Suchergebnisse

We study the choice between source-based and destination-based corporate taxes in a twocountry model, allowing multinational firms to use transfer pricing to allocate profits across tax jurisdictions. We show that source-based taxation is a Nash equilibrium for tax revenue maximizing jurisdictions if domestic and/or foreign firms generate large revenues. We also show that destination-based taxes are a Nash equilibrium when firms generate low revenues, which implies the presence of multiple equilibria. Both the source and the destination principle coexist in equilibrium when domestic and foreign corporate revenues are average. However, the source principle always Pareto-dominates the destination principle.

We study the choice between source-based and destination-based corporate taxes in a two country model, allowing multinational _rms to use transfer pricing to allocate pro_ts across tax jurisdictions. We show that source-based taxation is a Nash equilibrium for tax revenue maximizing jurisdictions if domestic and foreign _rms generate large revenues. We also show that destinationbased taxes are a Nash equilibrium when _rms generate low revenues, which implies the presence of multiple equilibria. Both the source and the destination principle coexist in equilibrium when domestic and foreign corporate revenues are intermediate. However, the source principle always tax-dominates the destination principle.

We study the choice between source-based and destination-based corporate taxes in a two country model, allowing multinational _rms to use transfer pricing to allocate pro_ts across tax jurisdictions. We show that source-based taxation is a Nash equilibrium for tax revenue maximizing jurisdictions if domestic and foreign _rms generate large revenues. We also show that destinationbased taxes are a Nash equilibrium when _rms generate low revenues, which implies the presence of multiple equilibria. Both the source and the destination principle coexist in equilibrium when domestic and foreign corporate revenues are intermediate. However, the source principle always tax-dominates the destination principle.

ABSTRACTThis paper studies first‐order approximate solutions to near‐rational dynamic equilibrium models. Under near‐rationality, agents' subjective beliefs are distorted away from rational expectations via a change of measure process which fulfills some regularity conditions. In most applications, the beliefs distortion process is also directly observed by (a subset of) the decision‐makers – e.g., ambiguity‐averse households or policy‐makers with a concern for robustness – and therefore included into their optimization problems. We investigate conditions for existence and local uniqueness of solutions under endogenous distortions, as well as the relation with their rational expectations counterparts. We show that linearly perturbed solutions may well be affected by the presence of distorted beliefs, depending on the underlying model economy. In particular, while directly affecting first‐order decision rules, near‐rationality may also induce failure of the certainty equivalence principle. Moreover, the martingale representation of distorted beliefs might prove non‐unique, pointing to a subtle form of equilibrium indeterminacy.

Almost twenty years have passed since Herbert Wechsler delivered his Oliver Wendell Holmes lecture, Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law. Although no one piece fully conveys the richness and rigor of Professor Wechsler's conception of constitutional law and the role of the judiciary, Neutral Principles sets out starkly, eloquently, and courageously some of his fundamental beliefs about constitutional decisionmaking. Shifts in jurisprudential fashion, as well as marked changes in constitutional doctrine and the composition of the Supreme Court, would make this an apt time to review what is almost certainly the most cited and most controversial discussion of constitutional issues since World War II, even if this were not an occasion to honor the incomparable contributions to American law and legal thought of its distinguished author. Although Neutral Principles bears Herbert Wechsler's unmistakable stamp, the lecture was also representative of what my colleague Louis Henkin has felicitously called the "inevitable reaction long overdue" to the more radical versions of legal realism. Stressing the nonrational aspects of judicial decision, some realists had talked as if judicial decisions were essentially indistinguishable from other decisions, as if all one could reasonably hope for was a "mature" decisionmaker, as if the process of "reasoned justification" merely conceals the emperor's nakedness. The realist portrayal of judges as essentially unrestrained conflicted disturbingly with democratic ideals which place legislative authority in popularly elected and politically responsible bodies. The portrayal was particularly troublesome in the context of constitutional law, given the direct clash between the judicial and political branches that constitutional invalidation involves and the then still vivid recollections of the misadventures of the 1930's Supreme Court. If judges in constitutional cases were really no different from legislators, one of two obvious lessons could be drawn: either Justice McReynolds and his brethren had made no fundamental mistakes about judicial authority and constitutional interpretation but had erred, if at all, only in their "legislative" wisdom, or judicial "legislators" should defer to elected legislators when the latter have expressed themselves. As Wechsler's predecessor in the Holmes lectureship, Judge Learned Hand had drawn the second lesson in the strongest terms, despairing not only of judicial development of open-ended phrases like "equal protection" and "due process of law," but also of judicial reliance on the first amendment and other relatively specific protections of individual rights in overriding decisions of the "political" branches.

A Store Almost in Sight tells the story of commercial development in central Missouri from the early days of American settlement following the Louisiana Purchase to the Civil War. Focusing on those counties near or on the Missouri River, historian Jeff Bremer confirms that the history of the frontier is also the history of the spread of capitalist values. The letters, journals, diaries, and travel accounts of Missouri settlers and visitors reveal how small decisions made by Missouri's rural white settlers-ranging from how much of a certain crop to plant to how many eggs to take to the local store-contributed to the establishment of a market economy in the state. Most Missourians welcomed the opportunity to take part in commercial markets. Farmwomen sold eggs or butter to peddlers and in nearby towns, while men took surplus corn or pork to stores for credit. Immigrants searched for the most fertile land closest to waterways, to ensure they would have large harvests and an easy way to ship them to market. Families floated farm goods downriver until steamboats transformed rural life by drastically reducing the cost of transportation and boosting farm production and consumption. Traders also trekked west across the plains to trade at the inland entrepôt of Santa Fe. The waves of migrants headed for Oregon and California in the 1840s and 1850s further encouraged commercial development. However, most white settlers lacked the necessary financial means to be capitalists in a technical sense, seeking instead a "competency," or comfortable independence. This fresh reinterpretation of the American frontier will interest anyone who wants to understand the economic and social significance of westward migration in U.S. history. It gives the reader a gritty, grassroots sense of how ordinary people made their livings and built communities in the lands newly

Bolivian president Evo Morales is one of the political left's most successful modern leaders. Benjamin Dangl traces the course of Morales' ascent and presidency, and explains how Bolivia has become a country 'almost unimaginable in the neoliberal 1990s'.

The word "neuter" comes from the Latin ne-uter, which means, neither the one, nor the other. Neutrality is an essentially neutral notion. It qualifies above all the abstention of someone who remains outside a conflict who does not openly express an opinion of either side.In international law, neutrality is the opposite of belligerency. It is the position adopted, in relation to two Powers at war, by a State not taking part in the struggle. The status of neutrality regulated by juridical rules and in particular by the Hague Conventions involves rights and duties. In short, it implies refraining from taking part officially, either directly or indirectly, in hostilities. In the first place, therefore, it is a concept of an essentially military character. However, as a result of a recent evolution in events and thought, some people tend to think that neutrality should also have effect in the economic sphere, in view of its importance today in the war potential of countries.

Compliance with the service label implies mutual support and assistance, politeness and commitment to business. So, you should not be late for meetings, transfer some of your tasks to colleagues, forget about the promises made. Thus, the rules of service etiquette are elementary and simple. They are known to everyone, and their observance contributes to the improvement of relations in the collective, work efficiency and personal success of each employee. Modern Etiquette and office etiquette in public institutions are oriented towards a unique model of behavior, in form and content, of official persons and their employees. Therefore, a benevolent attitude to people should be aesthetically conceived, since any intention to act refined and Noble, in terms of the form of exteriorization, can be ugly and ridiculous, or even lose its noble and moral significance.

Forensic epidemiology (FE) implies the use of epidemiological data in the processes and the involvement of epidemiologists in judicial proceedings. FE is essential for the assessment of causal association between the exposure to specific agents and the occurrence of diseases. In this paper we describe FE principles and applications in the Italian context as in recent years FE emerged increasingly as well as the need of experienced and trained epidemiological experts able to navigate legal proceedings. In the literature, the principles of FE have been widely described by different authors, among them: Kennet Rothman who introduced the definition of cause, Sir Austin Bradford Hill who proposed an analytic framework to assess the causal association, and recently by Sana Loue who described the actual legislation and application of FE in the United States. Despite the legislation varies among different countries epidemiological methods and theories represent the foundation for the application of FE we illustrate in this paper. The association between environmental pollution and disease, mobile phones and cancer, vaccines and autism, asbestos and pleural mesothelioma are all situations that underscore the need for FE investigations in criminal acts. Causal association is a complex process: in real life only in limited cases causal associations are assessed by gathering robust scientific evidence, while cases with doubts and situations where different approaches to questions may lead to discordant arguments to questions may lead to discordant arguments are more frequent. Therefore, during the assessment of causation in civil and criminal matters the choice the epidemiological expert - with his knowledge and expertise - and the evidence from well-designed studies are crucial to fill the gaps between clinical and epidemiological data and the low. (www.actabiomedica.it)

This paper represents an encounter and dialogue between philosophy of language and analytic philosophy. The main aim is to present the logical empiricism of the milieu of its creation in the Vienna -Circle. Exhibited are significant points of known members of the Vienna Circle, not only on the logical empiricism as a theory and movement, but also considers its close link with the principle of verifiability, the purpose of which we list and explain the variations of the definition of verificationism as the basis of logical empiricism. In the Vienna Circle we distinguish several streams with respect of the definition of the principles of verification, and one of them proposed formulation of this principles as a theory of meaning which also require a complete verification. The second stream is leaning to the formulation of criteria for determining the meaning and they put their focus on incomplete verification. Having both pozitions in mind we are able to make distinction between criteria of adequacy and -criteria of utilitarty of the principle of verifiability. This fact implies that it is vital to determine the necessary conditions of adequacy of the principle of verifiability, which primarily reflectes in the preservation of empiricism where the main terms used in the formulation must be clear, non-ambiguous and operational.

While the international community has agreed on the long-term target of limiting global warming to no more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels, only a few concrete climate policies and measures to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have been implemented. We use a set of three global integrated assessment models to analyze the implications of current climate policies on long-term mitigation targets. We define a weak-policy baseline scenario, which extrapolates the current policy environment by assuming that the global climate regime remains fragmented and that emission reduction efforts remain unambitious in most of the world's regions. These scenarios clearly fall short of limiting warming to 2°C. We investigate the cost and achievability of the stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations at 450 ppm CO2e by 2100, when countries follow the weak policy pathway until 2020 or 2030 before pursuing the long-term mitigation target with global cooperative action. We find that after a deferral of ambitious action the 450 ppm CO2e is only achievable with a radical up-scaling of efforts after target adoption. This has severe effects on trans-formation pathways and exacerbates the challenges of climate stabilization, in particular for a delay of cooperative action until 2030. Specifically, reaching the target with weak near-term action implies (a) faster and more aggressive transformations of energy systems in the medium term, (b) more stranded investments in fossil-based capacities, (c) higher long-term mitigation costs and carbon prices and (d) stronger transitional economic impacts, rendering the political feasibility of such pathways questionable.

The European Union as a separate sui generis entity covers most of the countries in this region. For its legal legislation used in the European Union is actually a set of legal rules governing the mutual relations that come to natural and legal persons. Intense harmonization of contract law is implemented for almost three decades, during which it is conducted within and under the auspices of the EU institutions and the academic community. Harmonization of law is inevitably linked with overall procedure for adjusting the national legislation by establishing a framework of acceptable principles and common rules in the field of Contract Law in the European Union. With the adoption of uniform rules to be applied in the field of regulation of contracts at the same time removing barriers that arise as a hindrance to smooth flow of transactions , which enriches the legal doctrine . The paper specifically highlights the role of Landon's principles , which are one of the most significant acts of unification adopted in the area of harmonization of Contract Law in the European Union

International audience Animals collecting patchily distributed resources are faced with complex multi-location routing problems. Rather than comparing all possible routes, they often find reasonably short solutions by simply moving to the nearest unvisited resources when foraging. Here, we report the travel optimization performance of bumble-bees (Bombus terrestris) foraging in a flight cage containing six artificial flowers arranged such that movements between nearest-neighbour locations would lead to a long suboptimal route. After extensive training (80 foraging bouts and at least 640 flower visits), bees reduced their flight distances and prioritized shortest possible routes, while almost never following nearest-neighbour solutions. We discuss possible strategies used during the establishment of stable multi-location routes (or traplines), and how these could allow bees and other animals to solve complex routing problems through experience, without necessarily requiring a sophisticated cognitive representation of space.