Ansicht des mittleren Teils des polnischen Flüchtlingslager in Chotzen. (214) Österreichische Flüchtlingsfürsorge. (215) [3 Abb.]: Aus österreichisch=ungarischen Flüchtlingslagern. (1)Innenansicht der Baracke des Lagers für italienische Flüchtlinge in Pottendorf=Landegg. (2)Unterricht in der Gärtnerei im Lager für ruthenische Flüchtlinge in Gmünd (N.=Ö.). (3)Gesamtansicht des kroatischen Flüchtlingslagers in Steinklamm (N.=Ö.). (215) [Abb.]: Patrouille österreichisch=ungarische Husaren auf den Fersen des abziehenden Feindes in den Karpathen. (216) Die deutsche Kavallerie im jetzigen Kriege. (216) [Abb.]: Angreifende Dragoner. ([217]) [Abb.]: Rastende deutsche Kavalleriepatrouille in einem russischen Dorf. (218) [Abb.]: Deutsche Dragoner in der Nähe von Reims. (219) [Abb.]: Das Gedenkblatt, das die deutsche Reichsbank denen verleiht, die ihr wenigstens zweihundert Mark in Gold zuführen. (220) [Abb.]: Ein französisches Staatszeugnis für Patriotismus. Bestätigungschein für Zeichner der sogen Siegesanleihe, die in Wirklichkeit eine grosse Niederlage war. (220) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 87 (Heft 87) ([221]) [Abb.]: Ansicht von Verdun. ([221]) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu dem Artikel: Die Sicherung der Vimyhöhe (222) [6 Abb.]: Aus dem Kampfgebiet der Vimyhöhe. (1) Strasse in Vimy. (2)Eroberter französischer Schützengraben auf der Vimyhöhe. (3)Sprengtrichter auf der Vimyhöhe. (4)Schützengraben bei Arras, vorderste Linie. (5)Strasse in St. Laurent bei Arras. (6)Schlosspark von Blangy bei Arras. (223) [Abb.]: Erstürmung der Vimyhöhe bei La Folie am 28. Februar 1916 ([224 - 225]) [Abb.]: Aure in der Champagne, ein Schauplatz heisser Kämpfe. (226) [Abb.]: Begegnung eines Trupps gefangener Franzosen aus den Champagnekämpfen vom Februar 1916 mit einem deutschen Infanterieregiment. (227) [Abb.]: Die bei Tahure gefangenen Franzosen auf dem Durchmarsch durch Vouziers. (227) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten beim Füllen von Sandsäcken zum Verschanzen neu gewonnener Stellungen südwestlich von Ypern (Februar 1916). (228) [Abb.]: Sturm des Infanterieregiments Grossherzog Friedrich Franz von Mecklenburg=Schwerin (4. brandenburgisches) Nr. 24 auf die Panzerfeste Douaumont, den nordöstlichen Eckpfeiler der permanenten Hauptbefestigungslinie der Festung Verdun, am Nachmittage der 25. Februar 1916. Hauptmann Haupt und Oberleutnant v. Brandis, die als erste mit ihren Kompanien in das Fort eindrangen, erhielten aus diesem Anlass vom Kaiser den Orden Pour le Mérite. ( - ) [Abb.]: Vordringen grösserer deutscher Erkundungsabteilungen in die englischen Stellungen in Flandern. ([229]) [Abb.]: Französischer Offizier mit seiner kleinen Kanone an der Aisnefront. (230) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (230) Die Sicherung der Vimyhöhe. (230) [Abb.]: Unterstände am Aisnekanal (231) Die Kämpfe in Bessarabien. (232) [Abb.]: Karte des Kampfgeländes vor Verdun mit den eingezeichneten deutschen Frontlinien vor der Eröffnung des Angriffs am 22. Februar 1916 (-) und nach den durch die deutschen Generalstabsberichte bezeichneten Stellungen am 10. März (-.-). Die Pfeile deuten die Richtung der deutschen Vorstösse an. (232) [Abb.]: Der Sturm auf den Haumontwald, mit dem am 22. Februar 1916 der grosse Angriff auf die französischen Stellungen um Verdun einsetzte. ([233]) [Abb.]: Eine fast vollständig zerstörte Ortschaft in Bessarabien. (234) Joffre=Graben. (235) Schneeschuhläufer und Gebirgs=Maschinengewehrtruppen. (235) [Abb.]: Verlassenes Schlachtfeld in Bessarabien. (235) [3 Abb.]: Übungen österreichisch=ungarischer Schneeschuhtruppen in den Allgäuer Alpen. (1)Beim Aufstieg in einer Höhe von 2000 Metern. (2)Überqueren eines Schneeferners. Im Hintergrunde die Lechtaler Alpen (3)Wendungen mit Schneeschuhen (236) Die englischen Docks. (236) [Abb.]: Ein französischer Verbindungsschützengraben in der Champagne, der bis in die vordersten Linien führt. (237) Überwinden kleiner Gewässer. (238 - 239) [Abb.]: Durchquerung eines Wasserlaufes im feindlichem Feuer. (238 - 239) [Abb.]: Wasserdichte Zeltbahn als Umhüllung der Uniform und Ausrüstung. (238 - 239) Erzerum. (238 - 239) [Abb.]: Floss aus drei Zeltbahnen für Nichtschwimmer. (238 - 239) [Abb.]: Verwundete türkische Offiziere in Berlin auf dem Wege nach Wiesbaden, um dort in einem Offiziererholungsheim Genesung zu suchen. (240) [Abb.]: Gesamtansicht von Erzerum, der in Türkisch=Armenien unweit der russischen Grenze gelegenen Haupstadt des gleichnamigen Wilajets, die von den Türken gegen grosse feindliche Übermacht aufgegeben wurde. (240) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 88 (Heft 88) ([241]) [Abb.]: Die Besprechung der beiden französischen Minister Bourgeois und Briand mit den italienischen Ministern Sonnino und Salandra (von links nach rechts) am 11. Februar 1916 in der Consulta zu Rom. ([241]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder von der Isonzofront. (1)Eine zerschossene Kirche bei Görz. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Stellungen am Isonzo. (3)Drahtverhaue am Isonzo. (242) [3 Abb.]: Bilder von der Isonzofront. (1)Kloster Sansouci am Isonzo, das von den Italienern beschossen und zerstört wurde. (2)Bau eines Schützengrabens an der Isonzofront. (3)Beförderung von Sandkörben zum Ausbau der österreichisch=ungarischen Stellungen am Isonzo (243) [Abb.]: Überschreitung eines Flusses durch eine österreichisch=ungarische Abteilung. (244) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Feldgeschütze werden im Hochgebirge in Stellung gebracht. (244) [Abb.]: Die erste italienische Niederlage auf albanischem Gebiet im Raume Preza (Presija) und Bazar Sjak. Im Hintergrunde Bazar Sjak mit der alten Holzbrücke über den Arzen. (245) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte von Durazzo und Umgebung. (246) [ 3 Abb.]: Auf dem Weg nach Albanien. (1)Frisch angekommene österreichisch=ungarische Soldaten beim Antreten in einer Straße Skutaris. (2)Brückenkähne werden von einer österreichisch=ungarischen Kolonne über die montenegrinischen Berge zum Skutarisee geführt. (3)Beförderung von Gebirgsgeschützen für das schwierige Gelände. (247) [Abb.]: Der Albanierführer und Anhänger der katholischen Partei Prenk Bib Dodo, Essad Paschas entschiedenster Gegner, der sich mit seinen waffenfähigen Leuten den österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen angeschlossen hat. (248) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser nimmt auf der Zitadelle (Kalimegdan) von Belgrad am 20. Januar 1916 den Vortrag über den Übergang der deutschen und österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen über die Donau entgegen. ( - ) [Abb.]: Einnahme von Durazzo: Österreichisch=ungarische Truppen bringen am 27. Februar 1916 beim Morgengrauen in die brennende Stadt. ([249]) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Truppen in einer mazedonischen Stadt. (250) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (251) Besuch des Deutschen Kaisers auf dem Kalimegdan, der Zitadelle von Belgrad. (251) [Abb.]: Drahtverhaue vor den englisch=französischen Stellungen bei Saloniki. (251) Vor und hinter der Gefechtsfront. (252 - 253) [Abb.]: Eine russisch=kaukasische Batterie auf ihrem Vormarsch an der persischen Grenze von kurdischer Reiterei bei Kelhu Luren (Gegend von Kirmánscháh) überfallen. (252 - 253) [Abb.]: Stacheldraht in der Schneeregieon: Türkische Schützengräben im Kaukasus. (254) Württembergische Ruhmestage. (254) Die 8. Infanteriebrigade erstürmt südlich Baranowitschi die von Petersburg nach Ostgalizien führende Bahn. (255) Die Neutralität im Weltkriege. (255) [Abb.]: Armenische Truppen, die auf russischer Seite gegen die Türken kämpfen. (255) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen um Messines im Herbst 1914. (256) [Abb.]: Die Reste einer von den Russen zerstörten Brücke bei Dünaburg. (256) [Abb.]: Die 8. Infanteriebrigade erstürmt südlich Baranowitschi die von Petersburg nach Ostgalizien führende Bahn, wobei die Scharabrücke, die eben von dem letzten russischen Munitionszug passiert wird, in die Luft fliegt. Im Hintergrunde links der Brücke ein von der Artillerie des Regiments Gerstenberg in Brand geschossenes Dorf, das mit russischen Reserven belegt war; rechts eine Windmühle, in der Artilleriebeobachtungsposten und Maschinengewehre aufgestellt waren. ([257]) [Abb.]: Oberst Sprecher von Bernegg, Chef des Generalstabes der Schweizer Armee. (258) [Abb.]: Schweizer Grenzbesatzung: Von Schweizer Truppen hergestellte Befestigungen. (258) Moderne Riesenflugzeuge. (259) [Abb.]: An der belgisch=holländischen Grenze in Kieldrecht. (259) [Abb.]: Schwedische Grenzwacht gegen Russland in Haparanda. (259) [Abb.]: Ankunft der russischen Post für die in Deutschland befindlichen Kriegsgefangenen in Haparanda. (259) [Abb.]: Eines der weittragenden 40=cm=Geschütze, die Amerika den Feinden der Mittelmächte liefert. (260) [Abb.]: Ein russisches Riesenflugzeug. Sikorski=Doppeldecker, der bei einem Gewicht von dreieinhalb Tonnen vier Motoren von 400-600 Pferdestärken hat und fähig ist sechzehn Personen zu tragen. (260) [Abb.]: Die Kämpfe im Jemen: Niederlage der Engländer bei Scheich Osmani. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 89 (Heft 89) ([261]) [Abb.]: Englischer Transportdampfer schifft bei Basra indische Truppen aus, die zu den englischen Streitkräften bei Kut=el=Amara an der Irakfront stossen sollen. ([261]) [Abb.]: Karte von Südarabien mit der Jemenfront. ([261]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder von der Bagdadbahn. (1)Türkische Reservisten im Taurusgebirge auf dem Marsche zum Gestellungsort (2)Türkische Reservisten erwarten auf einer Station der Anatolischen Bahn ihre Weiterbeförderung. (3)Stationsgebäude der Bagdadbahn am Amanusgebirge. (263) [Abb.]: Zu der Inspektionsreise des türkischen Generalissimus Enver Pascha nach Palästina. Enver Pascha (X) mit dem Kommandanten der syrischen Truppen, Dschemal Pascha (XX), treffen im Automobil vor der Kommandantur in Jaffa ein, wo sie von den Behörden festlich empfangen werden. (264) [Abb.]: Gefangene Engländer aus den Kämpfen bei Kut=el=Amara werden durch ein Beduinendorf gebracht. (265) [Abb.]: Korvettenkaptiän Burggraf und Graf Nikolaus zu Dohna=Schlodien, der kühne und erfolgreiche Kommandant S. M. S. "Möve". (266) [Abb.]: Der neue Staatssekretär des Reichsmarineamts, Admiral v. Capelle, der Nachfolger des Grossadmirals v. Tirpitz. (267) [Abb.]: Deutsches Unterseeboot beim Tauchen. (267) [Abb.]: Französische Soldaten vor Verdun beim Suppefassen. (268) [Abb.]: Eine von den Franzosen gebaute Feldbahn in der Champagne, die der Verproviantierung und Munitionsversorgung der ersten Linien dient. (268) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen um Verdun: Erstürmung der französischen Verschanzungen im Walde von Caures. (269) [Abb.]: Französisches schweres Geschütz im Augenblick des Abfeuerns. (270) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (270) Admiral v. Capelle. (270) [Abb.]: General der Infanterie v. Guretzky=Cornitz, Kommandeur der 9. Reservedivision, unter dessen Führung die Posenschen Reserveregimenter Nr. 6 und 19 am 8. März in nächtlichem Angriff das Dorf und die Panzerfeste Baux stürmten. (271) Die Kriegsbrücke bei Grodno. (271) [Abb.]: Blcik in einen Teil der Woevreebene. Im Hintergrund die Cotes Lorraines, deren Fuss von den deutschen Truppen stellenweise erreicht wurde. (271) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Dorfes Fresnes in der Woevreebene am 6. März 1916. ([272 - 273]) [Abb.]: Von den Russen auf ihrem Rückzuge zerstörte massive Eisenbetonbrücke über den Njemen bei Grodno. (274) Krieg und Kriegsfürsorge in Hamburg. (274) [Abb.]: Russisches 25=cm=Küstengeschütz in der äußersten Fortlinie der eroberten Festung Grodno. (275) [Abb.]: Russisches 15=cm=Küstengeschütz in der äußersten Fortlinie Grodnos. (275) [Abb.]: Eine schwierige Stelle in den Dolomiten. (276) [Abb.]: Beschiessung der Drei=Zinnen=Hütte durch italienische Artillerie. ([277]) [Abb.]: Eingang zum deutschen Friedhof in Lagny bei Noyon. Die Verzierungen an den Pfeilern sind aus französischen Blindgängern hergestellt (278) Beschiessung der Drei=Zinnen=Hütte durch italienische Artillerie. (278) [Abb.]: Beerdigung deutscher Soldaten in Noyon. Der Leichenzug auf dem Wege zum Friedhof. (278) [Abb.]: Kriegergrab am vordersten Graben in Flandern dicht hinter dem Drahtverhau. (279) Soldatengräber. (279) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten pflegen die Gräber gefallener Kameraden in der Nähe der Unterstände in den Dünen. (279) [Abb.]: Das Grab von 23 deutschen Soldaten der Infanterieregimenter 78 und 91 bei Charleroi. (280) [Abb.]: Fliegergrab in Menin. (280) [Abb.]: Der in Torgau in Gefangenschaft befindliche französische Brigadegeneral de Vilaret begibt sich zur Beisetzung zweier gefangener Landsleute. (280) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 90 (Heft 90) ([281]) [2 Abb.]: Von der Front im Elsass. (1)In den Felsen gesprengter Stollen von 15 Meter Länge. 30 Meter hinter der vordersten Linie. (2)Im Schützengraben im Münstertal Mannschaften mit Rauchmasken und Handgranaten. ([281]) [3 Abb.]: Der Minenkampf im Stellungskrieg im Westen. (1)Eingang zu einem Minenstollen. (2)Pioniere beim Bau eines Stollens (Blitzlichtaufnahme) (3)Erbeutete französische Minenwerfer mit Munition. (282) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte zu den Kämpfen um Reims und in der Champagne. ([283]) [Abb.]: Artilleriekämpfe um die Bastion am Yserkanal am 15. Februar 1916, abends 10 Uhr Die deutschen und englischen Stellungen lagen an diesem Teil des Kanals nur durch das Wasser getrennt einander gegenüber. ([284 - 285]) [Abb.]: Am Yserkanal. (286) [Abb.]: Gefangene Engländer bei Ypern. (286) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen um Verdun. Französisches Lager von Geschossen schweren Kalibers, die mittels der Eisenbahn herbeigeschafft und durch Automobilzüge den Stellungen der schweren Artillerie zugeführt werden. (287) [2 Abb.]: Zum Wechsel im französischen Kriegsministerium. (1)General Gallieni, der zurückgetretene französische Kriegsminister. (2)Divisionsgeneral Roques, der neuernannte französische Kriegsminister. (288) [Abb.]: Die Teilnehmer an dem grossen Pariser Kriegsrat vom 27. März 1915. General des Castelnau (Frankreich) Sir Douglas Haig (England) General Wielemans (Belgien) General Pelle (Frankreich) General Gilinsky (Russland) General Joffre (Frankreich) General Porro (Italien) Oberst Pechitsch (Serbien). (288) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen um Verdun: Erstürmung einer französischen Feldbefestigung nach vorhergegangener Beschiessung durch Artillerietrommelfeuer. ( - ) [Abb.]: Abgeschlagene französische Handgranatenangriffe in der Champagne Anfang März 1916. ([289]) [Abb.]: General der Kavallerie Emil Ritter v. Ziegler. (290) [Abb.]: Besuch des Kronprinzen Boris und des Prinzen Kyrill von Bulgarien an der Westfront (links Prinz Kyrill, in der Mitte General v. Einem, rechts Kronprinz Boris). (291) [Abb.]: Im Oberelsass abgeschossener französischer Kampfdoppeldecker neuester Bauart. (291) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten am Entfernungsmesser, der besonders beim Feststellen der Entfernung von Flugzeugen eine wichtige Rolle spielt. (292) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (292) Das Bekämpfen feindlicher Flugzeuge. (292) Fliegerangriff auf einen Personenzug bei Donaueschingen (292) [Abb.]: Überfall zweier französischer Flugzeuge auf einen Personenzug bei Donaueschingen. ([293]) [Abb.]: Eine Proviant=Ochsenkolonne im Moravatal. (294) [Abb.]: Deutscher Train passiert eine neben einer gesprengten Eisenbahnbrücke erbaute Notbrücke bei Stalac im Moravatal. (294) Auf dem Vormarsch in Albanien. (295) [Abb.]: Deutsche Proviantkolonne begegnet bulgarischer Artillerie auf dem Marsche. (295) General der Kavallerie Emil Ritter v. Ziegler. (295) Im Oberelsass abgeschossener französischer Kampfdoppeldecker neuester Bauart. (296) Das Pontonieren. (296) [Abb.]: Gefecht einer österreichisch=ungarischen Kolonne in den albanischen Bergen mit Parteigängern Essad Paschas. Im Vordergrund Gebirgsgeschütze in Feuerstellung, im Tal entwickelt sich ein Infanterieregiment mit Tragtieren zum Gefecht. ([297]) [Abb.]: Skizze zu dem Aufsatz "Das Pontonieren": Schematische Darstellung eines Flussübergangs. (298) [5 Abb.]: Französische Pioniere beim Pontonbrückenbau. (1)Das Übersetzen eines Offiziers über den Fluss. (2)Die ersten Pioniere setzen über den Fluss, um den Brückenbau zu beginnen. (3)Ein Teil der Pontonbrücke wird über den Fluss geschleppt. (4)Vor der Vollendung. Die letzten Brückenkähne werden in Stellung gebracht. (5)Eine Ingenieurabteilung passiert als erste die Brücke. (299) Die erbeutete Kriegskasse. (299) [Abb.]: Der tägliche Mittagsgast bei den deutschen Soldaten (300) [Abb.]: Türkische Offiziere im Kasino eines Reservekorps beim Rauchen aus türkischen Nargilehpfeifen. (300) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 91 (Heft 91) ([301]) [Abb.]: Schwierigkeiten des Gebirgskrieges. Italienische Alpini befördern ein Geschütz über eine schwierige Stelle im Gebirge. Nach einer englischen Darstellung. ([301]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsbeute: Italienische Fliegerwaffen. (302) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Granatenwerfer am Isonzo erwarten einen Angriff der Italiener. (302) [Abb.]: Ein Trupp italienischer Gefangener in Tirol. (303) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Arbeiterabteilung auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz im Walde während der Mittagspause. (304) [Abb.]: Russischer Vorstoss nördlich von Kozlow an der Strypa wird durch schwache Deckungstruppen der österreichisch=ungarischen vorgeschobenen Linien abgeschlagen. ([305]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte zu den Kämpfen um Valona. (306) [Abb.]: Bulgarischer Grenzposten an der bulgarisch=griechischen Grenze. (307) [Abb.]: Überschiffung von Tragtieren über den Weissen Drin in Albanien. Im Hintergrund eine alte türkische Brücke, die durch Herstellung eines hölzernen Notsteges befahrbar gemacht wird. (307) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen um Dünaburg. Widsy, Postawy. (308) [Abb.]: "Alarm". Jeder Mann führt auf Tornister ein Kommissbrot mit. (308) [Abb.]: Ein Landwehr=Feldlazarett im Stellungskriege hinter der Front. In der Luft ein deutscher Fesselballon, der von feindlichen Fliegern umstrichen und aus Abwehrkanonen mit Schrapnellen beschossen wird. ( - ) [Abb.]: Zur russischen Angriffsbewegung gegen das litauische Seengebiet. Zusammenbruch russischer Massenangriffe bei Postawy im deutschen Infanterie= und Maschinengewehrfeuer. ([309]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen in Russland beim Überschreiten sumpfigen Geländes im Gebiet des Maroczsees. (310) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (310) Die Markwährung im Weltkrieg und der Devisenhandel. (310) Ein Landwehr=Feldlazarett im Stellungskriege. (311) [Abb.]: Offiziere eines deutschen Stabes auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz orientieren sich an einem Wegkreuz. (311) [Abb.]: Deutsche Trainkolonne zieht durch ein russisches Dorf in der Gegend von Dünaburg. (311) [Abb.]: Weiterbeförderung Verwundeter in den Tagen der grossen französischen Offensive von 25.-30. September 1915. (312 - 313) Erzherzog Karl Stephan. (314) [Abb.]: Zum Besuch des Erzherzogs Karl Stephan in Berlin: Vizeadmiral Erzherzog Karl Stephan mit seinem Adjutanten Major Slufarz. (314) Fahrbare Kriegsbüchereien. (315) [Abb.]: Blick auf das Kampfgelände vor Verdun westlich der Maas. In der Mitte des Bildes der von den deutschen Truppen am 7. März 1916 erstürmte Ort Forges, im Vordergrunde Confenvoye. (315) Aus der Verdunschlacht. (316) [Abb.]: Die erst fahrbare württembergische Kriegsbücherei, eine Stiftung des Kommerzienrats Robert Franck, Ludwigsburg. (316) [Abb.]: Fahrbare Kriegsbücherei: Blick in das Innere eines Bücherwagens. (316) [Abb.]: General der Infanterie v. Steuben besucht die Baracken eines Feldlazaretts. Zu dem Artikel "Ein Landwehr=Feldlazarett im Stellungskriege". ([317]) [3 Abb.]: Hinter der französischen Front vor Verdun. (1)Französische Ambulanz in einem zerstörten Dorfe hinter der Feuerlinie erwartet die Ankunft von Schwerverwundeten aus den Schützengräben. (2)Schwerverwundeter Franzose wird von französischen Hilfsposten weiterbefördert. (3)Grosse Kraftwagen bringen Truppen zu einer bedrohten Stelle an der Front. (318) [3 Abb.]: Hinter der französischen Front vor Verdun. (1)Französischer Offizier beobachtet eine von den Deutschen unmittelbar unter der französischen Front gesprengte Mine. (2)Baumstämme, die mittels schwerer Automobile an die Front geschafft wurden, um zum Bau neuer verdeckter Artilleriestellungen und bombensicherer Unterstände zu dienen. (3)Das Zurückweichen der französischen Truppen erforderte die Herstellung neuer Schützengräben und Unterstände, für die eine grosse Menge von in die Erde einzulassenden Eisenbogen an die Front gesandt wurden. (319) [2 Abb.]: Das erste in der Ruhmeshalle des Berliner Zeughauses ausgestellte serbische Feldzeichen. (1)Die Standarte des serbischen Reiterregiments 1, die in der Nacht vom 5. auf 6. Februar 1916 erbeutet wurde. (2)Rückseite der Standarte mit einem serbischen Heiligenbilde. (320) [Abb.]: Französische Drahthindernisse vor der ersten Verteidigungslinie im Rabenwalde bei Verdun. (320) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 92 (Heft 92) ([321]) [Abb.]: Verlassene russische Stellung am Dünaufer. ([321]) [Abb.]: Die deutsche Front gegen Russland im April 1916. (322) [Abb.]: Deutsche Schneeschuhtruppen begeben sich in Stellung gegen Dünaburg. (322) [Abb.]: Vom östlichen Kriegschauplatz: Ankunft frischer deutscher Truppen in Baranowitschi. (323) [Abb.]: Brückenschlag über den Muchawetz, einen Nebenfluss des Bug. (324 - 325) [Abb.]: Persische Soldaten ziehen zur Truppenbesichtigung auf. (326) [Abb.]: Blick in eine türkische Militärsammelstelle am Tigris im Gebiet der türkisch=englischen Kämpfe zwischen Bagdad und Kut=el=Amara. (327) [Abb.]: Blick in den Hafen von Sunderland, wo die Dockanlagen bei den Zeppelinangriffen auf England Anfang April 1916 besonders schwer gelitten haben. Viele Werften, besonders die von Swan, Hunter u. Wigham sowie Richardson wurden beschädigt. Eine Helling wurde so getroffen, dass das darauf liegende Schiff umfiel. Auf einem Kreuzer, der in der nächsten Zeit vom Stapel laufen sollte, wurde grosser Schaden verursacht. Ausserdem sind noch andere Schiffe getroffen worden. Ausserhalb der Sindt wurden ferner mehrere Fabrikanlagen, darunter eine Munitionsfabrik, sowie eine grössere Anzahl Schuppen teils schwer beschädigt, teils vollständig zerstört. (328) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (328) Vereitelter Gasangriff. (328) [Abb.]: Deutsche Torpedoboote auf hoher See auf der Suche nach dem Feind. ( - ) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte von Nordengland, dem Angriffsziel deutscher Luftschiffe in der Nacht zum 3. April 1916. ([329]) [Abb.]: Karte von Holland. (330) [Abb.]: Englische U=Boote kreuzen an der flanderischen Küste. (330) [Abb.]: Schützengrabenübungen holländischer Soldaten. (331) [Abb.]: Holländische Infanterie auf einem dreitägigen Übungsmarsch nach dem Übersetzen über einen Kanal. (331) [Abb.]: Ein durch Trommelfeuer von 28=cm=Granaten (Flachbahngeschosse) vollständig zerstörter und eingebneter englischer Schützengraben an der Front bei Neuve=Chapelle. Die Besatzung des englischen Grabens war für einen von ihr bereits vorbereiteten Gasangriff mit Gasmasken ausgerüstet, die teils hell, teils dunkel und mit runden odr viereckigen Augengläsern versehen sind. ([332 333]) [Abb.]: 1. Der Eiserne Hindenburg auf dem Königsplatz in Berlin Nach dem Entwurf von G. Marschall. (334) [Abb.]: 2. Der Isern Kerl in Emden, der den ruhmreichen Führer der "Emden" Fregattenkapitän v. Müller verkörpert. Nach dem Entwurf von Bildhauer Liebsch. (334) [Abb.]: 3. Der Eiserne Michael zu Hamburg. Nach der Holzplastik von Anton Kling, Hamburg (334) Kriegsnagelungen. (334) [Abb.]: 4. Das Eiserne Kreuz in San Franzisko in Nordamerika, das zur Nagelung zugunsten der deutschen Kriegsfürsorge aufgestellt wurde und grosse Beträge einbrachte. (334) [Abb.]: Der Wackere Schwabe in Stuttgart. Nach dem Entwurf von Joseph Zeitler (335) [Abb.]: 6. Der Eiserne Landsturmmann der Insel Alsen in Sonderburg. Aus dem Stamm eines Apfelbaumes der Insel nach dem Entwurf von Heit. (335) [Abb.]: 7. Der Eiserne Wehrmann in Bielefeld. Nach der Holzplastik von Bildhauer Franz Guntermann. (335) [Abb.]: 8. Der Eiserne Adler zu Frankflurt a. M. Nach dem Entwurf von Bildhauer Stock. (335) Abweisung eines italienischen Angriffs an der Tosana. (336) [Abb.]: Feldgraue mit französischen Kindern, die zutraulich zu ihren deutschen Nachbarn herüberkommen, da sie wissen, dass immer etwas Gutes für sie abfällt. (336) Mit den Bundesbrüdern in den Karpathen. (336) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines Angriffs italienischer Alpini an der Tosana ([337]) [Abb.]: Feldbefestigungen zwischen den Aussenforts von Przemysl. Aufnahme von einem Flugzeug aus. (338) Fliegerphotographien. (338) Kämpfe um den Hartmannsweiler Kopf. (339) [Abb.]: Eine Lünette der Festung Przemysl mit deutlich erkennbaren Granattrichtern. Aufnahme von einem Flugzeug aus. (339) [Abb.]: Ballonaufnahme von verlassenen Stellungen hinter der deutschen Front in Flandern. (340) [Gedicht]: Schwertsegen! (340) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 93 (Heft 93) ([341]) [Abb.]: Vertreibung der Franzosen aus dem Dorfe Malacourt vor Verdun am 30. März 1916. ([341]) [Abb.]: Die Aussenmauer der Feste Baux. (342) [Abb.]: Oberleutnant v. Brandis. erhielt für die Eroberung der Feste Douaumont den Orden Pour le Mérite. (343) [Abb.]: Hauptmann Haupt erhielt für die Eroberung der Feste Doumont den Orden Pour le Mérite. (343) [Abb.]: Dorf und Feste Douaumont, die Angelpunkte des deutschen Angriffs auf Verdun. (343) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen um Verdun: Württembergische Landwehrbataillone erstürmen den Wald von Abocourt am 20. März 1916. ([344 - 345]) [Abb.]: Karte zwischen Aire und Maas Das Kampfgelände westlich von Verdun. (346) [Abb.]: Wie die französische Feuerlinie vor Verdun mit Mannschaften, Munition und Lebensmitteln verstärkt wurde. Material= und Personenwagen in langen Reihen auf den Zugangstrassen. Von einem neutralen Militärkritiker wurde Verdun als ein "Saugpumpe" bezeichnet, die die stärksten und kräftigsten Teile des französischen Heeres an sich reisse und die stärksten Kräfte Frankreichs von allen Seiten auf das Kampffeld bei Verdun führe. ([347]) [Abb.]: Die Mühle am Toten Mann bei Verdun. (348) [Abb.]: Ankunft französischer Gefangener aus den Kämpfen bei Reims auf dem Bahnhof in Laon. (348) [Abb.]: Handgranatenkampf in einem Minenstollen, in dem plötzlich Engländer und Deutsche einander gegenüberstanden. ([349]) [Abb.]: König Viktor Emanuel besichtigt eine Stellung der schweren Artillerie (26=cm=Batterie) am Isonzo. (350) [Abb.]: Gedeckte italienische Stellung. (351) [Abb.]: Blick in das Isonzotal. (351) [Abb.]: Luftschiffer Oberstleutnant Abercron, Kommandeur eines Reserve=Infanterieregiments auf dem westlichen Kriegschauplatz. Die angelegten Orden wurden ihm sämtlich im jetzigen Kriege verliehen. (352) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches Fokkerflugzeug im Kampf mit englischen Fliegern. Der Beobachter erwidert von einem Drehsitz aus das feindliche Feuer. ([353]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (354) Fliegerkämpfe. (354) [Abb.]: Deutscher Eindecker stürzt sich auf einen französischen Doppeldecker. (354) [Abb.]: Die Trümmer eines bei Laon abgeschossenen französischen Doppeldeckers. (355) Die grosse russische Entlastungsoffensive. (355) [Abb.]: Eines der vier französischen Flugzeuge, die beim Angriff eines französischen Luftgeschwaders auf die offene Stadt Mühlhausen im Elsass am 18. März 1916 zum Absturz gebracht wurden. (355) [Abb.]: Bei dem Versuch eines italienischen Flugzeuggeschwaders, die Stadt Laibach mit Bomben zu belegen, wurde das italienische Führerflugzeug von den zur Abwehr aufgestiegenen österreichisch=ungarischen Fliegern umzingelt. Seinem Führer, Hauptmann Salomone, gelang es nur mit Mühe, sein Flugzeug zu retten, nachdem sein Begleiter schwer verletzt worden war. (356) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen um Valona: Österreichisch=ungarische Soldaten in einem Gefecht mit Italienern. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 94 (Heft 94) ([357]) [Abb.]: Der deutsche Reichskanzler v. Bethmann Hollweg in feldgrauer Uniform. ([357]) [Abb.]: Bei den Einschliessungskämpfen von Valona gefangene Serben warten auf ihr Abführung. (358) [Abb.]: Wohnhäuser in der Stadt Doiran auf den Hügeln am Ufer des Doiransees an der griechischen Grenze, in deren Nähe Plänkeleien zwischen den Patrouillen der Mittelmächte und denen des Vierverbandes stattfanden. Der Ort hat 7000 Einwohner und liegt an der Eisenbahnstrecke nach Saloniki. (359) [Abb.]: Zur widerrechtlichen Besetzung Kretas durch den Vierverband. Beförderung von Gewehren auf der Insel. (359) [Abb.]: Hinter einem Eisenbahndamm verschanzte Russen werden nächtlicherweile beim Schein der Leuchtraketen unter schweren Verlusten zurückgewiesen. (360 - 361) [Abb.]: Übersichtskarte zu den Kämpfen am Naroczsee. (362) [Abb.]: Blick auf die Strypa in Ostgalizien, an deren Ufern heftige Kämpfe stattfanden. (363) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (363) Der Krieg in Ostafrika. (363) [Abb.]: Kaiserlich türkische Prinzen an der Ostfront beim Generalfeldmarschall Prinz Leopold von Bayern. In der Mitte: Prinz Leopold von Bayern; rechts von ihm: Prinz Osman Fuad, Leutnant á la suite des preussischen Leibgarde=Husarenregimentrs; links: Prinz Abdur Rahim, Leutnant á la suite des 2. preussischen Garde=Feldartillerieregiments; rechts hinter dem Generalfeldmarschall: Exzellenz v. König, Kommandeur einer Infanteriedivision. (364) [Abb.]: Kavallerie beim Überschreiten einer Schiffbrücke in der Gegend von Dünaburg. (364) [Abb.]: Protzen werden auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz in Deckung gebracht. ([365]) [Abb.]: Wirkung der Zeppelinbomben bei den Aprilangriffen auf England. (366) [3 Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsbeutestücke im Wiener Arsenal, die ein beredtes Zeugnis von der Tapferkeit der Truppen ablegen. (1)Russisches 28=cm=Belagerungsgeschütz, das in Przemysl den österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen unversehrt in die Hände fiel Dahinter eine russische Fliegerabwehrkanone. (2)Volltreffer eines 30,5=cm=Mörsergeschosses in einem französischen Schiffsgeschütz, das am Lovcen aufgestellt war. Eine artilleristische Musterleisltung. (3) Französische Schiffsgeschütze, die bei Belgrad unbeschädigt erbeutet wurden. (367) [Abb.]: Das Kilimandscharogebiet, der Schauplatz des Heldenkampfes der deutschen Schutztruppen Ostafrika. (368 - 369) [Abb.]: Eine Strasse in Aruscha am Fusse des Kilimandscharo, das die Südafrikaner besetzten. (368 - 369) Aus der Verdunschlacht. (368 - 369) II. Im Walde von Hennemont. (368 - 369) [Abb.]: Militärstation Moschi am Kilimandscharo, die von den Südafrikanern besetzt wurde. (368 - 369) [Abb.]: Die Strasse zur Feste Bayr. Im Hintergrund die Umrisse der Feste. (370) [Abb.]: Beförderung von Geschützen auf Lokomobilen (westlicher Kriegschauplatz). (370) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen um Verdun: Das von den deutschen Truppen eroberte Conflans=Geschütz, ein Marinegeschütz, mit dem die Franzosen ein Jahr lang den Bahnhof von Conflans vergeblich beschossen. Das Geschütz war so eingebaut, dass es von den Franzosen bei ihrem Rückzug nicht mitgenommen werden konnte. (371) [Abb.]: Bei Verdun gefangene französische Offiziere, die sich in ihrer Ausrüstung kaum von der Mannschaft unterscheiden. (371) [Abb.]: Sanitätskompanie mit Sanitätshunden auf dem Marsche in der Champagne. (372) [Abb.]: Kampf um Chaulnes. ([373]) [Abb.]: Vivatbänder. (374) [Abb.]: Vivatbänder (375) Vivatbänder. (375) Colmar Freiherr v. der Goltz. (376) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall Dr, Colmar Freiherr v. der Goltz=Pascha, der Oberkommandierende der zweiten türkischen Armee, starb in seinem Hauptquartier in Mesopotanien nach zehntägigem Krankenlager am Flecktyphus. (376) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 95 (Heft 95) ([377]) [Abb.]: Ansicht von Trapezunt am Schwarzen Meer. ([377]) [Abb.]: Schiffbrücke über den Tigris bei Bagdad. (378) [Abb.]: Die hauptsächlichen Kampfschauplätze im Orient. ([379]) [Abb.]: Die vergeblichen Entsatzversuche der Generale Gorringe und Keary für General Townshend in Kut=el=Amara. (380 - 381) [Karte]: Die umklammernden türk. Streitkräfte (380 - 381) [Abb.]: Das Wrack des englischen Unterseebootes E 15, das in den Dardanellen durch Treffer der türkischen Artillerie schwer beschädigt wurde und seine Flagge streichen musste. (380 - 381) [Abb.]: Der Turm des englischen Unterseebootes E 15, auf dem ein türkischer Offizier steht. Man sieht deutlich das von der türkischen Granante gerissene Loch. (380 - 381) [Abb.]: Ein mit Kamelen bespanntes Geschütz der südrussischen Artillerie im Gebiete des Kaukasus. Die Tiere haben sich bei den ausserordentlich schwierigen Bodenverhältnissen und dem steten Wassermangel sehr gut bewährt. (382) [Abb.]: Türkische Feldartillerie im Vormarsch. (382) [Abb.]: Artilleriestellung englischer Kolonialsoldaten am Suezkanal, wo sich nach englischen Angaben 240 000 Mann zur Verteidigung Ägyptens und des Suezkanals in Bereitschaft zu halten hatten. (383) [Abb.]: Gefangene Engländer werden von türkischen Offizieren verhört. (384) [Abb.]: Verteidigung einer eroberten englischen Stellung von etwa 350 Metern Frontbreite am Yserkanal nördlich von Ypern. ( - ) [Abb.]: Zu den siegreichen Kämpfen der Türken im Irak im April 1916. ([385]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (386) Aus der Verdunschlacht. (386) III. Die Kämpfe westlich der Maas. (386) [Abb.]: Oberleutnant Berthold, der am 1. April 1916 das vierte feindliche Flugzeug und am 16. nordwestlich von Peronne das fünfte, einen englischen Doppeldecker, abschoss (386) [3 Abb.] : Oberes Bild: Ago=Kampfflugzeug. Mittleres Bild: Gefangener kanadischer Offizier mit seinem Flugzeug. Unteres Bild: Funkentelegraphenapparat eines abgeschossenen englischen Flugzeuges. (387) [Abb.]: Gefangene französische Soldaten erwarten im Steinbruch südlich von Haudromont ihre Abführung. (388) Im Krieg mit den Bergen. (388) [Abb.]: Der Kampf um den Minentrichter. Zu den Minen= und Handgranatenkämpfen bei Douaumont. ([389]) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Infanterie rückt aus Monastir zur Front ab. (390) Im besetzten Mazedonien. (390) Das Kriegsgeschick unserer Handelsflotte. (391) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen marschieren auf dem Wege zur Front durch eine mazedonische Ortschaft. (391) [Abb.]: Blick durch die Bogen einer Felsenhöhle in Mazedonien, die den hier nicht seltenen Adlern guten Unterschlupf bietet. (392) Die Vernichtung des französischen Unterseebootes "Culrie". (393) [3 Abb.]: (1)Marktplatz für den Ochsenhandel in dem mazedonischen Viertel von Monastir. (2)Eine schwierige Verständigung durch die Zeichensprache. Deutsche Offiziere erwerben eine Gans. (3)Deutscher Pionier kauft Eier ein. (393) Das englische Gefangenenlager auf der Insel Man. (394) [Abb.]: Deutsche Infanteristen mit den neuen Stahlhelmen in einer Strasse Berlins. (394) [Abb.]: Vernichtung des französischen Unterseebootes "Curie" in der Adria durch österreichisch=ungarische Küstenbatterien. ([395]) [Abb.]: Originalwiedergabe der Postkarte eines in russische Gefangenschaft geratenen Österreichers an seine Schwester. Die Mitteilungen an den leeren Stellen sind vom Zensor ausradiert, wobei ihm aber die Klage über das "schlechte Futter" und die " "Prügel" entgangen ist. (396) [Abb.]: Gesamtansicht des Gefangenenlagers von Knockalve (Peel) auf der englischen Insel Man. Nach der Zeichnung eines im Hauptgefangenenlager der Insel Man interniert gewesenen deutschen Architekten, der später ausgewechselt wurde. (396) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 96 (Heft 96) ([397]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte des Suganatales. ([397]) [Abb.]: In einem Tiroler Kloster untergebrachte italienische Gefangene bei der Mahlzeit. (398) [Abb.]: Ordensverleihung im Schützengraben an österreichisch=ungarische Soldaten, die sich bei der Abwehr der russischen Strypa=Offensive auszeichneten. (399) [Abb.]: Erbitterter Nahkampf am Col die Lana: Nachtangriff österreichisch=ungarischer Infanterie. ([400 - 401]) [Abb.]: In den Schützengräben vor Dünaburg. Entwässerungsarbeiten in den Zugängen zu den Schützengräben. (402) [Abb.]: Vorgehen deutscher Infanterie zum Sturm. (402) [Abb.]: Auffahrende österreichisch=ungarische Artillerie an der galizischen Front bei Tarnopol. (403) [Abb.]: Alarm in einem russischen Unterstand. Eine feindliche Patrouille wird gemeldet. (403) [Abb.]: Russische Kavallerie in einer Landschaft des Kaukasus. (404) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (404) Ein leichtsinniger Streich. I. (404) [Abb.]: Sturm der westfälischen Truppen auf die russischen Feldstellungen am Marocz=See und Ladischky=Bruch. ( - ) [Abb.]: Zu dem türkischen Erfolg am Suezkanal: Freischärler aus Medina vertreiben die Engländer aus der Oase Katia. (405) [Abb.]: General Townshend mit seinem Stabe bei einer Beratung in seinem Hauptquartier in Kut-el-Amara vor der Übergabe an die Türken. (406) Offiziere daheim. (406) [Abb.]: Zum russischen Vorstoss durch Persien. Ein Teil der alten Mauern von Ispahan. (406) [Abb.]: Brückenbahntransport durch türkische Soldaten im Irak. (407) Freiheit der Meere. (407) [Abb.]: Übergabe zweier von deutschen Juden in der Türkei gestifteter Feldküchen durch Dr. Nossig an den "Roten Halbmond". (407) [Abb.]: Türkische Etappenstation am Rande der Wüste. (408 - 409) [Abb.]: Auf dem Schlachtfeld bei Marcheville vor Verdun. (410) Die Schlacht vor Verdun im Urteil der Gegner. (410) [Abb.]: Gestürmte französische Stellung bei Fromesey vor Verdun (410) [Abb.]: Eroberte französische Stellungen im Caureswalde vor Verdun. (411) [Abb.]: Hütte im Waldlager vor Verdun. (411) Bei Exzellenz v. Dorrer. (412) [Abb.]: Generalleutnant Eugen v. Dorrer, Kommandeur einer Reservedivision, gestorben den 2. April 1916 an einer schweren Verwundung. (412) [Abb.]: Durch Belgien nach Nordfrankreich. ([413]) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehrabteilung in Stellung in den verschiedenen Stockwerken eines Bauernhauses. (414) Durch Belgien nach Nordfrankreich. (414) Bekämpfung von Tierseuchen im Felde. (415) [3 Abb.]: Die Bekämpfung der Tierseuchen im Felde. (1)Veterinär der Blutuntersuchgsstelle mit den verschiedenen Versuchstieren. (2)Im Versuchsraum, wo einem geimpften Hammel eine Blutprobe entnommen wird. Auf dem Tische geimpfte Meerschweinchen, die sich noch in Bearbeitung befinden. (3)Einem in Behandlung befindlichen Pferde wird eine Blutprobe entnommen. Rechts der die Eintragungen vornehmende Veterinär. (415) [Abb.]: Der Chef des türkischen Militärsanitätswesens, Professor Dr. Suleiman Ruman Pascha. (416) Der Ottomanische Rote Halbmond. (416) [Abb.]: Eine Abteilung des Ottomanischen Roten Halbonds. (416) [Abb.]: Die Seeschlacht bei Lowestoft am 25. April 1916. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 97 (Heft 97) ([417]) [Abb.]: Woodrow Wilson, Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika. ([417]) 4 [Abb.]: Die englische Regierung in ihren bekanntesten Vertretern. (1)Asquith, englischer Ministerpräsident. (2)Lloyd George, englischer Munitionsminister. (3)Sir Winston Churchill, ehemaliger englischer Marineminister. (4)Sir Edward Grey, englischer Minister des Äußeren. (418) [Abb.]: Von der englischen Militärmacht mit Granaten zusammengeschossenes Stadtviertel bei der Connelsbrücke, der Hauptverkehrsader in Dublin. Hier fanden die erbittersten Kämpfe b ei der April=Revolution in der Hauptstadt Irland statt, wobei von den Engländern eine Reihe der schönsten Gebäude zerstört wurde. (419) [3 Abb.]: Die Gefahren der treibenden Minen (1)Ein Minensucher hat sich in dem Minentau verfangen und die Mine unter sich gezogen, wodurch er in höchster Gefahr schwebt, bis die Mine hervorgeholt werden kann. (2)Der Minenwerfer sichtet einen aus dem Wasser hervorragenden und ein Periskop vortäuschenden Pflock, der auf einer Mine befestigt ist. (3)Ein Unterseeboot in Gefahr. Die Mannschaft versucht, die Kette, an der die Mine befestigt ist, zu durchschneiden. (420) [Abb.]: Strandwache im Nebel an der flandrischen Küste. (421) [Abb.]: Frische englische Truppen mit den neuen Stahlhelmen auf dem erweiterten Teil ihrer Front in Nordfrankreich. (422) [Abb.]: Ein Abschnitt des Kampfgebietes im Westen, den die Engländer zur Entlastung der Franzosen übernahmen. Blick von den englischen Gräben aus. (423) [Abb.]: Die durch Ablösen der Franzosen erweiterte englische Front im Westen. Überblick über das Tal des Souchez=Baches von Carency durch den Schlosspark von Carleul nach Souchez und Lens. (423) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (424) Ein leichtsinniger Streich. II. (424) [Abb.]: Die von deutschen Pionieren erbaute 450 Meter lange Kriegsbrücke bei Sterpigny in Nordfrankreich. (424) [Abb.]: Zusammenbruch der französischen Angriffswellen vor dem Toten Mann bei Verdun. ([425]) [Abb.]: Ruinen einer Schule in einem von den Franzosen zerschossenen französischen Vogesendorfe. (426) [Abb.]: Wirkung der deutschen schweren Artillerie. Zerstörte französische Bahnlinie in einem in den Kämpfen um Verdun von den Deutschen besetzten Gebiet. (426) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte des Gebietes um den Toten Mann nordwestlich von Verdun. (427) Soziale Fürsorge nach dem Kriege. (427) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Camardwaldes bei Verdun vor der Höhe 304 durch pommersche Truppen. ([428 - 429]) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kronprinz (X) beobachtet ein Gefecht bei Verdun. (430) [Abb.]: General Petain, der zum Oberbefehlshaber der französischen Armeen des Zentrums (Abschnitt von Soissons bis Verdun) ernannt wurde. (430) [Abb.]: In den Kämpfen vor Verdun gefangene Franzosen, Nordafrikaner, Kabylen und Turkos werden durch ein französisches Dorf abgeführt. ([431]) [Abb.]: Zur Verwendung russischer Truppen an der französischen Westfront: Ankunft des Transportdampers im Hafen von Marseile. (432) Deutsche Kavallerie im September 1915 bei Wilna. (432) [3 Abb.]: (1)Füllung eines Pilotierballons in einer Feldwetterstation in Albanien. (2)Der aufgelassene Ballon einer Feldwetterstation in Albanien wird zur Berechnung der Windstärke und =richtung beobachtet. (3)Tragbare Feldradiostation in Albanien. (-) [Abb.]: Reiterattacke bei Wileyka: Eine Husareneskadron greift eine russische Infanteriekompanie an. ([433]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fesselballon mit Schwanztütenrute. (2) Deutscher Fesselballon mit Bespannung vor dem Aufstieg. (434) [Abb.]: Drahtseilspindelrolle einer Luftschifferabteilung in Nordfrankreich. (434) Feldwetterstationen (435) [Abb.]: Empfang von Mitgliedern der bulgarischen Sobranje in Dresden durch den Präsidenten der zweiten sächsischen Kammer, Geheimrat Vogel (im weissen Bart), und den Oberbürgermeister Blüher (zu dessen Linken). Die Rundreise der 15 bulgarischen Volksvertreter unter Führung des Vizepräsidenten der Sobranje (Landtag), Dr. Momtschilow, durch Deutschland geschah in der Absicht, "deutsches Land und deutsche Arbeit kennen zu lernen", wie es Reichskanzler Dr. v. Bethmann Hollweg in seiner Begrüssungsrede ausdrückte. Denn suchte auch Bulgarien mit seinem Anschluss an die Zentralmächte zunächst nur die Rückeroberung Mazedoniens zu erreichen, so verfolgt das Bündnis zugleich doch viel tiefere und wertvollere Ziele, nämlich gemeinsame Entfaltung aller wirtschaftlichen Kräfte in dem neuen Vierbund, in dem Bulgarien die Brücke zu bilden bestimmt ist zwischen der östlichen und den beiden westlichen Grossmächten. Nichts ist aber geeigneter, gegenseitige gründliche Kenntnis und Wertschätzung zu schaffen, als liebevolles Studium des andern seinem Wesen und seiner Arbeit nach. So wurde denn die bulgarische Abordnung, wie zuvor in Österreich=Ungarn, auch in Deutschland überall mit herzlicher Wärme aufgenommen. (436) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 98 (Heft 98) ([437]) [Abb.]: Feldgottesdienst von Tiroler Standschützen in 2500 Meter Höhe in den Dolomiten. ([437]) [Abb.]: Das von den Italienern zwecklos in Brand geschossene Dorf Sexten in den Dolomiten. (438) [Abb.]: Ein italienischer Grosskampfdoppeldecker der Klasse "Caproni", der von österreichisch=ungarischen Fliegern im Luftkampf abgeschossen wurde. (439) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen um den Besitz des Col di Lana. Im Vordergrunde rechts sowie am linksseitigen Höhenkamm feuern österreichisch=ungarische Gebirgsbatterien gegen die feindlichen Stellungen auf dem Felsmassiv des Col di Lana im Hintergrunde. Links Tiroler Landesschützenabteilungen im Vormarsch zum Sturm auf die italienischen Verschanzungen. ([440 - 441]) [Abb.]: In den Kämpfen bei Tolmein gefangene Italiener warten auf ihre Abführung. (442) [Abb.]: Gesamtansicht der Stadt Balona gegen das Meer zu. (443) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (444) Die Fürsorge für die Kriegsverletzten. (444) [Abb.]: Blick auf die Stadt Saloniki vom Bord eines englischen Kriegschiffes. (444) [Abb.]: Munitionstransport durch das zerschossene Dorf Condé in den Argonnen. ( - ) [Abb.]: Beschiessung des russischen Schiffes "Slawa" und eines feindlichen U=Boots im Moonsund durch ein Geschwader von deutschen Wasserflugzeugen. ([445]) Munitionstransporte. (446) [Abb.]: Soldatendorf an der Südostfront. (446) [Abb.]: Oberst Julius Planckh, der Held von Uscieczto. (447) [Abb.]: Oberstbrigadier v. Bolzano mit seinem Stabe, Kommandant einer Infanteriebrigade, die sich besonders im Kampf um den Haliczer Brückenkopf am Onjestr hervortat. (447) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Soldaten während einer Gefechtspause an der Strypa. (448) [Abb.]: Die vorderste österreichisch=ungarische Stellung an der Strypa. (448) Die kulturelle Tätigkeit des k. u. k. Militärgouverneurs in Serbien. (448) [Abb.]: Die Russen werden zwischen Toporoutz und Bojan, nordöstlich von Czernowitz an der bessarabischen Front, in wildem Nahkampf aus ihren Schützengräben zurückgeworfen. ([449]) [Abb.]: Feldmarschalleutnant Weber v. Webenau, Militärgouverneur von Montenegro, dessen Infanterietruppendivision unter seiner Führung den Lovcen eroberte. (450) Die Aufteilung Europas. (450) [3 Abb.]: (1)Serbische Zigeunerfamilie vor ihrer Behausung. (2)Serbische Zigeunermutter mit ihren Sprößlingen. (3)Zigeunerjugend auf einer Dorfstrasse in Serbien. Die Militärmusik kommt. (451) [Abb.]: Das künftige Europa nach französischer Vorstellung. (452) Der neue italienische Stahlhelm. (452) [Abb.]: Abführung der englischen Besatzung von Kut=el=Amara durch die Türken nach der Übergabe des Generals Townshend. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 99 (Heft 99) ([453]) [Abb.]: General Bronfart v. Schellendorf, Chef des Generalstabs des türkischen Feldheeres. ([453]) [Abb.]: Türkisches Infanterieregiment in Paradeaufstellung. (454) [Abb.]: Djemal Pascha und General Trommer im Wüstenlager am Suezkanal. (455) [Abb.]: Bewaffnete und mit Sandsäcken geschützte englische Dampfboote auf dem Tigris von türkischen Landtruppen beschossen. (456 - 457) [Abb.]: Der Stab der vierten kaukasischen Jägerdivision auf dem Gipfel der Hochfläche von Kargabazar. Rechts neben der Wagenspur die beiden Empfangsmasten für drahtlose Telegraphie. (458) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (458) Die Fürsorge für die Kriegsverletzten. (458) [Abb.]: Teheran, die Hauptstadt Persien. Rechts die kaiserliche Bank. (459) [Abb.]: General Baratoff (X), der Oberbefehlshaber der russischen Streitkräfte in Persien, bei einer Truppenbesichtigung in Teheran. (459) [Abb.]: Mit Unterständen ausgebauter deutscher Sprengtrichter in Flandern. (460) [Abb.]: Skizze der Sprengungen bei St. Eloi am 27. März 1916. (460) [Abb.]: Skizze des Kampfraumes von Armentiéres bis Givenchy (460) [Abb.]: Vorstoss englischer Seestreitkräfte an die flandrische Küste am 16. Mai 1916, wobei auf englischer Seite besonders Panzerkanonenboote (Monitore) verwendet wurden, die wegen ihres geringen Tiefangs näher an die Küste herankommen können. Der Angriff wurde von den deutschen Torpedobooten und Bewachungsfahrzeugen abgewiesen. ([461]) [Abb.]: Englische Flugzeuge über dem Hoogeabschnitt bei Ypern. Verkleinerte Wiedergabe eines in England verbreiteten farbigen Kunstblattes. (462) Die Vergewaltigung neutraler Staaten durch Grossbritannien und Frankreich. (462) [Abb.]: Frankreichs algerische Truppen. Eine Abteilung Turkos auf dem Wege zur Front im Gebiete der Maas. (463) [Abb.]: Durch deutsche Geschosse zerstörte Strasse in Verdun. (464) [Abb.]: Erstürmung der französischen Gräben der Maas, beiderseits der Strasse Haucourt-Esnes, bis auf die höhe der Südspitze des Camardwaldes. ([465]) [Abb.]: Karte zur Vergewaltigung Griechenlands durch England und Frankreich. Der Blockadering der Ententemächte, der von Saloniki ausgehend über die griechischen Inseln zu den von Italien fett 1911/12 besetzten südlichen Sporaden und von da über Kreta Kephalonia und Korfu nach dem von den Italienern befestigten Walona führt. Von Korfu aus sollten die Reste des serbischen und des montenegrinischen Heeres über die griechische Eisenbahn Patras-Korinth-Athen-Larissa nach Saloniki geschafft werden, ein Plan, dem von der griechischen Regierung kraftvoller Widerstand entgegengesetzt wurde. (466) Aus den Tagen von Postawy. (466) [Abb.]: Eine englische Signalstation auf der griechischen Insel Wytilene. (467) [Abb.]: Blick auf die Insel Samos mit dem Hafen Bathy, dem Hauptort der Insel, die von den Engländern unter dem Vorwande, die türkische Bevölkerung unterstütze deutsche Unterseeboote mit Bannware, trotz Einspruchs des Präfekten beschossen wurde. (467) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu dem Artikel: Aus den Tagen von Postawy. (468) Gegen Tirol und Kärnten. (468) [Abb.]: Standhaftes Ausharren eines lothringischen Regiments gegen russische Massenangriffe. ([469]) [Abb.]: Blick auf eine von den Italienern zerschossene Ortschaft in Tirol. (470) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Freikofels durch österreichisch=ungarische Truppen. ([471]) [Abb.]: Ankunft und Empfang der aus französischer Gefangenschaft entlassenen deutschen Austauschinvaliden auf dem Bahnhof in Davos (Schweiz), woselbst sie zur Erholung Aufenthalt nahmen. (472) [Abb.]: Nächtlicher Kampf bei den italienischen Werken von Campomolon auf ausgedehnten Schneefeldern in Höhe von 1500-200 Metern. Nach den feindlichen Berichten stürmten die österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen in Schneemänteln und weissen Kappenüberzügen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/16. Heft 100 (Heft 100) ([473]) [Abb.]: Der österreichisch=ungarische Thronfolger Erzherzog Karl Franz Joseph, Führer der siegreichen Truppen in Südtirol, im Gespräch mit Offizieren einer Minenwerferkompanie. ([473]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte zu dem österreichisch=ungarischen Vordringen in Südtirol. ([473]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Gebirgsartillerie bei der Beförderung eines Geschützes schweren Kalibers. Hunderte solcher Geschütze wurden bei der Offensive in Südtirol mit der grösstmöglichen Beschleunigung nach von geworfen, eine in den hohen Bergen geradezu ungeheuerliche Aufgabe. (474) [Abb.]: Blick auf Rundschein (Roncegno) im Suganer Tal, das am 19. Mai 1916 von den österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen besetzt wurde. (475) [Abb.]: Die österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen besetzen bei ihrem Vordringen im Südtirol die Stadt Burgen (Borgo) im Suganer Tal am 22. Mai 1916. Im Hintergrunde das bereits am 19. Mai genommene Rundschein (Roncegno). ([476 - 477]) [Abb.]: Die Hochfläche von Bielgereuth, auf der die österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen am 16. Mai 1916 die feindlichen Stellungen Soglio d´Aspio-Coston-Costa d´Agro-Maronia erstürmten, und von der aus sie nach Überschreitung der italienischen Grenze die feindlichen Werke Campomolon und Toraro eroberten. (478) [Abb.]: Zum Vordringen des österreichisch=ungarischen Heeres an der italienischen Grenze. Siegesfrohe Truppen rücken in ihren Kampfstand. (478) [Abb.]: Blick auf Lafraun auf der gleichnamigen Hochfläche in Südtirol. (479) [Abb.]: Gefangene Alpini aus den Kämpfen bei dem österreichisch=ungarischen Vorgehen in Südtirol. (479) [Abb.]: Im Hauptquartier des Kommandanten der österreichisch=ungarischen Südwestfront, Generaloberst Erzherzog Eugen. 1. Generaloberst Hoch= und Deutschmeister Erzherzog Eugen; 2. k. u. k. Kriegsminister Generaloberst Alexander Freiherr v. Krobatin; 3. Vorstand der Präsidialkanzlei im k. u. k. Kriegsministerium Generalmajor Karl Edler v. Bellmond; 4. Generalstabschef Feldmarschalleutnant Krauss. (480) [Abb.]: Erstürmung der Zugna Torta, südlich von Dovreit (Rovereto). durch österreichisch=ungarische Truppen in der Nacht vom 16. zum 17. Mai 1916. ([481]) [Abb.9: Das Gebiet der Scharmützel zwischen den deutsch=bulgarischen und den Vierverbandstruppen an der griechisch=bulgarischen Grenze. Die T=Zeichen bedeuten die Grenzpfähle. (482) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (482) Auf Patrouille*). (482) [Abb.]: Das Wardartal bei Gevgeli. (482) [Abb.]: Die auf steilem Felsstrand gelegene Altstadt des griechischen Hafenortes Kavalla, in dem von den Engländern Truppen gelandet wurden. (483) Feldherr und Chef des Generalstabs. (484) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Gebirgsartillerie am Warda. (484) [Abb.]: Abladen eines schweren Geschützes von einem Transportdampfer im Hafen von Saloniki, dem "zweiten Gibraltar". (485) [Abb.]: Deutsche Verpflegungskolonne beim Verlassen eines Lagers auf dem Wege zur Front in Mazedonien (485) Kriegsbeute. (486) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zur Russenoffensive am Narotschsee vom 12. März bis 28. April 1916. (486) Am Narotschsee. (487) [Abb.]: Sammelstelle für Ausrüstungsgegenstände aus der Kriegsbeute, die hier verlesen und ausgesondert werden, um zur Umarbeitung und Wiederverwendung in die Heimat gesandt zu werden. (487) [3 Abb.]: Aus dem litauischen Seengebiet. (1)Quartier deutscher Soldaten in einem litauischen Dorfe. (2)Trainkolonne beim Haferladen am Njemen. (3)Litauisches Gespann. (488) [Abb.]: Deutsche Infanterie stürmt die russischen Stellungen im Sumpfgebiet des Narostschees. ([489]) Blindgänger. (490) [Abb.]: Unschädlichmachung eines französischen Blindgängers. (490) [Abb.]: Von der Beschiessung von Middelkerke=Westende durch die Engländer. (490) Die Fürsorge für die Kriegsverletzten. (491) [Abb.]: Von der Beschiessung von Middelkerke=Westende durch die Engländer. Nicht explodierte Seemine und französischer Lufttorpedo. (491) [Abb.]: Entladen einer angeschwemmten englischen Mine an der flandrischen Küste unter Aufsicht eines deutschen Offiziers. (491) [Abb.]: Ein Denkmal für gestorbene Kriegsgefangene Franzosen und Russen in Deutschland. Auf dem Friedhof zu Ebersdorf bei Chemnitz wurde im April 1916 in Gegenwart einer Abordnung von 250 kriegsgefangenen Franzosen und Russen ein Denkmal für deren im Gefangenenlager in Ebersdorf gestorbene Kameraden enthüllt. Nach den Reden des französischen und des russischen Geistlichen erkannte ein französischer Offizier in einer Ansprache dankbar die Förderung des Denkmals durch die Kommandantur des Gefangenenlagers an. Das Denkmal, ein Werk des kriegsgefangenen Bildhauers David Debrock aus Dünkirchen, stellt das um seine gefallenen Söhne trauernde Frankreich dar, gestützt auf die umflorte Trikolore. Eine Mohnblume versinnbildlicht den Todeschlaf, den Sockel schmückt ein Lorbeerzweig. (492) [Einband]: ( - ) [Einband]: ( - )
Oral history interview with William Warren Steele, conducted by Jennifer Payne at Norwich University in Northfield, Vermont, on 12 September 2013, as part of the Norwich Voices oral history project of the Sullivan Museum and History Center. William "Bill" Steele was a member of the Norwich University Class of 1959; his interview includes discussion of his classmates and his memories of Norwich University as well as his later career and his family history. ; 1 William Steele Oral History Interview Interview Date: Interview Location: Sullivan Museum & History Center, Norwich University Interviewed by Jennifer K. Payne Transcribed by Thomas H. King III JENNIFER PAYNE: This is Jennifer Payne with the Norwich Voices Oral History Project. Today's date is September 12, 2013 and we're at the Sullivan Museum and History Center and I'm with Bill Steele. Welcome. WILLIAM STEELE: Thank you. JENNIFER PAYNE: Can you give me your full name please. WILLIAM STEELE: William Warren Steele. JENNIFER PAYNE: And where were you born? WILLIAM STEELE: I was born in - we lived in Roxbury but I was born in Montpelier in 1937. JENNIFER PAYNE: Ah-ha, ok. Do you have a nickname? WILLIAM STEELE: Bill JENNIFER PAYNE: Ok. What made you decide to choose Norwich? WILLIAM STEELE: Mainly it was family history. We didn't have a lot of guidance in those days about possibilities of college and all that, and my grandfather, two uncles, my father, and my cousin had all gone to Norwich. So it was sort of expected that a male Steele would go to Norwich and so that's where I went and also Norwich had a great influence over Montpelier in those days. My junior varsity high school football coach was a Norwich man. My girl's father was a Norwich man. Norwich sort of permeated Montpelier. So it was sort of a no-brainer I would go to Norwich and I did. JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh. So you were class of 59? WILLIAM STEELE: Class of 59, yeah. JENNIFER PAYNE: And what was your major? WILLIAM STEELE: Electrical Engineering. JENNIFER PAYNE: Who was your roommate? WILLIAM STEELE: Well my freshmen year it was Dick Thayer and Tom Turner. We were in Alumni Hall and I wouldn't have missed that for the world. It was a fire trap, but it was a lot of fun and Tom and Dick were my roommates. We were all three engineering majors. Dick later on changed to business I think, but we were all in one room for that freshmen year and I wouldn't have missed the Alumni Hall experience for the world. 2 JENNIFER PAYNE: What was it about, what was it about it exactly? Were there, was there anything that you remember doing there that you liked? WILLIAM STEELE: It was an old, old building, and as I say a fire trap, and because it was a fire trap there was no sprinkler system or anything in those days. It was all very old wood, dried out, painted probably 30 times, and so if a fire had ever started it would have gone pretty fast. So in our rooms we had, in front of the window, we had a high stool and on that stool was a bucket and we had to keep that bucket full of water all the time, and that was inspected to make sure no algae was forming so we had to take the bucket down and clean it out and refill it with water every day to make sure that didn't happen. So it was pretty basic in those days. But I made a lot of friends there, ah, Dick and Tom, and Pier Mapes. I think Jack Joyce was with us in those days. Friends that have lasted up over the years. JENNIFER PAYNE: That's wonderful. Were you in a fraternity? WILLIAM STEELE: No, no. Fraternities then, oh I think about a third of the Corps, when I talk about the Corps I'm talking about total student body, because if you were in Norwich you were in the Corps. So about a third of the Corps belonged to the six fraternities. The other two thirds of us did not. It was, it cost 12 dollars a month which wasn't insignificant in those days, and I only had 20 to begin with. So that, and also when I got to Norwich I didn't know what fraternities were. I had no background in any of this and as a result when they started talking about pledging and rushing and that kind of thing, I didn't have the foggiest idea what they were talking about. So the fraternity experience sort of passed me by and when Ernie Harmon got rid of the fraternities a few years after I graduated I wasn't too sorry. There was a lot of, Ernie Harmon thought that fraternities did not belong in a military school, and I think in retrospect that I agreed with him. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. Did you play any sports? WILLIAM STEELE: I played intramural baseball and that, that was it. And that was my freshmen year. After that I was not sports inclined. JENNIFER PAYNE: What activities did you do? WILLIAM STEELE: My freshmen year, you know when you're a freshmen you do everything. After that you do nothing [laughing], particularly when you're an electrical engineer because your total focus was on getting through the engineering curriculum. But my freshmen year I belonged to the Glee Club, which was sort of fun. We did some traveling. And I belonged to the Drill team and that was a lot of fun and we did traveling with that also. JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh wow. What did you do to relax? WILLIAM STEELE: I think - our entertainment, most of it was pretty regulated. You know we started in the morning would be rousted out, we'd march down to breakfast, we'd come back and then it was time to get your room cleaned up and get ready to go to your first class. Then in the evening it was back to the barracks and then almost immediately go down for dinner, and then when you came back from dinner it was study. So most of that was pretty regulated. I can 3 remember the one really bright spot relaxing time during the week was when we went down to Harmon Hall in the basement where there was the only TV on campus and we would watch Air Power [on Sunday Nights] 1. That was the big thing, was watching Air Power and it was all air power from the Second World War of course. And that was the big bright spot. There were some other things, I mean we did do some things in Montpelier, some social things in Montpelier. But the, but Montpelier was a little difficult. Most of us did not have cars. So if you wanted to go into Montpelier for something normally you hitchhiked. And so I hitchhiked back and forth many a time. JENNIFER PAYNE: Right up Rt.12. WILLIAM STEELE: Yup JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. Do you remember any songs? If you were in the Glee Club did you, do you remember any songs from your year? WILLIAM STEELE: Oh there was one that the faculty really liked: "There is Nothing Like a Dame" from South Pacific. And that was great, a whole bunch of guys of a mens school isolated and everything. The faculty thought that, that was most appropriate. So we sang that. Of course everyone sang "On the Steps of Jackman." I'm not sure that anybody sings that anymore because it's sort of outdated. JENNIFER PAYNE: How does it go? Do you… WILLIAM STEELE: It was, oh I remember it well. JENNIFER PAYNE: Would you? WILLIAM STEELE: Of course, "On the steps of Jackman, crying like hell, lies a new born baby. Can't you hear that son of bitching bastard yell? Oh who could be the father? Maybe it's you. Just another bastard son of old NU." [Laughing] JENNIFER PAYNE: That was wonderful. WILLIAM STEELE: Well you know it's sort of out of date now, but because of the sexual revolution and everything else, but back in those days there was sort of an image of a Norwich guy getting lose, impregnating some local girl, and then bugging out and hiding back in the Corps. And the idea of, you know, we talked about it but I never saw it happen, but we talked about lining the Corps up and having the girl troop the line up and down with a baby in her arms, looking for the offending cadet. So that was the kind of image that went on in those days, and the idea of a girl bringing the baby and putting it on the steps of one of the barracks, which Jackman was then. It was Headquarters Company. That was sort of an image that everyone was in favor of. Interesting thing, during our 50th anniversary, which was just 4 years ago, we were all lined up on the steps of the new Jackman, and when we were lined up for the picture being taken somebody started singing "On the Steps of Jackman" and the whole class sang it. 1 Added at the request of William W. Steele '59. 4 JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh I wish I could have been there for that. WILLIAM STEELE: [Laughter] That's a, yeah too bad they didn't have a microphone. JENNIFER PAYNE: That would have been great. Oh boy. Who was your favorite instructor at Norwich? WILLIAM STEELE: Oh that's easy. His name was Martin Webb. And at the end of our sophomore year we were told that we were gonna really be brought into line because we had coming our junior and senior year a new professor and his name was Martin Webb. He was 42 years old, he was a full Colonel in the Army, had been selected for Brigadier General at the age of 42, which is pretty fast, and then had taken a physical, had a heart condition and so the Army tossed him out. And he decided to come to Norwich, which was a military school, to do his teaching. So we, the other professors had instilled fear in us to this guy was going to come and really crack the whip. Well he came and that was not the way he operated at all. He took us under his wing, and he was the greatest example of a man I think that I have ever met. He did everything right. I can remember we were very proud when we had winter carnival of most things because he was there, he was our professor, and he was real full of carnival. And he had the most expensive class A uniform dress blues that I have ever seen. In those days we thought it cost $300 which would probably be like $1500 or $2000 now. Very good material and of course tailored to fit him exactly. Martin Webb took care of us and he made sure, he tried to make sure that we were properly trained for what we were going to do and of course a lot of us went into the Army. And so what he would do, which was illegal because the drinking age then was 21, he would have Sunday afternoon receptions at his house, and he would be dressed in his dress blues, and his wife Silvia would be in a hostess gown, and they would have our class, which was only 8 people, our senior class, out to their house for h'ordeuvres and drinks. And I didn't really realize it at the time, but what he was doing was grooming us for the social life of the Army. It was just one of those things that he took on, and then I think within a year of the time I graduated and went out to New Mexico I got a letter from Colonel Webb, and he had found a job that he thought I might be interested in, in Vermont. And of course I already had a job at White Sands Missile range so I wasn't interested in that. It just shows that even after we graduated he was looking out after us. Yeah one of the finest men I ever met. I came back five years after I graduated, they had an engineering symposium, and we were, some of us graduates were going to talk to the undergraduates at Norwich. And I came back for that, and Martin Webb had died within a few months before that. That bad heart of his that got him thrown out of the Army finally caught up with him and he had collapsed and died and so that was sort of sad. But he was the best professor that I ever saw, and the finest man I ever met. JENNIFER PAYNE: That's wonderful. What was your least favorite class at Norwich? WILLIAM STEELE: [Laughing] Advanced mathematics. And it was, and the reason I tell myself now was probably because the professor, well he probably knew his subject better than any other professor knew his subject at Norwich. He was a mathematician. He knew, he had worked with Einstein during the Second World War on the Atomic Bomb as I understand it. Brilliant guy, but could not relate to students, and could not teach, and we all had a lot of 5 problem in his class. I won't mention his name, but we all had a lot of problem in his class and I did especially. So yeah that was my least favorite of all classes. JENNIFER PAYNE: What do you remember most about being a rook? WILLIAM STEELE: [Laughing] I guess, because I had not assumed great responsibility yet from my life there was a certain freedom that came from that. And there was a certain, ah, nice sense that came with the organization and the discipline and the regularity of Army life. It was very comforting. You knew where you were, you knew what your status was, you knew what to do, you know who to go at certain times, and that was pretty comforting most of the time. And then again because I hadn't grown up at the time, I didn't have the sense of responsibility that I probably should have had. So that was a pretty good year. I liked that. Also I made a lot of friends that year that have been friends ever since. JENNIFER PAYNE: But was there, was there, was the part that you didn't like, was it, was there anything you didn't like about being a rook or? WILLIAM STEELE: Yeah, you couldn't have a car. You were with, at that time our total enrollment was about 700. So you had 700 cadets isolated in a very small town with no car. So there wasn't, a social life was sort of possible if you had the money and could find the transportation. Other than that it was a little difficult. JENNIFER PAYNE: How were you disciplined, when you were, if you were ever disciplined? WILLIAM STEELE: [Laughing] Oh I certainly was. Can almost be an expert on that. I'm not sure about the way it's done now, but in those days 99% of the discipline was done by the Cadet Corps itself. It was done by Cadets. The faculty and the staff played almost no part in it whatsoever. The battalion and regimental disciplinary boards, which was the highest level of discipline, could exact any punishment up to and including suspension for three years. Now if your offence required expulsion, then the faculty came into it or the staff came into it and I think actually the president came into it for final approval. But other than that it was all students. But I have a story for an exception to that, which was made in my case [Laughing] when the faculty got involved in it. I don't know if you're familiar with the name of Maurice Smith? JENNIFER PAYNE: Yes WILLIAM STEELE: Maurice Smith, I think he died within the last couple of years. JENNIFER PAYNE: Maurice Smith? WILLIAM STEELE: Maurice Smith yeah. JENNIFER PAYNE: He's a 102. WILLIAM STEELE: He's a 100 and he's still alive then, ok. Let me tell you a story about Maurice Smith [laughter]. He was at that time a Lieutenant Colonel and an Assistant Commandant of Cadets. I had a cousin who was class of '33, valedictorian of '33, who was a very good close friend of Maurice Smith. And my cousin came to Norwich for a Middlebury game once. Well my cousin who was pretty wild, anyway, and he, when he came he stayed with 6 Maurice Smith. So before he left for the game, he and I were going to sit at the game together, before he left for the game he filled up his flask with Maurice Smith's scotch and brought it to the game and then insisted that we sit on the Middlebury side. Well I was in my Cadet uniform so that wasn't entirely proper but he was my much older cousin so I went with him and we sat on the Middlebury side. And of course all of the Norwich side was looking over across the field at us, and my cousin bought a blanket which he put in our laps presumably to keep warm. But about every 15 minutes would take the blanket and we'd throw it up over our heads and we'd pass that flask back and forth. And well of course Maurice Smith was looking across as the Assistant Commandant of Cadets, was looking across the field and he could see all of this and he knew that he had a Cadet illegally drinking his scotch. [Laughter] So now the next story I'm going to tell you, I have no proof that there is a connection, but I think that there was. A month or two later during winter carnival I was the Officer of the Day and I went ahead and did my duties and everything. About two days after that I received a letter from Maurice Smith with 7 first class charges on it, some of which had a grain of truth to them, some of which had no truth at all to them. But any one of which could have gotten me kicked out of Norwich or at least suspended. So I had to sit down as a 20 year old cadet and, and type out an official letter responding to all of these charges. Which I did, and several days went by, and finally -. In those days the mess hall was one big room with tables for 10 people and everyone was served the same food. And in the corner was what was called the crow's nest which was were the Cadet Commander and his Exec. Officer sat. And it was quite tall, there's stairs going up to it. So I was called up to the crow's nest and I was told by the Cadet Exec. Officer that Colonel Smith had referred the whole matter to them, for them to adjudicate. So the Exec. Officer said "we have decided that if you would agree, we will give you 12 demerits and the whole thing will go away." Well in those days you were allowed 12 demerits a month before you had to start walking tours, and seniors very rarely got demerits for anything. So I said "Ok I'll take the 12 demerits and we'll call it even." [Laughing] So that's the only time that I can really remember personally when anybody other than a member of the Cadet Corps got involved in disciplinary action and I think I know the reason why. [Laughter] JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow and that would be, the reason was because? WILLIAM STEELE: Because I was drinking his Scotch in front of him and he couldn't do anything about it [Laughing]. JENNIFER PAYNE: What was the hardest part of attending Norwich? WILLIAM STEELE: The hardest part? Well you know you're a kid when you're in college, and you don't have a great perspective about the outside world and what's going to happen. And I think one of the things I worried most about was how well I would be prepared to go out and do a job of electrical engineering. It turned out that was the least of my worries. Norwich prepared me very, very well. I've met people from lots bigger colleges and people with advanced degrees that I could compete with very easily. So Norwich did very well for me, but I did worry some about that when I was a cadet. And I think that and just passing all the courses was, and when I say passing all the courses, in engineering in those days, and it was changed thank god, in engineering in those days all you had to do was to pass every course. That's all. There was no 7 grade point average requirement. So if you got - you could conceivably graduate with a 1.0, having got a D in every course. Martin Webb, the aforementioned Colonel Webb, the year after I graduated he became the head of the department, and he changed that and he said he was going to change that. Because what was happening, it was very difficult to get a 1.0. I mean we flunked out. I think we had over 30 electrical engineers my freshmen year and we graduated 8 or 7 I think. So it was very difficult to get that 1.0 and, but when we got out nobody knew all about that. So our low grade point average was put up against people from other schools who had perhaps a 2.5 average, and it was very difficult when we got started. Well Colonel Webb changed that. He made a higher grade point average as being required and made it somewhat easier for it to get that higher grade point average. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. What would say is the most important thing that Norwich taught you? WILLIAM STEELE: Discipline, organization, I think without question. And, and it stays with me today. It's something that has helped me all my life and it's just part of me now, so. JENNIFER PAYNE: What did, what did "I Will Try" mean to you as a student? WILLIAM STEELE: Nothing. It meant, well I shouldn't say nothing. As, I meant it has obvious connotations that you will try, you will exert an effort and all that. But aside from that it didn't mean a whole lot. Later on it meant something far more than that. It meant, whether or not it was a good motto or not and I never thought it was particularly imaginative, but it was historical. I think it was Truman Ransom that said that and it was picked up. But later on it became just about good or bad. It became about Norwich tradition and to me that became very important, still is very important. JENNIFER PAYNE: So how do you think, let's see, I want to talk about your professional life so tell me what happened after you left Norwich and how you got to be an engineer. WILLIAM STEELE: What happened was I had no job when I graduated from Norwich. My mother was living in New York City at the time so I went down to spend a couple weeks down there tramping up and down the streets of New York City finding if, I remember Aramco, Arabian American Oil Company was one company that I interviewed with. Didn't really know how to do an interview and it was a little difficult for engineers to get jobs. It was just one of those low points. But my father who was in the Army and stationed at White Sands Missile Range gave me a two week vacation as a graduation present, a two week vacation in New Mexico, in the great southwest. So I flew down there and stayed two weeks and I arrived there with 40 dollars and 40 pounds of luggage, 'cause 40 pounds of luggage was what those old propeller driven airplanes would take. And I stayed two weeks and I loved it. I loved the weather. I'd wake up early in the morning, it was, it's high altitude down there, 3/4000 feet, and the weather is perfect day after day after day. And I decided I wanted to stay so I cashed in my return trip plane ticket and got another 40 dollars for that and that lasted me another couple weeks, and then I had to get a job. So I got a job there with civil service at White Sands Missile Range. That was pretty much what my career was from then on. 8 JENNIFER PAYNE: What did you do, what did you do for White Sands Missile Range? WILLIAM STEELE: Well I started out in the television division which was doing special television set ups, for instance - of course a missile range, like any test range, tests Army materials, Army systems. And some systems when you test them you have to surveill them with television, and so we designed that kind of system. For instance there was a hot/cold chamber that we would put the material into. We had to design a television system that would withstand the heat and the cold so we could put it in there and take a look at that material from the outside while it was being tested. There's another one, a centrifuge, which was a big spinning thing, and we mounted a camera on the very center of that pointing straight out the arm toward the material being tested. So you could view that as it went around. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. WILLIAM STEELE: So then another job that I had was, we were doing a drone test out at Yuma Proving Ground, which was several hundred miles away over in Arizona. And I was sent over there in order to put in a television system that would provide surveillance of the drones when they were on the launch pad and as they launched. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow, very interesting. WILLIAM STEELE: It was that kind of thing. Then after that I went into meteorology. JENNIFER PAYNE: Really? WILLIAM STEELE: Yeah, we had a big meteorological group and engineering division that would build data collection systems for the meteorologists. So I did that for several years and after that I went to work for Astrodata Corporation, one private industry which built timing systems. And then they went bankrupt so I was out of work and after that I ended up, in 1972, I ended up in Yuma Proving Ground. And at Yuma Proving Ground I got some really, I got two wonderful opportunities there. And the first one was - laser technology had begun essentially in 1960, that's the first time they got laser action and some actual light out of a laser rod. So this was then 12 years later when I went to Yuma Proving Ground, and they were about to be sent a laser radar to be evaluated. And so I got there at the right time and I was assigned that job. And it was the first general purpose laser tracking system in the Department of Defense. So I got a chance to do the evaluation of that, to buy some more. It turned out to be terribly successful. Then in 1973 I think it was, I was sitting talking to my boss, and an Air Force Lieutenant Colonel appeared at the door. And he said "My name is Val Denninger and I'm looking for a place to test a new navigation system." Well we had never tested a navigation system before, but laser tracking systems were ideal for doing that because what would happen - you'd put the navigation system on board an aircraft to tell you where the navigation system said the aircraft was, and then you would track the aircraft with laser trackers which would tell you where it really was. So my boss was a smart guy and so he asked a couple of questions on how does it work and so on and so forth. And we didn't know whether that - this guy had a great line, and we didn't know how much of his line was a little hokey and how much was real. So my boss asked him, he said, "At what level are, is that project being funded every year?" And Val told us, 9 I've forgotten the number but it was huge. 100 million or something like that which in 1972 was a lot of money. And we said, my boss said "First of all come in and sit down and close the door." Because every test range is looking for a lot of test work to do, it's our living. And the next question he asked was "And what do you call this system?" And Val said, "We call it the global positioning system, the GPS." And at that point we really got interested and it turns out that the dollar value that Val had given us included putting up all those satellites. That's what made it so big. So at that point we decided we really wanted that system. And we were a little tiny range, Yuma Proving Ground is not a large range at all, and we were in competition with White Sands Missile Range, which was huge, and Edwards Air Force base. So we decided we were the only ones that had operating lasers at that point, or had one operating laser at that point. So we sat down, they had the money, we had the will, and they fed us a lot of money for software development to buy more laser trackers and everything else and we just turned our work force into preparing to test the GPS. And sometime along, I've forgotten when maybe 1974, we were officially selected as the primary test range for the GPS and I was assigned as the range product engineer for that. And my job was then to coordinate all of the facilities for Yuma Proving Ground for testing this new thing, and so that was a great challenge. I'm probably the only person you'll ever meet that can tell you exactly how the GPS works and how it determines your location. It's a mathematical process. So I got to do that for I think, we flew the first test flight of a C-130 aircraft in 1976, and after that we were still testing the global positioning system up until I left Yuma Proving Ground in 1985. So that was an absolutely wonderful opportunity to get involved in something that turned out to be very big. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow that's amazing. That's, you mentioned the 4 generals that were in your class. WILLIAM STEELE: Yes JENNIFER PAYNE: And it's just amazing how your class and your colleagues have just been involved in such incredible projects. GPS is so big. WILLIAM STEELE: Yes, yes. And the 4 generals, the 4 general officers and our class was I think 153, and the 4 general officers, first of all lightning. As far as I know we had only had one 4 star general before our class and that was I.D. White in the class of 1922, interestingly enough a classmate of my father's when he went to Norwich. And I think Sully Sullivan was the second 4 star we got, and lightning really struck because he was made Chief of Staff of the Army, I think 1990 to 1994. Then about the same time Bill Streeter became the Commander of the Military District of Washington, which included Arlington Cemetery and Fort Myer down there, some other things. We had Don Edwards who was, for about 16 years I think, the Adjutant General of the State of Vermont. And then we had Dick Durgens who was a Brigadier General. So we had 4 general officers out of the class and as well as Pier Mapes who was president of NBC television for affiliates. JENNIFER PAYNE: Amazing. Who were your family members? What are their names of your family members that were here? I would like to get them on the record. 10 WILLIAM STEELE: Oh ok. My grandfather was the first one that went here. He went here for only a year and he took pre-, he took law here. And he was then the class of 1882 I think. JENNIFER PAYNE: He's that Fredrick Steele? WILLIAM STEELE: Yes JENNIFER PAYNE: Ok WILLIAM STEELE: Yeah, he was class of 1882. He went here for one year and then came under the influence of Dr. Mayo downtown in Northfield. And Dr. Mayo was a homeopathic physician and my grandfather then decided he would be a homeopathic physician. So he went to Hahnemann Medical School in Chicago for two terms. Came back, studied under Dr. Mayo for a while, and then moved down to Gaysville which is in the township of Stockbridge Vermont and practiced there from 1883 to 1903. And then he moved to Montpelier and, to ease up his workload. But I don't think it eased up his workload a whole lot. When he was in Gaysville he was always looking at the south end of a horse going north you know, because he was going around to Bethel and to Springfield and all those towns around there in a buggy, and he wanted to ease that up a little bit. So he moved to Montpelier, moved to 152 Main Street. Now when he was in Stockbridge he was the State Representative from Stockbridge to the State House of Representatives. And then he was elected as the senator from Windsor County, and did most of his work in the Vermont state legislature on medical things. Then when he moved to Montpelier of course he was in Washington County. He was then elected to the Vermont senate from Washington County, senator from Washington County. And in those days they had three kinds of medicine and one was allopathic, which is what we would call today regular medicine. And then there was homeopathic medicine, which today has sort of degenerated into wheat germ and that kind of thing, but in those days they did everything. They delivered babies mostly, and they set limbs. It was before abdominal surgery so there wasn't any of that, but surgery on the limbs and everything they did, and everything else. And then there was eclectic medicine, and eclectic medicine was based on Native American medicine. And those three were the three that were recognized in the state of Vermont. Well at that time I think my grandfather had come to the conclusion that allopathic medicine was the way to go, and of course he was right in retrospect. And so he joined the Allopathic Medical Society and participated in that and when he was in the legislator he came to the conclusion that you ought not to have three kinds of medicine, you ought to have one kind of medicine. So he sponsored legislation that passed easily, probably based on some other states' legislation. I don't know that I'm guessing. But what it did was set up a board of two allopaths, two homeopaths, and one eclectic medicine practitioner to set up one set of standards for practicing medicine. And that passed easily in both houses, was signed into law by the government, by the governor, and became the basis for what is now state boards for medicine in Vermont. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. WILLIAM STEELE: And that was my grandfather. Wonderful guy, my hero because in his will he left me enough money to go to college for four years [laughter] which solved that problem in those days. The second one to go here was my uncle, whose name also Fred Elton Steele, he was 11 Fred Elton Jr. And he went here I think for three years and then transferred down to a medical school in Baltimore and finished up his medicine there. I think he graduated sometime around 1903 or 1904. And both of those guys - of course medicine was a little bit simpler then - both of them were M.D.s, they were both surgeons, and they were both psychiatrists. In fact my grandfather was the first psychiatrist in Vermont and used to make trips down to Brattleboro to the retreat down there to treat the patients down there. And in those days they had no standards for psychiatry or anything else. He showed an interest, was willing to take the time, so he became a psychiatrist. My uncle had psychiatric training and he became a psychiatrist. Worked with the Veterans Administration for years, ending up down in Northampton, Mass. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. WILLIAM STEELE: Then the third one that went here was my uncle Edwin Harrington Steele. And he got his education he started out as an electrical engineer I found out years later, and then got interrupted because we had the First World War and he was pulled out or joined and went over to France as a corporal and fought in the First World War. And then when he came back he entered Tufts and became a dentist. And when he became a dentist he married a fellow dentist and they moved to Waterbury, Vermont and practiced from probably 1924 or so until his death in 1977 I think. Had a practice in Waterbury, yeah. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow, that's a long career. WILLIAM STEELE: [My father, Warren Brooks Steele, was the fourth member of the family to go to Norwich entering in the Class of '22. The reason for his departure three years later is a little mysterious. He was not suited to the academic life and that probably had something to do with his departure. His claim was always that it had something to do with the Mount Home Cemetery next to Norwich. According to his story, he snuck out one night and rearranged the letters on the cemetery sign to read "Hope On Me" Cemetery and was expelled. No matter which story is true, he worked at several odd jobs but joined the National Guard where he received his commission when 21 through correspondence courses. He was called to active duty as a major in 1940 to be the Executive Officer of Selective Service in Vermont. In 1943 he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and sent to the China/Burma/India theater and then at the end of the war he took command of the Tokyo Ordnance Depot in japan where his family joined him. In 1953 and now a Colonel he was riffed as part of a plan to reduce the number of reserve officers who had left their civilian jobs to be in the Army. He reverted to Master Sergeant until 1960 when he retired as Colonel.]2 WILLIAM STEELE: Yeah. And then the [fifth] one that went to Norwich was Fred Elton Steele III, and he was very active with Norwich until he died. He was in his 90s when he died. And he was valedictorian of the class of '33 and became, went into the Army around the Second World War. Then he went teaching, he went to teach at the Merchant Marine Academy at King's point on Long Island and got some sort of a Naval commission down there. Taught down there for a long time and eventually moved back up to Montpelier at 40 Liberty Street and taught up at Vermont College until his retirement. And then there was me. And that was, that was, there was 2 Added at the request of William W. Steele '59.12 one other thing that I found out - in my class of 1959 was an Ed Steele from Waterbury. And we knew each other of course, we knew each other's name was Steele, and that was about it. He was a business major and a good athlete, basketball player, and we graduated and run off. And I don't know, it's probably about 10 years ago I got a call and "Is this Bill Steele?" I said "Yeah." "This is Karen Steele." I said "Yeah." [laughter] And she said, "From Waterbury." I said, "You must be a relative of Ed's." And she said, "Yes I'm his wife." And I says "good" and she said, "I'm calling because I'm doing genealogical research." And I said "Are you going to tell me that Ed and I are related." And she said, "yeah you're third cousins." So whenever I'm in Vermont I usually stay with Ed and Karen for, for three days or so and we do genealogical research, so. JENNIFER PAYNE: That's wonderful. Um. What advice would you give a Rook today about how to survive and thrive? WILLIAM STEELE: How to survive? [Laughing] JENNIFER PAYNE: Yeah. WILLIAM STEELE: How to survive at Norwich? JENNIFER PAYNE: And survive, yeah, survive at Norwich. WILLIAM STEELE: At Norwich? JENNIFER PAYNE: Or in the world, either. WILLIAM STEELE: If I had it to do over again, I would be, I would take the military aspect of Norwich very seriously. I would do my very best at developing myself as a leader, because Norwich offers you a magnificent opportunity to do that. I would advise anyone to enjoy Norwich but don't forget why you're here, to study hard because your grade school and high school academic record tend to get lost, but your college record doesn't. it follows you all the rest of your life and I would advise people to study very hard and to take full advantage of the leadership opportunities that Norwich offers. I didn't do any of that, but that's what I would advise. [Laughing] JENNIFER PAYNE: So what does "I Will Try" mean to you now? WILLIAM STEELE: Mainly to me it means tradition. It means Norwich tradition and I think Norwich traditions are terribly important, ought to be paid attention to. A lot of them have gone by the wayside and I'm sorry to see that. After we left, I don't know I think it might have been sometime in the 1980s, "I Will Try" was changed I think to "Essayons" and then changed back to "I Will Try." I don't think that should have ever been changed. I never liked "I Will Try" as a particularly good motto but it's tradition, it's been around since a, for a long time. Also something that was changed was our sports teams were always known as the Horsemen. It was the Norwich Horsemen and we had banners with a Cadet on a jumping horse and that kind of thing. That was changed to the Cadets. Norwich is not West Point, it's not supposed to be West Point, it wasn't founded as a West Point. It was founded for citizen soldiery, not professional soldiery, and I think that that Horsemen should have been kept. And if anybody, if anybody questioned that in this day, when women have been admitted to Norwich - something I was fully 13 in favor of and so was everyone else, well I'll deal with that in just a second - but if anyone were to complain well the Horsemen is gender specific, I'd just say the term Horsemen, if you look in the dictionary it's not gender specific, it can apply to women just like chairmen can. And I think it should have been kept and I would very much like to see it changed back. Now a word on, on women being admitted to Norwich. From my perspective Norwich has always followed the Army, it prepares people for the Army. And when the Army changed from brown shoe to black shoe, Norwich changed from brown shoe to black shoe. When the uniform changed, Norwich in my day used the regular Army uniform just with Norwich insignia, which was a great advantage because when the seniors graduated they would take off their class strip and the Norwich brass and they would have their first uniform, which was a great advantage for a poor second lieutenant coming out of Norwich. And I was sorry to see them change that also. When the regular Army changed their phonetic alphabet. See I was in Easy Company, which the next year became Echo Company. From the old, it changed from the old Abel, Baker, to Alpha, Bravo phonetic alphabet. Norwich changed and when the Army changed and admitted women it was within the Norwich tradition and practice to follow what the Army did. If you're going into an Army with women and you're going to have to deal with whatever problems and opportunities come along with that, you'd better be trained for it and Norwich does that. And I have always been so proud of Norwich, and I brag about Norwich all the time, because places like West Point and VMI and the Citadel all have had big problems and resistance to admitting women. And at Norwich it just happened without any ripple, it was accepted, we went on from there. And I thought that that had to do a lot with the fact that the command structure at Norwich was seamless. It was seamless from the president of Norwich down to the Cadet Corporal. We were all part of the same disciplinary administrative function. There wasn't any big dividing line between the student body and the responsibilities of the faculties and staff. So when the president said we will have women at Norwich, everybody saluted the flagpole and said "yes sir" and we had women at Norwich. JENNIFER PAYNE: Is there anything else you would like to add? Anything else you'd like to say? WILLIAM STEELE: Just that, that when I graduated from high school I had very little experience or knowledge of the opportunities of various colleges and all that. And I ended up at Norwich as much from family tradition as anything else. If I had it to do all over again I would still go to Norwich, and I would go to Norwich for the discipline, and the order, and all that kind of thing that it taught. Because I have never seen any other school that taught it like Norwich did, and taught the assumption of responsibility at such an early age. Because, as I mentioned before, Cadets exercise all the discipline in the Corps of Cadets or virtually all of it and I haven't seen any other school that did that, and that taught you at a very early age. In fact I was talking with one of our ex Cadet Colonels and he said you know there are a lot of Cadet Colonels that never have had as much responsibility, real responsibility, again in their career as they did that senior year as the Commander of Cadets. JENNIFER PAYNE: Really? 14 WILLIAM STEELE: So, yeah that what I think was really great about Norwich and why I would go back. JENNIFER PAYNE: That's wonderful. Thank you so much. WILLIAM STEELE: Well thank you for having me. It's been fun. JENNIFER PAYNE: I really enjoyed this. I'm going to hit the stop button. [She turns the microphone back on] JENNIFER PAYNE: There we go, you're on, ok. So tell me about General Sully. WILLIAM STEELE: Sully? Sully at that age was a very interesting guy because he didn't seem to have a whole lot of direction. He was a member I think of Sig Ep fraternity and a lot of his social life and everything was based around Sig Ep. He was not particularly good academically as I remember it, and, surprisingly enough, he was a Rook for his first year as we all were and a buck private for the next three years. He never made corporal, never made sergeant, never made officer. And, again didn't seem to have a whole lot of direction. He, his plans were, as I remember it, and I think the year book says that his plans were to go into business when he got out of Norwich. And instead of course he went on to be Chief of Staff. So, but one thing I found that was very interesting, we would be sitting around deciding what to do at say on Saturday afternoon we'd decide what to do on a Saturday night. And we'd say, well should we go to a movie, should we go down to Burlington to UVM to the basketball game or something, and we'd discuss it and Sully wouldn't say anything. And we finally say ok let's go to the basketball game down in Burlington. And then everyone would turn around and say "What do you think Sully? is that ok?" [Laughing] So, although he never adopted leadership role in the Corps of Cadets he had an enormous amount of charisma and leadership just built into him which I always thought made him Chief of Staff of the Army. And then when he was Chief of Staff he came to El Paso, to Fort Bliss, and gave a speech there and I was in the audience and what he told, he was speaking to people that might be the parents of people entering the Army, and he said "Don't worry if your kid is not a born leader. Give him to us in the Army and we will teach him leadership." And I thought that I've never been able to relegate two things, that this guy who was probably the most natural born leader I ever met in my life, would say "It's not necessary to have any of that, we'll just teach it to you." JENNIFER PAYNE: Huh. WILLIAM STEELE: So, yeah, Sully worked in the mess hall and in those days we would march down to the mess hall in formation, go in, there were table for ten people a piece all through the mess hall and we would be assigned a table and we would sit there. Senior Cadet, Cadet with the most rank at the table would be the table Commandant. All of the, or the Cadet Commander and his Exec. sat in a very elevated platform with stairs going up to it called the crow's nest in one corner of the mess hall. And typically what would happen is that announcements would be made when everyone was there, corps would be called to attention, announcements would be made, and then grace would be said. And then as soon as grace was said the doors from the kitchen would open and the waiters would come out with these carts with terrines on them and you 15 might, you'd have a terrine of mashed potatoes for instance and a terrine of corn and maybe a platter of breaded veal or something. One for each table and they would be but on the table, and the table Commandant would take his share and pass it on down. And one of the great things about Norwich was it was the table Commandant's job to make sure that the rook at the end of the table got as much food as all of the people proceeding him. So it was very, very good training for officers that whose primary responsibilities was to take care of the men, and that meant the privates as well as the subordinate officers. And Sully was one of those waiters. And as I remember it he was a waiter for four years. He was well known as the waiter, and the waiters did not go to formation, they left their last class and went right to the mess hall to get ready. And then they left the mess hall and went to their next class in the afternoon. And I think as I remember it for that they got free meals, they didn't have to pay the board part. So that's what I remember about Sully mostly. He roomed in Goodyear Hall on the third floor I think his senior year. I was, about the only time I ran into him was then because I was on the first floor of Goodyear. I was in the MP's for three years at Norwich and that's where, that's why I would run into him most of the time. And the other guy that I remember of course was Pier Mapes and Pier became - NBC Television had I think 11 presidents. Tt was under GE and they would have a president, they had a president for programming and they had a president for finance and a president. Pier Mapes became the president for affiliates. And I know the last time I saw him he said "Bill you're from El Paso." I said "Yes." He says "KTSM right?" I said "Yeah that's the NBC affiliate." So he knew all of those, but in college Pier was a tall gangly guy. Not athletic, not coordinated enough to be athletic, but the friendliest and nicest and least affected person that I ever met. Really good guy. He was in our company which was Easy Company our freshmen year and that's where I got to know him best, and then we both belonged to the Episcopal Church and did a lot of that work together in school. But Pier was a cheerleader, and Pier came from a family of money I think, in fact I know he did. And when he was a cheerleader he showed up dressed as a cheerleader out of the 1920s. He had a real raccoon skin coat and a megaphone and he would lead cheers doing that and I can remember when we were freshmen, we're sitting down talking in the evening ya know and Pier said "You know to be successful in business you don't have to be smart, and you don't even have to work real hard." He says, "but you have to make sure that you don't make any enemies, that you get along with everyone." And that's sort of what Pier did and later on, I mean 45 years later on, not too long ago, I had an occasion to call Pier to ask him about something. I've forgotten what it was and I said, "Pier do you remember what you told me when we were freshmen, 18 years old in college?" He said "no" and I told him you don't have to be smart to get along in business, you don't have to work real hard but you have to get along with everybody. He says "No I don't remember that," he says, "but ya know he said I was pretty smart as a kid wasn't I?" I said "Yeah I found out later on you were." So yeah that was what I remember best about Pier. Pier, I googled Pier and I found out I think his father's name was Pier Mapes also and his father was also a big executive with NBC and I believe when NBC got the contract to broadcast the Miss America contest his father had something to do, was in charge of that. And he decided that the Miss America contest ought to have a theme song. And so he went out and he contracted out 16 to have someone write a theme song for Miss America and that's where the "There she goes Miss America" came from. I think that was Pier's father that did that. JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh my gosh. Wow. WILLIAM STEELE: Good guy. I saw him at the 50th reunion 4 years ago. Still the same guy, still totally unaffected, one of the nicest guys you'll ever meet. Smart guy too. JENNIFER PAYNE: I have to ask you 'cause you mentioned it a couple times, the food. How was the food, how was the chow when you were here? WILLIAM STEELE: Well [laughing] I thought it was good. Of course food when you are told what to eat, you're going to get lots of complaints, so of course there were lots of complaints. But by and large I thought it was very good. Standard meals, scrambled eggs and cream chip beef on toast and, and uh for breakfast. Yeah I thought it was very good and with the regulation that went on at the tables everybody got enough to eat. We didn't have it like it is now where you go in and select what you want and eat pizza three times a day if you want it. We were fed good balanced meals and so that along with. But one thing we did not have then that they have now, Norwich has improved greatly by the way since then. We did not have a whole lot of exercise. When you were a freshmen you were given calisthenics I think one day a week, something like that, not very much and that was about it. And there were no, there was no equipment. There was no weight room or any of that. No swimming pool. So when we had a chubby little fellow come in to the Corps of Cadets, four years later he would graduate as a chubby little fellow. We didn't have nearly the emphasis on health and fitness that they do now because the Army didn't. The Army did not have that. I was in Japan right after the Second World War - 1946, 1947 - and living on an Army post and a lot of those soldiers were grossly out of shape. Not in good shape at all and when the Korean war happened, 1950 I think it was, those were the troops they sent over to fight. And those troops were not in condition to fight and that's why they got slaughtered. And I think now the Army is emphasizing fitness a great deal more and so is Norwich and that's a great advantage. We had no fitness room, we had no swimming pool. You could go down and run around the track if you wanted to and that was about it. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. WILLIAM STEELE: Yeah. Other advantages that they have now - we had no laundry then at Norwich. To get your laundry done you can have it done one of two ways: in the basement of Harmon Hall they had a laundry counter. You would take your laundry down give it to them, they would ship it downtown and your laundry would be done downtown and then shipped back and you would pick it up in Harmon Hall. The other way you could do it, they had a standard tin box with straps around it and you could put your dirty laundry in there and send it home and have mom do it and send it back. And a lot of people did that. JENNIFER PAYNE: Really? 17 WILLIAM STEELE: And when I got out of Norwich I sent a letter back and said you know you've really got to get laundry facilities there. And so I got sort of a letter that was designed to put me off and but I noticed a few years later they had installed laundry facilities here. The other thing we didn't have was multiple ROTC types. We had Army ROTC. JENNIFER PAYNE: That was it. WILLIAM STEELE: That was it. And our Cadets, we had one or two that took their commissions in another service, I'm not sure how that worked. But they didn't have Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps, they didn't have any of that. It was just plan Army ROTC. We did have one thing that I think they've done away with. If you were a very good military person, got good marks, good recommendations and everything you would become a DMS which was a Distinguished Military Student. If you were a DMS in ROTC you could take a regular Army commission. You wouldn't be reserve it would be regular Army, and I think they've done away with that. I think the regular Army is strictly West Point graduates now, that's my understanding. JENNIFER PAYNE: You grew up a little while in Japan. Was your dad in the Military? WILLIAM STEELE: Yeah he was in the Military, shipped over to command Tokyo Ordinance Depot right after the war. We went over in November of 1946 which is about less than a year and a half after the war, everybody had 15 months after the war ended and we were some of the first dependents over there. JENNIFER PAYNE: Really? WILLIAM STEELE: Which meant well there was a school, so when I went to school I went to school with English kids and Australian kids and all that. I skipped school a lot and [laughing] because I found a way to get around it. But, that was it. I spent most of my time, my entertainment, I was 9 years old when I went over and 10 when I came back, but most of my time was spent in what was the Red Cross Club, became the Service Club, which was for enlisted. And they had pool tables and ping pong tables and things like that and free coffee all the time. So that's where I spent all my time. We would go to the post, my father would go to his office and I would go to the club, and maybe meet for lunch, and then I'd go back to the club and spend all my time there. Learned how to drink coffee there at nine years old [laughing]. And later on, things were pretty wild then and my parents, my father was a Lieutenant Colonel then and he and my mother went for a vacation to, with a stop at Hong Kong, and to the Philippines. But the three of us stayed there right outside of Tokyo, and a Captain and his wife came and lived in the house and sort of babysat for us. Which was pretty wild because they, let's see we drank beer, I was 9 years old, we drank beer. I learned how to drink beer, my sisters had mixed drinks, they were 11 and 13. They were older so they had mixed drinks. I had beer. We smoked, I learned how to play poker, and was not a bad poker player when I was 9/10 years old. So it was pretty wild bringing up and most of my friends were Japanese. I spoke no Japanese. They spoke no English. Didn't make any difference we still played together and all that. The house we lived in was beautiful. It was a college president's house. The living conditions were incredible because the occupational Army took over things like that. So we had a two story stone house, and this is for a Lieutenant Colonel, with manicured lawns and manicured everything outside. 18 JENNIFER PAYNE: Nice. WILLIAM STEELE: That's where we lived. We had, for a family of five we had 7 servants. We had Mama San who was the chief maid and then she had her 13 year old daughter who was my buddy then, and she lived there also. Then there were 3 maids. And I'm not sure there's an upstairs maid and a downstairs maid and maybe a kitchen maid or something. There were three maids, and then there was the boiler man who was sort of the handyman and he took care of the boiler that heated the house and took care of everything else around. And then the last one was the cook. Always had trouble with the cook because the cook, we had two or three cooks and they all had short tempers and threw pots and pans around and all that. But, so we had 7 servants for a family of 5 over there. JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh my gosh. WILLIAM STEELE: It was pretty, pretty interesting. The biggest event I can remember there was my father and the whole family being invited to the Chinese Embassy for a big party and [laughing] I think I was 10 by this time, by the time this happened. So I went and the Japanese serving girls didn't know any different, they were taught to do certain things and that's what they did. And I was on my third martini by the time my mother figured out what I was doing. So after a couple martinis I had to dress like an adult and I saw this beautiful Chinese girl in a red gown and I decided that I wanted to dance with her so I went over asked her to dance. And she indulged me, we danced as best as I could. It was fun. Yeah I remember that evening very well. But there were no rules, an occupational Army doesn't worry about too many rules and too many standards. It was a pretty wild year. Then I came back to the United States in the 5th grade and all of a sudden it was culture shock all over again [laughing] and I couldn't do all the stuff. I really had to study, make up for a misspent year in Japan having played hooky from school at least half the time. JENNIFER PAYNE: Did you play poker at Norwich? WILLIAM STEELE: No, No I never played poker after Japan to speak of. I played pretty good poke, but it was everybody played poker which meant that you didn't have to be that good at it. But when I came back then the poker games were sort of dominated by people who were really good at it and you didn't, either you should get really good at it or you should stay away from it. And I found that out I think one lesson and that was it for poker, so. JENNIFER PAYNE: Sounds like it was a very interesting year. WILLIAM STEELE: Yes it was a very interesting year. Yeah it taught me that if you're going to be in a war, you'd better win because you're a lot better off if you win then you are if you lose. And the Japanese, one of the reasons we had so many servants is because the Japanese economy was destroyed. A great deal of Tokyo was destroyed. You know we fire bombed them with the Doolittle Raid. [Coughs] Excuse me. And so one of the things the American occupation was doing was hiring as many Japanese as possible so they would not starve to death. I can remember, I'm one of the few people I know who actually saw Douglas McArthur. Because if you think of that you know a lot of people have seen Eisenhower and the other Generals from the 19 Second World War, but McArthur was sort of scarce. And the reason he was is because during a great deal of his career he was in the Philippines sort of remote, and then after the Second World War, and then of course Second World War he was in the South Pacific. After the Second World War he moved, his office was in the Dai-Ichi building in the middle of downtown Tokyo. So he was out of the country most of the time, that's why nobody had seen him. But I can remember seeing him once and all the stories about him were true. He was the most dramatic actor that you ever saw in your life. And we were traveling along, we'd gone to downtown Tokyo to do some shopping. And of course we were using an Army Jeep and I was the 9 year kid so my mother sat in the front seat beside the driver, my two sisters sat in the two rear seats, and then I sat on the ground or on the floor with my feet down by the gear shift and my back up against the back seat. And all of a sudden we got stopped, and the reason we got stopped is that when Douglas McArthur came to work in the morning everything stopped. The traffic was stopped. And so I sort of heisted myself up so I could see out the front window and here came a line of what must have been, oh probably six motorcycles with lights flashing, and then at least two cars, and then motorcycle escort in back. And this was McArthur arriving for work at the Dai-Ichi building. And his car stopped, they let him out, of course still with all the flashing lights around. They had a line of MPs on either side of the sidewalk going up to the Dai-Ichi building, and crowds of Japanese, I mean must have been 20 or 30 deep, just wanting to get a glimpse of McArthur. And so he got out and he had the, the crushed hat with the 50 mission crush on it that he always wore, all he did he took the grommet out of it so the sides sort of drooped down, and the corn cob pipe and he was a tall, tall guy anyway. And no mistaking who it was and he stood up in between that line of MP's into the Dai-Ichi building and of course the MP's dispersed and the escort dispersed and we were allowed on. But it was quite a dramatic scene and my understanding was that scene went on every single morning he went to work [laughing] and whereever he went. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. WILLIAM STEELE: He was quite something. I don't think he did a, frankly a good job of commanding because he was in charge of all of those troops in Japan and let them get totally out of shape because nobody expected another war to come along. And I think now that we've learned our lesson and I think that the Army will not make that mistake again, but they certainly did then. There's no question who was in command of Japan. McArthur was in command. Everyone knew it, he made sure that everyone knew it [laughing]. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow that a good story.Yeah. Wow, anything else? WILLIAM STEELE: No I think that's it this time. JENNIFER PAYNE: Ok, alright no that's good, that's really good.
n/a ; Timeline of key events: March 2011: Anti-government protests broke out in Deraa governorate calling for political reforms, end of emergency laws and more freedoms. After government crackdown on protestors, demonstrations were nationwide demanding the ouster of Bashar Al-Assad and his government. July 2011: Dr. Nabil Elaraby, Secretary General of the League of Arab States (LAS), paid his first visit to Syria, after his assumption of duties, and demanded the regime to end violence, and release detainees. August 2011: LAS Ministerial Council requested its Secretary General to present President Assad with a 13-point Arab initiative (attached) to resolve the crisis. It included cessation of violence, release of political detainees, genuine political reforms, pluralistic presidential elections, national political dialogue with all opposition factions, and the formation of a transitional national unity government, which all needed to be implemented within a fixed time frame and a team to monitor the above. - The Free Syrian Army (FSA) was formed of army defectors, led by Col. Riad al-Asaad, and backed by Arab and western powers militarily. September 2011: In light of the 13-Point Arab Initiative, LAS Secretary General's and an Arab Ministerial group visited Damascus to meet President Assad, they were assured that a series of conciliatory measures were to be taken by the Syrian government that focused on national dialogue. October 2011: An Arab Ministerial Committee on Syria was set up, including Algeria, Egypt, Oman, Sudan and LAS Secretary General, mandated to liaise with Syrian government to halt violence and commence dialogue under the auspices of the Arab League with the Syrian opposition on the implementation of political reforms that would meet the aspirations of the people. - On October 26, the Ministerial Committee held discussions in Damascus with President Assad. - The establishment of the Syrian National Council (SNC) in Istanbul, the first opposition coalition of different groups, but failed to gain international recognition because of deep divisions. November 2011: Syrian government agreed to implement a new Arab Action Plan (attached) endorsed by LAS Ministerial Council to end all acts of violence, release detainees, withdraw Syrian military and armed forces from cities, and ensure freedom of movement for journalists and observers throughout the country. -LAS Ministerial Council suspended the membership of Syria (November 16), and imposed economic sanctions (November 27) and some member states withdrew their ambassadors from Damascus, as it failed to comply with the Action Plan. December 2011: Negotiations with Damascus were resumed and an agreement is finally reached on the implementation of the Action Plan. LAS Observer Mission was deployed in Syria to monitor the implementation of the plan (December 24). - The Mission later submitted a report (attached) covering the period from 24 December 2011 to 18 January 2012 in accordance with the mandate conferred by the protocol concluded between the Syrian government and LAS. The report was divisive among the members of the Arab League, as it blamed both the regime and the opposition for the violence. January 2012: LAS Ministerial Council adopted resolution 7444 (attached) which called on the Syrian President to immediately hand over power to his deputy in order to begin the process of a political transition, which would include negotiations with the opposition, the formation of a national unity government, and the holding of elections. The resolution also, requested the Chair of the Arab Ministerial Committee and the Secretary General to brief the United Nations Security Council on the developments and get it to endorse the plan. - On January 22, Saudi Arabia withdrew its monitors, followed by the other GCC members on January 24. - On January 28, the Secretary-General of LAS announced the suspension of the activities of the observer mission, given the serious deterioration of the security situation. - On January 31, Sheikh Hamad bin Jassim bin Jabr Al-Thani, Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Chair of the Arab Ministerial Committee and Dr. Nabil Elaraby, Secretary General of the League of Arab States briefed the Security Council (attached) on Arab efforts and called on the council to adopt a draft resolution submitted by Morocco, supporting Arab League resolution 7444 (which called on the Syrian President to hand over power to his deputy) February 2012: - On February 4, Russia and China vetoed a draft Security Council resolution (attached), tabled by Morocco (the Arab member of the Security Council) and others. - On February 12, the Arab League adopted its resolution 7446 (attached), practically "transferring the file" to the United Nations Security Council. - On February 16, the issue was taken to the General Assembly, which adopted its Resolution 66/253, calling-among other things- for the appointment of a Special Envoy. - On February 23, former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan was appointed as the Joint Special Envoy (JSE) of the United Nations and the League of Arab States on the Syrian crisis, to facilitate a peaceful Syrian-led and inclusive political solution. - On February 24, and upon the initiative of President Sarkozy of France, the first meeting of the Group of Friends of the Syrian People was held in Tunis, with the participation of more than 60 countries and representatives from the United Nations, the League of Arab States, the European Union, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the Arab Maghreb Union and the Cooperation Council for the Arab Gulf States to discuss the worsening situation in Syria. The group noted the Arab League's request to the United Nations Security Council to issue a resolution to form a joint Arab-UN peacekeeping force following a cessation of violence by the regime, and called on LAS to convene a meeting of all disparate opposition groups to agree on a clear statement of shared principles for a transition in Syria. The meeting recognized the SNC as a legitimate representative of Syrians seeking peaceful democratic change. Text of the Conclusions of the Meeting. March 2012: The SNC formed a military council to organize and unify all armed resistance. - The JSE, Kofi Anan, submitted a six-point peace plan to the UN Security Council (which the council adopted in April in its resolution 2042), that called for commitment to a Syrian-led political process, achieve an effective United Nations supervised cessation of armed violence in all its forms by all parties, ensure provision of humanitarian assistance, intensify the release of arbitrarily detained persons, ensure freedom of movement for journalists and respect the freedom of demonstrating peacefully. It was later approved by the Syrian government, and the opposition remained skeptical. April 2012: United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria (UNSMIS) was established by United Nations Security Council resolution 2043 (attached) initially for a 90-day period, to monitor a cessation of armed violence in all its forms by all parties and to monitor and support the full implementation of the Joint Special Envoy's six-point plan on ending the conflict in Syria. June 2012: The Action Group for Syria, with the participation of the Secretary Generals of the United Nations and the League of Arab States, the Foreign Ministers of China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States, Turkey, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar and the European Union High Representative for Foreign and Security Policy, chaired by the JSE, met in Geneva and adopted the Geneva Final Communique (attached) which called for the establishment of a transitional governing body, with full executive powers, as part of the agreed principles and guidelines for a Syrian-led political transition. July 2012: The Syrian Opposition meeting was held under the auspices of LAS in Cairo, and reached an agreement on a national compact and a detailed transition plan. The two documents complemented the guidelines and principles laid out by the Action Group in Geneva. August 2012: UNSMIS mandate came to an end owing to an intensification of armed violence and use of heavy weapons. - Prime Minister Riad Hijab defected, and US President Obama's first direct threat of force against Syria, if Assad's regime deploys or uses chemical or biological weapons, calling such action a "red line" for the US. - Joint Special Envoy, Kofi Annan announced his resignation because of the Security Council failure to reach binding resolutions; Lakhdar Brahimi succeeded Annan as the Joint Special Representative of the United Nations and the League of Arab states for Syria (JSR). September 2012: Egypt hosted the high level preparatory meeting of the regional Quartet on Syria on September 10, which included Turkey and Saudi Arabia key backers of the Syrian Revolution, and Iran the major supporter of al-Assad regime, in an initiative to bring together regional powers to voice their positions on how to end the Syrian conflict. - On September 17, the Quartet's ministerial meeting took place in Cairo; Saudi Arabia opted out while Iran proposed a peace plan which called on all parties to cease violence and stop all financial and military support to the opposition, and suggested the deployment of observers from the quartet's nations to Syria. The participants failed to reach an agreement. October 2012: a four-day ceasefire attempt was announced towards late October, in respect to Eid al-Adha Holiday, which was breached on the first day in Homs, Aleppo and Damascus. November 2012: National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces (SOC) was formed in Qatar, responding to repeated calls from their Western and Arab supporters to create a cohesive and representative leadership, it excluded Islamist militias. December 2012: US, Britain, France, Turkey and Gulf states formally recognized SOC as "legitimate representative" of the Syrian people. January 2013: the Emir of Kuwait hosted the first pledging conference on Syria, international donors pledged more than $1.5bn to help civilians affected by the conflict in Syria. March 2013: LAS Ministerial Council adopted resolution 7595 (attached) to recognize SOC as the "sole legitimate representative" of the Syrian people and called on the SOC to establish an executive body to take up Syria's seat. April 2013: Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, leader of the Islamic State, released a recorded audio message announcing Jabhat al-Nusra as an extension of al-Qaeda in Iraq and Syria. The leader of al-Nusra, Abu Mohammad al-Joulani, refused the merger. Divisions among the jihadists emerged. - Hezbollah's involvement deepened when it led the ground assault on Al-Qusayr, a Sunni town in Homs province by the Lebanese border. August 2013: The Assad regime was accused of using chemical weapons in Eastern Ghouta to kill hundreds of civilians. The government denied using chemical weapons. President Obama sought congressional authorization for the use of force. September 2013: UN Security Council unanimously adopted resolution 2118 (attached) requiring the Syrian regime to dismantle its chemical weapons arsenal by mid-2014, and avoid military strikes. December 2013: US and Britain suspended "non-lethal" support for rebels in northern Syria after reports Islamist rebels seized some bases of Western-backed Free Syrian Army. January 2014: the Geneva II Conference on Syria was held in Montreux on January 22, and attended by 37 states, 4 organizations and both Syrian parties. Iran was invited by SG Ban Ki- Moon on January 19, the Opposition declared its refusal to attend if Iran was not excluded, the US viewed Iran's invitation "as conditioned on Iran's explicit and public support for the full implementation of the Geneva Communique"; Iran refused any preconditions to the talks, and refused to endorse the Geneva Communique specially the transitional governing body. February 2014: two rounds of negotiations to discuss: 1- ending violence and 2-combating terrorism, 3-transitional governing body, national institutions, and 4- national reconciliation and national debate. The Syrian government refused to discuss a transitional government and insisted on discussing combating terrorism. The talks came to a halt. May 2014: JSR Brahimi announced his resignation because of the lack of progress and failure to agree on an agenda. - Iran proposed a political settlement of four points; a comprehensive cease-fire at national level, forming a national unity government consisting of the regime and the internal Syrian opposition, by transferring presidential powers to the government whereby the government will enjoy wide-ranging powers in years to come, and preparation for presidential and parliamentary elections. - Syrian rebels withdrew from the Old City of Homs, under an Iranian brokered deal and facilitated by the UN, after three years of Syrian government bombardment and siege. June 2014: President Assad held presidential elections, he was re-elected for another seven-year term allegedly winning 88.7% of the votes. July 2014: UN Secretary-General announced the appointment of Staffan de Mistura as his Special Envoy for Syria (SE)- NOT as a joint envoy with LAS. August 2014: US-led coalition began its airstrikes against the Islamic State in Iraq and expanded its strikes to Syria the following month, focusing on the city of Raqqa. September 2014: SE held his first round of consultations with concerned capitals, since taking up his office, it included his a visit to Damascus where he met with President Assad, senior officials and the tolerated internal Syrian opposition. October 2014: SE focused on establishing a series of local ceasefires, "freeze zones", starting with Aleppo, which aimed at the de-escalation of violence and allowance of the return of normalcy to it. February 2015: SE briefed the Security Council members on the 17th, announcing Syria's willingness to halt all aerial bombardment over Aleppo for a period of six weeks. It was not clear when would the freeze go into effect, reporting that a date would be announced from Damascus. June 2015: Egypt hosted the second Syrian Opposition meeting in Cairo, which excluded the National Coalition and announced a new road map to resolve the crisis which did not abolish Assad's government. July 2015: SE announced that his office would facilitate intra-Syrian working groups to generate a "Syrian-owned framework document" on the implementation of the Geneva Communiqué. Main themes of the groups were Safety and Protection for All, Political and Constitutional Issues, Military and Security Issues, and Public Institutions, Reconstruction and Development. September 2015: Russia conducted its first airstrikes against IS in Syria. The US and the Syrian Opposition claim it is targeting rebel-held areas instead. October 2015: First meeting of International Syria Support Group (ISSG) took place in Vienna, it included China, Egypt, the EU, France, Germany, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United Nations, and the United States. They agreed on a nine-point plan, but still had substantial divisions on the future of Assad. It was the first time Iran and Saudi Arabia were brought to the same table. November 2015: Second meeting of the ISSG was held in Vienna adding LAS to its members. They set a time frame to prepare for a parallel ceasefire and political process by January 2016 that would lead to credible, inclusive and non-sectarian governance within six months, followed by the drafting of a constitution and elections within 18 months. Jordan was tasked to develop a list of groups and individuals identified as terrorists, and Saudi Arabia to hold a meeting to unify the Syrian opposition and prep for the talks with the government. December 2015: - Syrian political and armed opposition factions met in Riyadh, to agree on a common position to negotiate with Syrian government, and resulted in the formation of the High Negotiating Committee (HNC). The main Kurdish group was excluded, while Islamist hardliners such as Jaysh Al-Islam and Ahrar Al-Sham were present. - The Secretary General of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) joined the follow-up meeting of the ISSG in New York, Saudi Arabia and Jordan briefed the group on their tasks. There was no agreement on the list of identified terrorists, especially with Russia's insistence on adding Ahrar Al-Sham to the list, which is considered pivotal to the unified Opposition bloc. - UN Security Council unanimously adopted resolution 2254 (attached) which reaffirmed the road map set out by the ISSG and urged the Support Group to apply pressure on the Syrian parties to put an immediate end to the indiscriminate use of weapons against civilians, and allow unimpeded access to humanitarian aid convoys. January 2016: the SE sent out invitations to the Syrian participants, in accordance with the parameters outlined in Security Council resolution 2254, to start on the 25th with proximity talks and had expected to last for six months. The HNC requested assurances of goodwill from the government as precondition to beginning of talks, such as release of prisoners or lifting of sieges. February 2016: Talks were delayed and lasted two days before they were suspended for three weeks. - The ISSG met on the margins of the Munich Security Conference and decided that humanitarian access will commence same week of meeting to besieged areas, and an ISSG task force would elaborate within one week modalities for a nationwide cessation of hostilities. - The US and Russia announced the adoption of the terms for a cessation of hostilities in Syria, and proposed that the cessation of hostilities commence at 00:00 (Damascus time) on February 27, 2016. The cessation of hostilities does not apply to "Daesh", "Jabhat al-Nusra", or other terrorist organizations designated by the UN Security Council. - The Security Council endorsed the announcement in its resolution 2268 (attached). March 2016: SE announced March 9 set as target date of resumption of talks in Geneva. On March 14, SE resumed the intra-Syrian proximity talks in Geneva, which mainly discussed procedural matters to reach a shared list of principles and relied on Security Council resolution 2254 as its agenda. - SE briefed the Security Council on the cessation of hostilities which lowered overall levels of violence and more than 238,000 people had been reached with humanitarian aid. - On the same day, President Putin announced the withdrawal of most Russian forces from Syria, after it had largely fulfilled their objectives in Syria, and SE stated that it would have a positive impact on the negotiations. - On March 17, the PYD announced the establishment of a federal system in Kobane, Afrin and Cizire cantons in northern Syria, and its Constituent Assembly of the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria-Rojava (DFNS) announced its final declaration. Both the Syrian government and other opposition affiliates denounced the plan, as well as the United States. - On March 24, the SE ended the first round by submitting a paper on the commonalities between the Syrian sides regarding the future of Syria and would help structure the next round that would address political transition. - Syrian government forces retook Palmyra from the Islamic State, with Russian air assistance. April 2016: The SE paid visits to Amman, Beirut, Damascus and Tehran ahead of the new round of talks. - The third round of proximity talks were set to start on April 13, which coincided with the parliamentary elections in the government-controlled areas in Syria. The SE met with the High Negotiations Committee delegation (Syrian Opposition) in Geneva and was expected to meet with the Syrian Government delegation within the following days. - During the 13-27 April round of negotiations, the SE developed a Mediator's Summary that identified eighteen points necessary to move forward on political transition arrangements. - on April 28, airstrikes in Aleppo on al-Quds hospital supported by both Doctors Without Borders and the International Committee of the Red Cross, which killed dozens of civilians and medical personnel. May 2016: The Security Council adopted unanimously resolution 2286 (attached) which called for the protection of civilians and medical facilities during armed conflict. - On May 4, the US-Russia brokered a 48-hour ceasefire in which helped reduce the violence, and was later extended for another 72 hours. - On May 9, France held a ministerial Friends of Syria meeting in "Paris Format", attended by the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, the European Union, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Turkey and Jordan, and issued a statement that called on the resumption of negotiations, unimpeded access of humanitarian assistance and the implementation of international law obligations to the protection of civilians. - Later on the same day, the United States and Russia issued a joint statement on Syria to reconfirm their commitment to intensify their efforts to implement a nationwide ceasefire and promote humanitarian assistance in accordance to security council resolution 2254. - On May 17, the fourth meeting of the ISSG took place in Vienna and reaffirmed its determination to strengthen the cessation of hostilities, to ensure full and sustained humanitarian access in Syria, and to ensure progress toward a peaceful political transition. Australia, Canada, Japan, the Netherlands and Spain joined the group. June 2016: The SE announced that the time is not yet right for a resumption of the intra-Syrian talks because of the escalation of violence in Aleppo, Idlib, Latakia and other rural areas around Damascus, but the intention is to begin an official third round as soon as possible. - Riad Hijab, the Coordinator of the Opposition High Negotiations Committee, proposed a nationwide truce throughout the month of Ramadan. - On June 16, Jan Egeland Advisor to the Special Envoy for Syria announced that 16 of the 18 besieged areas have been reached since the humanitarian taskforce started in late February. - On June 21, the SE briefed the United Nations General Assembly on the situation in Syria regarding the cessation of hostilities and humanitarian assistance access, as for the resumption of talks, it is yet to be decided and the OSE currently holds technical meetings with the parties on core issues. July 2016: - On July 6, the Syrian army declared a three-day nationwide "regime of calm" in respect to Eid al-Fitr holidays nonetheless pro-regime forces continued to engage in clashes and airstrikes across the country, particularly near the flashpoints of Damascus and Aleppo City. - On July 14, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry met with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Moscow to discuss a proposal for bilateral military cooperation in the Syria; The proposal calls for the establishment of a 'Joint Implementation Group' (attached) based in Amman, Jordan to "support deliberate targeting" of Syrian Al-Qaeda affiliate Jabhat al-Nusra and "maximize independent but synchronized efforts" against ISIS in Syria, according to a draft memorandum leaked by the Washington Post. - On July 25, Stephen O'brien, the Under Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, briefed the security council (attached) on the deteriorating humanitarian situation in Aleppo due to the escalation of violence over the Castello Road, the last access route in and out of eastern Aleppo, and the continuous attacks on medical facilities. O'brien called on the security council not to allow turning Aleppo into another besieged area where 250,000 to 275,000 people reside, and called to establish a weekly, 48-hour humanitarian pause to enable humanitarian aid deliveries across borders. - On July 28, the Russian Minister of Defense Sergei Shoigu announced, right after the Syrian government announced it has cut off the Castello Road and encircled the city of Aleppo, setting up three humanitarian corridors in Aleppo City to allow in food and medical aid, and help people flee the besieged city; the fourth corridor would be established in northern Aleppo near the Castello Road to allow the withdrawal of armed insurgents, and appealed to the Syrian government to provide guarantees to the amnesty provided to rebels to lay down their weapons. - On the same day, Abu Mohammed al-Julani, Jabhat al-Nusra's Leader announced split from al- Qaeda and mentioned that its new name would be Jabhet Fateh al-Sham, in order to get the group off the terrorist list and "to remove the excuse used by the international community – spearheaded by America and Russia – to bombard and displace Muslims in the Levant: that they are targeting al-Nusra Front, which is associated with al-Qaida". - On July 29, the SE commented on the Russian initiative in a press stakeout, that it should take into consideration a few improvements such as putting the 48-hour humanitarian pause into place on a sustainable basis irrespective of the humanitarian corridors; and suggested "to actually leave the delivery of aid through corridors to the UN and its partners"; and stressed that civilians should leave voluntarily, and given the option of leaving to areas of their own choice. August 2016: - On August 1, a Russian helicopter was downed near Saraqeb, in rebel-held Idlib province, on its way back to Russia's main air base in Hmyeim in the western province of Latakia, killing the five Russian military personnel on board. The downing of the helicopter marked the single deadliest event for Russia since its air campaign began in Syria on September 29, 2015. No group claimed the shooting down of the helicopter. - Since then, Russian warplanes conducted retaliatory airstrikes against several small opposition-held areas in the vicinity of Saraqeb. Syrian rebels accuse Russia of using incendiary munitions while conducting airstrikes against Idlib City on August 7, suggesting that Russia intended to achieve punitive and deterrent effects against opposition forces in the province. - In the early weeks of August, rebel forces launched a major assault, known as the "battle for Aleppo", on government-held southwestern towns of Aleppo City, to break the siege, and control supply lines in the south connected to eastern Aleppo. They claimed breaking the siege and capturing Ramouseh Artillery Academy, parts of the cement plant and Khan Touman-Ramouseh road. Intense fighting between warring parties continues to claim control over previously lost vicinities. - On August 9, Russian President Vladimir Putin met with Turkish President Recep Tayip Erdogan in St. Petersburg, after the Turkish President officially apologized for the downing of a Russian military aircraft on June 27, 2016, and announced during a press conference that they discussed lifting of Russia's ban on imports of Turkish products, resumption of charter flights, the Turkish Stream project, Syrian settlement, and anti-terrorism efforts. - On August 10, Lieutenant-General Sergei Rudskoi, a senior Russian Defence Ministry official, announced a daily three-hour ceasefires in Aleppo, starting August 11, to allow humanitarian convoys enter the city safely, and would run from 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. local time. - On August 16, the Russian Ministry of Defense announced that Russian aircrafts took off from Iranian airbase Hamedan to carry out airstrikes on ISIS and Jabhat al-Nusra-held facilities in the provinces of Aleppo, Idlib and Deir ez-Zour. - On August 18, the SE adjourned the HTF meeting as humanitarian convoys could not reach any of the besieged towns during the month, and called for at least a 48 hour humanitarian pause in Aleppo to deliver UN humanitarian assistance, through the Castello Road, to all parts of Aleppo City. - Also, on August 18, the Syrian government forces, unprecedentedly, launched strikes against Kurdish forces in Hasakeh in Northern Syria, after pro-government National Defense Forces (NDF) were engaged in clashes with the military wing of the Kurdish Workers Party, known as Asayish. The Syrian government claimed that "Asayish had escalated their acts of provocation attacking state establishments, stealing oil and cotton, disrupting examinations, carrying out abductions, and causing a state of chaos and instability, in addition to targeting positions of the Syrian Arab Army which required a suitable response by the Army as it targeted the sources of artillery fire and the gatherings of armed elements responsible for these criminal actions." - On August 19th, while the Kurdish fighters pushed back government forces and their allies, the Pentagon threatened to shoot down Syrian government aircrafts as they pose a threat to the US Special Forces deployed in the Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG) area. - On August 21, it was announced that a truce agreement had been reached between YPG and NDF, through Russian mediation, to start on August 21, 2016 at 17:00, which involved evacuating the wounded and transporting them to hospitals in Qamishli, and restore the situation to how it was prior to the clashes and hold talks on August 22 to resolve the remaining unresolved issues. - On August 22, most likely the ceasefires agreement failed as fighting escalated. - On August 24, Turkey and the International Coalition Air Forces launched "Operation Euphrates Shield" offenses to support the Free Syrian Army aligned with U.S.-backed Syrian Democratic Forces SDF against IS militants in Jarablus, in northern Syria. - On August 26, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry and Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov, addressing a joint press conference after their meeting in Geneva, announced that they failed to reach a breakthrough deal on military cooperation and a nationwide cessation of hostilities in Syria, saying they still have issues to resolve before an agreement could be announced. - On August 27, Kurdish militias targeted Diyarbakir airport in southeast Turkey, near the borders with Syria. Turkey retaliated by warplanes and artillery on targets held by Kurdish-backed forces the following day, despite US pentagon's criticism of the fighting. September 2016: - On September 4, Turkish Prime Minister Binali Yildrim announced that Turkish military forces and Ankara-backed Free Syrian Army (FSA) had successfully purged the border region, from Azaz to Jarablus, from "terrorist organizations." - On September 9, the US and Russia reached a deal which called for a nationwide ceasefire in Syria, and unimpeded humanitarian access to all besieged areas starting on September 12th. If sustained for seven continuous days, the U.S. and Russia would establish a Joint Implementation Center (JIC) in order to share intelligence and coordinate airstrikes against both ISIS and Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (formerly Jabhat al-Nusra). - On September 21, the cessation of hostilities deal was implemented with regular violations, while the Syrian government continued to block humanitarian access to opposition-held districts of Eastern Aleppo City despite the agreement. - On September 17, the US-led coalition accidentally launched an air strike on Syrian government forces in Deir ez-Zour. - On September 19, a UN humanitarian convoy was shelled near Urum al-Kubra near Aleppo, killing 20 humanitarian aid workers and drivers, and destroying 18 out of 31 trucks. The US blamed Russia and the Syrian government for the attack; the latter declared unilaterally the end of the ceasefire agreement. - On September 20, the UN temporarily suspended its humanitarian aid to Syria after the attack, while international powers failed to reach a consensus to restore the ceasefire during an acrimonious UN Security Council Meeting on September 21st as well as two separate meetings of the International Syria Support Group on September 20 and September 22. - On September 22, the Syrian government announced a new military offensive in the rebel-held eastern Aleppo, and further escalation in a bombing campaign by Russian and Syrian airstrikes that had already intensified the day before. - On September 25, the Security Council Meeting discussed the recent escalation of violence in Aleppo after the Syrian government announced its intention to retake all of Aleppo City, and the SE called on the Security Council to "to press for a cessation of violence, and for the protection of civilians, and the civilian infrastructure; secondly to press for weekly 48-hour pauses in the fighting to ensure that the United Nations and its partners can reach eastern Aleppo, without preconditions from either the Government or the Opposition; and thirdly to press for medical evacuations of urgent cases." - On September 27, the Syrian government launched a large scale ground offensive in eastern Aleppo, and state media announced that it recaptured the central district of Al-Farafirah northwest of the Aleppo Citadel. - On September 29, the YPG set conditions to participate in operations to seize IS-held Raqqa City: the US provides arms to the YPG, recognizes its autonomy of the Federation of Northern Syria, and ensures that the Syrian Kurds are officially invited to participate in peace talks. October 2016: - On October 1, continuous airstrikes in eastern Aleppo damaged a major hospital codenamed M10, which was partially closed because of the raids. - On October 2, Stephen O'brien, the Under Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, urged warring parties and their supporters to bring about a cessation of all hostilities, a medical evacuation system for eastern Aleppo, and regular unimpeded humanitarian access to eastern Aleppo, and he reiterated his plea to the Security Council for a 48-hours weekly humanitarian pause in fighting, at the very least. - In an official statement, the Syrian Army offered amnesty to fighters and their families to leave Aleppo under guarantee of safe passage to other rebel-held areas, after the Syrian regime forces recaptured strategic areas on the northern outskirts of the city. - On October 3, the EU announced an emergency humanitarian initiative for Aleppo, in cooperation with the United Nations and civil society organizations, in order to facilitate the urgent delivery of basic life-saving assistance to civilians in eastern Aleppo, and ensure medical evacuations with focus on women, children and the elderly. The EU has mobilized 25 million euros to support its humanitarian partners' response to cover medical, water and sanitation, and food assistance in Aleppo. The HNC issued a statement welcoming the European initiative to protect civilians in Aleppo. - The Security Council began negotiations over a draft resolution, circulated by France and Spain, which demanded all parties to the Syrian conflict "implement and ensure full implementation of cessation of hostilities, including an end to all aerial bombardments", and called on the US and Russia to "undertake joint efforts to stabilize the situation in Syria, with special measures for the Aleppo region", as well as the UN Secretary-General to propose options for a UN-supervised monitoring mechanism of the ceasefire and to "take further measures" in case of non-compliance of any party, without invoking chapter 7 of the UN Charter. The French Foreign Minister Jean-Marc Ayrault headed to Moscow and Washington to push for a vote on the draft resolution. - The United States suspended talks with Russia on trying to end the violence in Syria and accused Moscow of not complying with its commitments under the ceasefire agreement and would withdraw all personnel that were dispatched to prepare for military cooperation with Russia. - On October 4, Prince Zeid Ra'ad, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, warned over the use of incendiary weapons in Syria, and demanded bold initiatives such as limiting the use of the veto by the permanent members of the Security Council to refer the situation in Syria to the International Criminal Court (ICC). Russia rejected Zeid's call. - The Russian Defense Ministry declared its deployment of S-300 missile system to its Tartus naval base in Syria. - On October 6, the SE offered in a press conference to escort up to 1000 al-Nusra fighters to bring an end to the bombardment by Russian and Syrian forces to Idlib or anywhere else of their choice. While the Russian Defense Ministry announced it would shoot down US-led coalition jets if the US launches airstrikes against pro-government forces in Syria, after American officials had discussed using limited airstrikes to force government forces to halt its raids on Aleppo. - On October 7, Russia called for a Security Council emergency meeting to hear the SE's briefing (attached) on the situation in Aleppo, while the Russian Parliament ratified Moscow's deal with Syria on its "indefinite" deployment of forces. - On October 8, the Security Council held a meeting on Aleppo, and voted on the Russian-drafted resolution calling for the revival of the ceasefire deal, without mention of ending military fights in the city, and on the French-drafted resolution. The French draft received eleven votes in favor, China and Angola abstained, while Russia and Venezuela voted against. The Russian text only received four votes in favor of China, Egypt and Venezuela, Angola and Uruguay abstained, while the remaining nine council members voted against. - On October 9, France announced its intention to call the ICC for war crimes investigation in Syria, and shall contact the ICC Prosecutor on how to launch these investigations, putting into consideration that the only way is through the Security Council referral, which had been vetoed before by Russia in May 2014. - On October 13, the Deputy Special Envoy for Syria Ramzy Ezzeldin Ramzy confirmed the Syrian Government's approval of the October aid plan and for convoys to reach 25 of 29 besieged and hard-to-reach areas across Syria, but not to eastern Aleppo and three parts of the rural Damascus province. - On October 15, US Secretary of State John Kerry hosted a meeting on Syria in Lausanne, with the participation of Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov and seven foreign ministers from the region, from Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Qatar, Jordan and Egypt, with the presence of the SE. The meeting failed to reach a joint statement on how to end the bombardment of Aleppo or on the aid delivery to the besieged towns. - On October 16, the UK's Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson held a meeting with his US, French and German counterparts and "like-minded" Gulf Arab states on the Syrian conflict in London. The UK and the US announced their consideration of imposing more sanctions against Russia and the Syrian Government to halt their ongoing raids on Aleppo. - On October 17, the European Council condemned the Syrian regime and Russia for their deliberate and indiscriminate bombardment of civilians and infrastructure in Eastern Aleppo, and called for a monitored cessation of hostilities, lift of sieges, and a nationwide sustainable humanitarian access. - On October 18, the Russian Minister of Defense Sergei Shoigu announced the cease of Russian and Syrian airstrikes on Aleppo to hold an 8-hour humanitarian pause on October 20th, in order to allow civilians and medical evacuations through six humanitarian corridors, and expected militants would withdraw with their weapons through two corridors, one via the Castello Road and the other near the souq al-Hai area in the south of the city. It was later announced that the eight-hour pause will be extended to eleven hours for four days. The armed opposition groups (AOGs) rejected the proposal in a joint statement claiming that "the initiative came at the same time as forced displacement operations are being carried out by the Assad regime in the Damascus suburbs of al-Mouadamiya, Qudsiya and al-Hama, and before that in Daraya." - On October 20, in conclusion of the EU summit, the EU failed to reach an agreement on imposing sanctions on Russia for the escalation of violence in Aleppo, and stated that "the EU is considering all available options should the current atrocities continue." The unilateral ceasefire took effect, and the Syrian Army declared that it would last for three days while artillery exchanges erupted around a crossing point near the rebel-controlled Bustan al-Qasr district shortly after the pause began. The Secretary-General and the SE briefed the General Assembly in an informal session on the situation in Syria, in response to an initiative led by Canada, after the Security Council failed to take action to end the aerial bombardment on Aleppo and revive peace efforts. - On October 21, the United Nations Human Rights Council held a special session on the deteriorating situation of human rights in Aleppo, upon the request of Britain (letter attached) that was submitted on behalf of a core group of 11 Western and Arab states. The Council adopted a resolution by a 24 in favor vote, seven against and 16 abstentions. It urged "the immediate implementation of the cessation of hostilities, and demanded that the regime and its allies put an immediate end to all aerial bombardments of and military flights over Aleppo city. The Council demanded that all parties, in particular the Syrian authorities and its supporters, promptly allowed rapid, safe, unhindered and sustained humanitarian access, including across conflict lines and borders." The Council further "requested the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic to conduct a comprehensive, independent special inquiry into the events in Aleppo, and identify all those responsible for alleged violations and abuses of international human rights law. It further requested the Commission of Inquiry to support efforts to ensure that perpetrators of alleged abuses and violations be held accountable, and to provide a full report of the findings of its special inquiry to the Human Rights Council no later than its thirty-fourth session." - On October 22, the humanitarian pause expired without any evacuations made and without further renewal despite the UN request. No medical evacuations had been made as no security guarantees had not been granted as requested by the UN. - On October 23, Turkey intensified its strikes targeting IS militants and Kurdish YPG forces in the town of al-Bab, in an attempt to sweep them away from its borders. The Turkish-backed FSA gained control over three areas of Tuways, al-Gharz and Tlatinah south of Akhtarin in northern Aleppo two days later. - On October 25, Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Mikhail Bogdanov stated Moscow's willingness to restore the ceasefire in Aleppo and that the Western-backed opposition forces should be separated from terrorist groups in order to be able to move forward; after the UN had blamed all parties for the failure of evacuating injured people in Eastern Aleppo during the three-day ceasefires and called for "a permanent and comprehensive ceasefire so that life-saving humanitarian activities, including medical evacuations, can resume," meanwhile the Syrian Ambassador to Moscow ruled out any opportunity to restore the ceasefires. - On October 26, a school in the village of Haas, in rebel-held Idlib, was hit by a raid of airstrikes, causing the death of twenty-two children and six teachers. The UN Secretary-General called for an immediate investigation on this attack, as it could amount as war crimes if deliberate. Russia denied its responsibility and claimed that the damage was not consistent with an airstrike. - On October 27, Virginia Gamba, the head of the UN-OPCW Joint Investigative Mechanism, presented the mechanism's findings to the Security Council. The report indicated that of the nine cases the JIM investigated, the Syrian regime used chlorine gas against civilians in three cases and the IS used mustard gas in one case. In the remaining five cases, the JIM investigated allegations that the government dropped chlorine bombs in rebel-held areas. While the JIM could not make a conclusive determination in three of these five cases, it was able to establish that government airstrikes had occurred and the presence of a toxic substance, but it was unable to fully determine the link between the two, or the actors responsible. Russian Ambassador Vitaly Churkin questioned the JIM's findings, and expressed reservations over the US-draft resolution to extend the mandate of the mechanism for another year, which would end on 31 October 2016. - The EU added ten top Syrian officials to its sanctions list who are held responsible for "violent repression against the civilian population in Syria." - On October 28, Syrian rebels relaunched Aleppo counter-attack aiming to break the siege imposed on Eastern Aleppo. The factions included the FSA and Jaish al-Fath targetting government-held Western Aleppo. - Syrian Foreign Minister Walid Muallem met with his Russian and Iranian counterparts in Moscow to discuss counterterrorism, the cessation of hostilities and improvement of humanitarian operations, and the resumption of the intra-Syrian talks. The three ministers held a joint press conference following their meeting. - On October 30, SE condemned Syrian rebels for the indiscriminate shelling of civilian areas in Western Aleppo, raising the number of casualties in the last 48 hours. - On October 31, the Security Council extended the mandate of the UN-OPCW JIM until November 18, 2016. November 2016: - On November 1, in a teleconference with the leaders of the Russian Armed Forces, Russian Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu mentioned that Russia had halted air strikes on eastern Aleppo for 16 days, following western criticism over a Russian-Syrian government assault that killed civilians and destroyed infrastructure. - On November 2, DM Shoigu announced that it would enforce a 10-hour humanitarian pause in Aleppo on November 4, to allow civilians and fighters to exit the city through eight safe corridors. - On November 4, despite the announced unilateral ceasefire in Aleppo, there were no sign of civilians or fighters leaving the city, and opposition fighters vowed to continue fighting to break the siege. - On November 6, the SDF declared the launch of Operation "Wrath of the Euphrates" in the IS capital of Raqqa, which aimed at surrounding and isolating the city as an initial phase, in coordination with the US-led coalition airstrikes. The SDF had rejected any Turkish role to liberate the city. - On November 8, the Russian Defense Minister Shoigu announced that the first attack from the Admiral Kuznetsov, the aircraft carrier, and heavily armed escort ships were to bomb rebel positions in Aleppo. - On November 10, Jan Egeland, Advisor to the Special Envoy for Syria, declared in a press stakeout following the weekly HTF meeting that Eastern Aleppo had run out of food rations, and that the UN had proposed an initiative of four elements which included delivery of food and medical supplies, medical evacuations and access for health workers. - On November 11, the OPCW Executive Council condemned all parties for the use of chemical weapons in Syria, after voting on a US-tabled text in a closed session. The text was supported by 28 members, including Germany, France, the United States and Britain; it was opposed by Russia, China, Sudan and Iran, and there were nine abstentions. - On November 15, Russia launched its "major operation" targeting the IS and Jabhat al-Nusra's positions in Idlib and Homs provinces. Heavy airstrikes and barrel bombs pounded Eastern Aleppo after the pause declared by Russia and the Syrian Government on October 18. It is considered the first mission operated from the aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov. - The Third Committee of the UN General Assembly adopted a draft resolution tabled by Saudi Arabia on the human rights situation in Syria, by a vote of 116 in favor, to 15 against with 49 abstentions. It called upon the Syrian regime and the IS to cease using chemical weapons, and stop their attacks on civilians. - On November 17, the UN Security Council adopted the US-draft resolution to extend the mandate of the UN-OPCW Joint Investigative Mechanism to 18 November 2017. - On November 20, Syrian Foreign Minister Walid Muallem held talks with the SE in Damascus, on the latest escalation of violence, the targeting of medical facilities and infrastructure, and the humanitarian initiative in Eastern Aleppo. The UN proposal of the withdrawal of al-Nusra fighters while maintaining the opposition's local administration of Eastern Aleppo; the proposal was rejected by the Syrian Government and called it a violation of "national sovereignty". - On November 23, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs Jean Ayrault announced that France would hold a meeting on Syria early December 2016. - On November 24, Jan Egeland Advisor to the Special Envoy for Syria briefed the press on the HTF meeting and the assistance deliveries of the month of November, not being able to reach besieged areas because of the absence of government approvals for convoys to enter and the escalation of violence. Egeland stated that the UN had received written approvals of the AOGs in eastern Aleppo and Russian support of the UN four-point plan, and still waiting for the government's approval. - On November 27, the rebels in Khan al-Shih town, in the outskirts of Damascus, handed in their weapons, as part of a local agreement with the Syrian government to withdraw to rebel-held Idlib province, so as government siege would be lifted. It was the only town not under government control on a major supply route from Damascus to Quneitra, in southern Syria. - On November 29, Egypt, New Zealand and Spain put in blue their draft resolution calling to put an end to all attacks on Aleppo, and allow unimpeded humanitarian access for the period of 7-days with consideration of further extension. The draft was later vetoed on 5 December by Russia and China, Venezuela voted against, and Angola abstained. It is Russia's sixth veto on a Syria draft resolution, and China's fifth veto. - After the Acting High Representative for Disarmament Affairs Kim Won-soo briefed Council members during Syria's chemical weapons consultations; the P3 announced they would circulate a draft resolution to impose sanctions on Syria for its use of chemical weapons against its own population. - On November 30, upon the request of France and the UK to hold an emergency meeting on Aleppo, SE Staffan de Mistura, USG Emergency Relief Coordinator Stephen O'brien and UNICEF Regional Director Geert Cappelaere briefed the Security Council on the situation in Aleppo, who agreed on the growing number of civilians fleeing eastern Aleppo and the dire need for safe humanitarian access. December 2016: - On December 1, ten AOGs announced the formation of 'Jaysh Halab' in Eastern Aleppo, in an attempt to unite their efforts to lift the siege and restore the districts where the pro-government militias took over in northeast and east Aleppo. It was led by Abu Abdul Rahman Nour, a senior commander in 'Jabhat al-Sham'. While Jan Egeland, Advisor to the Special Envoy for Syria, and the SE briefed the press on the humanitarian situation in Aleppo after the HTF meeting; they mentioned that over 400,000 IDPs are in west Aleppo, and UN convoys reached reached all towns under the Four-Towns Agreement, including Madaya, al-Foua and Kafraya, and Zabadani, and that the December Plan was yet to be approved by the Syrian government. - On December 3, the Syrian armed forces and its supporting militias advanced into east Aleppo, taking over 60 percent of the city that was once under rebel control since mid-2012. More than 80,000 civilians fled the area since the beginning of the regime's offense on November 15. - On December 7, AOGs called for a five-day ceasefire in Aleppo, and medical and civilian evacuations without mentioning the withdrawal of their fighters as demanded by Moscow and Damascus. Meanwhile, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry met with Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov in Germany to discuss the evacuation of opposition-held districts of Eastern Aleppo, and no agreement was reached. While leaders of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, the UK and the United States released a joint statement on the situation in Aleppo calling for an immediate ceasefire and the resumption of political negotiations. - On December 8, the SE briefed the Security Council in closed consultations after the Russian announcement that it paused its operations in eastern Aleppo to allow the evacuation of civilians. Jan Egeland had said, after the weekly HTF meeting, that the co-chairs are "poles apart" on a united humanitarian diplomacy. IS launched a major offensive on Palmyra, seizing a number of gas fields in the north and few mountains in the south. - On December 9, the General Assembly adopted the Canadian-drafted resolution A/RES/71/130, which calls for an immediate cessation of hostilities and the implementation of resolutions 2268 and 2254. The resolution passed by a vote of 122 to 13, with 36 abstentions. Russia, Iran and China opposed the resolution. - On December 10, Paris hosted a meeting of "like-minded" counterparts on Syria; it brought together US Secretary of State John Kerry, German Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier, British Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson and Turkish Foreign Affairs Minister Mevlut Cavusoglu, along with Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. They discussed the humanitarian situation, and called for a ceasefire and a post Aleppo plan, as Syrian government forces neared victory over rebels there. - On December 11, ISIS recaptured the city of Palmyra in Eastern Homs Province forces despite heavy air support provided by Russia. - On December 13, the United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon briefed the Security Council on the situation in Aleppo, the growing number of IDPs and allegations of torture and executions. Meanwhile, AOGs agreed to evacuate their remaining positions in eastern Aleppo after the Syrian government recaptured the city and following an agreement between Russia and Turkey. The evacuation was initially scheduled to take place on 14 December, but was delayed after Iran called for simultaneous evacuations from the besieged Shi'a-majority towns of Fu'ah and Kafraya in Idlib Province. - On December 15, the LAS held an emergency meeting at the level of representatives, based on Qatar's request, and adopted resolution 8105 condemning the attacks on civilians in Eastern Aleppo. - On December 19, the Security Council unanimously adopted the French-drafted resolution 2328 which demanded that the UN and other relevant agencies to carry out adequate and neutral monitoring of evacuations from eastern Aleppo, ensure the deployment of staff members for this purpose, and emphasized that the evacuations of civilians must be voluntary and to final destinations of their choice. Also, the LAS Ministerial Council welcomed resolution 8106 reiterating the necessity to establish a full cease-fire in Aleppo in accordance with the Security Council resolution 2328, and condemned terrorism in all its forms and crimes committed against civilians by ISIS, Fateh al- Sham Front, and that actions of both the Syrian regime and other militant groups may amount to war crimes. - Following the adoption of resolution 2328, the Office of the Special Envoy for Syria announced "the intention of the United Nations to convene the intra-Syrian negotiations mandated by Security Council resolution 2254 in Geneva on 8 February 2017." - On December 20th, the foreign and defense ministers of Russia, Turkey and Iran held parallel trilateral meetings in Moscow, despite the assassination of the Russian Ambassador to Turkey Andrey Karlov on December 19, and adopted the "Moscow Declaration" by which they agreed to act as guarantor powers for a peace accord between the Syrian government and the opposition. - On December 21, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution establishing a mechanism to assist in the investigation of serious crimes committed in Syria since 2011. The resolution received 105 votes for, with 52 abstentions, and 15 votes against (Algeria, Belarus, Bolivia, Burundi, China, Cuba, DPRK, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Nicaragua, Russia, South Sudan, Syria, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe). The UN Secretary-General submitted the report of the UN Headquarters Board of Inquiry that was established to investigate the humanitarian convoy incident in Urum al-Kubra on 19 September 2016., which stated that there is no enough evidence to conclude that the convoy was deliberately attacked. - On December 22, the Syrian army announced its full control over Aleppo, after the evacuations of the remaining rebel fighters. Evacuations had faced many delays because of Iran's demands to evacuate 1500 individuals from the opposition-besieged towns of Zabadani and Madaya. On the following day, the Russian military deployed a battalion to clear the city from improvised explosive devices. - On December 23, USG Stephen O'brien briefed the Security Council, upon the request of France, "on the modalities of the evacuation of civilians and delivery of humanitarian aid in East Aleppo." Meanwhile, Syrian government forces bombed the water pumping station during its raid on opposition-held Wadi Barada, disrupting water supply to Damascus. - On December 26, Kazakhstan accepted the Russian proposal to host peace negotiations between the Syrian government and opposition forces to find a solution to the Syrian crisis, in January 2017. - On December 27, the Russian and Turkish foreign ministers agreed to implement a nationwide ceasefire in Syria, separate moderate opposition groups from UN designated terrorist groups, and prepare for the Astana talks. - On December 28-30, the DFNS met in the city of Rmeilan to approve the draft constitution, known as the social contract, which was adopted on January 29, 2014 to form its administrative system and prepare for elections. Kurdish leaders voted to drop the word "Rojava" from the official name to include other ethnic and religious components in northern Syria. - On December 29, Russia and Turkey submitted the countrywide ceasefire plan to the warring parties, which had taken effect at midnight on 30 December 2016 Damascus time. - On December 31, the UN Security Council adopted resolution 2336 in support of the Russian- Turkish agreement and the meeting to be held in Astana on 23 January 2017. January 2017: - On January 2, the Russian and Turkish air raids targeted IS militants in northern Syrian city of al-Bab; while 10 rebel factions threatened they would suspend talks regarding Astana until the ceasefire is fully implemented because of "major and frequent violations" in the rebel-held areas of Wadi Barada and Eastern Ghouta near Damascus. - On January 5, the SE welcomed the nationwide ceasefire, and the Security Council resolutions on Aleppo and Astana talks, in a press briefing after the weekly HTF meeting. Jan Egeland Advisor to the Special Envoy for Syria, voiced disappointment over the government's denied aid access to 5 out 21 locations including places in Rural Damascus, Homs and Hama. - On January 6, the Russian military started to cut down on its presence in Syria, Military Chief Valery Gerasimov mentioned that the aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov would be the first to withdraw from the Mediterranean. - On January 8, Syrian government airstrikes resumed on Wadi Barada after failing to reach an agreement with opposition groups to repair the damaged water springs. Later on January 14th, the retired army officer Ahmad al-Ghadban who negotiated the deal to restore the water was killed amid heavy clashes between rebels and pro-regime forces. Both sides accused each other. - On January 12, the US imposed sanctions on 18 senior Syrian officials who were connected to the development and use of chemical weapons including chlorine gas against civilians. It marked the first time the US sanctioned Syrian military officials. While Russia and Turkey signed an agreement to coordinate their airstrikes against terrorists in Syria. - On January 13, the Syrian state television accused Israel of targeting Mezzeh Airbase outside of Damascus. - On January 14, IS launched a major offensive against pro-regime forces (Hezboallah) in Deir al-Zor Province, cutting the communication between the military base and the city. - On January 16, the High Representative/Vice-President Federica Mogherini will host an international conference on the future of Syria in Brussels, which "aims to identify with regional partners common ground on the post-conflict arrangements and examine the scope for reconsciliation and reconstruction of Syria." - On January 19, an agreement was reached in Wadi Barada, allowing regime maintenance teams to enter the area to fix the water pipes and grant rebels amnesty or safe passage to opposition-held Idlib. - On January 20, IS militants destroyed Palmyra's Tetrapylon with only four of sixteen columns still standing, and the facade of its Roman Theatre. The UNESCO condemned the act as a new war crime. - Russia and Syria concluded a bilateral agreement on expanding and modernizing of the Russian Naval Facility in Tartus. The agreement extends the current lease for the next forty-nine years with automatic extensions and permits the simultaneous deployment of up to eleven warships to the port. - On January 23-24, indirect talks between the Syrian government and opposition were held in Astana; the delegations refused to sign the joint declaration issued by Russia, Turkey and Iran, on setting up a "trilateral mechanism" to monitor and enforce the ceasefire. The new US administration was invited, despite Iran's objection, and was represented by its ambassador to Kazakhstan. The UN SE was present, and hoped Astana talks would support the intra-Syrian negotiations to be held in Geneva in February. - On January 24, the Russian delegation shared its draft of the Syrian Constitution with the Syrian delegations, and advocated the creation of a Constitutional Committee consisting of members of both delegations. - On January 23-24, Finland and UN agencies hosted the Helsinki Conference on Supporting Syrians and the Region, which launched the 2017-2018 Regional Refugee and Resilience Plan (3RP). - On January 25, the US President Donald Trump called for establishing safe zones for refugees in Syria, after suspending visas for Syrians and other middle eastern states. President Trump later held telephone conversations with Saudi King Salman bin Abdul-Aziz and United Arab Emirates Armed Forces Deputy Supreme Commander Mohammed bin Zayed on January 29 to seek their support for his unidentified initiative. - On January 28-30, 1100 opposition fighters and 750 civilians evacuated Wadi Barada to Idlib Province, after reaching a reconciliation deal with pro-regime forces. The Syrian Forces reached Ain Fijeh spring to restore water to Damascus. - On January 30, the US delivered armored vehicles, medium and heavy weapons to SDF, in an attempt to isolate IS in al-Raqqa City. - On January 31, the SE briefed the Security Council in a closed session on the outcomes of the Astana talks and the upcoming intra-Syrian talks in Geneva, which was pushed to February 20. He mentioned if the Syrian opposition could not form an inclusive delegation by 8 February, he would select its representatives himself. The Council members welcomed the International Meeting on Syria in Astana, in a press statement. February 2017: - On February 6, high-level experts from Russia, Iran, Turkey, Jordan and the UN held their first technical meeting in Astana to discuss the implementation of the ceasefire mechanism, and cooperation on humanitarian issues; they agreed on the Concept Paper on the Joint Group. The Joint Group held its first meeting and managed to identify all areas controlled by IS and Jabhat Fatah al-Sham; the participants received two draft documents prepared by the Russians to be discussed in future Joint Group meetings, which are the Protocol to the Agreement on the mechanism to record violations of the cessation of hostilities in Syria announced on December 30, 2016 and the Procedure for imposing sanctions on violators, as well as the Regulation on Reconciled Areas. - On February 7, Amnesty International released its report (attached) on mass executions of as many as 13,000 detainees at Saydnaya Military Prison. Syrian authorities rejected the accusations. - On February 9, Russian airstrikes mistakenly kill three Turkish soldiers and injured eleven others near al-Bab city held by Turkish Armed Forces as part of Operation Euphrates Shield. Both sides agreed to strengthen their coordination. - On February 10-11, the HNC met in Riyadh and formed a delegation of 21 members, headed by Nasr al-Hariri; it included one representative each from the Cairo and Moscow groups. The HNC stated (Arabic statement attached) that the goal of the negotiations was a political transition under U.N. auspices in which Assad had no role in the future of the country. - On February 12, Turkish President Recep Erdogan stressed that the Operation Euphrates Shield aims to establish a five-thousand square kilometer 'safe zone' that includes Al-Bab, Manbij, and al-Raqqa City in Northern Syria. The safe zone would require the implementation of a no-fly zone, mentioning that he had discussed the issue with both the U.S. and Russia. - On February 13, the SE sent out invitations to the Syrian delegations for the intra-Syrian negotiations set to begin on February 23. - On February 15-16, the second round of talks took place in Astana a day later than scheduled; the opposition delegation was represented by only 9 armed groups from 14 groups which attended the first meeting; no direct meetings between the Syrian delegations were held and it ended without a final statement. The three guarantor states agreed to the Concept Paper on the Joint Group of the trilateral mechanism to observe the ceasefire, share information regarding the investigation of violations and promote confidence-building measures such as the release of detainees and abductees. - On February 17, a meeting between the "like-minded" states on Syria was held on the margins of the Bonn G20 Summit, and discussed Syria peace talks in Geneva. - On February 18, Turkey offered the US two proposals for an offensive against IS in al-Raqqa City that excludes the YPG. The preferred proposal calls for the insertion of opposition groups backed by Turkey into Tel Abyad in Northern al-Raqqa Province in order to advance against al- Raqqa City through a twelve-mile-wide corridor through terrain currently held by the SDF. The second proposal calls for opposition groups in Operation Euphrates Shield to advance more than one hundred miles from Northern Aleppo Province to Western al-Raqqa Province. - On February 21, the US CIA froze assistance to the FSA and its affiliated factions fighting in Northwestern Syria, after they came under an attack from Hay'at Tahrir al-sham HTS (successor of Jabhat Fateh al-Sham) in January. The aid included salaries, training, ammunition and in some cases guided anti-tank missiles. - On February 23, a fourth round of the intra-Syrian talks commenced in Geneva with no expectations of a breakthrough; the SE reiterated that that resolution 2254 sets the framework of the negotiations, which calls for the establishment of credible, inclusive and non-sectarian governance, and sets a timeline for drafting a new constitution and holding free and fair elections within 18 months. A day before in the ISSG Ceasefire Task Force meeting (CTF), Russia had called on the Syrian Government to halt aerial bombings during the discussions. - The Opposition groups backed by the Operation Euphrates Shield fully seized al-Bab in Northern Aleppo Province, after three months of clashes. - On February 24, the SE shared a paper on procedural issues, in bilateral meetings with the Syrian parties. The HNC held the Cairo and Moscow platforms responsible for the delay of direct talks, as they participated separately. - While Iraq conducted its first cross-border airstrikes against IS in Deir ez-Zour Province on the Syrian-Iraqi Border. The F-16 airstrikes were coordinated with the Syrian Government through a joint intelligence-sharing unit in Baghdad that includes Iraq, Syria, Russia, and Iran. Also, The U.S. provided intelligence in support of the operation. - On February 25, HTS claimed responsibility of a suicide attack on the State Security and Military Intelligence Offices in Homs City, killing at least forty pro-regime officers including Military Intelligence Branch Chief Brig. Gen. Hassan Dabul, so as to undermine the ongoing peace talks. The attacks prompted heavy airstrikes on al-Waer District, the Opposition's last strong-hold in the city. The HNC condemned the terrorist attack as per the Government's ultimatum. - On February 28, the UN Security Council voted on the French-British draft resolution which sought to ban the sale or supply of helicopters to the Syrian Government, and to blacklist 10 government and related entities involved in the production of chemical weapons. Nine countries voted in favor; Bolivia voted against the text, while Ethiopia, Egypt and Kazakhstan abstained. Russia casted its sixth veto backed by China. Britain and France had circulated the text in mid- December 2016, in response to the OPCW report findings proving government use of chlorine gas in three cases of the nine investigated cases. It was put on hold to asses US policy on Syria, the US later became a co-penholder after its unilateral sanctions on 18 Syrian senior officials on January 12. March 2017: - On March 1, the Independent Commission of Inquiry on Syria issued its report on the violations committed by warring parties in the last battle of eastern Aleppo, and considered the targeting of vital civilian infrastructure, withholding the distribution of humanitarian aid, and the use of civilians as human shields and forced evacuation agreements amount to war crimes. - On March 2, the Syrian forces backed by Russian airstrikes and Shi'a militias recaptured the city of Palmyra for the second time after heavy clashes. - On March 3, the fourth round of talks concluded with a political agenda for the upcoming round, which comprises of three baskets addressing the establishment of credible, inclusive and non-sectarian governance, drafting a new constitution, and holding free and fair elections within 18 months. A fourth basket was added upon the request of the Syrian Government to address "strategies of counter terrorism, security, governance and also medium-term confidence building measures." - On March 6, Russia announced a ceasefire in Eastern Ghouta until March 20, despite the continuation of airstrikes and mutual shelling. - On March 7, the US-allied SDF agreed to handover six villages near Manbij, on the frontline with Turkey-backed rebels to Syrian government control, under a Russian-brokered deal, in an attempt to stop further Turkish incursion. - On March 8, the SE de Mistura briefed the Security Council on the course of the talks, which aims to address the aforementioned baskets in parallel, and concluded that "nothing is agreed until everything is agreed unless the sides decide otherwise." The Syrian groups are invited to resume talks on March 23. - Meanwhile, Russian, US, Turkish high-level military officials met in Antalya to discuss additional coordination measures and "operational de-confliction of military operations" in northern Syria. - On March 13, a Russian-brokered agreement was reached to evacuate rebel fighters from Homs city, which would be carried out within six to eight weeks, between 10,000-15,000 people were expected to leave Homs in weekly batches. The neighborhood was besieged by regime forces since 2013. - On March 14, the EU unveiled its plan in Syria "in contributing to a lasting political solution under the existing UN-agreed framework and in helping to build resilience and stability in the country, as well as supporting post-agreement reconstruction once a credible political transition is underway." - On March 14-15, the third round of talks was held in Astana, even though the AOGs had called for the postponement of the meeting to assess the commitment to the declared ceasefire in Eastern Ghouta. Invitations were sent to the United Nations, the United States and Jordan. On March 14, preliminary consultations were held while a plenary meeting was due on March 15. The results of the intra-Syrian consultations were expected to be discussed. Talks failed to reach any significant agreement, and the three guarantor states issued a joint statement, and scheduled the next high-level meeting in Astana on May 3-4, 2017 and agreed to hold preliminary expert consultations on April 18-19, 2017 in Tehran. - On March 15, two suicide bombs targeted Damascus on the sixth war anniversary; one of them hit the main judicial building, and both killed 74 people and wounding a hundred other. It was later claimed by Fateh al-Sham Front. - On March 18, rebels began to evacuate al-Waer neighborhood in Homs City, to the opposition-held northern town of Jarablus on the borders with Turkey. - On March 20, the EU imposed sanctions against four Syrian high-ranked military officials related to the use of chemical weapons. The ban includes assets freeze and travel ban, and it is considered the first time the EU blacklists military officials. - On March 21, the US-led coalition dropped the SDF fighters on the southern side of the Euphrates to to cut the Aleppo - al-Raqqa Highway. the SDF launched an operation to seize the Tabqa Dam west of al-Raqqa City on March 22 with extensive support from the US. - On March 22, a US-led coalition strike on a center for displaced families in al-Mansoura town held by ISIL in northern Raqqa, killed 33 people. Earlier this month, the coalition declared that its raids in Syria and Iraq unintentionally killed at least 220 civilians. - On March 23-31, the fifth round of talks in Geneva was held despite of the escalation of fighting in Damascus and Hama; the SE shared non-papers with all Syrian sides with some political principles reached during the five rounds, and received their comments and amendments. - On March 24, Russia proposed a draft resolution on the use of chemical weapons in Syria and Iraq, that was reviewed in April 2016 and the UN Security Council did not support it. It was co-authored by China and Russia. Meanwhile, the Human Rights Council adopted a resolution condemning the indiscriminate attacks against civilians, forced displacement of populations, and called to hold all those responsible to account. - On March 27, the second phase of evacuations from al-Waer neighborhood took place, moving 466 citizens and 129 fighters. Meanwhile, the UN SE briefed the LAS Ministerial Council on the recent developments of the Geneva intra-Syrian talks and the Astana process. - On March 28, Russia condemned the US-led coalition airstrikes on the Tabqa Dam, and accused it of trying to "completely destroy critical infrastructure in Syria and complicate post-war reconstruction as much as possible." It further claimed that the coalition destroyed four bridges over the Euphrates river. - On March 29, the UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres addressed the annual Arab Summit, which was held in the Dead Sea, Jordan. He appealed to the Arab leaders to set aside differences and end the Syrian war. - An agreement was brokered by Iran and Qatar to swap Shi'ite citizens from the two pro-government towns of al-Foua and Kafraya, in the northwestern province of Idlib besieged by rebel fighters, with Sunni fighters and their families from the opposition-held towns of Zabadani and Madaya besieged by pro-government forces. The agreement was due to start on April 4 and would last 60 days; it included a ceasefire in the areas south of Damascus, aid deliveries, and the release of 1,500 prisoners held by the government. - On March 31, U.S. Secretary of State Rex Tillerson disclosed during his visit to Ankara that "longer-term status of President Assad will be decided by the Syrian people" and defeating ISIL is its priority, while U.S. Ambassador to the UN Nikki Haley said the priority was no longer "getting Assad out"; it was later reiterated by the White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer's briefing. April 2017: - On April 3, the European Foreign Affairs Council chaired by the EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Federica Mogherini took place in Luxembourg, and adopted the EU Strategy on Syria. It held the Syrian regime responsible for the violations against human rights, and reaffirmed that "there can be no lasting peace in Syria under the current regime." - On April 4-5, the EU and its co-sponsors hosted the Brussels Conference on Supporting the future of Syria and the region. The co-chairs declaration took note of UN appeals requesting $8 billion in 2017 to cover the required needs inside Syria and its neighboring countries, and announced pledges raised worth about $11 billion for humanitarian aid programs. - On April 4, an alleged chemical attack on Khan Shaykhun in the province of Idlib was carried out during a Syrian government air raid on the city, which claimed the lives of at least 72 civilians. Russia denied its responsibility and claimed that Syrian airstrikes targeted a rebel chemical weapons warehouse which leaked poisonous gas. While the implementation of the evacuation deal of 30,000 people from the four towns of Kafraya, al-Foua, Madaya and Zabadani was delayed because of reservations of their residents. All 16,000 residents of al-Foua and Kafraya are expected to leave under the deal. - On April 5, the UN Security Council was briefed on the attack by the Acting High Representative for Disarmament Affairs Kim Won-soo on the reported use of chemical weapons in Khan Shaykhun. The US, UK and France had informally circulated a draft resolution which demands that the Syrian government must provide the JIM and the FFM with flight plans and logs of April 4, the names of all helicopter squadron commanders and provide access to air bases where investigators believe chemical attacks may have been launched. Russia criticized the text, and produced its own draft; it did not condemn neither the attack nor the Syrian government, but rather expressed deep concern over the alleged "incident with chemical weapons" and called for a full-scale investigation. Later on April 6, the ten elected members (E10) of the Security Council met at ambassador level to express their frustration for not being included in the negotiating process and discussed an alternative text which would substitute language in the P3 draft on the Syrian government's obligation to provide information on its activities with agreed language from resolution 2118. Neither resolution were tabled for a vote. - On April 6, the US waged retaliatory airstrikes against al-Shayrat airbase outside of Homs, where the chemical attack was launched. 59 Tomahawk cruise missiles had hit the airfield in Syria. The missiles were aimed at Syrian fighter jets and other infrastructure. - On April 7, Bolivia called for a Security Council briefing after the US airstrikes, and Russia announced its suspension of "the Memorandum of Understanding on Prevention of Flight Safety Incidents in the course of operations in Syria signed with the US." - On April 11, the White House released a declassified report drawn up by the National Security Council which confirmed that the Assad regime used sarin gas on its own people, and accused Russia for shielding for its allies. - On April 12, the Security Council held a meeting to vote on the P3 revised draft resolution (4th draft), which incorporated the language from resolution 2118 proposed in the E10 draft; after the SE had provided the council with his monthly briefing on the assessment of the intra-Syrian talks held in Geneva. Ten members voted in favor of the text, China, Ethiopia and Kazakhstan abstained, while Bolivia joined Russia in voting against it. It is Russia's eighth veto against a Syria-related resolution. - On April 14, the evacuation of residents from the Shi'ite towns of al-Foua and Kafraya (besieged by opposition groups) began and their convoys headed towards the government-held Aleppo; meanwhile rebel fighters and their families left the town of Madaya (besieged by government forces) and headed towards Idlib. While the evacuation from Zabadani was delayed and expected to begin later the day. The four towns agreement began with the exchange of thirty prisoners and nine bodies on April 12. The evacuations resumed after a suicide attack that targeted a government loyalties convoy killing some hundred people including women, children and rebel fighters on April 15. - On April 19-20, over 2000 opposition fighters and civilians were evacuated from the besieged towns of Zabadani and Madaya in exchange for the evacuation of nearly 8000 pro-regime fighters and civilians from the besieged towns of al-Foua and Kafraya in Idlib Province. - On April 24, the US sanctioned 271 Syrians employed by the Syrian Scientific Studies and Research Center, related to the development of chemical weapons. The sanction froze the individuals' assets and prohibited US companies to conduct business with them. May 2017: - On May 3-4, military experts from the three guarantors held technical consultations ahead of the two-day fourth round of the Astana process, with the participation of the Director of the UN Mine Action Service Agnes Marcaillou. The SE de Mistura and Nawaf Uasfi Tel, Political Adviser to Jordan's Foreign Minister attended as observers, and the US was represented at a higher-level (for the first time) by US Assistant Secretary of State for Middle East Affairs Stuart Jones. - Despite the Syrian Opposition delegation suspended their participation in opposition to the ongoing bombardments across Syria, the three guarantors signed the Memorandum on the creation of de-escalation areas in Syria, setting up four "de-escalation zones" in Idlib, parts of Homs, Eastern Ghouta, and parts of Deraa and al-Quneitra provinces in southern Syria. The Syrian government welcomed the Russian initiative while the Opposition rejected Iran's involvement as a guarantor. - On May 5, Russia sought UN endorsement to the agreement reached in Astana, and circulated a draft resolution calling on member states to contribute to the implementation of the Memorandum on the creation of de-escalation zones in Syria. The resolution failed to pass for a vote on May 8, as western member states had reservations on the draft. - On May 6, Riad Seif was elected as the sixth president of the SOC, beating Khaled Khoja with 58 votes from the 102 member coalition. He would replace the current head Anas al-Abdeh, who was elected in March 2016. Also, Abdulrahman Mustafa and Salwa Ktaw were elected as vice presidents. - On May 8, the evacuation process of the government-besieged Damascus suburb of Barzeh began, around 1,022 people, including 568 rebels, headed towards Idlib and northern town of Jarablus near the Turkish borders; the second convoy of 700 rebels moved on May 12. While Walid al-Muallem, the Syrian Foreign Minister, rejected any international forces under UN supervision to monitor the de-escalation zones deal. Meanwhile, the White House approved providing arms to Kurdish fighters as support to their operation to retake al-Raqqa City, despite Turkey's strong opposition. - On May 16, the FFM's report confirmed the use of sulfur mustard in the attack on Aleppo on Sept. 16, 2016, and was made public. The report was raised to the UN Security Council on May 5. The FFM, also, confirmed in its report, regarding its investigation of the April 4 attack on Khan Shaykhun, the use of sarin-gas or a sarin-like substance. The FFM is only mandated for indicating whether chemical weapons were used, while the JIM is mandated to determine responsibility for the attacks. - While the US Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control sanctioned ten additional entities for providing support to the Syrian regime. - On May 16-19, the UN SE held the sixth round of the Intra-Syrian talks in Geneva, which ended without covering the four baskets of the agenda, only focusing on the constitutional issues. The SE shared a proposal with the parties to establish "a Technical Consultative Mechanism on Constitutional and Legal Issues;" the proposal would identify "options for the process of constitutional drafting, and for the conduct of a national conference/national dialogue, and identify for review specific options for ensuring a sound constitutional and legal basis for any framework agreed in Geneva embodying a package and including providing for credible, all-inclusive, non-sectarian governance," and that is through UN-facilitated expert-level meetings with both Syrian sides. - On May 18, while the EU Parliament adopted a resolution pertaining the EU Strategy on Syria, which the European Council for Foreign Affairs had passed on 3 April 2017; the US-led coalition's airstrikes destroyed a pro-Syrian regime convoy of the Iraqi Shi'ite militia of Kata'ib Imam Ali, that advanced along the Damascus-Baghdad Highway towards al-Tanf base (where the US, UK and Jordan train fighters of Jaysh Mughawir al-Thawra against IS in Eastern Syria). - On May 20-21, the evacuation of nearly 3000 people, some 700 fighters and their families, was completed from al-Waer district, the last opposition-held district in the province of Homs. According to Talal Barazi, Governor of Homs, more than 14,000 people had left al-Waer in several phases since the "reconciliation deal" began to be implemented in March. Among them were some 3,700 rebels, allowed to leave with their light weapons. Russia later deployed 50 to 150 Military Police into the district. - On May 22, the SE briefed the Security Council on the latest developments, and on the last round of the Intra-Syrian talks. He commended the Astana process for the reduction of violence in the agreed de-escalation areas, and urged its guarantors to finalize their agreement addressing the subjects of detainees, abductees and humanitarian demining. The SE asserted that the rounds' focus on legal and constitutional issues does not rule out "the principle of parallelism" in addressing the agenda, and that a new consultative process at a technical level was introduced to discuss relevant constitutional and legal matters. - On May 25, NATO leaders agreed in Brussels to become full members of the Global Coalition against ISIS; the organization would not engage in combat operations, but would provide air refueling to the Coalition's aircrafts, capacity building through the deployment of special forces to train local partners, and would establish an intelligence information cell to ensure information-sharing on foreign fighters. - On May 29, the final convoy of fighters and their families moved from the opposition-held besieged district of Barzeh in Damascus to Idlib Province; estimately more than 4000 fighters and civilians were evacuated from Barzeh and Eastern Ghouta under the Russian-brokered deal. - On May 30, the US delivered its first shipment of arms to the Kurdish-led SDF, which had advanced against IS in the eastern outskirts of al-Raqqa, seizing eight villages and taking control over the Ba'ath Dam. - On May 31, Russia's Grigorovich-Class Frigate Admiral Essen and Kilo-Class Submarine Krasnodar launched four cruise missiles targeting IS near Palmyra; it targetted arms depots of fighters relocating from al-Raqqa to Eastern Homs. Russia had notified the US, Turkey, and Israel of the strikes-On June 2, EU High Representative Federica Mogherini met with newly-elected President of the Syrian Opposition Council (SOC), Riad Seif, and Syrian Interim Government (SIG) Prime Minister, Jawad Abou Hatab, to discuss the political process and EU support for Syrian resilience. Both parties reiterated their commitment to the UN-led Geneva process. June 2017: -On June 4, pro-government forces gained control of Maskanah city, the last remaining ISIS stronghold in Aleppo governorate. The advances brought pro-government forces within 10 km of Raqqa's provincial border. -US-backed SDF captured a hydroelectric facility (Baath Dam) from ISIS militants, securing the final of three major dams along the Euphrates river. -On June 5, pro-government forces captured the areas of al-Alb, Bir Dahlon and Sharot Dahlon in Eastern Homs governorate, reportedly capturing over 6,000 sq km of ISIS-held territory. -On June 6, US-backed SDF announced the launch of the fifth phase of the campaign to capture Raqqa, ISIS' self-declared capital, with forces advancing from the north, east and west and the US-led Coalition supporting the offensive with air and artillery strikes. - The US-led Coalition conducted airstrikes against pro-government forces advancing near al- Tanf, a de-confliction zone in southeastern Syria. This marks the second strike in the area in less than a month, amid escalating tensions between the US and Iran-backed forces over control of Syria's southeastern frontier. - On June 8, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov met with the UNSE de Mistura in Moscow to discuss "the consolidation of the cessation of hostilities, the fight against terrorism, the continuation of the political settlement on the basis of UN Security Council Resolution 2254," according to the Russian Presidential Envoy for the Middle East and North Africa and Deputy Foreign Minister Mikhail Bogdanov. The consultations were held prior to the fifth round of the Astana Process, which was set to take place in June, but was later postponed till the month of July. -On June 9, during a press briefing in Geneva at the conclusion of a meeting of the humanitarian task force set up by the International Syria Support Group (ISSG), the SE declared that the time was not right to resume the UN-led intra-Syrian talks. -On June 13, the WFP delivered food to more than 80,000 displaced people in seven hard-to-reach areas in Raqqa and Deir Ezzor governorates in northern Syria, where regular deliveries of humanitarian assistance had been suspended for over three years. -On June 14, Chairman of the CoI, Paulo Pinheiro, expressed concern for the "staggering loss of civilian life" caused by US-led Coalition airstrikes as part of the Raqqa campaign, stating that airstrikes had led to the displacement of 160,000 civilians. He also stressed that the Astana agreement had led to a reduction in violence in just one of the four zones outlined in the memorandum. -On June 15, during a briefing to Council members, UN High Representative for Disarmament Affairs, Izumi Nakamitsu, noted that "some progress" had been made in the implementation of resolution 2118 (2013) on the elimination of chemical weapons in Syria. However, she highlighted the continued lack of safe access to two above-ground stationary facilities scheduled for destruction under OPCW supervision. -Pro-government forces targeted the opposition-held neighborhoods of Jobar and Eastern Ghouta in the first major attack since the announcement of four "de-escalation zones" at the Astana talks in May. Syrian Armed Forces seized the Arak gas field in the region of Badiya, which had been captured by IS since 2015; the SAF declared that it recaptured 20 percent of the Badiya region. -On June 16, the Office of the Special Envoy for Syria declared that it had facilitated a meeting of technical experts from three opposition groups: the High Negotiating Committee, the Cairo Platform and the Moscow Platform as part of a technical consultation process announced at the end of the sixth round of intra-Syrian talks. The meetings focused on the timeline and process for drafting a new constitution. -On June 17, the SE announced that the seventh round of intra-Syrian talks would begin in Geneva on July 10, with further rounds tentatively planned for August and September. -The Syrian government declared a 48-hour ceasefire in the southern city of Daraa. The agreement, reportedly brokered by Russia, the US and Jordan, comes after an escalation in violence between pro-government forces and AOGs in Daraa. -On June 18, US-led coalition forces shot down a piloted Syrian government aircraft in southern Raqqa province. According to the Coalition statement, the aircraft was downed after it displayed hostile intent and advanced on coalition forces. The Russian Ministry of Defense (MOD) released a statement following the incident claiming that the US shot down the Syrian jet while it was conducting an offensive against ISIS, and accusing the US of failing to use the "de-confliction channel". The MOD statement announced that Russia was cutting off participation in the de-confliction channel pending an investigation and that all kinds of airborne vehicles operating in combat mission zones west of the Euphrates River would be tracked by Russia as air targets. -Iran launched several ballistic missiles targeting ISIS positions in eastern Syria, reportedly carried out in retaliation for a terrorist attack in Tehran two weeks prior. This was Iran's first missile attack abroad in 15 years and its first in the Syrian conflict, representing an escalation of its role. -On June 19, the Syria Institute and PAX published the Sixth Quarterly Siege Watch Report, covering events from February to April 2017. -On June 20, an American fighter jet downed an "Iranian-made" armed drone in southern Syria after it "displayed hostile intent" when it approached coalition forces stationed at a base located in a de-escalation zone. It marked the second time in a month that the US had shot down an armed drone near Tanf camp. -On June 21, after opening a new front to the south of Raqqa, US-backed Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) came within several kilometers of fully encircling the city after having already surrounded Raqqa to the north, east and west. - Turkey deployed reinforcements to the towns of Azaz and Marea in northern Syria, held by turkey-backed Syrian opposition forces, in preparation of anticipated battles with its rival Kurdish forces. - French President Emmanuel Macron, contradicting previous French policy, that France sees "no legitimate successor" to Assad and no longer considers his departure as a precondition to resolve the ongoing conflict. On July 5, the president met with Riad Hijab, Head of the HNC, to reiterate France's support to the Syrian Opposition. -On June 22, Turkish and Russian troops were deployed to Syria's northern Idlib province as part of a de-escalation agreement brokered by Russia, Turkey and Iran in May. - WFP announced that the first aid convoy had reached 15000 civilians in the city of Qamishli by land route, since it had been inaccessible in 2015, and humanitarian aid was sent through air drops instead. -On June 24, the Syrian government released 672 detainees in a move it said was aimed at bolstering the reconciliation process. -On June 27, the SE briefed the Council on the situation in Syria, expressing his readiness to facilitate direct talks between the Syrian government and opposition either at a formal or technical level. -On June 28, OPCW-JIM published its sixth report updating the SC on the status of its review of two cases identified by the FFM concerning incidents reported in Umm Hawsh in Aleppo Governorate in September 2016 and Khan Shaykhun in Idlib Governorate on April 4, 2017. -On June 29, OCHA head Stephen O'brien briefed the Council on the humanitarian situation in Syria, noting that despite a reduction in violence in some areas of the country, humanitarian convoys remained unable to reach civilians in besieged and hard-to-reach places due to bureaucratic restrictions. O'brien also detailed the Secretary-General's monthly report on the situation in Syria, released June 23, that highlighted the Astana memorandum signed by Iran, Russia and Turkey in May and the escalation of anti-ISIS operations in Syria. -The OPCW released a report on progress in the elimination of the Syrian chemical weapons program, verifying the destruction of 25 of the 27 chemical weapons production facilities previously declared by the Syrian government. However, the OPCW continues to express consideration that the initial declaration was incomplete. July 2017: -On July 1, Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) launched a strike against pro-government positions near al-Baath in Quneitra governorate in response to two stray artillery shells fired from Syria that landed in the Golan Heights. This is the fifth Israeli strike on pro-government positions near the area of al-Baath within a week. -On July 3, the UNSC appointed Catherine Marchi-Uhel to head the International, Impartial and Independent Mechanism, the UN legal team tasked with collecting and preserving evidence of the most serious crimes committed in Syria since 2011 to be used by national courts or an international tribunal. The Mechanism was established by the General Assembly on December 21, 2016 despite fierce resistance from Russia, which had previously used its veto status to block criminal investigations into the conflict. -The Syrian Army announced the suspension of all combat operations in the southern governorates of Daraa, Suweida and Quneitra for four days ahead of upcoming peace talks in Astana, Kazakhstan. It is the second unilateral ceasefire by the Syrian Army; it had announced a ceasefire in Daraa along the border with Israel on June 17. -On July 4-5, the fifth round of Astana talks co-sponsored by Russia, Iran and Turkey, convened in the Kazakh capital. The talks failed to finalize details on the boundaries and monitoring mechanisms of the four safe zones agreed to during the fourth round of Astana talks in May. In a joint statement, the guarantors welcomed the establishment of an expert-level joint working group tasked with finalizing the operational and technical parameters of the de-escalation zones, and scheduled the next Joint Working Group meeting in Tehran, on August 1-2. -On July 6, Edmond Mulet, head of the three-member leadership panel of the OPCW-JIM briefed Security Council members on the June 28 report of its investigations into the culpability for chemical attacks in Syria and urged the international community to allow the Mechanism to conduct its work in an independent and impartial manner. -On July 7, the United States, Russia and Jordan reached a ceasefire and "de-escalation" agreement for southwestern Syria to take effect July 9. The specificities of an enforcement mechanism and the precise boundaries of the ceasefire zone. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov stated that the ceasefire would cover the areas of Daraa, al-Suweida and Quneitra governorates without providing exact boundaries. The ceasefire agreement in southwestern Syria is separate from the Astana memorandum, and was reached during the meeting between US President Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin on the sidelines of the G20 Summit in Hamburg. The SG welcomed the ceasefire announcement, calling it a significant step towards reducing violence and humanitarian access in Syria; while Israel voiced its objections on the deal. -On July 10, the seventh round of UN-led intra-Syrian talks convened in Geneva. The UN-sponsored talks were scheduled to focus on four points: drafting a new constitution, combating terrorism, governance and elections. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov expressed hope that the talks would help solidify de-escalation zones created through the Astana process. The SE stated that de-escalation zones can be beneficial but must only be interim measure to avoid the partition of Syria. The Geneva talks ended July 14 with no apparent progress. Representatives of the HNC accused the Syrian government of refusing to enter into serious negotiations. The SE noted that there had been "no breakthrough, no breakdown" during the talks and expressed hope that recent international momentum would push the parties face-to-face for substantive discussions. -On July 11, SOHR reported that it had "confirmed information" that ISIS leader Abu Bakr al- Baghdadi had been killed in the eastern province of Deir Ezzor. US-led Coalition Spokesperson Colonel Ryan Dillon could not confirm the report, nor could various media sources or Iraqi or Kurdish officials. -On July 12, following the opening of a land route connecting Aleppo to Hasakah governorate, WFP announced that it had successfully delivered food aid to two locations in the Raqqa governorate for the first time in three years. -On July 13, Brett McGurk, US Special Envoy for the Global Coalition fighting ISIS, revealed that Russia had expressed willingness to deploy military police to monitor compliance and prevent violations of the recently implemented ceasefire in southwestern Syria. -On July 14, Russia's parliament approved an agreement between Russian and Syrian officials that provides for the long-term deployment of Russian aircraft and personnel to Syria. Defense Minister Nikolay Pankov said the deal will help legalize Russia's military activities in Syria "within an international framework". -France proposed the creation of a contact group comprised of permanent members of the UN Security Council and regional actors to support UN efforts to formulate a political road map after the conflict ends. -On July 17, the EU added 16 scientists and military officials to the list of those targeted by sanctions against the Syrian regime due to their suspected involvement in a chemical attack against civilians in April. - The Syrian army, backed by Iranian-militias managed to seize oil fields of Wahab, al Fahd, Dbaysan, al-Qseer, Abu al Qatat and Abu Qatash and several other villages in the southwest of Raqqa province, while Russian strikes targeted the town of Sukhna, the gateway to Deir ez-zour. - The Turkish state-run Andalou Agency exposed ten US military locations in northern Syria, giving exact numbers of US and French special forces stationed there. The US-led Coalition against ISIS condemned Turkey for "leaking sensitive military information shared between two allies." -On July 19, it was made public that President Donald Trump ended a covert CIA program that provided arms and training to Syrian rebel groups. The program was a central feature of the Obama Administration's policy in Syria. -On July 20, 150 fighters from the Turkey-backed Euphrates Shield operation had crossed from Turkey through Bab alhawa to support Ahrar al-Sham in its fight against Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), dominated by the Fateh al-Sham faction formerly known as Jabhat al-Nusra, in Idlib. -On July 21, the SG submitted to the Security Council the forty first report on the humanitarian situation in Syria for the period from 1 to 30 June 2017, highlighting the approximately 20,000 people displaced across northeast Syria in June due to the Raqqa offensive. According to the report, the Syrian government removed medical supplies sufficient for more than 84,000 treatments. -Hezbollah and the Syrian Army launched a joint offensive against militant groups in the town of Arsal and the western Qalamoun mountain range along the Lebanon-Syrian border, an area purported to hold over 3,000 militants, including al-Qaeda-linked insurgents and members of ISIS. -On July 24, 14 heads of mission in Geneva signed a letter addressed to Security Council President, Chinese Ambassador Liu Jieyi, raising "serious concerns" about the implementation of seven Security Council resolutions on humanitarian access and urging Liu to raise the issue at the upcoming Council meeting. The signatories include the United States, Saudi Arabia, Britain, France Turkey, Qatar, Japan, Australia, the European Union, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, Canada and Italy. -General Sergei Rudskoi, chief of the Russian General Staff, announced the deployment of Russian military police to monitor compliance after a ceasefire, mediated by the Egyptian government, was declared in the Eastern Ghouta area of Damascus on July 22. Despite the reported ceasefire, part of the four proposed "de-escalation zones" outlined in the Astana memorandum, Syrian government forces continued to attack several towns in Eastern Ghouta. -On July 26, fighting on the Syrian-Lebanese border near the town of Arsal halted after a ceasefire agreement was reached between Hezbollah and HTS. The cessation of hostilities ended a six-day campaign to drive al-Qaeda-linked militants from the border region, which is also home to tens of thousands of refugees. The agreement included the evacuation of some 1000 HTS fighters, along with more than 6000 Syrians (in nearby refugee camps) from the Lebanese border town of Arsal to rebel-controlled Idlib province, as well as exchange of prisoners between Hezboallah, HTS and the Lebanese Armed Forces, which later took place on August 1. -On July 27, Ursula Mueller, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator in the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, briefed Council members on the humanitarian situation in Syria, noting that despite reduced violence, there had not been a noticeable increase in areas reached for aid delivery. -The Syrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Expatriates addressed two letters to the UNSG and the Security Council calling for immediate action in the militant-besieged towns of Kefraya and al-Foua. -The US-led coalition fighting ISIS told its local Syrian allies that they must exclusively fight ISIS, a directive that prompted Shohada al-Quartyan to depart a joint coalition base in Southern Syria to carry out independent operations against Syrian regime forces. -On July 28, the OPCW released its monthly report, noting that the security situation now allows safe access to confirm the condition of the final two above-ground facilities with planning underway to verify their destruction. -On July 30, for the first time in five years, UN aid was delivered to almost 7,2000 people in besieged al-Nashabiye located in Eastern Ghouta, a rebel-held area on the outskirts of Damascus. August 2017: -On August 2, the evacuation of at least 7,000 people, including al-Qaeda-linked fighters and refugees, from Lebanese border enclave of Arsal for rebel-controlled Idlib province commenced. The transfer agreement, the largest formal repatriation of refugees to Syria since 2011, was carried out without the involvement of aid groups generating concern about the welfare of the refugees. -On August 3, the Russian Ministry of Defense announced a ceasefire in northern Homs and southern Hama, in what is being billed as the third of four planned ceasefires agreed to under the Astana memorandum. Russia deployed police military to several checkpoints in northern Homs, later on August 4. Opposition groups called for a guarantor role for Turkey. According to SOHR, the ceasefire, which covered territory populated by more than 147,000 people, held for the first 10 hours before experiencing repeated violations by pro-government and rebel forces. -The Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Syria of the Human Rights Council (CoI) called on the international community to recognize the crime of genocide being committed against the Yazidis in Iraq. -On August 8, experts from the guarantor states met in Tehran to discuss ways to strengthen the de-escalation zones and determine the agenda for the upcoming sixth round of Astana talks. -On August 8-11, twenty-four FSA-affiliated groups formed new group "Liwa Tahrir Deir ez- Zour" to liberate the province of Deir ez-Zour from IS; the new faction welcomed any cooperation with local and international parties, ruling out the SDF. -On August 9, OCHA expressed concern about the safety and protection of an estimated 10,000- 25,000 people trapped inside Raqqa without access to safe drinking water for 48 days. Due to the fighting on the ground, the UN has currently no access to Raqqa city. - Russian Permanent Representative to the UN Vasily Nebenzya briefed the Security Council on the progress of establishing de-escalated zones in Syria, behind closed doors, and called on the UN to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian assistance in those areas. -On August 10, SDF US-backed forces encircled ISIS militants in central Raqqa, effectively cutting off ISIS' last remaining route to the Euphrates. -On August 12, the Syrian government captured al-Sukhna, the final ISIS stronghold in Homs governorate, as part of its multi-pronged campaign to take eastern Syria. The recent gains position the pro-government coalition 50 km (30 miles) away from Deir ez-Zour province, the last major ISIS foothold in Syria. -On August 14, approximately 300 FSA-affiliated Saraya Ahl al-Sham fighters and 3,000 refugees began evacuating the Lebanese border town of Arsal as part of a repatriation agreement brokered in early August between Lebanese and Syrian officials. Lebanon's Maj. Gen. Abbas Ibrahim, who is overseeing the transfer, said that civilians will head to the government held area of Assal al-Ward. The rebel fighters and their families are destined for the rebel-held town of al- Ruhaiba in the Eastern Qalamoun region where, according to Hezbollah's Al-Manar TV, they have been granted amnesty by the Syrian government. Their departure leaves the Islamic State as the last militant force straddling the border near Arsal. -Nearly 50,000 people remain stranded on the Jordanian border, in an area known as the berm, and are facing an increasing scarcity of food, healthcare and other basic services. The UN stressed that it will continue to support Jordanian authorities in the protection of affected Syrians. -On August 17, the UNSC adopted a presidential statement, read by Council President for August and Ambassador of Nigeria, Joy Ogwu, in support of a political transition process in Syria in accordance with the principles of the Geneva Communique. The adoption of the text signals, for the first time in two years, the consensus of the Council and its five permanent members on the need to establish a transitional government. -On August 17-20, Damascus hosted the 59th International Trade Fair, for the first time since 2011, and involved hundreds of delegations and private companies from at least forty-three states including Russia, Iran, China, and Egypt. -On August 20, President Assad announced in a speech before Syrian diplomats that Syria would not work with any Western nations until they ended their support for opposition and insurgent groups. -On August 21, UN experts launched an investigation into purported weapons deals between Syria and North Korea after two shipments to a Syrian government agency responsible for its chemical weapons program, the Syrian Scientific Studies and Research Center (SSRC), were intercepted. -Saudi-based High Negotiations Committee (HNC) met with delegations from the moderate Cairo and Moscow camps in Riyadh in an effort to establish a unified front for upcoming peace talks. Despite pressure from international allies calling for a more pragmatic approach, the HNC refused to accept a transition scenario in which Assad retained power. -On August 22, the next round of Astana talks was pushed back from late August to mid- September to allow the guarantor states to hold a technical meeting to set the meeting agenda. -On 23 August, a joint monitoring center was established in Amman for the southwestern de-escalation zone, which is located in the provinces of Daraa and Quneitra. The center is tasked with ensuring ceasefire compliance, ensuring humanitarian access and other forms of civilian assistance. -On August 24, the UN called for a humanitarian pause in US-led Coalition airstrikes on Raqqa to permit civilians to leave the city. This comes after the release of an Amnesty International report calling for greater protection efforts for the estimated 20,000 remaining civilians in Raqqa. -On August 25, the Russian army announced that it had dismantled the two remaining Syrian chemical weapons facilities targeted for destruction by OPCW. The OPCW has not confirmed the Russian report. -On August 28, hundreds of ISIS fighters and their families were evacuated from the Lebanese- Syrian border to militant-held eastern Syria following simultaneous Lebanese army and Hezbollah campaigns against ISIS positions. The transfer marks the first time ISIS agreed to a forced evacuation from territory it held in Syria. - The Secretary-General presented his monthly report on the situation in Syria, highlighting the recent efforts to reduce violence through de-escalation agreements and expressing hope that the Astana guarantors will reach an agreement on the finalization of operational and technical modalities for all de-escalation areas. -On August 30, Special Envoy Staffan de Mistura briefed the Security Council on the political path forward which includes a new round of Astana and Geneva talks. The SE highlighted the important role Syrian opposition allies stand to play in fostering cohesion and unity among the AOGs. - In his final address to the Council after two years as Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, Stephen O'Brien appealed to members of the Council to take action to end the civil war in the name of common humanity, calling for a referral to the International Criminal Court. -On August 31, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein, stressed that the protection and assistance of citizens must take priority before defeating the Islamic State, citing reports of heavy civilian casualties in Raqqa as evidence of the threat the remaining 20,000 civilians face. -US airstrikes stalled a convoy of 300 ISIS fighters and their families in a government-controlled part of the Syrian desert in an effort to prevent their advancement into ISIS-held territory near the Iraqi border. The convoy was traveling from the Syrian-Lebanese border to Syria's eastern province as part of an evacuation deal brokered between ISIS, Hezbollah and the Syrian Army. -Pro-government forces captured strategic al-Bishri mountain overlooking ISIS-controlled Deir Ezzor province, bringing government coalition forces within close range of ISIS positions. September 2017: On September 1, French Foreign Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian rejected a role for Assad in a political transition in Syria. -The Syrian Islamic Council called for Syria's AOGs to end their fragmentation and unite as one armed body under the Ministry of Defense in the Syrian Interim Government. Ahrar al-Sham, Failaq al-Sham, Liwa Ansar al-Sunnah and Jabha al-Shamiya supported the initiative. -SDF spokesperson, Jihan Ahmad, announced that the SDF had gained control over an estimated 65 percent of Raqqa city after capturing the Old City, the Great Mosque and al-Dariya neighborhood. SOHR reported that the SDF were still fighting to gain control over pockets of the Old City but added that the US-backed opposition forces held more than 90 percent of the surrounding area. -On September 2, Russian Aerospace Forces reported they had destroyed a convoy of 12 ISIS trucks carrying ammunition and weapons in Deir Ezzor province. -It was made public that the British Ministry of Defense had quietly halted its FSA training program and called back its training forces from Syria in late June 2017. -On September 3, pro-government coalition forces gained control of the remaining ISIS stronghold in Hama Governorate after capturing the town of Uqayribat and its surrounding areas. -On September 4, Syrian Interim Government Prime Minister Jawad Abu Hatab was appointed interim Defense Minister as part of a unification initiative launched by the Syrian Islamic Council in early September. Free Syrian Army factions formed a committee to select a Chief of Staff in consultation with the Prime Minister. -On September 5, the Secretary-General submitted the OPCW's forty seventh monthly report on the progress to eliminate chemical weapons in Syria to the Security Council. The report highlighted the preparations underway to confirm the status of the two remaining stationary above-ground facilities now that the security situation allows safe access and the upcoming high- level consultations with Syrian Deputy Foreign Minister, Dr. Faisal Mekdad, to clarify outstanding issues regarding the Syrian government's initial declaration. -Pro-government coalition forces reached the western perimeter of Deir Ezzor city, breaking a three-year ISIS siege of the government-held areas that had impacted 93,500 people. In support of the offensive, a Russian warship located in the Mediterranean Sea launched cruise missiles at ISIS positions near Deir Ezzor. -On September 6, SE Mistura said he expects a national ceasefire to follow shortly after ISIS has been pushed from its strongholds in Raqqa and Deir Ezzor. Although he stressed that the government "cannot announce victory", he called on opposition forces to accept defeat and focus on winning the peace through negotiations in October. -The UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria released a report on the major human rights and humanitarian law violations committed between March and July 2017. The Commission accused the Syrian government of using sarin gas in the April 4 Khan Sheikhoun attack and found US forces culpable of not taking "all feasible precautions" to protect civilians in the March 16 attack on al-Jinah Mosque. -According to Russian Foreign Minister, Sergey Lavrov, experts from Russia, Iran and Turkey made progress towards an agreement "on the parameters, configuration and methods of ensuring security in the de-escalation zone in the Idlib province" in Syria. -On September 7, Israel conducted airstrikes on the Scientific Studies and Research Center, a facility believed to house a chemical weapons manufacturing center, and a military base storing surface-to-surface missiles near government-stronghold Masyaf in Hama province. The Syrian Foreign Ministry called on the Security Council to denounce the airstrikes. -US-led coalition forces fighting ISIS announced that airstrikes had killed two ISIS leaders near Mayadin in the Deir Ezzor province on September 4, 2017. -The Head of the High Negotiations Committee, Riyad Hijab, rejected the SE Mistura's call for the opposition to accept defeat, declaring the UN mediation process a failure and calling on Syrians to demonstrate in support of the continuation of the revolution. On September 8, a convoy of 42 trucks carrying humanitarian aid for 80,000 people reached Deir Ezzor for the first time by land in three years. -US-led coalition surveillance aircraft departed its position monitoring an 11-bus convoy of ISIS fighters and their families after attempting to prevent its advance into ISIS-held territory in Deir Ezzor since August 29. The surveillance aircraft departed the airspace at the request of Russian military officials who were conducting an operation with pro-government forces close to the convoy's position. -The Syrian National Coalition (NCSRF) condemned calls from "regional and external parties" for Western-backed opposition groups Ahmed Al-Abdu and Ussoud Al-Sharqiya to cease fighting government forces in southeastern Syria and withdraw to Jordan. Both groups refused the request. -On September 9, pro-government forces broke a years-long siege of Deir Ezzor airbase and captured the Damascus-Deir Ezzor highway from ISIS. -SDF launched Operation Jazeera Storm to liberate Deir Ezzor province from ISIS. -On September 10, SDF reached the industrial zone to the east of Deir Ezzor city putting the US-backed coalition within 15 km (10 miles) of pro-government forces positioned to the west of the Euphrates river. -On September 11, the Jordanian Foreign Minister, Ayman Safadi, and Russian Foreign Minister, Sergey Lavrov, declared the ceasefire brokered by Jordan, Russia and the United States in the southern Syrian provinces of Daraa, Quneitra and Suweida on July 9 a success and reiterated their commitment to the establishment a de-escalation zone in the area as a step towards achieving a comprehensive cessation of hostilities and a political solution to the crisis. On September 12, pro-government coalition forces continued their push into ISIS-held territory in Deir Ezzor city. Russia and Syria warplanes conduct heavy bombardment in support, killing an estimated 69 people over the course of 72 hours. -Hezbollah leader, Sayyed Hassan Nasrallah, declared the war in Syria over, referring to the remaining fighting as "scattered battles". -ISIS defectors have massed in Syria's Idlib province with many planning to cross into Turkey before continuing to other parts of the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. -Iran and Syria sign a memorandum of understanding on cooperation in Syria's electricity sector. The arrangement, part of a series of bilateral deals formalizing Iran's role in Syria's reconstruction process, provides for the establishment of a new power generation station in Latakia and the rehabilitation of gas units and power generating plants in Damascus, Aleppo, Deir Ezzo and Homs. -On September 13, the remaining buses of the convoy of ISIS fighters and their families stranded for over two weeks in the Syrian desert reportedly reached Mayadin, in militant-held Deir Ezzor province, following the withdrawal of US surveillance aircraft on September 8 in respect of de-confliction arrangements with Russia. -The Russian Defense Ministry claimed that pro-government coalition forces controlled 85 percent of Syrian territory. SOHR disputed the claim, saying government forces held 48 percent of Syria. -Experts from Russia, Iran and Turkey met ahead of the sixth round of talks in Astana, Kazakhstan to "lay the groundwork" for negotiations on the establishment of de-escalation zone in Idlib province. -On September 14, Col. Ryan Dillon, spokesperson for the US-led coalition fighting ISIS, said SDF forces will not enter Deir Ezzor city, and will instead focus operations on areas south of the city along the Euphrates river. He also said US-backed SDF was in control of 63 percent of Raqqa city. -On September 15, Ahmad Abu Khawla, commander of the SDF-affiliated Deir Ezzor Military Council, declared that it will not allow government forces to cross to the eastern banks of the Euphrates river. -Representatives from Russia, Iran and Turkey reached an agreement on the delineation and monitoring mechanism for the implementation of a de-escalation zone in Idlib province and agreed to position observers in "safe zones". Russia circulated a draft resolution among the permanent members of the Council to welcome the outcome of the Astana talks. -On September 16, the SDF and US Coalition officials accused pro-government forces of attacking one of their positions in the industrial zone east of Deir Ezzor city, injuring 6 SDF fighters. According to US Coalition sources, Russia conducted the airstrike after the United States had denied its request to target the area. Russian Defense Ministry spokesperson Maj. Gen. Igor Konashenkov rejected the allegations, saying warplanes carried out "pinpoint strikes only on Islamic State targets that have been observed and confirmed through several channels." -High-level consultations commenced between the Syrian government and the OPCW aimed at clarifying all outstanding issues regarding Syria's initial declaration of its chemical weapons facilities. -On September 17, a convoy of 80 Turkish military vehicles deployed to Turkey's southern border, close to the Bab Al-Hawa and Rihaniyah crossings with Syria's Idlib Governorate, ahead of the implementation of a de-escalation zone agreement brokered at the recent Astana talks. -On September 18, pro-government coalition forces crossed to the eastern bank of the Euphrates river to within five kilometers of SDF positions. In the first sign of direct contact between the SDF and the pro-government forces, US-led coalition spokesperson Col. Ryan Dillon said "open lines" of communication were being maintained to prevent clashes between the two forces as they converge on ISIS positions. -After capturing the Deir Ezzor Military Airporst from ISIS fighters, pro-government forces began operating combat and supply missions from the airport. -The World Food Programme (WFP) reached formerly besieged parts of Deir Ezzor city by land for the first time since May 2014. WFP has discontinued its high-altitude airdrop operations in favor of road deliveries which will allow for more affordable, sustainable humanitarian access. -In a meeting on the sidelines of the UN General Assembly, Members of the "Friends of Syria" Group agreed they will not support reconstruction in Syria until there is a political transition "away from Assad." -During its 36th session, the Human Rights Council held an interactive dialogue with the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Syria to discuss the continued targeting of civilians and the use of chemical weapons in the conflict, appealing to all parties to redouble their efforts to protect civilians and preserve civilian infrastructure. -On September 19, AOGs led by Hayat Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS), the Turkistan Islamic Party and Free Syrian Army affiliates launched an offensive against pro-government forces in northern Hama province in an effort to dismantle the de-escalation zone agreement on Idlib province brokered at the recent Astana talks. The offensive sparked intense Russian and Syrian bombardment of opposition-held territory in Hama and Idlib Governorates. Syrian government forces claimed the airstrikes targeted "terrorist supply lines" but SOHR alleged the strikes hit hospitals and towns, killing civilians. -The Syrian government asserted it will not accept Turkish forces on Syrian soil, effectively contradicting
