Malgré que l'alinéa 92(14) de la Loi constitutionnelle de 1867 attribue aux provinces une compétence large en matière d'administration de la justice, qui comprend la création et l'organisation de tribunaux de justice, la jurisprudence s'est servie de l'article 96 pour en atténuer la portée. Ceci a fait en sorte que la structure judiciaire existant à l'époque de la Confédération s'est vue accorder un statut constitutionnel. De l'autre côté, le Parlement canadien ne semble pas avoir été soumis aux mêmes contraintes, possédant le pouvoir d'attribuer de larges compétences aux tribunaux établis sous le régime de ses lois. Les seules restrictions qui paraissent avoir été reconnues visent les domaines de droit criminel, constitutionnel et intéressant les provinces. Ainsi, le fédéral serait habilité à retirer des cours supérieures toute autre matière qui relève de ses compétences législatives, en autant que ce soit pour les transférer à un tribunal établi en vertu de l'article 101 de la Loi constitutionnelle de 1867. Ceci suggère que la protection des cours supérieures découlant de l'article 96 se limiterait essentiellement aux mesures provinciales. Il semble qu'il aurait été possible d'attribuer un sens utile à l'article 96 sans pour autant amputer un segment important de la compétence provinciale en matière d'administration de la justice. En coulant la structure judiciaire dans un moule plutôt rigide, la capacité des provinces d'y effectuer des réformes importantes a grandement été limitée, accroissant du même coup les risques qu'elle ne devienne désuète avec les années. C'est sûrement l'un des rares cas où il est possible d'affirmer que la Constitution a reçu une interprétation foncièrement statique. ; Abstract: Even though s-s. 92(14) of the Constitution Act, 1867 grants to the provinces a wide jurisdiction over the administration of justice, which includes the constitution and organization of courts, the case law has used s. 96 to limit its scope. This has had the effect of giving constitutional status to the judicial system in existence at the time of Confederation. On the other hand, the Parliament of Canada does not appear to have been subjected to the same constraints, allowing it to confer broad powers to the courts established under its jurisdiction. The only restrictions that seem to have been applied are in the fields of criminal and constitutional law and provincial concerns. Thus, the federal Parliament would be empowered to withdraw from superior courts any other matter within its legislative competence, as long as the jurisdiction is transferred to a s. 101 tribunal. This suggests that s. 96 protects superior courts mostly against provincial measures. It would have been possible to preserve the essence of s. 96 without eliminating a fundamental aspect of the provinces' competence over the administration of justice. By fixing the judicial system into a rather rigid mould, the ability of the provinces to carry out substantial reforms has been greatly limited, increasing the risk that the structure will become outdated as the years go by. It is surely one of the rare occasions where the Constitution has been given what is fundamentally a static interpretation.
In November 2005, new Law of Delict was adopted, which brought important novelties in our delict-related legislation, both in its material and procedural parts. To pass a new law of delict was necessary for many reasons primarily because of the need for additional adjustments following the discontinued use of Law on Delict that used to break federal regulations, but also because of the adjustments with the international regulations and newly-adopted regulations of criminal material and procedural legislation. Due to the necessity to adjust other delict regulations with the new Law of Delict and the need to constitute new police courts, as well as to make certain organizational and technical preparations, the application of the new law was postponed for January 01, 2007. The most important changes in material part of the new law refer to introduction of the notion of delict and delict liability, as well as to the introduction of new penalties: work in public interest and penal points as punishment, forbidding the access to the injured party, facilities or the place where the delict was made and public announcement of the sentences as protective measures, and so-called special measures as correctional measures towards juveniles. As for the delict procedure, the most important novelties refer to institutions leading the procedure, especially introduction of police courts as completely new institutions within our judicial system, but also to the bigger role of public prosecutor, strengthening of the principle of initiation of delict procedure, measures to ensure the presence of the accused, reaching the verdict instead of decision on the delict, et cetera. ; Novembra 2005. godine donet je novi Zakon o prekršajima čime su u naše prekšajno zakonodavstvo unete značajne novine kako u njegovom materijalnom tako i u procesnom delu. Donošenje novog Zakona o prekršajima bilo je nephodno iz više razloga, pre svega zbog potrebe dodatnih usklađivanja nastale posle prestanka primene Zakona o prekršajima kojim se povređuju savezne propisi, ali i zbog usaglašavanja sa međunarodnim propisima i novo usvojenim propisima krivičnog materijalnog i procesnog zakonodavstva. Zbog neophodnosti usklađivanja drugih prekršajnih propisa sa novim Zakonom o prekršajima i potrebe da se konstituišu novi prekršajni sudovi, kao i da bi se izvršile određene organizacione i tehničke pripreme, početak primene novog Zakona odložen je za 1. januar 2007. godine. Najznačajnije izmene u materijalnom delu novog zakona odnose se na novo određenje pojmova prekršaja i prekršajne odgovornosti, kao i na uvođenje novih prekršajnih sankcija: rad u javnom interesu i kazneni poeni kao kazne, zabrana pristupa oštećenom objektima ili mestu izvršenja prekršaja i javno objavljivanje presude kao zaštitne mere, i tzv. posebne mere, kao vaspitne mera prema maloletnicima. Što se tiče prekršajnog postupka, najznačajnije novine odnose se na organe za vođenje ovog postupka, naročito na uvođenje sudova za prekršaje kao potpuno novih organa u našem pravosudnom sistemu, ali i na veću ulogu javnog tužioca jačanje načela pokretanja prekršajnog postupka, mere za obezbeđenje prisustva okrivljenog, donošenje presude umesto rešenja o prekršaju i dr.
In 1992 had been teaching for four years at the University of Pennsylvania Law School. I taught voting rights and criminal procedure, subjects related to what I had done as a litigator. Preparing for class meant reading many of the same cases I had read preparing for trial. Some were even cases I had tried. Teaching offered me a fresh chance to read those cases with new interest. I could see the subtle linkages between cases that I had not previously noticed. From the distance of the academy, I observed the evolution of the doctrine without feeling overcome by the lawyer's instrumental urge to plumb each case for useful language or helpful analysis of an issue. I found teaching a relatively simple yet interesting task. My goal was to communicate what I knew about the case law to students eager to learn a new doctrinal area, as well as to students getting ready to take the bar exam. A decade later I find teaching more challenging. It is difficult to be clear, I now realize, when cases are informed by an individual judge's intuition rather than any canons of "law." The doctrine, which I formerly felt dexterous in manipulating, now seems crabbed. The legal rules often look like opaque alibis rather than guiding lights. Missing, for me, is a theory of fundamental fairness or a commitment to democracy or even an understanding of justice that is not simply an ordered society. This search for an overarching jurisprudential vision – one that links ideas of justice with ideas of democracy – animates my scholarship and inspires my research interests. This is what I now value. But student concerns have not changed at the same speed as my own. Many students still simply want to do well and pass the bar exam. Competing with their peers, they treat learning as a process of conveying and retaining information. Equally salient is the unquestioned notion that passive forms of information exchange can enable retention of that information over time. They think that what they learn in a classroom matters because it will be remembered three years later when confronted on the bar exam, with a series of multiple-choice questions designed to test their ability to memorize substantive legal doctrines. Or thevjust want good grades. What they learn is less important than what they need to get a job. Not just any job. A well-paying job. Some need to make enough money to pay back their law school loans. Others are greatly tempted by the prospect of making a lot of money for themselves and their clients. About five years ago I became so disillusioned I thought perhaps I was the one who needed to find a new job. I wanted to be part of an environment in which students felt an intellectual excitement about learning. I wanted to teach students who were committed to social justice, not just social advancement. I decided to try teaching graduate students.
La finalización de la guerra fría y el mundo bipolar, en el campo político y estratégico militar, y el proceso de globalización económica, dieron lugar a un fenómeno nuevo en la década de los años noventa en el mundo en desarrollo: el advenimiento de los llamados "Estados fracasados". Estos Estados pueden ser definidos como aquellos que son totalmente incapaces de sostenerse a sí mismos como miembros de la comunidad internacional. En ellos se da el colapso de las instituciones estatales, la ruptura de la ley y el orden, gran violencia interna y caos generalizado, observándose además graves y generalizadas violaciones a los derechos humanos elementales, corrupción, pobreza extrema, presión demográfica sobre las fronteras de sus vecinos, y cobijo a actividades delictivas como el narcotráfico y el terrorismo. Sin duda, estos Estados configuran una amenaza para la paz y seguridad regional y global. Hasta el momento, la respuesta jurídica a ésta nueva realidad por parte de la comunidad internacional se ha producido, en la mayoría de los casos, a través de medidas dispuestas por Consejo de Seguridad, en el marco del capítulo VII de la Carta de la ONU, o sea se actuó sobre las consecuencias o "ex post facto". La actuación para ser eficiente debe ser preventiva y realizarse sobre las causas, estimándose adecuado para ello crear un nuevo orden económico, financiero y comercial a escala universal, lo que implicará la producción de profundos cambios, principalmente en la estructura y funcionamiento de las instituciones de Bretton Woods y de la OMC. ; The end of the cold war and the bipolar world, in the political and strategic military field, and the process of economical globalization given cause to a new phenomenon in the decade of the years ninety in the developing world: the arrival of the called "failed States". These States can be defined like them that are utterly incapable of sustaining themselves as members of the international community. In them occur the collapse of state institutions, the break of the law and the order, great internal violence and generalizated chaos, observing furthermore serious and generalizated violations of the fundamental human rights, corruption, extreme poverty, demographical pressure over the frontiers of their neighbors, and protection of criminal activities like narcotraffic and terrorism. Without doubt, these States become a menace for the regional and global peace and security. Up to the moment the legal answer to this new reality by the international community was in the larger number of the cases through measures adopted by the Security Council, in the framework of the Chapter VII of the UN Charter, acting over the consecuences or "ex post facto". The actuation for be efficient have to be preventive and therefore perfoming over the causes, that is creating a new economical, financial and commercial order in a universal level, that will implicate the production of deep changes principally in the structure and working of the Bretton Woods institutions and the World Trade Organization. ; Aula "C": Desafíos actuales de los Estados nacionales. ; Instituto de Relaciones Internacionales
The problem of the pedagogical interaction between the penitentiary workers and the inmates is a topical issue in Lithuania today. The essence of the constructive interaction is empathy, and the aim of the interaction is to create and make the members of the interaction more cooperative with each other. The opposite effect to that of the interaction brings about unnatural and abnormal behaviour both of the trainers and their trainees. The aim of the a11icle is to set the peculiarities of the interaction between the workers of the penitentiary institutions and the inmates, and to look at the perspectives of improving their penitentiary activities and pedagogical interaction. The research has demonstrated that if the needs of an inmate personality are satisfied by work and production it helps to enhance the human interrelation between the workers and inmates of the penitentiary institutions as well as encourage the sentenced persons to reform and to behave morally. The suggested hypothesis has been proved. Such a precondition is essential in improving the pedagogical process of the penitentiary institutions and guaranteeing the public safety and prevention of crime. A possibility for the inmates to satisfy their needs by decent work ( at present only 22 per cent of the sentenced people have work) would create natural conditions for them to improve, as well as make the human relations better and decrease the number of criminal offences. The assumption that the relation between the Workers of the penitentiary system and the inmates is empathic has not proved. Up to 1990 - the year of the Declaration of Independence of Lithuania - there was no a correlative relation between the workers of the penitentiary institutions and inmates. Therefore the impersonal interaction without any empathy predominated. This has resulted in aggressiveness. In order to improve the pedagogical interaction, the psychological and pedagogical qualification of the penitentiary system workers should be raised. On the grounds that this particular kind of interrelation is based upon the laws, the primary nee d is to establish a more effective legal basis for correctional process a11cl to use the experience of foreign countries in this sphere. The study has shown that the present situation calls for Correctional or Penitentiary Code instead of the Executive Code. It is also urgent to pass from the penal to rational social policy and solve people's persona] problems. In the process of humanizing the penal policy, alternative means of punishment, i.e. restorative justice and probation and parole are applied. An article ensuring that all sentenced persons (except for the extremely dangerous) who have served two thirds of the punishment are sent without trial to parole institutions should be included in the Correctional Code. ; Straipsnyje tyrinėjamos Lietuvos pataisos įstaigų darbuotojų ir nuteistųjų pedagoginės sąveikos ypatybės 1980-1990 ir 1990-2000 metais. Nustatyti pataisos įstaigų darbuotojų ir nuteistųjų santykių ugdymo dėsningumai, analizuojama užsienio šalių penitencinių sistemų įtaka Lietuvos penitencinei sistemai. Nužymėtos pataisos įstaigų pedagoginės sąveikos tobulinimo perspektyvos.
Bio/Technology/Diversity News Produced by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy March 15, 1995 Volume 4, Number 3 Code Number: NL95009 Size of Files: Text:14K No associated graphics files _____________________________________________ HEADLINES _____________________________________________ - More rBGH Labeling Laws Introduced California state Senator Richard Polanco introduced legislation mandating the labeling of milk and dairy products derived from cows treated with recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH or BST). - Mycogen Granted Sweeping Bt Patent Mycogen has been granted a patent covering the use of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) genes in plants. "This patent, and other claims [Mycogen has] filed, will essentially cover any development genetically transforming plants to have insect resistance," said Mike Sund of Mycogen. - EPA Says Rhizobium Not a Human Threat In January, an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Biotechnology Science Advisory Committee agreed that genetically engineered Rhizobium meliloti does not pose a threat to human health. However, the committee said several questions about the ecological risks associated with the release of the bacterium remained. - Genetic Predisposition to Violence? The March 1995 issue of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN examines how many scientists are turning to genetics to explain violent or criminal behavior. - International News Wrap-Up In Japan, a research team of the Ministry of Health and Welfare concluded that agricultural products from recombinant DNA are safe. In the U.K., the government announced its intention to approve three products of genetic engineering: Zeneca's tomato paste; Plant Genetic Systems' rapeseed oil; and a Monsanto soybean product. Health Canada recently informed Calgene that its Flavr Savr tomato can be imported, advertised and sold in Canada. Last week, the European Parliament rejected a European Union (EU) framework for patenting genetically engineered organisms and other biotechnological developments. - Biodiversity Convention Unlikely to Hit Senate Soon Kathleen McGinty, chair of the White House Council on Environmental Quality has said that it is unlikely that implementing legislation for the Biodiversity Convention will go before the Senate any time soon. - Clinton Administration Proposing to Ease ESA Last week, the Clinton administration proposed changes to the Endangered Species Act (ESA), which would make it more flexible and decrease its costs while still protecting threatened or endangered species. _____________________________________________ DIFFERENT DRUMMERS takes a look at Incentives for Protecting North American Diversity in its summer 1994 issue. _____________________________________________ CALENDAR OF EVENTS _____________________________________________ Genes for the Future: Discovery, Ownership, Access, May 24- 27, 1995, Columbia, Missouri. FFI, contact: NABC7, 348 Hearnes Center, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, Tel: (314) 882-2429, Fax: (314) 882-1953. _____________________________________________ Bio/Technology/Diversity News is produced by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, Mark Ritchie, President. Editor: Michelle Thom. Electronic mail versions are available free of charge for subscribers. For information about fax subscriptions contact: IATP, 1313 Fifth Street SE, Suite 303, Minneapolis, MN 55414. For information on subscribing to this and other IATP news bulletins, send e-mail to: iatp-info@iatp.org. IATP provides contract research services to a wide range of corporate and not-for-profit organizations. For more information, contact Dale Wiehoff at 612-379-5980, or send email to: dwiehoff@iatp.org.
В статье приведена статистика, формализованы основные этапы и пути развития малого предпринимательства в СССР/России, стоящие перед ним проблемы. Подробно охарактеризованы половинчатая политика государства по стимулированию малого бизнеса, бюрократические перипетии федеральной программы государственной поддержки малого предпринимательства и одноименного проекта в 1992-1993 гг. ; The paper is based on abstracts of presentations to the international conference: "Deep transformations in the countries of Eastern Europe; the role of small business" (Freiburg, Sacsonia, Germany, 9-11 of September, 1993). The main stages of small business development in Russia are described, beginning with issue of the Union law "On Cooperation" (1986). The authors outline four basic organizational and legal schemes of rise of small non-state enterprises, and conventionally four basic "waves" of business connected with social origin, social and cultural peculiarities and activity spheres; "cooperators", industrialists, manufacturers and financiers of number of middle link state officials; merchants that have been managers of state commerce in past, "raznochintzi" who are busy in small production including domestic craft, services and innovations. Namely this last wave of "democratic", rising from "below" small business generates the hopes of authors for creation of mighty social base for reforms, capable to provide the strong social consensus for realization of necessary and hurting institutional and structural reforms It should be remarked that in contradiction to current prejudice on population's hostile attitude to private business, the data of surveys of RNISiNP and other centres of social monitoring show, that Russians as a whole have the positive attitude for engagement in small business (connected for to-day with availability of non-occupied niches in economy as well as with exageration of own capabilities). Real obstacles and gaps on a path of small business development are conditioned by other circumstances. The short characteristic of main barriers on a path of civilized business is given including: — lack of free money resources, problems of fixed and circulating capital generated to a great extent by financial stabilization policy, — failure of the former system of division of labour and chaotic state of the forming system; — lack or underdevelopment of information, consulting and marketing infrastructure, — predominance of criminal and shady business; — deficit of personnell with business ethics; — demagogical making advances to small business fromthe side of legislative as well as executive authorities of federal level and ignoring of small business interests in fact. The especial attention is paid to the last crisis, fuss and quick changes round the state structures called to provide development of small and middle business are shown in details.The peripetia of Foundation for Support of Business and Development of Competition as well as project of the law on state support of small business in 1992— 1993 are described, shown in details. Feeling sceptical for the nearest future of small business,the authors are forecasting turning of small business into real social-economical and political force when crisis structural changes will effectuate the broadening of rows of new independent proprietors, transforming them into powerful social force supported by trade-unions also.
A geographic information system, GIS, is a computerized mapping system which assists in organizing, analyzing, and visualizing spatial data sets. Over the last decade, many local and state agencies as well as many commercial organizations have implemented numerous GIS applications to raise their staffs productivity when working with spatial data. AGIS provides organizations the ability to consolidate data from numerous hardcopy maps into a single spatial database which may be accessed by different internal organizations for data analysis and output. A local government may use a GIS to manage tax parcels and urban development, to identify areas with reoccurring criminal activities, or to track the location of assets such as manholes, water and sewer lines, and roads. In a majority of existing GISs, system operators, or analysts, identify the locations of individual map features by overlaying these features against a base map. The base map may be a raster image such as a scanned paper map or an overhead photo, or may be set of vector layers which consist of digitized roads and buildings from scanned maps or overhead photographs. For local governments, the extent of their area of interest is small in contrast to the extent of the Earth. With small areas of extent, local governments can dedicate a majority of their GIS development budget to digitize accurate base maps. For organizations interested in tracking features across the Earth, the costs of digitizing features with a similar degree of accuracy is prohibitive. Based on the availability of base map data sources and the operational requirements, system designers of a global GIS must select the best spatial format (raster or vector) in which to represent and store spatial base map data. The selection of the format for the base maps should take into account the effects that the format will have on the hardware configuration, the display and network performance, and the maintenance and operational costs. This project presents the conceptual and preliminary designs for a global geographic information system utilizing the systems engineering approach. The system addresses the need to reduce the time analysts require to complete an analysis task by reducing the time analysts spend researching, collecting, and assembling spatial data and by enhancing their ability to enter and analyze spatial data sets. The system provides for a consolidated spatial database based upon a standard set of base maps. The design focuses on the implementation of the base map database which will contain map sets at various map scales. The project evaluates the financial and performance costs associated with implementing these map sets as either a raster or a vector base map database. Based on the operational requirements for a petroleum consortium, recommendations are made to utilize an existing commercial vector product for the 1:1000000 scale base maps and to create a raster map library for the 1:250000 and 1:50000 scale base maps. A preliminary hardware configuration is presented which reflects configuration recommendations for utilizing a raster base map database. ; Master of Science
In: Policy studies journal: the journal of the Policy Studies Organization, Band 12, Heft 3, S. 582-593
ISSN: 1541-0072
Books reviewed in this articles:Alt, James E. and K. Alec Chrystal, Political EconomicsAmerican Enterprise Institute, Natural Gas Proposals: 1983. 98th Congress, 1st SessionAmerican Enterprise Institute, Reauthrization of the Clean Water Act: 1983, 98th Congress, 1st SessionBajpai, U.S. (ed.), Non‐Alignment: Pespectives and ProspectsBall, Howard (ed.), Federal Administrative Agencies: Essays on Power and Politicsbarker, Michael (ed.), State Employment Policy in Hard TimesBaugh, William H., The Politics of Nuclear balance: Ambiguity and Continuity in Strategic PoliciesBaum, Kenneth H. and Lyle P. Schertz (eds.), Modeling Farm Decisions for Policy AnalysisBrewster, Lawrence G., The Public Agenda: Issues in American PoliticsBullock, Charles S. III and Charles M. lamb (Eds.), Implementation of Civil Rights PolicyCampbell, Duncan C. and Richard L. Rowan, Multinational Enterprises and the OECD Industrial Relations GuidelinesClark, Terry Nichols and Lorna Crowley Fergusion, City Money: Political Processes, Fiscal Strain, and RetrenchmentDahl, Robert A., Modern Political AnalysisDeloria, Vine Jr. and Clifford M. Lytle, American Indians, American JusticeEddy, William B. (ed.), Handbook of Organization ManagementFinsinger, Jorg (ed.), Public Sector EconomicsFranklin, Kay and Norman Schaeffer, Duel for the Dunes: Land Use Conflict on the Shores of Lake MichiganGilberty, Neil, Capitalism and the Welfare State: Dilemmas of Social BenevolenceGrannemann, Thomas W. and Mark V. Pauly, Controlling Medicaid Costs: Federalism, Competition, and ChoiceHall, Richard H. and Robert E. Quinn (eds.), Organizational Theory and Public PolicyHeld, David, et al (eds.), States and SocietiesHerson, Lawrence J. R., The Politics of Ideas: Political Theory and American Public PolicyHicks, Donald A. and Norman J. Glickman (eds.), Transition to the 21st Century: Prospect and Policies for Economic and Urban‐Regional TansformationKerr, Thomas J., Civil Defense in the United States: Bandaid for a Holocaust?Klein, Mitchell S. G., Law, Courts, and PolicyLynch, Thomas D. (ed.), Organization Theory and managementMartin, Shan, Managing Without Managers: Alternative Work Arrangements in Public OrganizationsMcNeil, john S., Pedro J. Lecca, and Roosevelt Wright, Jr., Military Retirement: Social, Economic, and Mental Health DilemmasMiles, Robert H. and Arvind Bhambri, The Regulatory ExecutivesNelson, Michael (ed.), The Presidency and the Political SystemNorthrup, Herbert R. and Richard L. Rowan, The International Transport Workers' Federation and Flag of Convenience ShippingPaddison, Ronan, The Fragmented State: The Political Geography of Powerpogrow, Stanley, Education in the Computer Age: Issues of Policy, Practice, and ReformRostow, W. W., The Barbaric Counter‐Revolution: Cause and CureSamuels, Richard J., The Politics of Regional Policy in Japan: Localities Incorporated?Sternlieb, George and James W. Hughes, The Atlantic City GambleTatalovich, Raymond and Byron W. Daynes, Presidential Power in the United StatesTaylor, Charles Lewis (ed.), Why Governments Grow: Measuring Public Sector SizeThompson, William R. (ed.), Contending Approaches to World System AnalysisTrebilcock, Michael, J., J. Robert S. Prichard, Thomas J. Courchene, and John Whalley (eds.), Federalism and the Canadian Economicc UnionVan Maanen, John (ed.), Qualitative MethodologyWallance, Helen, William Wallace, and Carole Webb (eds.), Policy‐Making in the European CommunityWhitaker, Gordon P. and Charles David Phillips (eds.), Evaluating Performance of Criminal Justice AgenciesWilson, John T., Academic Science, Higher Education, and the Federal Government, 1950–1983
Objetivo: Caracterizar epidemiológica y sanitariamente la ciudad de Ushuaia (territorio nacional de Tierra del Fuego) entre 1890 y 1930, momento clave en el que se profundizan paralela y articuladamente dos procesos: el contacto interétnico y la consolidación del Estado-Nación argentino Metodología: Se analizaron todas las actas de defunción disponibles para el lapso 1890-1930, lo mismo que los documentos de la gobernación pertinentes y su cruce con fuentes secundarias a fin de obtener el perfil sanitario de la ciudad y su relación con el país en cuanto al tipo de fase epidemiológica, las tasas de mortalidad, la estructura demográfica y la estructura en la atención sanitaria. Resultados: Se concluye sobre la relevancia de las enfermedades infecciosas —y dentro de estas la tuberculosis—, en la ciudad, en general, y en la población indígena y penal, en particular. Dicho perfil epidemiológico evidenció las falencias de un sistema sanitario nacional aún no consolidado, especialmente en una región de dificultoso alcance. ; Objective: To characterize the epidemiological and sanitary conditions of the city of Ushuaia (National Territory of Tierra del Fuego) at a key time in its history- a time in which interethnic contact and the consolidation of the Argentine nation-state were intensified as two parallel and related processes. Methodology: All death certificates available for the period 1890-1930 were analysed, as well as relevant government documents and secondary sources in order to obtain the health profile of the city and its relationship with the country in the following aspects: type of epidemiological phase, mortality rates, population structure, and the structure in healthcare. Results: There was a great relevance of infectious diseases, and specially tuberculosis, among the population of the city in general, and among the indigenous and criminal population in particular. This epidemiological profile showed the shortcomings of a national health system that was trying to establish at the time, especially in a region difficult to reach. ; Objetivo: Caracterizar epidemiológica e sanitariamente a cidade de Ushuaia (Território Nacional de Terra do Fogo) entre 1890 e 1930, momento em que o contato interétnico e a consolidação do Estado-Nação argentino se articularam de forma profunda. Materiais e métodos: analisaram-se todas as certidões de óbito disponíveis para o lapso 1890-1930, ao igual que os documentos do governo pertinentes e seu cruzamento com fontes secundárias a fim de obter o perfil sanitário da cidade e sua relação com o país em quanto ao tipo de fase epidemiológica, as taxas de mortalidade, a estrutura demográfica e a estrutura na atenção sanitária. Resultados: houve uma grande relevância das doenças infecciosas, e dentro destas a tuberculose, na cidade em geral e na população indígena e penal em particular. Dito perfil epidemiológico evidenciou as falências de um sistema sanitário nacional que se estava tentando instaurar nesse momento, especialmente em uma região de dificultoso alcance. ; Fil: Casali, Romina. Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales. Departamento de Arqueologia; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Tandil; Argentina
Abordamos el proceso de castigo que el régimen juarista santiagueño articula sobre la dirigente más importante de la Rama Femenina, el grupo de mayor poder en el PJ-juarista. La sanción se estructura en el espacio partidario (superpuesto al del gobierno y al del estado provincial) y particularmente desde la justicia, donde la dirigente se enfrenta a un denso proceso penal que bajo delitos como el de "extorsión" sancionan la entrega de regalos hacia su persona como supuesta contrapartida obligada por el acceso a un empleo público. Si por un lado el proceso deja ver la superposición y solidaridad entre el mundo de la política y el de la justicia en el régimen, se aprecia la mecánica ejemplar del castigo y, tanto como la presunta falta que busca reparar, un componente moral que se revela en la intensidad de la pena y en la cuota de "deshonor" y "vergüenza" a la acusada. ; In this piece of work we are going to deal with the process of punishment that the santiagueno juarista regime articulates on the most important leader of the Femenine Branch, the most powerful group of the PJ-Juarista Party. The sanction is structured in the partidary field (over the provincial government and the provincial state) and particularly from the judicial field in which the leader faces an intense criminal process. Crimes such as "extortion" sanction the "presentation" of gifts given to the leader as a compulsory compensation for a job granted in the public area. This process allows to see the superposition and solidarity between the politics world and the judicial system in the regime. It can also be appreciated the exemplary mechanics of punishment and the misdemeanour it trys to rectify. A moral component which reveals in the severity of the sentence and the "dishonour" and "shame" brought to the defendant. ; No presente trabalho se aborda o processo de castigo que o regime Juarista santiaguenho articulou sobre a dirigente mais importante da Ala Feminina, um grupo com o maior poder dentro do Partido Justicialista-Juarista de Santiago del Estero, Argentina. A sanção se estrutura desde o espaço do próprio partido (sobreposto ao do governo e ao do estado provincial) e, particularmente, desde o poder judiciário, que submete à dirigente a um processo penal denso, o qual a penaliza por delitos como o de "extorsão", por exemplo, por ter ganho presentes que eram recebidos pela dirigente em troca de favores para ter acesso a um emprego na administração provincial. Se bem o processo permite observar a superposição e vínculo recíproco entre o mundo da política e o da justiça durante o regime, também pode-se apreciar o mecanismo exemplar do castigo, assim como a busca da reparação de um erro, de um componente moral, revelada na intensidade da pena e na quota de "desonra" e "vergonha" para a acusada. ; Fil: Godoy, Mariana Inés. Universidad Nacional de Santiago del Estero; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina
La presente ricerca ha avuto ad oggetto l'analisi della criminalità culturale di matrice immigratoria nel contesto europeo contemporaneo. Tradizionalmente con il termine reato culturalmente orientato o motivato si intende quel comportamento realizzato dal membro di una cultura minoritaria che è considerato reato dall'ordinamento giuridico della cultura dominante, ma che viene accettato, condonato, o addirittura incoraggiato all'interno del gruppo culturale del soggetto agente. Dedicare la ricerca esclusivamente alla criminalità culturale di matrice immigratoria significa restringere il campo dell'analisi ai reati culturali commessi da immigrati, escludendo i reati culturali commessi da minoranze autoctone. Esulano, tra l'altro, dall'analisi i reati riconducibili all'immigrazione clandestina e le forme di terrorismo transnazionale di matrice ideologica. Il particolare tipo di reato culturale di cui si è occupata la presente ricerca può dunque essere definito come il comportamento che l'immigrato pone in essere in quanto normale, approvato, o incoraggiato dalla propria cultura e che, invece, è considerato reato nello Stato di residenza. Alla nozione di reato culturale e di cultural defence, nonché alla delimitazione dell'ambito di indagine è dedicato il primo capitolo della tesi, nell'ambito del quale vengono spiegate le difficoltà che si incontrano nel definire il concetto di cultura e di pratica culturale. La ricerca è volta a valutare la possibile rilevanza penale da riconoscere al condizionamento esercitato sul reo dall'appartenenza a una determinata cultura, ossia al c.d. fattore culturale. La definizione di reato culturale è tale da comprendere situazioni molto diverse tra loro, rispetto alle quali è necessario trovare un equilibrio tra tutela dei diritti fondamentali e diritto – o, meglio, diritti – alla specificità. Vengono alla mente pratiche riconducibili alle tradizioni di determinati gruppi etnici, quali la mutilazione degli organi genitali femminili, lo stupro che precede il matrimonio, l'impiego di minori nell'accattonaggio, o i matrimoni poligamici. Con ogni evidenza, si tratta di comportamenti che – ammesso e non concesso che siano (ancora) legittimamente praticati nei Paesi di provenienza dell'immigrato – rappresentano un problema nel momento in cui vengono posti in essere in uno Stato ospitante che ne riconosce la rilevanza penale. I flussi migratori che negli anni hanno accompagnato il processo di integrazione europea ed internazionale hanno messo in contatto persone portatrici di tradizioni culturali estremamente distanti tra loro, facendo della c.d. criminalità culturale uno dei temi più complessi, discussi e controversi del panorama giuridico contemporaneo. Dal punto di vista comunitario, tra l'altro, la nascita dell'area Schengen e il progressivo enlargement europeo hanno incrementato il fenomeno migratorio, imponendo anche a Paesi che non avevano vissuto in passato esperienze immigratorie di confrontarsi con le sfide del multiculturalismo. Spesso si pensa all'immigrazione e alla società multiculturale come una sfida per il diritto penale statale. L'area penale è, infatti, la più resistente alla sottrazione della sovranità che il processo di integrazione europea ed internazionale comporta perché rappresenta uno degli ambiti in cui maggiormente si riflette l'identità costituzionale degli Stati. La norma penale è una delle più alte manifestazioni dei valori prevalenti in una determinata area culturale. Da un lato, questo significa che l'ordinamento nazionale si riserva gelosamente la potestà di decidere quali comportamenti costituiscono reato all'interno del proprio territorio. Dall'altro lato, proprio per questo suo essere espressione della cultura di appartenenza di un determinato soggetto, la norma penale fa parte del bagaglio del migrante: l'individuo percepisce come reato ciò che per la propria cultura è reato e potrebbe non comprendere, e magari neanche percepire, le fattispecie vigenti nel territorio in cui emigra. Sullo sfondo dei reati culturali vi è una forma di conflitto culturale tra Paese ospitante e individuo ospite, che porta con sé la necessità di stabilire come devono essere giudicate le condotte poste in essere da chi appartiene a culture diverse da quella ritenuta dominante. Nell'ambito della ricerca che ha portato alla presente tesi è stato analizzato il trattamento dei culturally motivated crimes con particolare riferimento al sistema italiano e a quello del Regno Unito. L'Italia, alla quale è dedicato il secondo capitolo della tesi, storicamente è stata il punto di partenza dei migranti; soltanto nell'ultimo trentennio è divenuta una meta per gli immigrati e si è dovuta confrontare con la criminalità culturale di matrice immigratoria. Il modello italiano di gestione della diversità culturale, oltre ad essere particolarmente giovane, è considerato di stampo assimilazionista. La legislazione italiana non chiarisce la rilevanza penale da attribuire al fattore culturale, né tantomeno codifica una qualche forma di cultural defence. La strategia che, soprattutto negli ultimi anni, il nostro legislatore penale sembra portare avanti è quella di introdurre alcuni singoli reati culturalmente orientati, spesso con interventi caratterizzati da una decisa reazione sanzionatoria. In questo senso dal punto di vista legislativo vengono in particolare in rilievo due recenti interventi normativi: la legge n. 7 del 2006, con la quale è stato introdotto il delitto di mutilazioni genitali femminili e la legge n. 94 del 2009, con la quale è stato innalzata a delitto la contravvenzione di impiego dei minori nell'accattonaggio. Dal punto di vista giurisprudenziale in Italia si registra una mancanza di coerenza nelle decisioni che hanno ad oggetto i reati culturali. Per quanto attiene il sistema italiano vengono inoltre analizzate le sentenze pronunciate da tribunali esteri nell'ambito di procedimenti che hanno riguardato italiani accusati di reati culturalmente motivati. Si tratta di un'ottica molto interessante perché permette di superare l'atteggiamento paternalista mascherato da tolleranza che spesso accompagna il tema della diversità culturale. Il Regno Unito è stato scelto come secondo modello di riferimento e gli viene dedicato il terzo capitolo della tesi. Oltre ad aver vissuto un'esperienza immigratoria precedente rispetto all'Italia, la Gran Bretagna nel contesto europeo è considerata portatrice del modello c.d. multiculturalista di gestione della diversità culturale, che si contrappone al modello c.d. assimilazionista, al quale è invece riconducibile il sistema italiano. L'approccio multiculturalista è ispirato da una logica di uguaglianza sostanziale e tradizionalmente si caratterizza per il riconoscimento delle diversità culturali e l'elaborazione di politiche volte alla loro tutela. Nel Regno Unito l'appartenenza a una determinata minoranza culturale giustifica un diverso trattamento giuridico: si pensi al Road Traffic Act e all'Employment Act, che esonerano gli indiani sikh dall'uso del casco nei cantieri di lavoro e in moto, consentendo loro di indossare il tradizionale turbante. Espressione del multiculturalismo all'inglese sono anche gli Sharia Councils, pseudo-Corti formate da membri autorevoli della comunità islamica alle quali può rivolgersi la popolazione britannica musulmana affinché determinate controversie vengano risolte in applicazione della shari'a, la legge islamica. Lo studio degli Sharia Councils è stato una parte fondamentale del percorso di ricerca, svolto anche grazie alla partecipazione all'attività del Council di Londra. Questi organismi operano nell'alveo dell'Arbitration Act e sono oggi al centro di un fervente dibattito per due principali motivi. Prima di tutto nel Regno Unito si discute molto di parallel legal systems, ossia della possibilità di istituire per soggetti culturalmente diversi degli ordinamenti paralleli. Alcuni Autori ritengono che gli Sharia Councils esercitino una vera e propria competenza di carattere giurisdizionale. Assumendo questa tesi - invero minoritaria - il multiculturalismo all'inglese raggiungerebbe il cuore dell'ordinamento, all'interno del quale creerebbe una vera e propria spaccatura: ogni cittadino avrebbe la "sua" legge e il "suo" tribunale. Un altro problema fondamentale è quello dell'esercizio da parte dei Councils di una competenza di carattere penale: l'accusa rivolta a queste istituzioni è, infatti, quella di essersi arrogate una competenza in tema di violenza domestica forzando le maglie delle decisioni in tema di divorzio. Accanto all'analisi dedicata al sistema italiano e a quello inglese, per la ricerca si sono rivelate fondamentali anche le esperienze di Francia, Stati Uniti e Canada. Il sistema francese è considerato nel panorama europeo il principale modello assimilazionista: a questo proposito si parla di processo di francesizzazione degli immigrati, o anche cittadinizzazione senza integrazione. Gli Stati Uniti, spesso considerati la società multiculturale per eccellenza, sono la patria del dibattito sulla cultural defence, la strategia difensiva fondata sul fattore culturale come causa di giustificazione o come causa di diminuzione della pena. Il Canada, infine, è il portatore nel contesto internazionale del modello multiculturalista inglese: il multiculturalismo è espressamente previsto come principio nella Carta dei diritti e delle libertà, a partire dall'inizio degli anni novanta è stato reintrodotto per gli Inuit il circle sentencing, grazie al quale le decisioni, anche in materia penale, vengono adottate da una sorta di collegio composto dal giudice e da membri delle comunità interessate. Tra l'altro, è stata la Corte costituzionale canadese a formalizzare per la prima volta il c.d. test culturale, negli anni novanta. L'analisi del modello italiano, giovane e di stampo assimilazionista, e di quello multiculturalista inglese consente, anche grazie ai continui riferimenti ai sistemi adottati negli Stati Uniti, in Canada e in Francia, di assumere un punto di vista più generale sul trattamento dei reati culturali. I processi che riguardano vicende di criminalità culturale testimoniano spesso una difficoltà di integrazione degli immigrati che non è solo culturale, ma prima di tutto sociale. Sotto questo punto di vista ciò che accade nelle aule dei tribunali diventa il metro di valutazione della politica legislativa statale in tema di immigrazione. Obiettivo della ricerca è stato quello di identificare gli strumenti per gestire la criminalità culturale, individuando le strade che si possono concretamente percorrere per superare le tensioni tra società multiculturale e sistema penale, alla ricerca di un equilibrio tra tutela dei diritti fondamentali e diritti alla diversità che non metta in discussione principi cardine dell'ordinamento penale quali quello di eguaglianza e quello di proporzionalità della pena. Preso atto della complessità del problema, la prima conclusione cui si giunge all'esito della ricerca è l'impossibilità di conferire una rilevanza penale generale al fattore culturale. Non è possibile introdurre nella parte generale del Codice penale una causa di giustificazione culturale, così come non è possibile codificare una circostanza attraverso la quale dare un rilievo sanzionatorio predefinito e generale alla componente culturale che porta il reo a delinquere. Più volte tra le pagine del lavoro si sottolinea che rientrano nella nozione di reato culturale condotte che non sono neanche lontanamente paragonabili dal punto di vista del disvalore sociale che le connota e rispetto alle quali non è possibile fare un discorso di carattere generale. Così come non è possibile lavorare sulla parte generale del Codice penale, anche la scelta di introdurre fattispecie di reato create ad hoc per incriminare specifiche pratiche culturali non è condivisibile. Ed infatti, da un lato identificare e tipizzare una pratica culturale è spesso realmente difficile – e nel codice penale non c'è spazio per l'indeterminatezza – e dall'altro le esperienze italiana e inglese rivelano che l'operazione è alquanto inutile. A livello legislativo l'unica strada valutabile sembra essere quella di prevedere delle specifiche cause di non punibilità che permettano di dare una rilevanza – in maniera controllata – al fattore culturale in determinate ipotesi. Questa opzione consente di prendere in considerazione determinate pratiche culturali e di cucire su di esse la non punibilità, senza che questo implichi una scelta ordinamentale di carattere generale. Sembra, tuttavia, che sia una strada difficilmente praticabile: tra l'altro, un tema delicato come quello della criminalità culturale potrebbe non trovare facilmente una maggioranza parlamentare tale da consentire di legiferare e, comunque, ciò potrebbe avvenire in tempi decisamente lunghi. Ebbene, allo stato la chiave della questione è nel trattamento delle singole e concrete vicende di criminalità culturale e, dunque, nel ruolo del giudice. Anche in questo caso sorgono dei problemi: basti pensare che nel momento in cui il legislatore penale si astiene dal prevedere in via generale una forma di cultural defence, il fattore culturale potrebbe anche essere preso in considerazione contra reum, ad esempio a fini deterrenti, per chiarire inequivocabilmente l'intollerabilità di un determinato comportamento, o per prevenire una vendetta da parte del gruppo di appartenenza culturale della vittima. Il dato è preoccupante perché, come sottolineano gli Autori che si occupano di criminalità culturale, in presenza di un reato culturalmente orientato o motivato il grado di rimproverabilità dell'autore si attenua in conseguenza di una minore esigibilità della conformazione al precetto penale. Per arginare il rischio che il fattore culturale venga preso in considerazione per aggravare il giudizio di responsabilità del reo è dunque indispensabile sensibilizzare i giudici e munirli degli strumenti adatti per gestire la diversità culturale. In tale ottica la ricerca presenta l'analisi di alcuni strumenti che vengono utilizzati nei Paesi analizzati e dai quali è possibile prendere spunto: vengono così in rilievo l'Equal Treatment Bench Book inglese, il circle sentencing canadese, e la possibilità, sul modello francese, di integrare l'organo chiamato a giudicare un reato culturale. Di queste strade quella concretamente più praticabile è l'Equal Treatment Bench Book, un vademecum destinato agli operatori giudiziari nell'ambito del quale si rinvengono linee guida per la gestione pratica delle diversità culturali. Si tratta di un prodotto non immediatamente importabile, poiché non sarebbe sufficiente tradurlo per applicarlo, ad esempio, in Italia. È dunque necessario che i singoli Paesi adottino il proprio Bench Book; in quest'ottica la ricerca presenta alcune indicazioni da prendere in considerazione sia per quanto attiene chi potrebbe essere chiamato a scrivere il vademecum, sia per quanto attiene il contenuto del documento. In conclusione va richiamata una riflessione di carattere più generale: il modo corretto di affrontare la criminalità culturale di matrice immigratoria si basa sulla consapevolezza che prevenire è meglio che reprimere. Sicuramente, l'attenzione al ruolo del giudice e agli strumenti di concreta gestione della diversità culturale sono molto importanti, ma lo sono ancor di più le politiche per l'integrazione della società multiculturale, nella quale si assiste a un processo di scambio e di fusione culturale che si rivela il momento privilegiato per determinare l'equilibrio tra valori indiscutibili e diritti alla diversità. ; The research focuses on culturally motivated crimes related to migratory flows in the European area. A cultural offence is defined as an act by a member of a minority culture, which is considered an offence by the legal system of the dominant culture; that same act is nevertheless, within the cultural group of the offender, condoned, accepted as normal behaviour and approved or even endorsed and promoted in the given situation. The specific focus on immigration means that the research does not analyse crimes committed by native minorities. Moreover, crimes related to illegal immigration and transnational terrorism are not part of the dissertation. Thus, the specific type of cultural offences analysed in the research can be defined as the immigrant's behaviours that is normal, approved or promoted in his/her culture, but is considered offences in the State where he/she lives. The first chapter of the thesis is devoted to defining the notion of cultural crimes and cultural defence, and to outline the research analysis. This chapter acknowledges the difficulties encountered in defining the concepts of culture and cultural custom. The purpose of the research is to evaluate to what extent the fact that the defendant based his/her actions on a cultural norm can be taken into account in determining his/her responsibility within the criminal legal system of the country where the action takes place. Many different behaviours can be linked to cultural crimes and in all these circumstances there is the need to find a balance between fundamental rights protected by the domestic legal system and the specificity rights of minority groups. Consider the case of female genital mutilations, rape before wedding, or polygamy. These acts – even if they are (still) permitted in the country of the immigrant – may be considered offences in the country where the immigrant lives. Due to the immigration phenomenon related to the process of European and international integration, people coming from really different cultural backgrounds live together and nowadays the cultural crime rate has become one of the most problematic and debated legal issues. Furthermore with the gradual European enlargement more and more countries have had to face with problems related to multiculturalism. Immigration and multicultural society are often considered as a challenge for the criminal law, which is one of the more resistant areas of the whole legal system and opposes the process of European and international integration. This happens because the criminal law mirrors the essential nature of a country through the choice of the acts that are considered offences in the national territory. This choice is deeply influenced by the cultural background of the country and the criminal law is part of the cultural baggage of the immigrant. When people immigrate they bring with themselves the awareness that a behaviour is considered an offence in their country and they may not know or understand what is considered an offence in the country where they decide to live. Culturally motivated crimes stem from a conflict between the immigrant and the legal system of the country where he/she decides to live, between a cultural norm and a legal standard. With this regard, Van Broeck noted that the cultural offence has to be caused directly by the fact that the minority group the offender is a member of uses a different set of moral norms when dealing with the situation in which the offender was placed when he committed the offence: the conflict of divergent legal cultures has to be the direct cause of the offence. The research analyses how legislator and judges deal with cultural offences in Italy (Chapter II) and in the United Kingdom (Chapter III). For a long time Italy has been the starting point for immigrants and only in the last thirty years it has become their destination. For this reason the problem of determining the relevance of the cultural factor on the structure of an offence is more recent in Italy than in the United Kingdom, where the multicultural society is the result of the long story of the colonialism and the Commonwealth of Nations. Furthermore, the Italian system of handling cultural diversity is basically considered an example of assimilationism while the English one is considered an example of multiculturalism. This means that in the United Kingdom, more than in Italy, the legislation aims at preserving minority customs. In addition to the analysis of the Italian and the English systems, also the experience of France, of the United States and of Canada has been essential for the research. In the European context the French system is considered the best example of assimilationism. The law banning the wearing of a niqab or full-face veil in public is the clearest instance of this approach to different cultures which is usually regarded as gallicization of immigrants. The United States, often considered the multicultural society par excellence, are the birthplace of the debate about the cultural defence. In the international context Canada is considered an example of a multicultural system: multiculturalism is mentioned in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms of 1982 and since the 90's the circle sentencing can be used to solve disputes in the Inuit group with the participation of members of the community in addition to the judges. Furthermore, in the same period the Canadian court formalized for the first time the distinctive cultural test. The comparison between the Italian and the English systems in handling cultural differences deriving from immigration and all the references to the American, Canadian and French systems allow the research to adopt a more general point of view in analysing cultural crimes. Trials concerning culturally motivated crimes often give evidence of a difficulty in immigrants' integration; an issue that is not only a cultural problem, but primarily a social dilemma. From this point of view what happens in courtrooms becomes a device to evaluate a state immigration policy. The purpose of the research is to identify useful tools to manage cultural offences, finding a balance between victims' fundamental rights and the cultural specificity of a minority group. The first conclusion reached in the dissertation regards the impossibility to provide a general relevance to the cultural factor in the criminal system, so that it is not possible to introduce a cultural defence. Many different behaviours can be considered cultural offences and it is not possible to treat as homogeneous a broad range of acts. At the same time, also the introduction of type of offences to criminalize a specific cultural practice is not the right way to solve the problem of the cultural factor in the structure of the offence. First of all there would be many problems in identifying a cultural practice, because it is really hard to recognize which behaviour can be related to the cultural background of the minority group of the defendant. Moreover, as can be noticed when problems concerning the criminalization of the female genital mutilation in Italy and the United Kingdom are analysed, this way seems almost useless. A good option is to adopt methods which do not impose a penalty to the defendant, taking into account his/her cultural background in certain circumstances. This can be done using the absolute discharge of the English legal system or the category of the cause di non punibilità of the Italian one. In this case the chance not to impose a penalty to an immigrant defendant can be achieved without any consequence on the nature of offence of the behaviour in the legal system of the country where he/she decides to live. In a similar way in the Italian system it could be difficult to find the parliamentary majority to approve a legislation introducing the specific causa di non punibilità. Thus, the more practicable solution concerns the judges' activity. In this case, there is the need to avoid that the cultural factor is used contra reum worsening, for instance, the penalty. This modus operandi would not be fair because in the case of actions determined by a cultural norm commonly accepted by a minority group, the degree of reproach of these behaviours should be alleviated. In order to avoid that the cultural factor could be taken into account contra reum the first thing to do is to sensitize judges to the problems of the criminal law in a multicultural society. With this regard, the research analyses some tools used in the analised systems: in particular, the English Equal Treatment Bench Book, the Canadian system of the circle sentencing and the possibility, as in the French legislation, to integrate the judging body with lay judges in trials concerning cultural offences. The most workable solution is the Equal Treatment Bench Book, a guide for judges, magistrates, and all other judicial office-holders to handle cultural differences in trials. This English vademecum is not immediately importable in other European countries. In fact, it is not enough to translate it to solve the problem of sensitizing judges in so different legal systems. Thus, it is necessary to adopt a document like the English Bench Book in every country where immigration puts cultural offences on the agenda. From this point of view the research gives some hints about the drawing up of this vademecum. In conclusion it is possible to affirm that the correct way to approach cultural offences committed by immigrants is to understand that prevention is better than cure. Surely, it is important to pay attention to the role of judges and to the tools they can use in handling criminal offences. It is even truer that all the policies for the integration of the multicultural society are the most important instrument to determine the balance between fundamental rights and specificity rights of minority groups, that is also the key to handle cultural crimes.
Inhaltsangabe: Einleitung: Durch den gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen Wandel kommt der beruflichen Bildung in der Europäischen Union eine nach wie vor wachsende Bedeutung zu. Die stetig zunehmenden Anforderungen an den Einzelnen und die sich ändernden Rahmenbedingungen, wie die Globalisierung der Wirtschaft, die vollständige Realisierung des Binnenmarktes und die technische Weiterentwicklung und Veränderung in der Arbeitswelt, sind die Ursache für die wachsende Bedeutung der beruflichen Bildung in der Europäischen Union. Seit Anfang der 90er Jahre erfuhr die politische Zusammenarbeit der EU-Mitgliedstaaten im Bildungsbereich, speziell im Bereich der beruflichen Bildung, zur Reduzierung der Arbeitslosigkeit und zur Förderung der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit der Unternehmen eine kontinuierliche Ausweitung. Zielsetzung der Europäischen Kommission war und ist es, die Mobilität und den Erwerb interkultureller Kompetenzen im europäischen Bildungs- und Beschäftigungsraum zu ermöglichen. Durch verstärkte Kooperationen in grenzübergreifenden Bildungsprojekten sollen zunehmend auch Maßnahmen zur Förderung von Anerkennung, Anrechnung und Transparenz von Qualifikationen und Bildungsabschlüssen gefördert werden. Aspekte wie lebenslanges Lernen, ECVET, NQR und EQR und Mobilitätsförderung prägen die Diskussionen in den Politikbereichen der beruflichen Bildung. Die zuvor aufgezählten Aspekte führten dazu, dass sich der Europäische Rat auf seinem Treffen in Lissabon im Mai 2000 erstmals mit Fragen der beruflichen Bildung beschäftigte, als er es sich zur Aufgabe und Zielsetzung machte, 'die Europäische Union bis 2010 zum wettbewerbsfähigsten und dynamischsten wissensbasierten Wirtschaftsraum der Welt zu machen – einem Wirtschaftsraum, der fähig ist, ein dauerhaftes Wirtschaftswachstum mit mehr und besseren Arbeitsplätzen und einem größeren sozialen Zusammenhalt zu erzielen'. Die berufliche Bildung spielt zur Realisierung dieses Ziels eine wichtige, wenn nicht sogar die Hauptrolle wegen des engen Zusammenhangs zur Wirtschaft sowie zum Arbeitsmarkt. Der Rat der Europäischen Union hat für die Umsetzung der Ziele für die berufliche Bildung 2002 ein detailliertes Arbeitsprogramm aufgestellt. Die drei Grundprinzipien dieses Programms sind die Verbesserung der Qualität der beruflichen Bildung, die Erleichterung des Zugangs zur Bildung und die Öffnung der Bildung gegenüber der restlichen Welt, um den Austausch von Informationen durch bessere Koordination zu fördern. Bei seiner Tagung im März 2002 in Barcelona legte der Europäische Rat fest, dass die berufliche Bildung durch Weiterentwicklung und Zusammenarbeit bis zum Jahr 2010 zu einer 'weltweiten Qualitätsreferenz' gestaltet und ausgebaut werden solle. Daher haben sich die Mitgliedsstaaten im Dezember 2002 mit der Kopenhagener Erklärung darauf geeinigt, einen 'Berufsbildungsraum in Europa' durch die gegenseitige Öffnung der Berufsbildungssysteme und eine verstärkte Zusammenarbeit zu schaffen. Der hierdurch entstandene 'Kopenhagen-Prozess' hat zum Ziel, die Mobilität der Arbeitnehmer auf dem europäischen Arbeitsmarkt zu fördern und praxisgerechte Lösungen für die Transparenz, Anerkennung und Qualität der Bildungssysteme in der Europäischen Union zu finden. Unlängst, am 23. April 2008, haben das Europäische Parlament und der Ministerrat den EQR verabschiedet. Die Planung und Umsetzung der NQR der Mitgliedstaaten der Europäischen Union befinden sich in stetiger Weiterentwicklung, wobei einige Mitgliedsstaaten ihren NQR schon in Kraft gesetzt haben. Die abschließenden Entwicklungen für ein europäisches Leistungspunktesystem in der beruflichen Bildung (ECVET) werden noch debattiert; die Diskussionen sollen im Frühjahr 2009 abgeschlossen werden. Generell sollen die beiden Elemente EQR und ECVET für die Berufsbildung in Europa miteinander verbunden werden. Angesichts dieser großen Herausforderung stehen die Berufsbildungssysteme der einzelnen EU-Mitgliedstaaten unter erheblichen Reform- und Modernisierungsdruck. Die vorliegende Arbeit möchte aus diesem Anlass, mit Blick auf den europäischen Ausbildungsmarkt, eine vergleichende Analyse zwischen den Ausbildungssystemen in Finnland, Polen, Dänemark und Deutschland an Hand der Ausbildungsberufe des KFZ-Mechatronikers und des Friseurs vornehmen und an diesem Beispiel Fragen nach dem Einfluss der Europäischen Berufsbildungspolitik auf die einzelnen Berufsbildungssysteme der EU-Mitgliedstaaten klären. Lösungswege, wie die Transparenz der Systeme im Verhältnis untereinander erfolgen sollte, werden an Hand von zwei klassischen Ausbildungsberufen, des KFZ-Mechatronikers und des Friseurs darzustellen versucht. Zu diesem Zweck sollen zunächst in den ersten Kapiteln der Arbeit Begriffe erklärt und Grundlagen geschaffen werden, um darauf aufbauend die einzelnen Systeme der zu vergleichenden Länder zu analysieren und die nationalen Qualifikationsrahmen sowie den europäischen Qualifikationsrahmen darzustellen und zu erläutern. Im Anschluss daran werden geeignete Schritte auf dem Weg zu einer Angleichung der Ausbildungssysteme erörtert und bewertet. Die Arbeit mündet in bereits entwickelte Instrumente, wie den Europass, Austauschprogramme wie 'Leonardo da Vinci', die Entwicklung von einem Europäischen Qualifikationsrahmen und das Vorantreiben der Entwicklung von nationalen Qualifikationsrahmen, die die Mobilität, Transparenz und Vergleichbarkeit der Ausbildungsberufe des KFZ-Mechatronikers und des Friseurs aufzeigen, und regt zu Diskussionen für Verbesserungen in der beruflichen Bildung an. Dabei werden Schritte auf dem Weg zu einer Angleichung der beiden Ausbildungsberufe an die sich fortschreitende Globalisierung aufgezeigt und es wird ein Ausblick auf die nähere Zukunft gegeben. Es ist faszinierend, wie Europa immer mehr zusammenwächst. Doch ein gemeinsames Europa kann nur funktionieren, wenn die noch zu existierenden Barrieren beseitigt werden.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: Inhaltsverzeichnis2 Abkürzungsverzeichnis9 1.Gegenstand, Aufbau und Problemstellung der Arbeit12 2.Grundlagen15 2.1Ausbildung, Ausbildungssystem, Ausbildungsmarkt15 2.1.1Definitionen15 2.1.2Historie und Entwicklung der Ausbildung17 2.1.3Ziele der Ausbildung22 2.2'Europäischer' Ausbildungsmarkt?23 2.2.1Historie und Entwicklung23 2.2.2Ziele eines europäischen Ausbildungsmarktes26 2.3Zur Wahl der Vergleichsländer27 3.Gestaltung der nationalen Ausbildungssysteme in vier europäischen Staaten29 3.1Das Ausbildungssystem in Deutschland29 3.1.1Gesetzliche Grundlagen29 3.1.2Lernorte im dualen Berufsausbildungssystem34 3.1.3Transparenz der dualen Berufsausbildung38 3.1.4Finanzierung der dualen Berufsausbildung in Deutschland39 3.2Das Ausbildungssystem in Finnland40 3.2.1Entwicklung40 3.2.2Das finnische Bildungssystem im Überblick42 3.2.3Gesetzliche Grundlagen des Ausbildungssystems43 3.2.4Lernorte im Ausbildungssystem Finnland44 3.2.5Finanzierung des Ausbildungssystems Finnlands49 3.2.6Leitlinien des Ausbildungssystems Finnlands50 3.3Das Ausbildungssystem in Polen51 3.3.1Entwicklung und gesetzliche Grundlagen51 3.3.2Lernorte im Ausbildungssystem Polen55 3.3.3Finanzierung des Ausbildungssystems Polens57 3.4Das Ausbildungssystem in Dänemark58 3.4.1Entwicklung des Ausbildungssystems in Dänemark58 3.4.2Gesetzliche Grundlagen des Ausbildungssystems Dänemark59 3.4.3Lernorte im Ausbildungssystem Dänemark59 3.5Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede der Ausbildungssysteme61 3.5.1Berufsbildungspolitische Zielsetzung61 3.5.2Unterschiede in rechtlichen Grundlagen62 3.5.3Entwicklung der Persönlichkeit in den einzelnen Systemen64 3.6Zwischenergebnis66 4.Nationale Qualifikationsrahmen der Ausbildungssysteme67 4.1Definition eines Nationalen Qualifikationsrahmens67 4.1.1Einführung67 4.1.2Aufbau und Struktur eines Nationalen Qualifikationsrahmens68 4.1.3Neuordnungsverfahren der Ausbildungsberufe im dualen System Deutschlands69 4.1.4Stand der Debatte um die Entwicklung eines Deutschen Qualifikationsrahmens72 4.1.5Formales und informelles Lernen als wichtiger und integrierter Aspekt für die Entwicklung von Nationalen Qualifikationsrahmen75 4.2Die Nationalen Qualifikationsrahmen der analysierten Länder im Vergleich77 4.2.1Stand der Entwicklung der Nationalen Qualifikationsrahmen77 4.2.1.1Finnland77 4.2.1.2Polen78 4.2.1.3Dänemark79 4.2.2Auswirkung der Nationalen Qualifikationsrahmen auf die Berufsausbildung80 4.2.3Förderung der internationalen Dimension der Berufsausbildung82 4.3Zwischenergebnis84 5.Der Europäische Qualifikationsrahmen86 5.1Definition eines Europäischen Qualifikationsrahmens86 5.1.1Die europäische Berufsbildungspolitik und ihre gesetzlichen Grundlagen86 5.1.2Aufbau, Struktur und wesentliche Begriffe eines EQR90 5.1.3Bedeutung und Stellenwert des Europäischen Qualifikationsrahmens und der europäischen Berufsbildungspolitik für die Gesellschaft93 5.1.4Die berufliche Handlungsfähigkeit im Rahmen des EQR98 5.2Politische und gesellschaftliche Aspekte der Europäischen Berufsbildungspolitik103 5.2.1Die Berufswahlfreiheit aus europäischer Sicht103 5.2.2Die Europäische Dimension der Berufsausübung unter dem Aspekt der Europäischen Entsenderichtlinie105 5.2.2.1Überblick105 5.2.2.2Regelungen in den einzelnen Staaten108 5.2.2.2.1Deutschland108 5.2.2.2.2Finnland111 5.2.2.2.3Polen112 5.2.2.2.4Dänemark115 5.2.2.2.5Ergebnis116 5.2.3Europäische Berufsbildungspolitik und transnationale Mobilität118 5.2.4Die europäische Förderung der dualen Berufsausbildung120 5.2.5Die Finanzierung der Berufsbildung in der Europäischen Union122 5.3Der Konnex zwischen dem dualen Ausbildungssystem in Deutschland und den Ausbildungssystemen Finnland und Polen sowie Dänemark am Beispiel der Ausbildungsberufe Kfz-Mechatroniker und Friseur124 5.3.1Grundlagen und Verlauf des Ausbildungsberufs des Kfz-Mechatronikers im dualen System Deutschland zu den Vergleichsländern124 5.3.1.1Deutschland124 5.3.1.2Polen126 5.3.1.3Dänemark128 5.3.1.4Finnland129 5.3.2Grundlagen und Verlauf des Ausbildungsberufes des Friseurs im dualen System Deutschland zu den Vergleichsländern130 5.3.2.1Deutschland130 5.3.2.2Polen133 5.3.2.3Dänemark134 5.3.2.4Finnland135 5.3.3Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede im Ausbildungsverlauf136 5.3.3.1Finnland136 5.3.3.2Polen137 5.3.3.3Dänemark138 5.3.4Auswirkungen der europäischen Orientierung an den verschiedenen Ausbildungssystemen unter dem Aspekt der Richtlinie über die Anerkennung von Berufsqualifikationen und die Konsequenzen auf das Entsprechungsverfahren auf die duale Ausbildung in Deutschland138 5.4Förderung der Mobilität und Transparenz der Berufsausbildung140 5.4.1Die berufliche Mobilität in der EU während der Ausbildung140 5.4.2Der Europass als Instrument der Transparenz142 5.4.3Anwendung der Lernergebnisse an Beispielen durchgeführter Projekte in der Berufsausbildung: das Leonardo da Vinci Projekt147 5.4.3.1Vorbemerkung147 5.4.3.2Projekt I – 'EU Teamleader'149 5.4.3.3Projekt II –'interkulturelle Handlungskompetenz in Norwegen'152 5.4.3.4Projekt III – 'Handwerkskammer Potsdam'154 5.4.3.5Projekt IV - 'Lehrlingsaustausch im Friseurhandwerk'156 5.4.4Die Einbindung der Sozialpartner in die europäische Berufsbildungspolitik157 5.4.5Strategien der Modularisierung der Berufsbildung unter dem Aspekt des EQR und ECVET aus deutscher Sicht159 5.4.6Verbesserung der Transparenz zwischen den Bildungsebenen unter dem Aspekt von EQR und ECVET aus deutscher Sicht163 6.Schritte auf dem Weg zu einer Angleichung der Ausbildungssysteme165 6.1Die Arbeit der Mitgliedstaaten in der europäischen Berufsbildungspolitik165 6.1.1Errichtung nationaler Referenzstellen für die Qualität der beruflichen Bildung166 6.1.2Stellungnahmen deutscher Akteure167 6.2Modernisierung der beruflichen Bildung – ein elementarer Beitrag zum sozialen Zusammenhalt und Wohlstand in Europa169 6.2.1Überblick169 6.2.2Implementierung der Ausbildungsberufe des Kfz-Mechatronikers und des Friseurs in EQR und DQR170 6.2.3Umsetzung der Ziele der Systeme der beruflichen Bildung in Europa171 7.Resümee173 7.1Zusammenfassung173 7.2Ausblick – konkrete zukünftige Ziele der beruflichen Bildung mit Blick auf die Ausbildungsberufe Kfz-Mechatroniker und Friseur175 7.3Entwicklung eines eigenständigen Modells zur Qualitätssicherung und Vergleichbarkeit der Abschlüsse183 7.4Fazit185 Literatur- und Quellenverzeichnis186 Anhang200 Anhang 1 – DQR Matrix201 Anhang 2 – EQR Niveaustufen205 Anhang 3 – Auszug Schulgesetz Baden-Württemberg207 Anhang 4 – Europäisches Qualitätssicherungsmodell213 Anhang 5 – Auszug Rahmenlehrplan Kfz-Mechatroniker214 Anhang 6 – Grafik Qualifikationsvergleichbarkeit216 Anhang 7 – Europass Lebenslauf217 Anhang 8 – Europass Sprachen219 Anhang 9 – Europass Zeugniserläuterung220 Anhang 10 – Europass Mobilität222 Anhang 11 – Ausbildungskosten 2000225Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 5.2.2, Die Europäische Dimension der Berufsausübung unter dem Aspekt der Europäischen Entsenderichtlinie: Überblick: Mit Blick auf die Mobilitätsförderung während und nach der Berufsausbildung, bildet das Arbeitnehmerentsendegesetz, auch Gesetz über zwingende Arbeitsbedingungen bei grenzüberschreitenden Dienstleistungen, die Grundlage für die Festsetzung eines Branchenmindestlohns, der für alle inländischen und ausländischen Arbeitnehmer der Branche gilt. Da die Entwicklungen der Durchschnittslöhne in den einzelnen Mitgliedsstaaten unterschiedlich sind, kam es in den einzelnen Mitgliedsstaaten und auf europäischer Ebene zu verstärkten Diskussionen über einen europäischen Mindestlohn. Der europäische Wirtschaftsraum kann für die Beschäftigten der Mitgliedsstaaten nur attraktiv gestaltet werden, das Wachstum und die Mobilität fördern, wenn das Lohngefüge innerhalb der EU gerecht gestaltet ist. Es wird kaum eine Mobilitätsbewegung innerhalb der EU geben, wenn zum Beispiel ein Kfz-Mechatroniker in Deutschland 1.600 Euro netto Arbeitslohn verdienen wird und in Polen 1.200 Euro, auch wenn die Lebensbedingungen in beiden Ländern verschieden sind. Die Wissenschaftler des WSI haben 2008 eine Studie über europäische Mindestlöhne erarbeitet und plädieren für eine europaweit koordinierte Mindestlohnpolitik. Für die unteren Lohngruppen soll jedes Mitgliedsland eine konkrete Mindestnormen festlegen, die in einem bestimmten Verhältnis zum nationalen Lohngefüge stehen. In der EU-Sozialcharta würde damit der sozialen Grundrechte der Arbeitnehmer von 1989 erhobene Forderung verwirklicht, wonach den Arbeitnehmerinnen und Arbeitnehmern ein 'gerechtes Arbeitsentgelt' garantiert werden soll. Ursprünglich war das Ziel dieses Gesetzes die Festschreibung zwingender Arbeitsbedingungen für Arbeitnehmer, die von im Ausland ansässigen Arbeitgebern zur grenzüberschreitenden Erbringung von Dienstleistungen nach Deutschland entsandt werden. Das AEntG war ein rein protektionistisches Gesetz, das deutsche Unternehmen vor ausländischer Konkurrenz schützen sollte, indem zwingende Arbeitsbedingungen für Arbeitnehmer ausländischer Unternehmen festgeschrieben wurden, die nach Deutschland entsandt worden sind. Ausländische Unternehmen mussten nach dem Gesetz ihren nach Deutschland entsandten Arbeitern ein Entgelt nach dem deutschen (Mindestlohn-) Tarifvertrag zahlen, wenn dieser Tarifvertrag in Deutschland allgemeinverbindlich erklärt wurde. Allein unter den Voraussetzungen des § 5 TVG konnte die Allgemeinverbindlichkeit eines Tarifvertrags im AEntG in der früheren Fassung vom 26.02.1996 herbeigeführt werden: danach müssen u.a. die Spitzenorganisationen der Arbeitgeber der Allgemeinverbindlichkeit zustimmen. Nachdem die Allgemeinverbindlichkeitserklärung eines Mindestlohntarifvertrags, den die Tarifvertragsparteien im Hinblick auf das AEntG geschlossen hatten, am Widerstand der BDA gescheitert war, da einem solchen Vertrag auch nicht tarifgebundene Unternehmen unterliegen würden, wurde das AEntG um die Möglichkeit erweitert, die Allgemeinverbindlichkeit eines Tarifvertrags auf einem anderen Weg als nach dem TVG herbeizuführen. Seither kann aufgrund des 1998 in das Gesetz eingefügten § 1 Abs. 3a AEntG auch der Bundesminister für Arbeit und Soziales durch Rechtsverordnung die Allgemeinverbindlichkeit eines Tarifvertrages herstellen. Die Neufassung lautet: 'Ist ein Antrag auf Allgemeinverbindlicherklärung eines Tarifvertrages nach (§ 1) Absatz 1 oder Absatz 3 Satz 1 gestellt worden, kann das Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales unter den dort genannten Voraussetzungen durch Rechtsverordnung ohne Zustimmung des Bundesrates bestimmen, dass die Rechtsnormen dieses Tarifvertrages auf alle unter den Geltungsbereich dieses Tarifvertrages fallenden und nicht tarifgebundenen Arbeitgeber und Arbeitnehmer Anwendung finden. Vor Erlass der Rechtsverordnung gibt das Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales den in den Geltungsbereich der Rechtsverordnung fallenden Arbeitgebern und Arbeitnehmern sowie den Parteien des Tarifvertrages Gelegenheit zur schriftlichen Stellungnahme. Die Rechtsverordnung findet auch auf ein Arbeitsverhältnis zwischen einem Arbeitgeber, mit Sitz im Ausland und seinem im Geltungsbereich der Rechtsverordnung beschäftigten Arbeitnehmer zwingend Anwendung'. Im Unterschied zur Allgemeinverbindlichkeit nach dem TVG ist es nicht erforderlich, dass die tarifgebundenen Arbeitgeber mindestens die Hälfte der im Geltungsbereich des Tarifvertrages tätigen Arbeitnehmer beschäftigten. Schließlich muss auch der Bundesrat nicht der Rechtsverordnung und damit der Allgemeinverbindlichkeit des Tarifvertrags zustimmen. Seit dem 16.12.1996 existiert auf EG-Ebene die Entsenderichtlinie 96/71/EG, die bis zum 16.12.1999 von den Mitgliedstaaten in nationales Recht umgesetzt werden musste. Die Entsenderichtlinie bindet die Regierungen der Mitgliedstaaten der EU und verpflichtet diese, deren Regelungsgehalt in nationales Recht zu transferieren. Die Entsenderichtlinie soll der Herstellung des EU-Binnenmarktes dienen und fußt damit auf Artikeln 47 Abs. 2 und 55 des Vertrages zur Gründung der Europäischen Gemeinschaft (EGV). Die Richtlinie will gewährleisten, dass die Arbeitnehmer, die tatsächlich längere Zeit in einem anderen EU-Mitgliedstaat für ihre Arbeitgeber tätig werden, nicht zu schlechteren Konditionen arbeiten müssen als vergleichbare Arbeitnehmer des Ziellandes. Regelungsinhalt ist also die grenzüberschreitende Erbringung von Dienstleistungen innerhalb der EU, da grundsätzlich gilt, dass das Arbeitsrecht des Mitgliedstaates Anwendung findet, das auf das jeweilige Arbeitsverhältnis Anwendung findet.
Correspondence between Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles who is living in exile in San Diego, CA and Gen. Abelardo L. Rodríguez. Gen. Calles informs he will be interviewed by the magazine Today whose director is Mr. Moley and who asked him to write an article regarding the situation in Europe. Gen. Abelardo L. Rodríguez replies informing he visited Scotland and Ireland and that he received the copy of the magazine. He congratulates him for the article. He asks Gen. Calles to clarify the statements by the American press that he was a dictator. Gen. Calles replies he has not made statements regarding his role in Mexican politics because the newspapers do not publish them. Gen. Abelardo L. Rodríguez sends a letter to Gen. Calles complaining about the weather in London and talks about the situation in Germany, Japan, Italy, the United States, London, Spain and Russia. Gen. Calles sends a newspaper clipping of the San Diego Union to Gen. Rodríguez. Gen. Rodríguez sends a letter to Melchor Ortega in February 1937. He writes about the arbitration system regarding worker conflicts and states that President Roosevelt will legislate about it. He analyzes strikes and how they have functioned in France. He tells him he read in Times that President Cárdenas decreed freedom of religion to practice Catholicism in Mexico due to a violent event in which the police in Jalapa, Veracruz interrupted a mass and killed a person. Gen. Rodríguez writes to Gen. Calles saying he is not surprised the amnesty decreed by the president does not include him. They exchange birthday, Christmas and New Year's greetings, and sympathy for the death of the mother of Gen. Rodríguez. "Notes on my trip to Russia" by Gen. Rodríguez in 1938. The notes were published by El Universal in seven different articles between October 24 and November 14, 1938. There are copies of articles 1 (two copies), 2, 3, 5 (three copies), 6 (two copies) and 7 (two copies). Gen. Rodríguez criticizes Stalin. The titles of the articles are "The Stalin regime", "Woman and Family", "Where does capital gain go?", "Natural Resources" (three copies), "Land Exploitation", "Communism and Democracy". Article "The Ex-President Gen. Rodríguez confirmed his statements about Russia". Article "Sharp statements and mendacious claims against A.L. Rodríguez" El Universal November 15. Gen Calles asks Gen. Rodríguez to recommend Enrique Ferreira since he was dismissed from his consular appointment. / Correspondencia entre el general PEC, que se encuentra en el exilio en San Diego, Cal., y el general Abelardo L. Rodríguez, quien vive primero en Londres, Inglaterra y luego en Ensenada, Baja California. El general PEC informa al general Abelardo L. Rodríguez que concedió una entrevista a la revista Today, que dirige el señor Moley, quien además le pidió que escribiera un artículo acerca de la situación mundial, de los regímenes totalitarios en Europa y de los importantes acontecimientos que estaban por ocurrir. Se lamenta del avance del comunismo en nuestro país y de la nueva ley monetaria promulgada en México. Contestación del general Abelardo L. Rodríguez, quien le comenta que visitó Escocia e Irlanda; que ya recibió un ejemplar de la revista Today y lo felicita por su artículo que hace un análisis muy preciso del radicalismo con el que se gobiernan las naciones y manifiesta que él no cree que vaya a estallar la guerra en Europa porque es mucho lo que los países tienen que perder ya que han invertido mucho en armamento y si situación económica no es muy estable. Solicita además al general PEC que desmienta los constantes infundios de la prensa, sobre todo norteamericana, de que fue el dictador, el Jefe Máximo hasta su exilio en San Diego. Dice que ya le ha pedido esta aclaración varias veces pero que no ha encontrado respuesta. El general PEC, desde Los Geysers en Cloverdale, Cal., E.U.A., donde está recibiendo un tratamiento de aguas termales, le contesta que agradece su opinión sobre su artículo publicado en Today y que si no ha hecho una terminante aclaración de su papel en la política mexicana desde que dejó la presidencia es porque no se la publican, porque al público lector norteamericano no le interesan esos asuntos políticos sino los escándalos y notas amarillistas y que además su aclaración no tendría fuerza, ya que provendría de él mismo, que es el directamente implicado; pero que siempre que tiene oportunidad explica cuál fue su papel en la política mexicana durante los años que participó en ella. El general Abelardo L. Rodríguez envía una carta con saludos al general PEC, se queja del clima de Inglaterra y reitera que él considera que una conflagración mundial es remota y explica la situación en que se encuentran Alemania, Japón, Italia, Estados Unidos, Inglaterra, España y Rusia y las posiciones de sus respectivos gobernantes. El general PEC envía al general Abelardo L. Rodríguez un recorte del diario The San Diego Union. El general Abelardo L. Rodríguez escribe una carta a Melchor Ortega en febrero de 1937 en la que comenta el mecanismo operativo del sistema de arbitraje obligatorio en materia de conflictos obreros; asegura que hasta el presidente Roosevelt legislará en esta materia porque son graves los trastornos que causan a la economía las constantes huelgas; hace un análisis de todas las posibilidades de este recurso y cómo ha funcionado en Francia. Por último le comenta la noticia que leyó en "El Times" acerca de que el presidente Cárdenas decretó el libre ejercicio de la religión católica en todo el país, después de los desmanes de la policía del gobierno en Jalapa, que interrumpió una misa y mató a una persona. El general Abelardo L. Rodríguez escribe al general PEC informando que no le extraña que no lo hayan incluido en la amnistía general decretada ya que las causas de su exilio son distintas a los delitos incluidos en la misma. El general Abelardo L. Rodríguez y el general PEC intercambian felicitaciones por sus onomásticos, por la Navidad y año nuevo y un pésame por el fallecimiento de la madre del primero. "Notas de mi viaje a Rusia", serie que escribió el general Abelardo L. Rodríguez con sus impresiones de la Rusia de Stalin, que visitó en 1938. Fueron publicadas en siete entregas en el periódico El Universal, entre el 24 de octubre y el 14 de noviembre de 1938. Sólo se conservan recortes de la 1a. (dos copias), de la 2a., de la 3a., de la 5a. (tres ejemplares), de la 6a. (dos ejemplares), y de la última (dos ejemplares). En esta serie el autor critica muy duramente el régimen impuesto por Stalin, a quien considera como un dictador sanguinario y brutal que ha establecido un sistema que no respeta ninguna libertad, que reprime cualquier intento de superación personal por méritos propios y que sólo favorece a los miembros del partido. Los títulos son "El Régimen Stalinista", "La mujer y la familia", "¿Adónde va la plusvalía?", "Los recursos naturales" (tres copias), "La explotación de la tierra". "El comunismo y la democracia. Ratifica el ex presidente de México, Gral. Rodríguez cuanto ha dicho de Rusia. Desde Ensenada, Baja California, envía esta ratificación de lo escrito en sus artículos anteriores acerca de la Rusia stalinista y piensa que los desmentidos provienen de agentes asalariados de Stalin. Agradece a Excélsior la hospitalidad que le dio en sus páginas para publicar sus impresiones de viaje. El Universal publica la misma aclaración el 15 de noviembre: "Desahogos virulentos y afirmaciones mendaces contra A. L. Rodríguez". El general PEC solicita al general Abelardo L. Rodríguez que recomiende a Enrique Ferreira, que injustamente y sólo por considerársele emparentado con él, fue cesado de su cargo consular.
Der Autor arbeitet die Geschichte des Jugendhauses Halle – des größten Jugendgefängnisses der DDR – auf Basis neuer Quellen auf. Er beschreibt anschaulich und allgemeinverständlich den Haftalltag. Dieser war durch strikten Tagesablauf, militärischen Drill und Drangsalierung, aber auch durch Eigensinn der Inhaftierten gekennzeichnet. Machtmissbrauch durch Bedienstete und die oft mit brutaler Gewalt durchgesetzte Häftlingshierarchie konterkarierten den offiziellen Erziehungsanspruch. Die Untersuchung schildert die Lebensbedingungen der Inhaftierten und analysiert die Ursachen des Scheiterns der angestrebten Umerziehung. Dafür wurden Akten aus fünf Archiven ausgewertet und 20 Zeitzeugen-Interviews geführt. Im Buch finden Sie auch Bilder vom heutigen Zustand des Jugendhauses, die der Fotograf Marcus-Andreas Mohr 2022 für die Bundesstiftung zur Aufarbeitung der SED-Diktatur angefertigt hat.
