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Extensive secularization is frequently held to be a necessary condition for political modernity. The author argues that the relationship between religion and the modern state is considerably more complex than this general proposition suggests. It is necessary to specify particular ideological models of the modern state, since these differ significantly from one another; and it is necessary to specify particular religions in their contemporary manifestations, since these also differ in important ways. A detailed analysis of this type suggests that there is no general incompatibility between the main religions of the third world and widely shared, nonideological features of political modernity. Specific religions are shown to be incompatible with some specific forms of the modern state, while presenting no significant obstacle to other models of political modernity.

Secularization is of concern not only to theologians; the crisis has captured the interest of social and political philosophers. If Western theologians and advocates of liberal democracy remain optimistic and are attempting to rethink Christian proclamation and find adequate solutions to the challenges of a godless world, then Orthodox theologians and representatives of conservative thought are more pessimistic and see the only solution in a return to the ideals of the past. Democracy is based on Christian foundations and is doomed to self-destruction by secularization. Several consequences of secularization can be predicted. The introduction of secular ideas into social practice could lead to Christianity's dissolution into religious pluralism and the loss of its status as the "center" of European culture and civilization. The realm of religion could be reduced to the merely social, finding its expression in civil religion (as in the USA). The opposition of secularists and fundamentalists could be accompanied by the escalation of tension, expressing itself in a "conflict of civilizations" on religious grounds. A conservative revolution as a radical means of halting secularization could lead to new forms of totalitarianism, including the establishment of theocratic regimes

Secularization is of concern not only to theologians; the crisis has captured the interest of social and political philosophers. If Western theologians and advocates of liberal democracy remain optimistic and are attempting to rethink Christian proclamation and find adequate solutions to the challenges of a godless world, then Orthodox theologians and representatives of conservative thought are more pessimistic and see the only solution in a return to the ideals of the past. Democracy is based on Christian foundations and is doomed to self-destruction by secularization. Several consequences of secularization can be predicted. The introduction of secular ideas into social practice could lead to Christianity's dissolution into religious pluralism and the loss of its status as the "center" of European culture and civilization. The realm of religion could be reduced to the merely social, finding its expression in civil religion (as in the USA). The opposition of secularists and fundamentalists could be accompanied by the escalation of tension, expressing itself in a "conflict of civilizations" on religious grounds. A conservative revolution as a radical means of halting secularization could lead to new forms of totalitarianism, including the establishment of theocratic regimes

Demonstrates definitively that the secularization thesis is correct, and religion is losing its grip on societies worldwideIn the decades since its introduction, secularization theory has been subjected to doubt and criticism from a number of leading scholars, who have variously claimed that it is wrong, flawed, or incomplete. In Beyond Doubt, Isabella Kasselstrand, Phil Zuckerman, and Ryan T. Cragun mount a strong defense for the theory, providing compelling evidence that religion is indeed declining globally as a result of modernization. Though defenses of secularization theory have been mounted in the past, we now have many years' worth of empirical data to illuminate trends, and can trace changes not just at a given point in time but over a trajectory. Drawing on extensive survey data from nations around the world, the book demonstrates that, in spite of its many detractors, there is robust empirical support for secularization theory. It also engages with the most prominent criticisms levied against the theory, showing that data that are said to refute the narrative of religious decline are easily explainable and in keeping with the broader tendency toward secularization. Beyond simply defending secularization theory, the authors endeavor to formalize it, offering clear definitions of relevant terms and creating propositions that can be repeatedly and accurately tested. Beyond Doubt offers the strongest argument to date for the existence of a global secularization trend, and will be a vital resource for students and scholars alike who study religion and secularism

Using data from the World Values Survey covering the period from 1981 to 2008, this study examines trends in the strength of religious belief worldwide. At the country level, the most important predictors of current religiosity are high intelligence and a history of communist rule, both of which reduce religious belief. However, religiosity has been rising vigorously in the communist and ex-communist countries during the surveyed period although religion is declining in most countries of non-communist Europe and East Asia. In addition to a history of communist rule, other factors associated with rising religiosity, include high religiosity of young people relative to older people, high female relative to male religiosity, and a positive relationship between religiosity and fertility. In addition, religion tends to grow in countries in which less educated people are far more religious than those with higher education. Aside from the rebound of religion in the (ex)communist countries, the religiosity gap between the most advanced and the most backward nations has widened worldwide. The implications of these findings for the future of religion are discussed. Adapted from the source document.