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NATO's public diplomacy plays an important role in constituting the alliance's identity in global politics, yet has remained marginal to many scholarly accounts of the alliance. This article considers NATO's increasing footprint in digital diplomacy and the role of gendered narratives in shaping it. The central point of analysis is NATO's 'story of Afghanistan', told in the web-documentary Return to Hope, which was released to much acclaim in September 2014 to coincide with the drawdown of the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from Afghanistan. It finds personal narratives given precedence over historical events, key temporal omissions and the silencing of Afghan women. As such, it provides an important critique of the masculinist protection logic underpinning NATO's efforts, which has served to instrumentalize (Afghan) women and falls short of expectations given the alliance's commitment to UN Security Council Resolution 1325 and the Women, Peace and Security agenda.

Republic of Korea (ROK) shifted its policy focus toward ASEAN through the New Southern Policy (NSP). As the core foreign policy to its southern neighbors, the NSP is envisioned to 'elevate' ASEAN status. The partnership has been backed by institutional and bureaucratic transformation to sustain the policy. Accordingly, ROK tapped on its digital resources to support this diplomatic engagement. Digital diplomacy, therefore, is an important strategy to engage the ASEAN public. However, does ROK's digital primacy is translated well to support NSP's digital diplomacy? This paper utilizes empirical explorative qualitative primary data collection of ROK's government tweets on two levels of analysis; towards domestic and foreign audiences. The finding confirms that domestic engagement is better. However, further scrutiny shows that within domestic narratives NSP is mainly used as a political tool. Meanwhile, on external engagement, this paper argues for ROK's digital diplomacy deficit toward ASEAN. Not only does ROK's digital diplomacy strategy lack uniformity, but it also fails to create conversation about NSP. Keywords : ASEAN, Republic of Korea, New Southern Policy, Digital Diplomacy, Twitter ; Republik Korea (ROK) mengalihkan fokus kebijakannya ke arah ASEAN melalui New Southern Policy (NSP). Sebagai kebijakan luar negeri utama di batas Selatan, NSP diharapkan dapat 'meningkatkan' status ASEAN. Kemitraan ini ditopang oleh transformasi kelembagaan dan birokrasi sebagai upaya untuk mempertahankan keberlanjutannya. Sejalan dengan upaya tersebut, ROK memanfaatkan sumber daya digitalnya untuk mendukung diplomasi ini. Diplomasi digital merupakan strategi penting terhadap publik ASEAN. Namun, apakah keunggulan ini diterjemahkan dengan baik dalam mendukung diplomasi digital dari NSP? Makalah ini menggunakan teknik pengumpulan data primer kualitatif yang bersifat eksploratif empiris dengan mengidentifikasikan tweet pemerintah ROK di dua tingkat analisis; domestik dan luar negeri. Makalah ini menyimpulkan bahwa keterlibatan ...

Introduction. The article is devoted to contemporary digital diplomacy, which is implemented within the framework of social networks. Unlike traditional diplomacy digital one operates in a different communicative space where blogs, electronic media and global social networks are the key communication channels. Using these tools allows digital diplomacy actors to influence events and communities in other countries. Methods and materials. Method of mixing qualitative and quantitative data, hashtag-analysis, comparative analysis of the social networks' messages and accounts were able to understand the dynamics and interactions in social networks, engagement and possibilities of institutional and private actors in digital diplomacy. Analysis. In the 2000s foreign policy and public diplomacy began forming based on data on the mood of users of social networks and their preferences in politics. Thanks to this, digital diplomacy may well become one of the innovative tools for resolving modern global problems. Digital diplomacy, as a new method and the tool for implementing foreign policy, contributes to the effective functioning of departments and ministries of foreign affairs, their response to the needs of citizens, to emerging challenges and threats to state security, like a global epidemic or natural disasters. Using digital tools, it is possible to shape the norms of communication, interaction and decision-making by which diplomats perform their work, modifying the diplomatic process. Besides this digital diplomacy increases the attractiveness of the state in the eyes of the world community. Results. Based on a comparative analysis study of the content of social networks, it could be concluded that over almost a decade, from the 2010s to the 2020s, digital diplomacy has developed from a "soft power" mechanism to a method of information warfare and propaganda which involves artificial intelligence tools and big data. But this is predominantly characteristic of technologically developed countries. It is possible to conclude about future co-existence of traditional and digital diplomacies in a new hybrid variety. Authors' contribution. In this article Liudmila M. Reshetnikova has contributed Introduction, Research Methods, Analysis and Results sections: identified risks and threats to digital diplomacy, analyzed the development of the soft power methods, identified features and tools of digital diplomacy. Irina M. Samokhina has contributed Analysis and Results sections: analyzed social networks and digital infrastructure for digital diplomacy and diplomatic activity, contemporary computer tools for learning about social networks.

Summary
This study looks at how digital technologies disrupted signalling and signal cost calculations in public diplomacy within the context of Covid-19. The pandemic presented a noteworthy opportunity to observe how countries attempt to navigate a relatively unknown communication landscape as a result of external shock and a crisis for states' images and reputations. We position the communicative outcomes of the pandemic as an exploratory case to discuss how countries use social media to engage with target audiences. We study American and Chinese messaging on Twitter about Covid-19 employing an analytical model of signal cost developed from signalling theory. Using a data set of 1,512 tweets coming from nine different American and Chinese accounts, we investigated their signal cost through content and network analyses. Our findings describe and operationalise signal cost in digital public diplomacy through signaller, signal content and outreach.

Hybrid threats cover the whole spectrum of fake news, cyber/information warfare. They periodically impose the multimedia agenda in all known spaces to man. If for the Earth's natural spaces, we have norms and customs respected international, the navigation in the digital space does not confer to the user the same protection given by a code of laws accepted worldwide, although we have a new set of instruments with shield role against dangers called cyber security. In order for this cyber security to be accepted by as many (non) state actors as possible, we need international norms, built by professionals with expertise and proactive thinking. The people with specific responsibilities for negotiating such rules are diplomats, in this case we have the digital diplomats. What is their purpose? What is the connection between hybrid warfare, digital diplomacy and humanitarian law? These are questions that we answer through this research. In the structure of the paper we used concepts from International Humanitarian Law (IHL) norms that can be adapted to cyber operations and hybrid threats. In the case of the use of aggressive cyber actions and cyber capabilities, the competence of current international law is the objective of the article for the emergence of the right to self-defence. Then, we look at aspects of military actions involving cyberattacks, designed on the spectrum of the cyber operation, and these cyber actions will be examined applying principles established by existing laws.

Development of information and communication technologies (ICT) deeply affected our lives. ICT revolution in the second half of the 20111 century transformed the way we communicate and transfer information. As a result ICT were incorporated into governance and notion of e-governance emerged. Digital diplomacy emerged as a continuum of the ICT revolution in the conduct of diplomacy. With the popularisation of new media, social networks, smartphones and other latest internet-based tools, diplomacy moved into a new domain of digital affairs. Thus digital diplomacy is simply defined as use of new ICT tools in order to achieve diplomatic goals. The paper starts by examining how international affairs have been affected by advancements in the ICT industry. It discusses major challenges and benefits foreign services have to face in this highly technological world. It is concluded that ICT has helped states to run their communications with a larger audience in a much faster and cost-effective ways. But at the same time state borders has been blurred, large numbers of emerging actors in international relations have made it difficult to manage the communications and more importantly digitalisation of state affairs has put government networks under threat of cyberattacks or simply hacking. The first chapter tries to depict the large scale of the ICT revolution and its impact on world affairs. Furthermore, the report examines US experience in order to provide better understanding of how and why digital diplomacy came to existence and its importance in the 21 st century. In this part historical background of the US public diplomacy is presented. The transformation of public diplomacy from a Cold War weapon into a modernized tool of US influence. The reasons behind reforms in public diplomacy were mainly declining US image in the world affairs at the end 1990s and start of the 21st century. It is argued that American officials started to realize a need for dialogue and interaction with the rest of the world in order to be able to sustain their global influence. The paper also examines US arsenal of digital diplomacy from an institutional point of view by looking at different programs and projects American digital diplomats have been involved in. The chapter concludes that transformation in US public diplomacy has brought new era in the conduct of diplomacy, namely digital diplomacy. The third and last chapter draws from the previous ones and tries to apply them to the Australian public diplomacy. In doing so it first defines what Australian public diplomacy is. Furthermore it discusses major problems facing Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) in the 21 st century. The paper argues that Australia's once well-developed ICT industry came to decline in the late 1990s which slowed down the process of digitalisation of the state affairs, namely e-government. Moreover, budget cuts and dramatic reduction of staff in DFAT exacerbated the situation. Today DFAT do not have a clear policy on digital diplomacy. The paper claims that digital diplomacy can serve as a cost-effective and fastest way to rejuvenate Australian public diplomacy and carry it into another level. Furthermore case studies of Virtual Student Foreign Service and virtual embassy in Second Life are presented as prospective projects for DFAT. The report concludes that emergence of digital diplomacy in the 21st century has been a long process that required reforms and rethinking of the ways public diplomacy is conducted. DFAT should accelerate this process and become foremost advocate of digital diplomacy in the world. Active presence in the digital world is the best way to promote geographically isolated Australia.

Social media holds the potential to foster dialogue between nations and foreign populations. Yet only a few studies to date have investigated the manner in which digital diplomacy is practised by foreign ministries. Using Kent and Taylor's framework for dialogic communication, this article explores the extent to which dialogic communication is adopted by foreign ministries in terms of content, media channels and public engagement. The results of a six-week analysis of content published on Twitter and Facebook by eleven foreign ministries show that engagement and dialogic communication are rare. When engagement does occur, it is quarantined to specific issues. Social media content published by foreign ministries represents a continuous supply of press releases targeting foreign, rather than domestic, populations. A cross-national comparison revealed no discernible differences in the adoption of dialogic principles. Results therefore indicate that foreign ministries still fail to realize the potential of digital diplomacy to foster dialogue.

With the current massive coverage of Internet technologies and ongoing spread as well as progressively growing influence of social media platforms, it is natural that diplomacy as a sphere could not refrain from this phenomenon. Moreover, not only did it nor abstain, it has harnessed the new opportunities instead. This paper contributes to the debate on the phenomenon of digital diplomacy which has entered the scientific environment relatively recently and has not yet been comprehensively conceptualized into a single and globally recognized theory. In this paper we study how digital diplomacy is organized and implemented in the Czech Republic. The paper focuses on the approach of the Czech Republic to digital diplomacy, the country's implementation of its tools and digital diplomacy is embedded within the foreign policy of the state. The author provides an overview of the legal framework underlying development of digital diplomacy in the Czech Republic. The paper also outlines the institutional system operating in the sphere and how its elements contribute to the attainment of the goals typically set up by digital diplomacy. Finally, the author defines the projects created by the Czech governmental and non-governmental bodies aiming at strengthening the image of the country and promoting its brand for the foreign audiences using online tools and solutions. The paper also offers the analysis of efficiency of the primary digital diplomacy tools applied by the Czech Republic in its foreign policy and provides recommendations and conclusions based on the data included for the research. ; У сучасних умовах масового поширення Інтернет-технологій та їх охоплення аудиторії, тенденції до переважного використання мобільних пристроїв у споживанні контенту, а також прогресивно зростаючої ролі й впливовості соціальних медіа-платформ природним є те, що зовнішнся політика та дипломатія як сфери не могли залишитись осторонь цих глобальних трендів. Більше того, вони не лише не утрималися від змін, а й натомість ефективно використали нові можливості, тим самим створивши окрему галузь – цифрову дипломатію. Відтак, цією статтею ми долучаємо до наукового дискурсу про явище цифрової дипломатії, яке порівняно нещодавно ввійшло в наукове середовище, а тому досі не було концептуалізовано в комплексну загальноприйняту теорію. Отже, у цій розвідці проаналізовано організацію та впровадження цифрової дипломатії в Чеській Республіці. Ми зосереджені на теоретичному підході Чеської Республіки до цифрової дипломатії, її позиції в зовнішній політиці країни та досвіді практичного впровадження її інструментів у зовнішньополітичну комунікацію. У цьому розрізі подано огляд теоритично-правової бази, що покладена в основу розвитку цифрової дипломатії в Чеській Республіці. У статті також проаналізовано інституційну систему у сфері цифрової дипломатії та роль її елементів у сприянні досягненню зовнішньополітичних цілей держави. Крім того, визначено ключові проекти, розроблені чеськими урядовими й неурядовими організаціями та спрямовані на зміцнення іміджу країни й просування її бренду серед іноземних аудиторій за допомогою онлайн-інструментів і медіа-платформ. Як результат, у статті також запропоновано аналіз ефективності вибірки основних інструментів цифрової дипломатії, застосованих Чеською Республікою у своїй зовнішній політиці. Урешті, у праці сформульовано низку рекомендацій та висновків на основі даних, отриманих у рамках дослідження.