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The implementation of a new prescribed fire program to restore bush-encroached rangelands in southern Ethiopia—and hence increase herbaceous forage supplies for livestock—is given as an example of an integrated action involving multiple institutions to address resource-management problems. The resumption of planned fire—traditionally conducted over hundreds of years by pastoralists until the 1970s—was preceded by key activities including mobilization of the pastoral community, review of government proclamations regarding use of fire, interaction with policy makers, capacity building among pastoralists and agency personnel on how to implement and manage planned fires, development of an overall prescribed burn plan, selection of geo-referenced sites, and then implementing large-scale burns on an annual cycle. The process has required a combination of indigenous knowledge, relaxation of policy constraints, use of modern technology, careful hands-on training, applied research, and building trust to create a truly collaborative approach. The key elements of change have been participatory action research, outreach, and engagement with a wide variety of stakeholders. One springboard for success has been the commitment of the Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (OARI) and the Oromia Pastoral area Development Commission (OPaDC) to support an authentic, demand-driven research agenda with a focus on applied and adaptive work in the pastoral areas.

International audience ; An analysis of 3 forestry reviews reveals how Landscape plays an increasing role in the thinking of French, Italian and Spanish forest managers. Moreover, the meaning of the word has changed going from a simple description of a place to a true management goal. The values attributed to landscapes however vary a great deal: Mediterranean forest landscapes are often underestimated and depreciated compared to the others forest landscapes in those countries except in Italy. There are several possible explanations for these disparities – different forest management principles, the political structure, forest history and the legislation inherent to each country. ; L'étude de trois revues forestières montre le poids du paysage dans la réflexion des gestionnaires français, italiens et espagnols. Ceci s'accompagne d'un enrichissement du terme : de description, le paysage devient objectif de gestion. Les valeurs conférées aux différents paysages sont en revanche hétérogènes. Les paysages forestiers méditerranéens sont sous-estimés et dévalorisés dans les représentations forestières nationales, excepté en Italie. La variété des principes sylvicoles, la structure politique, la législation et l'histoire forestière de chaque pays expliquent ces disparités.

Since 2004, the French national air quality forecasting system, PREV'AIR, has been providing maps of forecasted ozone and particulate matter (PM) concentrations throughout Europe. At the national level,"analysed maps" based on simulations corrected with observations are also available daily. These products have been elaborated using modelling capacities developed within INERIS. Significant efforts have been placed on particulate matter modelling, considering the growing interest of the people in charge of air quality management and monitoring for these tools. Thus, beyond the PREV'AIR applications, research studies are being conducted within INERIS for improving knowledge in the fields of aerosol phenomenology, modelling and monitoring. The evaluation and the improvement of the CHIMERE-aerosol model is a priority. Comparison with available measurements generally shows that models underestimate the measured concentrations. This is a well-known limit of the current modelling systems, highlighted by several European model inter-comparison exercises: City-Delta and Eurodelta. INERIS participated in these projects, which enabled several phenomena to be clarified: uncertainties in emissions (wood burning, traffic), secondary aerosol formation processes, natural sources, cloud chemistry, etc. These topics are likely to be considered as future priorities for model development. Nevertheless the current performance of the CHIMERE model is satisfactory enough to use its results for analysing large scale pollution events involving PM, and especially secondary compounds such as ammonium nitrate. INERIS is also involved in research activities related to the links between air pollution and climate change. Aerosols, depending on their nature, play a special role through three main pathways: 1) Affecting the impact of solar radiation and having a cooling (sulphate, organic carbon) or warming (black carbon) effect on the atmosphere. 2) Impacting the vertical distribution of temperature and cloud formation 3) Changing the reflecting properties and lifetime of clouds, inducing a positive or negative effect on climate warming. INERIS has elaborated with the Laboratoire d'Aérologie (CNRS/LA) and with the support of ADEME a new aerosol model that can take the carbonaceous fraction accurately into account. A first step to reach a more accurate representation of links between future climate and air pollution. ; Depuis 2004, le système PREV'AIR, système national de prévision de la qualité de l'air fournit, outre des prévisions des concentrations d'ozone, des prévisions des particules à l'échelle européenne et, depuis 2006, des cartes dites « analysées » de particules de diamètre inférieur à 10 microns - PM10 - (les seules réglementées à l'heure actuelle) à l'échelle de la France. Ces dernières sont établies à partir de résultats de simulations corrigés quotidiennement à l'aide des observations réunies dans une base par l'ADEME. Les particules, par les effets sanitaires qu'elles génèrent, font l'objet d'une attention de plus en plus grande des décideurs et des politiques. En particulier, les particules fines dont le diamètre est inférieur à 2,5 microns (PM2,5) seront certainement réglementées dans la future directive européenne unifiée de qualité de l'air. Cet intérêt croissant ainsi que le manque de connaissances sur bien des aspects de la pollution particulaire expliquent qu'au-delà de la question de la prévision et de la représentation cartographique des concentrations, des travaux de recherche et d'appui aux pouvoirs publics soient toujours activement menés à l'INERIS. Il s'agit de contribuer à une meilleure connaissance de la phénoménologie liée à la formation et au transport des aérosols, de leur mesure et de leur modélisation. L'objet du présent article est de proposer les résultats des travaux de modélisation menés à l'INERIS sur ce polluant, qui représente un réel enjeu scientifique, par la complexité des processus de formation des aérosols issus de transformations chimiques (dits secondaires), par l'impact sanitaire et environnemental qui le caractérise et par les aspects réglementaires qui le concernent.

International audience ; This article presents the main results of an evaluation of the "relief plan" (the set of measures undertaken in the forestry field by the public authorities in the wake of the 1999 storms) carried out by the Laboratory of Forest Policy at the ENGREF (National School for Rural Planning, Water and Forestry) in the French département of the Vosges. The economic, ecological and social objectives pursued are first analysed. Financial, regulatory and information-related are then appraised together with plan implementation (seen both from the governing and governed sides), its effects (on wood harvesting and reafforestation) and its impact (in terms of stakeholder behaviour and how the sector is organised). This study shows that although the crisis was overcome fairly quickly by enlisting the energies of all concerned, many lessons can be drawn from this experience to help improve policy response in the event of another catastrophe. ; Cet article reprend les principaux résultats d'une évaluation du plan Chablis (l'ensemble des mesures prises en matière forestière par les pouvoirs publics après les tempêtes de décembre 1999) menée par le Laboratoire de Politique forestière de l'École nationale du Génie rural, des Eaux et des Forêts (ENGREF) dans le département des Vosges. Sont analysés successivement les objectifs (économiques, écologiques et sociaux) puis les moyens de l'intervention (financiers, réglementaires et informationnels), sa mise en oeuvre (selon le point de vue de l'administration ou de leurs administrés), ses effets (sur l'exploitation des chablis et la reconstitution des forêts) et ses impacts (sur le comportement des acteurs et l'organisation de la filière). Il ressort de cette étude que, même si la crise a pu être surmontée assez rapidement grâce à la mobilisation de chacun, de nombreux enseignements peuvent être tirés de cette expérience, en vue d'améliorer la réponse politique dans l'éventualité d'une nouvelle catastrophe.

International audience ; During the past years, the pace of change in local and public forest management procedures has accelerated making change central to forest management and policy. Up to now, state management systems have proved highly resilient, adapting to the context without undermining the underlying rationale essentially by incorporating new modes of governance (for instance participation) into the traditional decision-making structure (e.g., the French law of 2001). At local level, changes in management occur more slowly. ; Au cours des dernières années, la transformation des modes de gestion locale et publique en forêt s'est accélérée, de telle sorte que le changement est devenu une caractéristique fondamentale de la gestion et de la politique forestières. Pour l'instant, les systèmes de gestion publique, surtout, ont fait montre d'une très grande résilience, en s'adaptant sans changer de logique, le plus souvent en intégrant certaines nouveautés introduites par la gouvernance (plus de participation par exemple) dans le système classique de prise de décision qui lui est resté inchangé (exemple de la loi de 2001). En ce qui concerne les modalités de gestion, l'évolution en France se fait plus lentement.

International audience ; Significant changes in forest management methods — e.g., granting of concessions in state-owned forests, introduction of forest planning, low-impact logging methods — have occurred in the three major tropical forest regions since the 1980s when forest issues became topics of worldwide concern. The main focuses of discussions between the North and the South, between the world of conservation and the world of development, have also shifted as new forms of governance where non-state players are more heavily involved in forestry affairs gained ground. These changes lead some players to oppose new instruments — in particular payment for ecosystem services — to other, currently implemented ones — in particular forest planning. We argue on the contrary that forest policies would derive cumulative benefit from using both tools. ; Dans les trois grands bassins forestiers tropicaux, des évolutions considérables des modes de gestion de la forêt (mise en concession du domaine privé de l'État, percée de l'aménagement forestier, méthodes d'exploitation à faible impact) ont eu lieu depuis les années 1980, lorsque les problématiques forestières sont devenues des sujets de préoccupation mondiale. Les principales lignes de débat, entre le Nord et le Sud, entre le monde de la conservation et celui du développement, se sont également déplacées avec la montée en puissance de nouvelles formes de gouvernance, caractérisées par une plus grande implication des acteurs non étatiques dans les affaires forestières. Alors que ces changements conduisent certains acteurs à opposer de nouveaux instruments — notamment les paiements pour services écosystémiques — à d'autres, actuellement mis en oeuvre — notamment l'aménagement forestier —, nous arguons que les politiques forestières devraient au contraire être basées sur une complémentarité entre ces différents outils.

International audience ; L'analyse des services urbains de base à Belo - Horizonte montre qu'un des facteurs clé pour améliorer l'accès des populations à faible revenu est la continuité d'une politique sociale municipale, associant politique des services (assainissement, eau, déchets) et politique d'urbanisation et du logement. Cet article présente quelques-uns des instruments de cette politique municipale.

Shredder residue is the residue from the shredding of end-of-life vehicles and white goods, after removal of the main metals. Approximately 850,000 tonnes of shredder waste is produced in the UK each year, and historically sent to landfill. Due to European legislation such as the End-of-Life Vehicle (ELV) Directive and the Landfill Directive there is pressure to minimise this waste through recycling and recovery. In this paper, primary data are presented showing that 40% of materials are potentially recoverable in the coarser fraction of UK automotive shredder residue (>30 mm). Barriers to such recycling are discussed in the context of several recent drivers, including this waste's possible reclassification as hazardous. The lack of full and timely implementation of the ELV Directive in the UK has made it an ineffective driver, and it is now unlikely that its 2006 recycling targets will be met as intended.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are a global concern; impacts on the climate do not depend on where the CO2 is emitted. To meet this concern, a worldwide program for cutting greenhouse gases was formed in Kyoto, Japan in December 1997. The Kyoto protocol formulates the general principles for a worldwide treaty on cutting greenhouse emissions and specifies reductions for the industrialised world. The European Union has introduced an EU wide emission trading system (EUETS) that became operational in 2005 as an instrument for EU member states to meet their Kyoto obligations. Transports are not included, but may become a part of the EU-ETS in future revisions. Instead emissions from transports are regulated by other means, including fuel taxes. To further reduce CO2 emissions from passenger cars and to improve fuel efficiency, the European Community has adopted a separate strategy. An important element of this strategy are the Commitments of the European, Japanese and Korean Automobile Manufacturers Associations to achieve total new passenger car fleet average CO2 emissions of 140 g CO2/km by 2008/2009. In this paper we assess the option of introducing an EU wide certificate/emission permit trading system for new passenger cars as an alternative to the commitments made by the European Automobile Manufacturers Associations. An overview of alternative trading systems is presented, possible objectives and evaluation criteria are discussed, arguments for introducing separate systems for new passenger cars are discussed, the potential for emission reduction through technological advances and changed consumer behaviour is analysed and a possible design of a system of tradable permits for new passenger cars is presented. CAP-AND TRADE OR BASELINE-CREDIT? In a cap-and-trade system a total limit (a cap) on emissions is defined. Emission permits that sum up to the limit or cap are then allocated among the agents generating the emissions. Having allocated the permits, trade is introduced. If certain conditions are achieved, trade will continue to the point where marginal abatement costs are the same across sectors and nations. Cost-effectiveness is then achieved. The EU-ETS is an example of a cap-and-trade system. A baseline-credit system is an alternative. In such a system certificates or credits are based on the achievement of improvements in relation to a baseline. Agents with emissions lower than the predefined baseline receive credits and those exceeding the baseline will have to buy credits. The baseline is typically defined in relation to a rate-based value such as CO2-emissions per kilometre or emissions per unit of output. A relative baseline system of this kind is thereby designed to control average emissions, e.g. per car and kilometre, rather than total emissions. The cap-and-trade system has the advantage by allowing a larger variety of choices for adjusting emissions. Taking road transports as an example, total emissions can be reduced not only by reducing average emissions per car and kilometre but also by reducing total car fleet mileage e.g. by giving incentives to travellers to drive less, drive shorter distances or shifting to alternative modes of transport. If the overall objective is to reduce emissions in a cost-effective manner across sectors and nations, including the transport sector in current EU-ETS would be an option to consider. The advantage of such a system is that it has the potential of providing incentives to agents to act in a way that will equalise marginal abatement costs across sectors (assuming also that current CO2-based fuel taxes/other taxes linked to CO2 emissions are adjusted accordingly), thus leading to cost-effective abatement. The baseline-credit system, on the other hand, would concentrate on reducing average emissions and consequently target the behavioural changes necessary to reduce average emissions. If, for example, the objective is to increase energy efficiency through technological improvements, a baseline-credit system may therefore be the optimal choice. Moreover, myopic behaviour in the market for new passenger cars may lead to a situation where consumers' preferences and willingness to pay for CO2-reducing technology is insufficient to cover the costs of developing the technology and put it to the market even if car manufacturers were to trade in EU-ETS and thereby receive monetary gains by developing technology that reduces fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. A system such as the baselinecredit system may therefore be necessary in order to provide sufficient incentives to manufacturers to work towards increased energy efficiency in new cars through technological improvements. The average CO2 emissions from new cars sold in the market can be reduced in two ways; either by increasing the energy efficiency in each type of car put to the market (i.e. improved technology) or by providing incentives to consumers to choose the most energy-efficient cars already in the market. Achieving objectives such as 120 g CO2/km for new car fleet most likely requires both of these. Also, in order to influence consumer behaviour it is important to make technology available to consumers at low cost. Consumers choose to pay for new technology only if the benefits of improved gas-mileage exceed the costs of higher car prices. TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENT OR CHANGED CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR? Considering technological improvements there are two ways in which to reduce specific CO2 emissions: By reducing fuel consumption in vehicles with conventional combustion engines (petrol and diesel), or by using renewable, low-CO2fuels (partly) in conjunction with new engine technologies. Fuel consumption in vehicles with conventional combustion engines can in turn be reduced in a number of ways. Technological measures can be roughly divided into four categories: Improved engine technology, downsizing and enhanced transmission technology, energy management and hybridisation, and vehicle design. The literature shows that conventional combustion engines have considerable potential for fuel-saving. In the case of petrol engines, it is thought that measures involving the drive train in a middle-size vehicle could achieve fuel savings of around 38 per cent. Further measures such as weight reduction, reduced rolling and air resistance, and promotion of fuel-efficient driving habits can result in 40 per cent or greater decrease in overall consumption. Diesel engines have lower savings potential than petrol engines because diesel engines are less wasteful than petrol engines when run at partial throttle, and significant increases in diesel motor efficiency have already been achieved. Nevertheless, hybridisation and improved transmission could result in savings of around 32 per cent. Additional savings could also be achieved with a reduction in vehicle weight, reduced rolling and air resistance, and by promoting fuel-efficient driving habits. Turning then to consumer behaviour, it is important to recognise that consumers consider a large variety of characteristics before finally choosing the car that best fits their needs and their personal preferences. From a CO2 point of view consumers should ideally be concerned about fuel efficiency more than any other characteristics. This, however, is not the case. Studies have shown that factors such as safety, prestige and powerful engines influence consumer behaviour more than does fuel efficiency, especially in times when disposable incomes increase. However, in spite of recent trends there seems to be a potential to provide incentives to consumers to shift to low-emitting cars without any large sacrifices being involved. Consider, for instance, Volvo V70, which was the most popular new car model in Sweden in 2005. The emissions from the different petrol versions range between 214 and 266 g CO2/km, whereas diesels are available with emissions ranging from 171 to 223 g CO2/km. A movement form the highest CO2/km per kilometre value to the lowest would thus imply savings of 95 grams per kilometre. To achieve these savings a consumer who currently prefers the highest emitting car has to change fuel, automatic transmission and engine power. However, brand, model or car size would not need to change. For most consumers the "adjustment cost" would thus be relatively low. The above is an extreme case scenario involving only one car model. Considering instead the whole fleet of new passenger cars, our calculations show that there is a general potential to reduce CO2 emissions from new cars by 13-30 g CO2/km within the same car model (or approximately 8-15 per cent). THE COST OF INCREASED ENERGY EFFICIENCY The main purpose of a baseline-credit system for new passenger cars would be to provide incentives for car manufacturers to develop and introduce the technology in new cars required to reach the specified CO2-objectives. However, this also means that consumers must find it worthwhile to buy a low-emitting car, i.e. the benefits of the improved technology, not the least in terms of increased gas mileage, must exceed the increase in sales price. The technological potential is large, but the benefits for consumers could be questioned since car buyers apparently do not judge energy efficiency as an important characteristic. Assuming unchanged market shares for petrol and diesel cars as well as small, medium and large sized cars, our calculations show that a reduction of the average emissions to 120 g CO2per car and kilometre in the EU would imply an increase in retail prices by 2 000 euro. There is technological potential to further reduce emissions to an average of 100 g CO2 per kilometre. However, the cost increase for this additional reduction is about 6 000 euro. THE DESIGN OF A SYSTEM FOR NEW PASSENGER CARS It is our conclusion that an emission trading system for new cars should be separated from the EU-ETS and designed as a baseline and credit system, based on emission intensity. Setting up a separate emission trading system for new cars as a baseline and credit system involves defining a baseline. It is natural to tie the baseline to the goals that are under discussion in the European Union i.e. 140 and 120 g CO2/km. Different time frames have been discussed. One possibility is to reach 140 CO2/km by 2008/2009 and 120 g CO2/km by 2012. Earlier discussions about technological development show that this time frame is feasible. Before trade can take place, demand and supply of credits need to be created. In a cap-and-trade system initial allocation of permits is a very important issue. In the baseline and credit system the allocation of credits is automatic: cars below baseline receive credits and cars above baseline need to purchase credits. In principle, this implies that no cost is imposed on the baseline car. High-emitting cars will become more expensive and low-emitting cars less expensive. The credits will work in a way similar to a system of subsidies for cars emitting below the baseline and taxes for those above. Trade with credits need to perform in a way that supports attainment of the baseline. A possible solution is that credits are traded in a market that is similar to a stock exchange. The offers of sellers and the bids of buyers will meet in a market that ideally clears each trading day. As long as markets clear, there is attainment of the baseline. To overcome imbalances, an accommodating system that handles short time excess credits or shortages will need to be worked out. There is also a need for an enforcement and compliance mechanism. Another issue to deal with is that there may be different incentives for buyers and sellers. Buyers will generally be obliged to buy credits. Sellers, on the other hand, may want to capitalise their credits later, or to bank them for coming periods. The differences in incentives can lead to shortages and an upward pressure on prices and fluctuating prices. The issue whether trade of credits should take place downstream or upstream includes several options in the production-consumption chain. The recommendation is that the retailers should be the trading entity. We also suggest gradual reductions in baseline. However, the details of a system of baseline and credits will need further analysis. Important issues in a future analysis will be designing mechanisms for compliance, monitoring and penalising. Incentive problems need also to be dealt with.

Faced with a production shortfall in early 2004 and a sharp rise in the price of imported rice due to a depreciation of the Malagasy franc and a spike in international rice prices, Madagascar attempted to stabilize domestic rice prices through public tenders for rice imports and subsidized sales at official prices. This paper discusses the 2004 rice crisis, chronicling the events that triggered the crisis and the subsequent interventions by the government, and analyzes the impacts of the policies adopted and steps taken to spur development of the domestic rice market. Using a partial equilibrium model, the paper also quantifies the overall costs and benefits of a change in import duties for various household groups, and compares this intervention to a policy of targeted food transfers or security stocks. as well as other options for price stabilization, including a reduction in import duties and a security stock policy.

Utilizing load, price, and survey data for 119 large customers that paid competitively determined hourly electricity prices announced the previous day between 2000 and 2004, this study provides insight into the factors that determine the intensity of price response. Peak and off-peak electricity can be: perfect complements, substitutes, or substitutes where high peak prices cause temporary disconnection from the grid, as for some firms with on-site generation. The average elasticity of substitution is 0.11. Thirty percent of the customers use peak and off-peak electricity in fixed proportions. The 18 percent with elasticities greater than 0.10 provide 75 percent of the aggregate price response. In contrast to Industrial customers, Commercial/Retail and Government/Education customers are more price responsive on hot days and when the ratio of peak to off-peak prices is high. Price responsiveness is not substantially reduced when customers operate near peak usage. Diversity of customer circumstances and price response suggest dynamic pricing is suited for some, but not all customers.

The European Union has established a number of targets regarding energy efficiency, Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and CO2 reductions as the 'GREEN PAPER on Energy Efficiency', the Directive for 'promotion of the use of bio-fuels or other renewable fuels for transport' or 'Directive of the European Parliament of the Council on the promotion of cogeneration based on a useful heat demand in the internal energy market'. A lot of the according RES and RUE measures are not attractive for investors from an economic point of view. Therefore governments all over the world have to spend public money to promote these technologies/measures to bring them into market. These expenditures have to be adjusted to budget concerns and should be spent most efficiently. Therefore, the spent money has to be dedicated to technologies and efficiency measures with the best yield in CO2 reduction without wasting money. The core question: "How can public money - for promoting sustainable energy systems - be spent most efficiently to reduce GHG-emissions?" has been well investigated by the European project Invert. In course of this project a simulation tool has been designed to answer this core question. This paper describes the modelling with the Invert simulation tool and shows the key features necessary for simulating the energy system. A definition of 'Promotion Scheme Efficiency' is given which allows estimating the most cost effective technologies and/or efficiency measures to reduce CO2 emissions. Investigations performed with the Invert simulation tool deliver an optimum portfolio mix of technologies and efficiency measures for each selected region. Within Invert seven European regions were simulated and for the Austrian case study the detailed portfolio mix is shown and political conclusions are derived.

Faced with a production shortfall in early 2004 and a sharp rise in the price of imported rice due to a depreciation of the Malagasy franc and a spike in international rice prices, Madagascar attempted to stabilize domestic rice prices through public tenders for rice imports and subsidized sales at official prices. This paper discusses the 2004 rice crisis, chronicling the events that triggered the crisis and the subsequent interventions by the government, and analyzes the impacts of the policies adopted and steps taken to spur development of the domestic rice market. Using a partial equilibrium model, the paper also quantifies the overall costs and benefits of a change in import duties for various household groups, and compares this intervention to a policy of targeted food transfers or security stocks. as well as other options for price stabilization, including a reduction in import duties and a security stock policy.