AMÉRICA LATINAFalleció el ex presidente argentino Néstor Kirchner.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/world/americas/28argentina.html?_r=1&ref=world http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/27/content_11467331.htm http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/719324.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-10627873 http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/10/27/argentina.kirchner.dies/index.html?hpt=T2 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/muri-el-ex-presidente-argentino-nstor-kirchner_8214081-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2010/10/27/nestor-kirchner-est-mort_1432037_3222.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1319033 http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/10/27/1894171/former-argentine-president-nestor.html http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2027800,00.htmlEl cólera se expande entre la población de Haití.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/autoridades/creen/brote/colera/puede/estar/estabilizandose/Haiti/elpepuint/20101024elpepuint_1/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/10/23/haiti.cholera/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39823732/ns/health/ http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/epidemia-de-clera-en-hait-an-no-ha-alcanzado-su-pico-segn-la-oms_8213700-4 http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/10/27/1894505/aid-meant-for-red-cross-in-haiti.htmlVenezuela, el país más corrupto de América Latina.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/ndice-de-percepcin-de-la-corrupcin_8204040-4Hugo Chávez toma control de plantas de firma estadounidense.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/chvez-llama-a-movilizacin-de-apoyo-a-expropiacin-firma-de-ee-uu_8212760-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/41B9F5C4-E92A-4E3D-BD52-6AEE034B5B7D.htm?id={41B9F5C4-E92A-4E3D-BD52-6AEE034B5B7D}13 internos mueren acribillados en un centro de desintoxicación en Tijuana.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39828239/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/internos/mueren/acribillados/centro/desintoxicacion/Tijuana/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_4/Tes http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318562Se seca un afluente del Amazonas.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/seca/afluente/Amazonas/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_2/TesEn una ajustada victoria, la izquierdista Villarán se queda con la alcaldía de Lima.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/_portada/noticias/68B22954-A2BF-450B-9614-2FC9548050E3.htm?id={68B22954-A2BF-450B-9614-2FC9548050E3}Recta final de la campaña presidencial brasileña.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Serra/prepara/ultimo/asalto/elpepuint/20101024elpepiint_10/Tes http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39809473/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1317498Congreso español instó a Venezuela a cooperar en lucha contra Eta.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/congreso-espaol-inst-a-venezuela-a-cooperar-en-lucha-contra-eta_8209502-4Se desvanece el huracán Richard.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39826998/ns/weather/Piñera condecoró como héroes a los 33 mineros.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318546Por decimonoveno año consecutivo, la ONU condena el embargo contra Cuba.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/2186E090-C048-40D6-84AE-7BB6A965BDAC.htm?id={2186E090-C048-40D6-84AE-7BB6A965BDAC}Irán y Bolivia amplían alianza estratégica.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/6D820549-4140-4223-9837-5A2C3AC8E8C9.htm?id={6D820549-4140-4223-9837-5A2C3AC8E8C9}Censo nacional tuvo lugar en Argentina.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11634631ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁElecciones federales, estatales y locales en los Estados Unidos.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/cierra/campana/electoral/democrata/alertando/peligro/republicano/elpepuint/20101024elpepuint_2/Teshttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318728 http://clesnes.blog.lemonde.fr/2010/10/26/obama-et-le-slurpee-des-republicains/ http://electionsamericaines.blog.lemonde.fr/2010/10/26/les-quatre-reines-du-tea-party/ http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/us/politics/27money.html?_r=1&hpLos crímenes de Irak se revelan al mundo.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/wikileaks-divulga-nuevos-videos-sobre-supuestos-abusos-en_8208420-4 http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/crimenes/Irak/revelan/mundo/elpepuint/20101024elpepiint_1/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2010/US/10/22/wikileaks.iraq/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39810329/ns/world_news-the_new_york_times/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318265EUROPALa Unión Europea explorará vías de acercamiento a Cuba.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318560 http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/UE/explorara/vias/acercamiento/Cuba/elpepuint/20101025elpepunac_3/Tes Osama bin Laden lanza advertencia contra Francia.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/osama-ben-laden-lanza-advertencia-contra-francia-en-mensaje-de-audio_8213900-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/719288.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11636408Para Gorbachov, Putin obstaculiza la democracia rusa.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/europe/27russia.html?ref=worldLa Unión Europea abre sus brazos a Serbia.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/UE/abre/brazos/Serbia/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_7/TesAprueban en Francia la controvertida reforma de pensiones.Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2010/10/27/nouvelle-journee-d-action-jeudi-alors-que-la-loi-est-votee_1432127_3224.html#ens_id=1305816 http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/europe/27france.html?ref=world http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/719283.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11633178La protesta cuesta a Francia entre 200 y 400 millones de euros.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39834068/ns/world_news-europe/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318549 http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/protesta/cuesta/Francia/200/400/millones/euros/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_5/TesClegg pide una investigación sobre las revelaciones de Wikileaks.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Clegg/pide/investigacion/revelaciones/Wikileaks/elpepuint/20101024elpepuint_4/TesFrancia busca ofertas de energía nuclear en Libia.Para más información: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/22/content_11447748.htmFrancia expulsó a más de 8.000 rumanos en la primera quincena de octubre.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Francia/expulso/8000/rumanos/primera/quincena/octubre/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_9/TesPolicía sueca captura asesino serial.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/10/23/sweden.serial.shooter/index.htmlBajos niveles de aprobación a Sarkozy en Francia.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39821364/ns/world_news-europe/Un falso periodista traspasa barreras de seguridad de Merkel.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/45A90191-A8AB-4D88-999B-52A080FC9248.htm?id={45A90191-A8AB-4D88-999B-52A080FC9248 ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEEl Gobierno afgano recibe "bolsas de dinero" de Irán.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Gobierno/afgano/recibe/bolsas/dinero/Iran/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_8/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/10/25/afghanistan.iran.money/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39827533/ns/world_news-south_and_central_asia/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318614 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/el-juego-de-irn-en-la-crisis-afgana_8212340-4Desastres naturales azotan Indonesia.Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/portfolio/2010/10/27/seisme-tsunami-et-eruption-volcanique-frappent-l-indonesie_1431646_3216.html#ens_id=1431527 http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/world/asia/28indo.html?ref=world http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/tsunami-tras-el-terremoto-de-75-grados-en-indonesia_8196960-4 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39826538/ns/world_news/ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39831929/ns/world_news-asiapacific/ http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2027758,00.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/719300.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11634150 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/27/content_11461633.htmIrán comienza a cargar combustible para poner en funcionamiento reactor nuclear.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-iran-nuclear-20101027,0,1194581.story http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/middleeast/27nuke.html?ref=world12 muertos por ataque en Pakistán.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/10/23/pakistan.violence/index.html http://www.mundologistico.net/s-asociaciones.htmlIrán restringirá la enseñanza de ciencias sociales por ser consideradas "occidentales".Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39820011/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/Los chiíes revalidan su peso político en el reino de Bahrein.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/chiies/revalidan/peso/politico/reino/Bahrein/elpepuint/20101025elpepiint_8/TesProtestas en China contra el control de Japón de islas en disputa.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39826813/ns/world_news-asiapacific/ http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/10/25/japan.china.islands.dispute/index.htmlEl alza del yen acelera cambios en Japón.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318538"New York Times" analiza los recientes diálogos entre las Coreas.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/world/asia/28korea.html?ref=worldIrán: en espera de una reforma económica.Para más información:http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2027393,00.htmlAl Qaeda presente en la frontera de Arabia Saudita con Yemen.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/middleeast/27saudi.html?ref=worldSe estima que Al Qaeda posee 400 militantes en Yemen.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39819857/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/Principal figura del gobierno iraquí de Saddam Hussein es condenado a la horca.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/middleeast/27iraq.html?ref=world http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/33062911-B9C0-441B-8F0D-9C7B66F19900.htm?id={33062911-B9C0-441B-8F0D-9C7B66F19900}http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/condenado-a-muerte-tarek-aziz-viceprimer-ministro-de-saddam-hussein_8203960-4 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/26/content_11461028.htm http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-iraq-aziz-execute-20101027,0,4941766.storyDos semanas de inundaciones en Tailandia dejan como resultado 57 personas muertas.Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/27/content_11466185.htmÁFRICAEstampida en juego de fútbol mata a 7 personas en Kenia.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/10/24/kenya.soccer.deaths/index.htmlNuevos obstáculos a enfrentar por gobierno de Sudán.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/10/23/sudan.referendum/index.htmlPiratas somalíes capturan 2 barcos.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39819344/ns/world_news-africa/ http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/25/content_11451293.htmOTRAS NOTICIASThe Economist presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/16648201?story_id=16648201 CNN publica la sección: "Impact your world".Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/impact.your.world/"La Nación" analiza: "Los acuerdos en el G-20".Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318389
AMÉRICA LATINAFalleció el ex presidente argentino Néstor Kirchner.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/world/americas/28argentina.html?_r=1&ref=world http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/27/content_11467331.htm http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/719324.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-10627873 http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/10/27/argentina.kirchner.dies/index.html?hpt=T2 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/muri-el-ex-presidente-argentino-nstor-kirchner_8214081-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2010/10/27/nestor-kirchner-est-mort_1432037_3222.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1319033 http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/10/27/1894171/former-argentine-president-nestor.html http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2027800,00.htmlEl cólera se expande entre la población de Haití.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/autoridades/creen/brote/colera/puede/estar/estabilizandose/Haiti/elpepuint/20101024elpepuint_1/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/10/23/haiti.cholera/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39823732/ns/health/ http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/epidemia-de-clera-en-hait-an-no-ha-alcanzado-su-pico-segn-la-oms_8213700-4 http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/10/27/1894505/aid-meant-for-red-cross-in-haiti.htmlVenezuela, el país más corrupto de América Latina.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/ndice-de-percepcin-de-la-corrupcin_8204040-4Hugo Chávez toma control de plantas de firma estadounidense.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/chvez-llama-a-movilizacin-de-apoyo-a-expropiacin-firma-de-ee-uu_8212760-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/41B9F5C4-E92A-4E3D-BD52-6AEE034B5B7D.htm?id={41B9F5C4-E92A-4E3D-BD52-6AEE034B5B7D}13 internos mueren acribillados en un centro de desintoxicación en Tijuana.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39828239/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/internos/mueren/acribillados/centro/desintoxicacion/Tijuana/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_4/Tes http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318562Se seca un afluente del Amazonas.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/seca/afluente/Amazonas/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_2/TesEn una ajustada victoria, la izquierdista Villarán se queda con la alcaldía de Lima.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/_portada/noticias/68B22954-A2BF-450B-9614-2FC9548050E3.htm?id={68B22954-A2BF-450B-9614-2FC9548050E3}Recta final de la campaña presidencial brasileña.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Serra/prepara/ultimo/asalto/elpepuint/20101024elpepiint_10/Tes http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39809473/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1317498Congreso español instó a Venezuela a cooperar en lucha contra Eta.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/congreso-espaol-inst-a-venezuela-a-cooperar-en-lucha-contra-eta_8209502-4Se desvanece el huracán Richard.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39826998/ns/weather/Piñera condecoró como héroes a los 33 mineros.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318546Por decimonoveno año consecutivo, la ONU condena el embargo contra Cuba.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/2186E090-C048-40D6-84AE-7BB6A965BDAC.htm?id={2186E090-C048-40D6-84AE-7BB6A965BDAC}Irán y Bolivia amplían alianza estratégica.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/6D820549-4140-4223-9837-5A2C3AC8E8C9.htm?id={6D820549-4140-4223-9837-5A2C3AC8E8C9}Censo nacional tuvo lugar en Argentina.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11634631ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁElecciones federales, estatales y locales en los Estados Unidos.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/cierra/campana/electoral/democrata/alertando/peligro/republicano/elpepuint/20101024elpepuint_2/Teshttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318728 http://clesnes.blog.lemonde.fr/2010/10/26/obama-et-le-slurpee-des-republicains/ http://electionsamericaines.blog.lemonde.fr/2010/10/26/les-quatre-reines-du-tea-party/ http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/us/politics/27money.html?_r=1&hpLos crímenes de Irak se revelan al mundo.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/wikileaks-divulga-nuevos-videos-sobre-supuestos-abusos-en_8208420-4 http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/crimenes/Irak/revelan/mundo/elpepuint/20101024elpepiint_1/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2010/US/10/22/wikileaks.iraq/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39810329/ns/world_news-the_new_york_times/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318265EUROPALa Unión Europea explorará vías de acercamiento a Cuba.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318560 http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/UE/explorara/vias/acercamiento/Cuba/elpepuint/20101025elpepunac_3/Tes Osama bin Laden lanza advertencia contra Francia.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/osama-ben-laden-lanza-advertencia-contra-francia-en-mensaje-de-audio_8213900-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/719288.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11636408Para Gorbachov, Putin obstaculiza la democracia rusa.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/europe/27russia.html?ref=worldLa Unión Europea abre sus brazos a Serbia.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/UE/abre/brazos/Serbia/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_7/TesAprueban en Francia la controvertida reforma de pensiones.Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2010/10/27/nouvelle-journee-d-action-jeudi-alors-que-la-loi-est-votee_1432127_3224.html#ens_id=1305816 http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/europe/27france.html?ref=world http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/719283.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11633178La protesta cuesta a Francia entre 200 y 400 millones de euros.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39834068/ns/world_news-europe/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318549 http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/protesta/cuesta/Francia/200/400/millones/euros/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_5/TesClegg pide una investigación sobre las revelaciones de Wikileaks.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Clegg/pide/investigacion/revelaciones/Wikileaks/elpepuint/20101024elpepuint_4/TesFrancia busca ofertas de energía nuclear en Libia.Para más información: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/22/content_11447748.htmFrancia expulsó a más de 8.000 rumanos en la primera quincena de octubre.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Francia/expulso/8000/rumanos/primera/quincena/octubre/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_9/TesPolicía sueca captura asesino serial.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/10/23/sweden.serial.shooter/index.htmlBajos niveles de aprobación a Sarkozy en Francia.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39821364/ns/world_news-europe/Un falso periodista traspasa barreras de seguridad de Merkel.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/45A90191-A8AB-4D88-999B-52A080FC9248.htm?id={45A90191-A8AB-4D88-999B-52A080FC9248 ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEEl Gobierno afgano recibe "bolsas de dinero" de Irán.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Gobierno/afgano/recibe/bolsas/dinero/Iran/elpepuint/20101025elpepuint_8/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/10/25/afghanistan.iran.money/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39827533/ns/world_news-south_and_central_asia/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318614 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/el-juego-de-irn-en-la-crisis-afgana_8212340-4Desastres naturales azotan Indonesia.Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/portfolio/2010/10/27/seisme-tsunami-et-eruption-volcanique-frappent-l-indonesie_1431646_3216.html#ens_id=1431527 http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/world/asia/28indo.html?ref=world http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/tsunami-tras-el-terremoto-de-75-grados-en-indonesia_8196960-4 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39826538/ns/world_news/ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39831929/ns/world_news-asiapacific/ http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2027758,00.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/719300.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11634150 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/27/content_11461633.htmIrán comienza a cargar combustible para poner en funcionamiento reactor nuclear.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-iran-nuclear-20101027,0,1194581.story http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/middleeast/27nuke.html?ref=world12 muertos por ataque en Pakistán.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/10/23/pakistan.violence/index.html http://www.mundologistico.net/s-asociaciones.htmlIrán restringirá la enseñanza de ciencias sociales por ser consideradas "occidentales".Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39820011/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/Los chiíes revalidan su peso político en el reino de Bahrein.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/chiies/revalidan/peso/politico/reino/Bahrein/elpepuint/20101025elpepiint_8/TesProtestas en China contra el control de Japón de islas en disputa.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39826813/ns/world_news-asiapacific/ http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/10/25/japan.china.islands.dispute/index.htmlEl alza del yen acelera cambios en Japón.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318538"New York Times" analiza los recientes diálogos entre las Coreas.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/world/asia/28korea.html?ref=worldIrán: en espera de una reforma económica.Para más información:http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2027393,00.htmlAl Qaeda presente en la frontera de Arabia Saudita con Yemen.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/middleeast/27saudi.html?ref=worldSe estima que Al Qaeda posee 400 militantes en Yemen.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39819857/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/Principal figura del gobierno iraquí de Saddam Hussein es condenado a la horca.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/27/world/middleeast/27iraq.html?ref=world http://diario.elmercurio.com/2010/10/27/internacional/internacional/noticias/33062911-B9C0-441B-8F0D-9C7B66F19900.htm?id={33062911-B9C0-441B-8F0D-9C7B66F19900}http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/condenado-a-muerte-tarek-aziz-viceprimer-ministro-de-saddam-hussein_8203960-4 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/26/content_11461028.htm http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-iraq-aziz-execute-20101027,0,4941766.storyDos semanas de inundaciones en Tailandia dejan como resultado 57 personas muertas.Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/27/content_11466185.htmÁFRICAEstampida en juego de fútbol mata a 7 personas en Kenia.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/10/24/kenya.soccer.deaths/index.htmlNuevos obstáculos a enfrentar por gobierno de Sudán.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/10/23/sudan.referendum/index.htmlPiratas somalíes capturan 2 barcos.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39819344/ns/world_news-africa/ http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2010-10/25/content_11451293.htmOTRAS NOTICIASThe Economist presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/16648201?story_id=16648201 CNN publica la sección: "Impact your world".Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/impact.your.world/"La Nación" analiza: "Los acuerdos en el G-20".Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1318389
Por alguna razón, Luiz Inácio Lula Da Silva se transformó en años recientes en el parangón de la democracia liberal y del progreso del mundo "emergente". Esto responde principalmente a dos grandes simpatías.La primera es hacia Brasil como país. Con cierta periodicidad surgen oleadas de interés y profecías sobre Brasil como un país avasallante, dueño del futuro, instalado en el concierto de la política mundial y en general transformado en un actor de primer nivel. La segunda es una suerte de inversión emocional masiva que ha tenido lugar, tanto en el mundo "subdesarrollado" como en el de los paíes más productivos, en la figura individual de Lula.No caben dudas de que Brasil está cambiando, y que en los últimos años ha tenido resultados interesantes. Ha acumulado poder: así lo atestiguan sus multimillonarias compras de armamento. Ha generado atracción económica: basta ver una tapa reciente de The Economist, en la cual el Cristo Redentor despega del Corcovado propulsado alegóricamente por la economía brasileña. También ha generado prestigio: Brasil aparece de forma prominente en las negociaciones de la OMC, en las del grupo BRIC y hasta en las de la inocua UNASUR. Incluso ha generado envidia, al enterarse el mundo de los fabulosos hallazgos petroleros en las costas de Brasil, particularmente el yacimiento denominado Tupí.Sin embargo, no deben transformarse estas tendencias en un espejismo que niegue la realidad. Aunque a la economía brasileña le ha ido bien en los últimos años, su crecimiento ha sido muy moderado. La tasa promedio de aumento anual del PBI para los años 2000-8, que abarca todo el período de "bonanza" y excluye la Gran Recesión, no llega al 4%. Los sacudones del pasado año y medio llegaron a quitarle hasta un 70% del valor a los índices que combinan las acciones de las empresas brasileñas en mercados como el de New York. El Índice de Desarrollo Humano de Naciones Unidas, que mide indicadores de gran prioridad para el actual gobierno como salud, educación e ingresos, apenas registra una variación de dos puntos desde el año 2000 (cuando no gobernaba Lula), y deja a Brasil todavía abajo de Albania y Libia. Su sistema de tráfico aéreo es una vergüenza mundial.El país está sumido en una ola de crímenes en sus dos mayores ciudades, São Paulo y Rio de Janeiro. La violencia ha llegado al punto de requerir en numerosas ocasiones intervenciones militares y hasta la aplicación de doctrinas anti-insurgencia, hasta ahora sólo usadas en guerras de alta intensidad como las de Iraq y Afganistán. Brasil figura además en los abismales puestos 105 y 75 respectivamente de los rankings de libertad económica y transparencia en el gobierno. Cuando el régimen de Evo Morales expropió (el término leninista para decir "robó") gran parte de las propiedades del estado brasileño en Bolivia, un país comparativamente muy débil, Brasil terminó tolerándolo – difícilmente algo que admita una supuesta potencia regional.Además de esta relativización del boom brasileño, también es necesario reconsiderar la figura de Lula. Su más reciente grosería es la invitación al pretendiente a dictador iraní, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, con abrazo y toma de las manos incluida. Esta medida responde a un viejo instinto de Lula, que es la inmadura necesidad de demostrarle a los "del norte" que retiene una independencia, una rebeldía y un anti-"imperialismo" con orgullo.Esto se vio también en sus racistas declaraciones sobre los orígenes de la Gran Recesión (culpa de banqueros "blancos y de ojos azules"), en su apertura de relaciones con el régimen de los Kim en Corea del Norte y su peligrosa colaboración con Manuel Zelaya para intentar un contra-golpe de estado en Honduras. Más aún, la idea de un Lula moderado y de una especie de Papá Noel bonachón y amable no refleja la realidad: el presidente brasileño ha utilizado muy hábilmente el asistencialismo para asegurarse los votos de las legiones que pasan a depender económicamente de su presencia en el estado. Adicionalmente, Lula está rodeado de escándalos de corrupción realmente flagrantes y vergonzosos. Entre estos se incluyen la compra de docenas de legisladores por parte de su Partido dos Trabalhadores, la compra por USD 800.000 (de dudoso origen) de un expedientepara calumniar a un candidato de la oposición, el robo de fondos estatales por un ministro y sus allegados para proyectos fraudulentos y hasta negocios ilegales con casinos del hermano de Lula. Aunque existe un empeño en proteger la figura presidencial, sería demasiada casualidad que prácticamente todas las figuras más importantes que lo rodean estén involucradas en corrupción sin su conocimiento. Esto incluye además de a su hermano a su jefe de gabinete, el presidente de su amado partido y la candidata oficialista a sucederlo.Si Lula y su Brasil no son entonces nada extraordinarios -sino más bien ordinarios- a nivel mundial, ¿por qué entonces tanta fascinación con ellos? La respuesta la provee muy amablemente un vecino suyo, y es indicadora de lo mal que se encuentra la región.Se trata de Hugo Chávez, un criminal de carrera que cada vez se acerca más a su tan soñada confrontación abierta con sus enemigos. La última aventura es clásica respecto a su estilo. Por un lado, se entretiene -sabiendo muy bien la reacción que logrará- proclamando públicamente su admiración por los asesinos en masa Idi Amin y Robert Mugabe, además de su compatriota Ilich Ramírez ("Carlos", el terrorista comunista converso al Islam). Por el otro, anuncia la llegada de cientos de carros blindados rusos y ordena que sus "milicias" privadas, compuestas de ciudadanos, formen parte del personal que los opere.Esta es la razón por la cual Lula genera simpatía en lugares como América del Norte y Europa. Los parámetros de la dignidad en las Américas se han reducido tanto en los últimos años que aún siendo corrupto, proteccionista, levemente populista y amigo de numerosos dictadores, Lula aparece como un ancla de estabilidad en la región. El hecho de que Brasil haya progresado algo en estos años es a pesar de Lula, y que tenga tanto prestigio no se debe a sus talentos, sino al alivio de observar que Brasil sigue siendo una república democrática liberal y capitalista.Considérese por ejemplo el tema de la semana, Irán. Está fuera de disputa que el régimen que gobierna ese país es una organización totalitaria, violenta y agresiva. En el ámbito doméstico oprime salvajamente a la mitad de su población, la femenina. Contra ellas se aplica exclusivamente, además de una serie de imposiciones legales y hasta de vestimenta, la pena de muerte por lapidación. Los homosexuales son ahorcados en público. La oposición política, enemiga del fraude electoral y el autoritarismo, fue perseguida, torturada y asesinada este mismo año. Internacionalmente, Irán financia y opera redes terroristas -incluidos dos ataques en Buenos Aires- y promueve abiertamente el antisemitismo. Por si esto fuera poco, desarrolla rápidamente un programa de bombas nucleares y otro de misiles balísticos.¿Qué pretende Brasil con un gobierno de ese tipo? Lula parece adherir a la escuela según la cual "hablar" con alguien no implica conferirle legitimidad. Eso es cierto sólo en algunos casos, y este no es uno de ellos. Recibir a Ahmadinejad es mucho más que "hablar". Es reconocer su legitimidad desde el momento en que se le ofrecen guardaespaldas, protocolo, privilegios y honores de estado. Es indicar que el propio Lula, representante de un país libre, tiene el mismo valor como Presidente que un potencial genocida. Darle la mano es sugerir que es una persona o gobernante normal ante el cual puede hablarse en términos de cordialidad, incluso de amistad. Por último, significa que Lula no sólo no siente culpa o vergüenza por su error, sino que se enorgullece de la forma en que frustra los supuestos planes de terceros países más poderosos.Lo único que logra esa "demostración de independencia" es manifestar su inmadurez y su falta de preparación para participar en la política internacional. Es un acto digno de Lázaro Cárdenas, Juan Perón o Gétulio Vargas, siempre vacilando entre las democracias y el totalitarismo. Es posible ser "independiente" sin ser un necio, pero eso no parece alcanzar al progresista Lula, quien después de todo tiene orígenes políticos ideológicos. Su falta de raciocinio lo llevó a especular con la posibilidad de un papel para Brasil en la solución del conflicto israelí-palestino. Si ni siquiera el mesiánico Barack Obama puede obtener resultados en esa área, ¿qué puede conseguir Lula?La región de las Américas, siempre excluyendo a Canadá y Estados Unidos, se encuentra cerrando una década nefasta. La mayoría de sus economías crecieron, aunque en muy pocos países se tradujo eso en un desarrollo significativo. Varios países dejaron de ser democracias: Honduras, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia y Argentina. Cuba y Haití no han hecho más que empeorar. El crimen y la corrupción han aumentado significativamente. Tan sólo unos pocos países, como México, Panamá, Colombia, Perú, Chile y Uruguay han al menos evitado empeorar, y algunos de ellos mejoraron.Brasil es uno de ellos, pero no deja de llamar la atención lo decepcionante que resulta el liderazgo de Lula en relación al potencial desperdiciado. Por si quedaba alguna duda sobre su falta de honestidad, en presencia de Mahmoud Ahmadinejad dijo lo siguiente:"Defendemos los derechos humanos y la libertad de elección de nuestros ciudadanos, y repudiamos todos los actos de intolerancia o el recurso del terrorismo".Sólo un político puede mentir tan descarada y públicamente. Lic. en Estudios Internacionales. Universidad ORT - Uruguay
In response to harsh criticisms from Congress after the publication of the so-called "torture memos", the CIA released records showing that senior members of the House and Senate had been briefed about the use of Enhanced Interrogation Techniques (EITs), including water- boarding, used on detainees suspected of terrorism since early 2002. Then a ranking member of the House Intelligence Committee, current Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi was among those briefed. Because she is also at the head of the effort to establish a Truth Commission to investigate the legality of such practices, she has specifically been targeted by Republicans who contend that she is complicit of the same torture practices that she has so vehemently denounced. Karl Rove, former senior advisor to President George W. Bush, summarized these attacks in a May 14th article on the Wall Street Journal:"If Mrs. Pelosi considers the enhanced interrogation techniques to be torture, didn't she have a responsibility to complain at the time, introduce legislation to end the practices or attempt to deny funding for the CIA' use of them? If she knew what was going on and did nothing, does that make her an accessory to a crime of torture, as many Democrats are calling enhanced interrogation?"Never one to shy off from a good fight, the Speaker has mounted a campaign on the issue that has escalated the controversy and brought her into direct conflict with fellow Democrat Leon Panetta, present Director of the CIA. Upon reviewing the contemporaneous CIA records, he publicly disputed her account. After a few missteps on when and what exactly she was briefed on, Pelosi has now acknowledged that she knew about the use of water-boarding by early 2003 but did not speak out because she was bound by secrecy rules. She adds that she came to the realization that the only way to challenge those practices was to win control of Congress and the White House. "It was clear that we had to change the leadership in Congress and the White House. That was my job- the Congress part- and we won." In Washington, arguments about the past are always also about shaping the future and this case is no different. With their view already directed to the 2010 congressional elections and a national approval rate of only 21%, Republicans are seizing this opportunity to weaken the power of the first woman Speaker, the third person in the line of command for the Presidency of the United States and, arguably, one of the most powerful House leaders ever. The central issue is the recognition that the use of torture by the CIA and others on behalf of the United States government is illegal under international and national statutes, and the commitment by the new administration to absolutely ban those practices hereon. Out of favor and out of ideas, Republicans requested release of those briefings as a distraction from their own travails. But Pelosi bears part of the blame by her own actions. Ignoring President Obama's recommendation of "reflection but not retribution" in response to the torture memos, Pelosi took up with vigor and determination the call for a Truth Commission to investigate crimes by the Bush administration, an investigation that may lead to indictments of former White House officials.Once it became apparent that she had indeed been briefed by the CIA about those interrogation techniques, she accused the agency of having misled her, thereby escalating the feud. This put her at odds with fellow Democrat Leon Panetta, and afforded Republicans the opportunity to mount a serious attack on her person, undermining her own power to pursue with her usual diligence the transformative legislative agenda proposed by President Obama. Her unfortunate, disjointed performance during the press conference on May 14th , and her decision to escalate her accusations against the CIA made her look vulnerable, weak and less credible, perhaps even tragically flawed. As the controversy unfolds, Obama himself has remained aloof, at least in public, clearly not wanting to spend any political capital on this unwanted controversy, and at the same time keenly aware that he will need Pelosi's effective leadership for the upcoming battles with Congress on energy and health care reform. On the other hand, there must be a lot of frustration on his part, if we consider that the President himself had taken great pains not to alienate the CIA on this issue, personally visiting the agency a few weeks ago to explain his decision to publish the torture memos and to boost the agency's low morale. The fact that Leon Panetta publicly contradicted Pelosi's account and that, as CIA director, he responds directly to the Executive, gives us a hint of where the President stands on this altercation.However, to some extent this is just a storm in a teacup that some want to turn into a tsunami for their own political purposes. We again need to be reminded of the context in which those practices and the subsequent briefings took place: after 9/11, the frame of mind was conducive to excesses in proportion to the horrific event itself. Democrats were not prepared to take Bush on politically, because they did not want to stand in the way of any measures purportedly intended to make the country safer. There were not a lot of "profiles of courage" in Congress then, and the main fear was looking unpatriotic. The whole record of votes in Congress shows tolerance for Bush policies at first. It was only after 2004 that the winds of public opinion began to shift once it was obvious that Bush and Cheney had misled the country for the purpose of invading Iraq, and especially after the Abu Ghraib pictures were made public. In the earlier period (2002-2003) Pelosi was briefed on the practices being used to elicit information that it was thought may prove valuable to save lives by preventing other similar attacks, and she did nothing about it. What could she have done? Gone to the press? Withdraw funding for the "war on terror"? That would have been the equivalent of committing political suicide.One observation that raises more questions about the true motives of the Bush administration and their use of torture is that water-boarding appears to have been used most frequently around the time of the Iraqi invasion, when the White House and the Pentagon were desperate to find the "smoking gun" of the connection between Saddam Hussein and Al Qaeda which, in the proven absence of weapons of mass destruction, would serve them to justify the war in Iraq.More significant than any partisan acrimonious bickering, this week's debate is interesting in its revelations about the internal divisions in the Democratic coalition. With 51 Democrats votes against the supplemental funding the President requested for the war in Afghanistan, and with increased demands for a Truth Commission to investigate torture, which many see as the first step towards prosecuting Bush administration officials, there is mounting pressure on the President to unambiguously break away with Bush's national security policies. However, the more the Left wants him to be confrontational and aggressive in this front, the less interested Obama appears in heeding their demands. Last week alone he delivered two strong blows to those that want him to fully dismantle the Bush national security legacy. First, after consultation with his military commanders, he decided not to release more photos on detainee abuse by US military personnel. Second, he announced that he will be trying detainees in the same military tribunals he criticized Bush for, albeit with some important changes, such as giving detainees additional rights consistent with Supreme Court demands for due process. This comes from a realization that there are too many constraints, such as issues of evidence that would include classified information, to try them in the civil judicial system. Human Rights groups called this a serious "backtracking of his reform agenda." These decisions, together with his lack of interest in litigating the past, is putting him increasingly at odds with the radical wing of his party, but his national support numbers are holding steady at around 68% to 70%. While the Republicans try to play this game of guilt by association with the Speaker to deflect attention from their own torture practices, Democratic Party solidarity is also being disturbed by increased opposition to Obama's national security policies. This week, after Pelosi's declarations, a Truth Commission to investigate EITs seems to have become unavoidable. Obama's ambitious legislative agenda for the next seven months, which includes foundational shifts in health and energy policies, is thus in jeopardy: it will in all likelihood be derailed by the time consuming distraction of a Truth Commission that will lock the two parties in endless recriminations, and serious reform will be postponed indefinitely. The hallmarks of the Obama presidency, namely, pragmatism and flexibility, are thus being taken hostage by activists from his own party and by a rudderless Republican opposition trying desperately to regroup.Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia
Slavery is a historical antecedent, which affected all continents, sometimes simultaneously, sometimes successively; its genesis is the sum of all that happened during an intermediate period of history. Paradoxically, slavery and slave trade still exist today under various pseudonyms: servants, nannies, prostitutes, indentured servants, extremely low paid workers. The examination here is confined to the Atlantic Slave Trade and its implications to Africa and its people, both in Africa and in Diaspora. Various aspects and instruments of law, particularly, international and inter-temporal law were examined to justify or repudiate the demand for compensation vis-à-vis reparation. The Atlantic Slavery, which began in the year 1440 was first abolished in 1787 throughout British Empire and in 1833, the British parliament abolished slavery in its colonies. In 1838, the slaves were emancipated and by 1880, slavery had been abolished in southern United States and across the world an estimated figure of over 14 million blacks was forcibly transported to overseas countries. This figure does not include those who died before they arrived to their various destinations. The thesis that slavery and slave trade contributed to the development of capitalism because slave trade constituted an essential element in the early mercantilist stage of capitalist development and abolition, which was a reflex of the resulting industrialism and its free commercial policies may have adherence here and there. Apparently, the increased demand for slaves not only reallocated resources, but also produced externalities thought to impede long-time development in Africa. These impediments were constraints on the growth of African states, increase in ethnic and socio stratification and sustained a culture of political violence. The history of West Africa will be used as a model for the economic marginalisation and depopulation of Africa. While most scholars agree that the depopulation of Africa was a consequence of Atlantic Slave Trade and must have reduced the aggregate population between 1700 and 1850, nevertheless it is problematic to assess the causal impact of slave population growth and development. The regular slave raiding was a constraint to production, social life obscured the ethnic boundaries and the inability to distinguish insider from outsider as the people scattered to escape the risk of being caught. Between the 16th and 19th centuries more than 14 million slaves were produced in Africa and transported to overseas. Book one Chapter I addresses the term "Slavery" and its concepts in all its ramifications. The instruments of semantics, philology and biology e.t.c. were used to arrive at an acceptable definition of slavery. Chapter II have as its priority the examination of slavery as an ancient institution of all cultures and the subsequent break of this culture by the Europeans. Enough evidence were advanced to prove that almost every continent and country practiced one form or another of slavery and slave trade, but this seemingly established culture and norm were put to question by the Europeans. The practice of the Atlantic triangular slave trade and the colonial Plantation economy with the attendant exploitation of the slave workers were extensively discussed in this chapter. Chapter III have as its priority racism, cultural differences, and above all, economics as the motives for Atlantic slave trade vis-à-vis triangular slave trade. The roles and the works of intellectuals, movies, newspapers, and physical contacts with the Africans contributed to slavery and also to the Atlantic slave trade. Book Two Chapter IV dealt with the examination and analysis of the motives of Atlantic slavery and slave trade using the economic, social and political yardstick as the most compelling factors. Mathematical calculations and economic diagrams were used here to describe the demand and supply of slaves and its effect on African economies. In Book Two, the implications of Atlantic slave trade to Africa and its people in strictly economic and demographical terms were examined. Chapter V presented various definitions of natural law and present its prominent progenitors and contributors. The role of natural law in the examination of the atrocities of the Atlantic slave trade cannot be underestimated considering the fact that during this period, international law or positive law as we understand it today, had hardly existed therefore, the only appropriate yardstick open for the examination of the treatment and trade of the Africans appear to be the instrument of natural law vis-à-vis moral law. Chapter VI examined in detail the merits and demerits of the concept of "Pacta sunt servanda" as applied by the Europeans in trade with his African partners. The unfolding implications that resulted because of the failure of adherence to "Pacta sunt servanda" to the contracting persons, nations, villages also featured here prominently. It is on record that the European expansion over other parts of the world was undertaken by the acts of states and governments and later also private business partners participated in the slave trade. Therefore, the implication of this under international law was evaluated. Chapter VII combined the extent and influence of the Radbruch's Formula of Ratio Juris, its logicality and the nature of legal theory and Robert Alexy's conceptual analysis and the theory about the nature of law to determine the degree of morality and justice embodied in the slave laws enacted in the United States during the Atlantic Slave Trade. For example, Radbruch postulated that the objective of legal philosophy is to appraise the law in terms of congruency with its ultimate goal, i.e. to realize the ideas of law. Chapter VIII highlighted the abolition and emancipation of slavery and emphasized the role of Quakers, Anglicans and most importantly anti-slavery campaigners, like Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson. They initiated, campaigned and fought for the abolition and emancipation of African slavery, without which the history of Africa and its people would have being hitherto be rewritten today. Just as the instruments of publications, sermon, pamphlets, treatise, poems, narratives, newspaper articles, reports and petitions were used to promote and aggravate Atlantic slave trade and slavery so also were these instruments used to fight for the emancipation of slavery. Though the cause of reparation for Africans and Africans in Diaspora cannot be seriously questioned, particularly under natural law and the laws of morality, the conceptual, legal, moral and historical issues were discussed extensively in Chapter IX. The normative arguments for and against reparations and the identity of beneficiaries and those sued for reparations were the object of analysis. Causation and attenuation arguments of reparations, particularly in tort liability, for example, act attenuation, victim attenuation and wrongdoer attenuation will help to determine culpability. Tort law analogy in slavery reparations and more so lawsuits for Jim Crow, constitutional requirements and unjust enrichment are all indispensable legal instruments to ascertain the merits and demerits of reparations. The concepts of restitution and genealogical determinism are also essential parts of this chapter. And finally, the philosophy of Libertarianism also constituted to the evaluation of the case for reparations. Reparation has been a common feature or idea in public international law before the emergence of international human rights law. The various international courts have defined the notion of reparation in relation to the notion of international responsibility of the state in • Art. 31: ILC (s. pages 238, 241) • Art. 3: ILC • Art. 13 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) • Art. 11(2) • Art. 7(1) The international law advances that any conduct, which is attributable to the state and which constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the state is an international wrongful act and comes under the state responsibility. The international law that adjudicates on state responsibility stipulates that there must be a link between a past wrong and present claim, consequently any legal claim for reparation at the international level will be confronted with the problem of proving that the present day western countries caused the injury inflicted on slaves. Other bodies of law like restitution, which deals with benefit-based liability or benefit-based recovery, has become an increasingly powerful tool in the case of reparation, particularly for mass wrongs. The merits and demerits were done justice to in this Dissertation. Natural Law has played an important role in the affairs of men through the ages because it entails basic principles of moral law and legislation and is in some cases objective, accessible to reason and based on human nature. Though, the concept of natural law is controversial, however, the Nuremberg War-Crimes trials after World War II, had no foundation in written laws. The prosecutors and judges justified their sentences on the assumption of natural laws binding all human beings and the present insistence on human rights also implies the affirmation of a kind of natural law. Natural law is therefore, a reflection of morality and consequently, legally valid if they conform to morality. He appraised human rights as surpassing all written laws and advanced that the law of nature should be sufficient to address the issue of restitution. Therefore, the kidnappings, the involuntary enslavement, the killings or murder of protesting or rebellious African slaves were an offence and a crime that needed to be addressed. Africa and the Africans in Diaspora can seek for justice albeit post mortem of the slaves.
A sweeping history of libertarian thought, from radical anarchists to conservative defenders of the status quoLibertarianism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century with an unwavering commitment to progressive causes, from women's rights and the fight against slavery to anti-colonialism and Irish emancipation. Today, this movement founded on the principle of individual liberty finds itself divided by both progressive and reactionary elements vying to claim it as their own. The Individualists is the untold story of a political doctrine continually reshaped by fierce internal tensions, bold and eccentric personalities, and shifting political circumstances.Matt Zwolinski and John Tomasi trace the history of libertarianism from its origins as a radical progressive ideology in the 1850s to its crisis of identity today. They examine the doctrine's evolution through six defining themes: private property, skepticism of authority, free markets, individualism, spontaneous order, and individual liberty. They show how the movement took a turn toward conservativism during the Cold War, when the dangers of communism at home and abroad came to dominate libertarian thinking. Zwolinski and Tomasi reveal a history that is wider, more diverse, and more contentious than many of us realize.A groundbreaking work of scholarship, The Individualists uncovers the neglected roots of a movement that has championed the poor and marginalized since its founding, but whose talk of equal liberty has often been bent to serve the interests of the rich and powerful
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The objective of this paper is to develop a way to monitor and track progress on social inclusion of vulnerable groups in Hungary, particularly among marginalized Roma communities. This approach will enable stakeholders to track the status of social inclusion at the sub regional level, and can serve as a feedback mechanism on whether projects cosponsored by the European structural and investment funds (ESIF) are sufficiently targeted to disadvantaged areas. The paper builds on various Hungarian attempts to draft indicator sets to find and subsequently gear European Union (EU) - funded projects toward areas with the poorest social inclusion outcomes. This report takes stock of different exercises undertaken with Hungarian data to map, target, track, and monitor some aspects of social exclusion at different levels of disaggregation. The authors present four such attempts to: (i) map marginalized communities; (ii) target the most disadvantaged micro regions; (iii) track selected social inclusion goals; and (iv) model at risk of poverty (AROP) rates at the micro regional level. The report examines what has been done in international practice in terms of selecting and collecting indicators that measure social inclusion. The report describes the method and process of indicator selection for Hungary. The concluding section summarizes the dilemmas associated with dynamically measuring social change in the Hungarian context, and presents development project parameters that should be continuously followed in order to enable tracking and (limited) monitoring.
The World Bank published a Public Expenditure and Institutional Review (PEIR) of the Bulgarian justice sector entitled "Resourcing the Judiciary for Performance and Accountability: A Judicial Public Expenditure and Institutional Review" in 2008. The objective of the present study is to conduct an assessment of the spending and institutional changes in Bulgaria's judiciary from 2008 onwards. The current report examines the principal trends in resourcing Bulgaria's judiciary since 2008, while comparing the expenditure and judicial performance with those of other European countries. The report provides a set of conclusion and recommendations for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of Bulgaria's judiciary and the judicial budget process.
The Horn of Africa (HOA) is one of the most underdeveloped regions on earth. It is also one of the most conflict-ridden, insecure regions in the world. While Africa as a whole has enjoyed a trend in recent years toward reduction and termination of many of its civil wars, the HOA is the exception to the rule. Indeed, the region's prolonged armed conflicts have spread, engulfing several neighboring states in warfare and partial state collapse. While aspects of the HOA case are obviously unique, and sensitivity to context and complexity must be privileged in both analysis of and policy toward the Horn, the region's crises are not so distinct that they preclude useful comparative analysis. This paper considers conflict dynamics across the entire Horn of Africa, but devotes special attention to the case of Somalia which, because of the depth, length, and significance of its crisis, is a source of particular international concern. Because Somalia's crisis has been so protracted and has gone through several very distinct phases, it provides an opportunity to compare conflict dynamics in a single country over time.
Issue 16.5 of the Review for Religious, 1957. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious SEPTEMBER 15, 1957 God's Living Sermon . Bonaventure Balsam Dismissal in Lay Institutes . Jo,eph g. ~,allen Our Supernatural Organism . Daniel J. M. Callahan Book Reviews Questions and Answers Roman Documents VOLUME 16 NUMBER 5 RI::VII:::W FOR RI:LIGIOU.S VOLUME 16 SEPTEMBER, 1957 NUMBER, 5 CONTENTS GOD'S LIVING SERMON AND MYSTERY-- Bonaventure Balsam, O.P . 257 DISMISSAL OF RELIGIOUS IN LAY INSTITUTES-- Joseph F. Gallen, S.J . 265 SOME BOOKS RECEIVED . 292 OUR SUPERNATURAL ORGANISMu Daniel J. M. Callahan, S.J . 293 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . i99 SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS--R. F. Smith, S.J . 300 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 29. Professed of Temporary Vows and Return to Motherhouse for Perpetual Profession . " . '.309 30. Adaptation and Renovation and New Laws on Poverty . 310 31. Last Gospel According to the Simplified Rubrics .312 32. Masses. Permitted on the Saturday of Our Lady . 312 33. Personal Gifts and Poverty . 312 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS: Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 313 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September, 1957. Vol. 16, No. 5. Published bi-monthly by The Queen's World, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approval. Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1957, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, 3115 South Grand Boulevard. St. Louis 18, Missouri. God's Living Sermon and Myst:ery Bonavent:ure Balsam, O.P. WE CANNOT LOVE, reverence, and respect what we do not know: A religious priest, brother, or sister will never love and appreciate his life and vocation as much as it is lovable unless he first sees and tastes the indescribable nobility of that vocation. We begin to evaluate a thing rightly only when we begin to see it, to understand it, rightly. Misguided love follows on misguided and false knowledge, detestation often follows on the footsteps of ignorance. To a very great extent, the intensity' and scope of our love will depend on the genuineness and grasp of our knowledge. All religious preach God. They do so, not so much by word of mouth as by their whole life. Their preaching--and this is the judgment of the great minds of the Church- since it is by action, can make a far deeper and more lasting im-pression on the world than any or all the sermons preached in Notre Dame Cathedral. For religious are their own sermon and their own cathedral. In preparing and preaching .their sermon to the world, they must study, not so much the spoken word, as the far more powerful and vocal deed. If .we could summarize in a few words the influence which it is the role of a religious to have on the world about him, it is this: it is his vocation in life to teach the whole world this v~ery important lesson, "We have here no lasting city, but we look for 6ne which is to come." By their life, religious must preach that lesson to the world. It is the holy and privileged task of every religious to make the world unworldly, to teach the world to be divine, and to lift up the mind and heart of the world to God in one great offertory. The vocation of a religious is brought home to him every day in the Preface of 257 BONAVENTURE BALSAM. Review for Religious the Mass; he is to lift up the heart of the world to God in love, "Sursum Corda.'" And where a religious does not find love, he must see to.it that God puts love there. As St. John of the Cross says: "~ 'here there is no love, you must put love." To preach that sermon with its double element of detachment from the world and clinging to God is the vocation, par rxcellence, of every religious brother and sister. In a special way, and by special right, religious can apply to themselves the words of the same St. John: "The life of every religious sho~,ld be a complete doctrinal sermon." The life of every religious is one continuous paradox, a divine anomaly. Religious must love the whole world and everyone in it; yet they must ceaselessly try to keep it dis-satisfied with itself, discontented. Their life is one of opposi. tion to the spirit of the world and its maxims, one of constant disagreement and protest. That is a most unenviable task; and, like all opposition and protest, it brings with it much enmity and misunderstanding. That is why the-world often and in many ways misunderstands religious and scorns them. That is why, too, religious sometimes misunderstand them-selves and their role in the salvation of the world. In walk-ing down the street, every step a religious takes is a sort of step of protest, of admonition. He protests to the world and warns it that the glitter and tinsel meeting the eyes on all sides are all too ephemeral and passing and petty and that the only One worth living for and loving with every fibre of one's being is God. The way that they teach this to the world which they live in, but away from, is a most efficacious one. Religious preach to the world by the daily living of their vows which make their life unearthly because heavenly. By their vow of poverty religious lecture on the unending wonders of divine Providence. They lecture on that subject though they may never actually utter a word about it; they do not have to, for they live their subject. By the mere fact that they have freely and gladly relinquished all claim and aspira- 258 September, 1957 GOD'S LIVING SERMON tion to this world's goods, religious proclaim to the world that they trust in God's divine providence with an unshakeable confidence and that "possessing nothing, they have all things." For they have learned to "cast your care upon the Lord, who cares for you." Religious daily experience the truth of St. Paul's words: "As needy though enriching many; as having nothing and possessing all things." By that childlike confi-dence in divine Providence, a confidence solidified andmade a very part of their life and reridered inamissible, as it were, by their vow of poverty, religious take at face value the loving promise of our Lord that, if God is ever careful to feed the birds of the air and clothe the grass of the fields, will He not take infinitely greater care of a religious who is of much more value than they and the rest of the material universe combined? Moreover, by their vow of poverty religious te.ach a materialistic world an important lesson in divine economics, for they teach the world a proper sense of values, a divinely wise and exact evaluation of all creation. Religious appraise things for what they are--and are not--and proper ap-praisal of a thing is indispensable for its true appreciation and enjoyment. One can never love a thing rightly until one knows its true value; j~ust as one can never know its worth unless one knows the value God places on it. All of which means that we can never love a creature rightly except in and through God Who makes it worth whatever it is. In teaching mankind all this by ~he daily living of their vow of poverty, religious are teaching a most wise lesson. In so doing, they themselves become more wise and share their wisdom with others. For it belongs to the wise man to order and evaluate things rightly. By their vow of chastity, religious teach the world another saving lesson; they teach a selfish and unsacrificing world the value of sacrifice. Religious teach the world the fruitfulness of unfruitfulness. They teach the world that in order to win more of the children of God they have given them up. Relig- 259 BONAVENT~JRE BALSAM Review for Religious ious teach a grasping world that, in order to gain what is really worthwhile, one must lose what is really not worthwhile. They teach the world that oi~ten the only way to conquer is to surrender and that everything that one gives up for God he gains back again in God, and "pressed down, in good measure, and flowing over." And God besides. Religious give up a lesser privilege t~or a .greater one; they t~orego the privilege of bringing children into the world because to that privilege they pret~er the greater privilegi~ of bringing God into the world. So, in actuality, the chaste brotherhood or sisterhood of a religious is far more fruitful and noble than wedded t:ather-hood, or motherhood. There is something more that religious can do t~or the world and for God's children which often goes unappreciated even by themselves. Religious should realize the element of personal reparation and vicarious atonement inherent in their vow of chastity./ Vices are not only expelled, but are most fittingly atoned for, by. their opposite virtues. Religious are God's "chosen pedple." They stay the avenging hand of God by the purity of their lives. God, in looking upon the un-earthly purity of His religious, is moved to forgive the morass of impurity in which a great part of mankind is floundering and to give it grace to repent and change its evil ways. Here, again, the life of religious is a living protest to a "wicked and adulterous generation." The protest they lodge against the world is the silent protest ot~ their unassuming though uncon-cealable modesty and purity which, "like a city seated on a mountain top, cannot be hid." By their entire and absolute chastity, religious work to make this carnal world into a holy and pure generation. They must offer up their chastify, which makes them akin to the angels, as a protest to the world and and as a propitiatory sacrifice for its unspeakable impurities. Only the pure o~ heart will ever see God,. and they alone will be able to show God to others. God makes use o~ the conse-crated purity ot~ a religious to sterilize the world ot~ its in~ection 260 September, 1957 GOD'S LIVING. SERMON of impurity. Thus the~ freely chosen childlessness of religious is, .indeed, most fertile of good--their holy barrenness begets countless children of God. By their vow of obedience, religious proclaim to the world that the root of all sin lies in inordinate self-love and inordinate self-will. And they teach the world the remedy fo~ this ill. By their obedience, religious tell the world that the only way to escape out of the maddening labyrinth "of self and selfish-ness is to take one's will in both hands and exchange it for the #111 of God by riveting it to His most Sacred' Heart. The o~nly way to be truly free is.to serve m to serve God without stint. In this exchange of wills one's own narrowness and smallness are exchanged for the infinite generosity of God. The stagnate pool of selfishness ,is displaced by7 the restless sea of love which is God's holy will. And since the will of God is the cause of all good; since, too, religious have exchanged their will for His by vow, then they too will bring into the world and into the lives of men unlimited good. Religiods, by the life they lead, will diffuse through the universe some of the infinite goodness of God. In this vowed exchange of wills with God, religious be-come more and more sinless. For the more God's will dis- 'places theirs and becomes the motive force of their life and actions, the more religious approa.ch the state of impeccability --the impeccability of God's holy will. Hence, the more and longer God's. will works in them, the less will they fall into daily sins and faults, and the more they will do, and diffuse, good about them. The world seeing this transformation in religious, their own fellowmen, will first wonder at them, then admire them, and finally imitate them. And when the world imitates them, religious thus renew the face of the earth. They and the life they live. Besides being a living sermon on G~d, every religious is a living mystery also. Religious must have all the elements 261 BONAVENTURE BALSAM Review for Religious about them of a true mystery of faith. They must be thor-oughly supernatural. They must think, will, and act always on a supernatural plane. They must survey the whole of their own life and every event that befalls them from that super-natural ~vantage point, from the loft~; peaks of faith. Their viewpoint, their perspective of everything will always and every-where be determined by faith. Nothing will be purposeless; everything will be judged according to a divine pattern. All their assignments, and the minutest details and circumstances surrounding those assignments, must be looked upon and judged with the eyes of faith. The hardships and crosses of a par- ' ticular assignment, the trials and difficulties attached to an act of obedience, the misunderstandings and false accusations that may dog their steps, all these must be seen in their supernatural light. They must be seen as~having a definite .place in God's plan for their sanctification and salvation. Never will religious live on the merely natural level mthe level of those who have no faith. Rather, they must, under all circumstances, "live in such a way that their life would not make sense if God did not exist." God and their great faith in God must determine every decision religious make, must be the heart in every one of their motives for acting. By profession, and even more by religious consecration, religious belong to God and are familiar with God's ways. But religious are a living mystery for more reasons than that. As in the case of every' mystery, their life is one of im-penetrable paradox. Religious are in the very midst of the wo~ld, though they can never claim any of it as their own. By profession, they are consecrated down to their fingertips. Though they are vowed to seek after that peace which only God can give, still they are ever stirring up discontent and dissatisfaction. They are ever fomenting a rebellion against the ways of the world. A religious is an aposde of elevation; his whole life tends to. raise the general worth and standards of. mankind by the 262 September, 1957 GOD'S LIVING SERMON unearthliness and loftiness of his own life. He is the divine yeast in the rather inert and formless mass'of humanity without God. He is what the priest has been called, "the minister of restlessness." In looking upon his life, the world is wounded with a sort of tormenting longing for the divine. A religious may be rightly called "an apostle of the abso-lute." He is ever on a relentless search, a quest, not for that which is merely good, but for that which is God, for the Per-fect. His very religious consecration makes him ever a pilgrim, ever a foreigner to this wor/d, and en route to see the face of God. Whatever he finds, good, whether in himself or in others, he must ever try to make better. He is gripped by a continu-ous and divine unrest, which, oddly enough, is the great source of the profound peace which surrounds his life. That unrest takes the form of a hunger to be more united to God, though he knows full well that divine union must entail the painful surrendering of deep-seated attachments. It entails turning a deaf ear to the unending call of the flesh to pla~ riot in the warm fields of its pleasures; it entails purging out of one's spiritual organism the multiplicity of sins which plague it and keep it undeveloped, ~tunted, and impede its more complete union with God. All this means pain, struggle, denial, sacri-fice, and death. But the religious is equally aware that in the midst of all this struggle to embrace his God and never to let Him go there is a joy that makes all this tremendous effort and strife insignificant, short-lived, accountable as nothing at all. He knows that the more he peels away the outer bark of bitter self, the more he sees and tastes of the fruit of God with-in. He knows that the sufferinss of these times are like seasoning, sharp and bitter, but necessary to taste one's God, indeed to consume Him in love. Like ev.ery mystery, the religious .must remain beyond. the ken and grasp of the generality of mankind. He will be misunderstood, his actions misconstrued. So lofty and extra-ordinary is his life that those who see only with a fleshly eye 263 BONAVENTURE BALSAM will say that it is impossible or a huge deception. He will be considered a cowardly fugitive from the world, from reality; 'whereas, in truth, he pursues thd world in its flight from God, takes it in his arms as a father does a recalcitrant child, and offers it up to God in love. Instead of being a dreamer, as he is accused of being, he is the world's greatest realist, for he knows and appreciates God, the cause of all reality, and claims Him as his very own possession and gift to the world. Since he is a sort of special creation of God, the religious must remain unknown; he must n~ver become profane. When his life becomes common, banal, vulgar, a byword among the people, he is no longer a living and sacred mystery; he is now common knowledge. He has then lost that necessary quality of' super-naturalness. He must ever remain like a beautiful tree with its roots hidden in the earth and its head and heart in the heavens. Every religious is a living mystery. Like every divine mystery, he must be accessible to all those who ai, e seeking God. He and his life must ever be a source of awe for the world. Being a pilgrim and an apostle of the absolute, of perfection, he must keep the world dissatisfied, discontented with its smug and mediocre ways. He must be .the tangible and living expres-sion of the life of God and the degree in which it can be shared by grace. His life must be one of elevation, of an offertory. Sworn to pursue perfection, he must make himself and the world one grand host of love offered up to God in adoration, thanksgiving, petition, and atonement. From ttie rising of the sun even to the going down thereof, the religious must be a liv!ng mystery and sermon of God. 264 Dismissal ot: Religious in Lay Insfit:u es Lloseph g. Gallen, S.,J. 1. Definition. Dismissal is the compulsory departure from a religious institute during the time of the vows of the religious. Any religious, whether of solemn or simple vows, perpetual or temporary, may be dismissed. Dismissal is effected by the de-cree of the competent superior and by law, ipso facto, or automatically because of the commission of any of the crimes specified in canon 646. The present article is confined to the dismissal of religious in lay institutes. However, the norms are the same in other institutes for the dismissal of a professed of temporary vows and also for men of perpetual vows in a clerical non-exempt institute. The canonical prescriptions for the dis-missal of a clerical or lay religious man of perpetual vows in a clerical and exempt institute are likewise the same as in a lay institute of men except that in the former the crimes, admoni-tions, and incorrigibility must be proved in a judicial process. The provisional return to secular life is essentially the same in a clerical exempt institute (cc. 653; 668). The laws of the code and of the particular constitutions must be accurately' and sincerely observed in a dismissal. They were enacted to protect the rights of both the institute and the individual religious. It is very likely that an unusual number of highly unsatisfactory religious justifies a complaint against facility of admission and retention during the probationary periods rather than against the difficulty of dismissal. It is evident, also that the age of the religious is to be considered before deciding on the formalities of a dismissal, even though this is not mentioned in the code. Older religious should be dismissed only for most serious reasons. Their adjustment to secular life, especially in the case of a religious woman, is obvi-ousl'y more difficult. A religious whose conduct merits serious 265 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious thoughts of dismissal should practically always be first encour-aged to ask for an indult of secularization. Those who are found certainly unsuitable at any time during temporary pro-fession are to be counseled to ask foi: an indult of secularization rather than to wait until the voluntary departure or exclusion at the expiration of temporary vows. I. Competent Authority for Dismissal by Decree and for Final Adjudication of Provisional Sending Back to Secular Life . 2. In pontifical congregations. (a) For professed men and women of temporary vows (c. 647, § 1). The competent authority is the superior general with the deliberative and secret vote of his council. In the few constitutions where his part in any dismissal is mentioned, it is prescribed that the pro-vincial should consult his council before proposing a dismissal to the superior general. The provincial will usually, in fact, initiate a dismissal by proposing it to the superior general, Since the matter is one of greater importance, in prudence he should at lea~t ordinarily consult his council before doing so. (b) For professed of perpetual vows. 1° In congregations of men (c. 650, § 2, 2°). The superior general with the consent of his council is competent to decree the dismissal, but his decree has no effect until it is confirmed by the Sacred Congregation of Religious. 2° In congregations of women (c. 652, § 3). The Sac/ed Congregation of Religious alone is competent to decree the dismissal. 32 For professed of temporary or perpetual vows in diocesan congregations of men or women (cc. 647, § 1; 650, § 2, 1°; 652, § 1). The competent authority in all cases of men or women is the ordinary of the diocese where the house to which the religious is attached is located. The ordinary of the diocese of the generalate is competent only for religious attached to houses' in his diocese. In virtue of canon 647, § 1, the local ordinary may certainly initiate the dismissal of a professed of temporary vows. He probably possesses the same .right with regard to professed men or women of perpetual vows.' If the 266 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES ordinary initiates the dismissal, he is obliged to inform the superior general before dismissing the religious. He is also obliged to give consideration to the reasons the superior gen-eral proposes against the dismissal and is forbidden to dismiss a religious, if this superior ha~ just reasons against it. If he does so, the superior general has the right of recurring to the Sacred Congregation of Religious. 4. Societies living in common without~ public vows (c. 681). The norms of dismissal for pontifical and diocesan religious congregations ~pply also to these pontifical and diocesan socie-ties, i. e., the norms for the professed of temporary vows apply to members whose bond is temporary, those for religious of perpetual vows to members whose bond in such a society is per-petual. 5. In monasteries of nuns. (a) For professed of temporary vows .(c. 647, § 1). If the monastery is not subject to regu-lars, the competent authority is the local ordinary of the mon-astery. If the monastery is subject to regulars: two opinions are probable, i. e., the competent authority is either only the regular superior or, the more probable opinion, the regular superior and the local ordinary acting conjointly. (b) For professed of perpetual vows (c. 652, § 2). The competent authority is the Sacred Congregation of Religious, but all the documents and acks of the case are to be transmitted to the congregation by the local ordinary of the monastery with his own vote and that of .the regular superior, if the mon-astery is subject to regulars. 6. Obligation of competent authorities. The competent au-thorities, as well as the superior and his council who propose a dismissal to such authority, have a grave obligation in con-science to observe the norms for dismissal imposed by canon law (cf. c. 647, § 2). ~ Tabera, Corntnent,~rium Pro Reli]io$i$, 13-1932-124-25; 14-1933-35; Schaet:er, De Religiosis, n. 1602; Quinn, Relation of t/~e Local Ordinary to Religious o/ Diocesan/l$/~ro¢,al, 103-105. 267 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious . II. Dismissal by Decree of a Professed of Temporary Vows (cc. 647-48) 7. Sufficient" reasons for dismissal. (a) ' General principles (c. 647, § 2, 1°.3°). The authority dismissing a religious of tem-porary vows must have. moral certainty, i. e., a judg,ment that excludes a founded doubt, of the existence and sufficiency of the reasons. The reasons must be external to the extent that they are known by others. They mu~t also be ~sekious'or grave, which does not imply serious moral culp~ibilit~ or any culpa-bility at all. The general principies on the sufficiency 0f the reasons are that it is to the good of the institute not to retain the subject; the institute will suffer a notable harm or serious incon;cenience in retaining him; there is no hope that ~he reli-gious will be able to conform his life in a creditable or praise-worthy manner to the demands of .the constitutions; "lie lacks the general aptitude for the religious life or the special aptitude requisite for the spiritual life or works of. the particular insti-tute; and any reason is sufficient that is of the same or greater import than that stated by way of example in canon 647, § 2, 2°, i. e., a defect of religious spirit that 'is a cause of scandal to others. It is probable, as under exclusion from a further profession,~ that after more than six prescribed years in tem-porary vows a religious may be dismissed or~ly for reasons that are sufficient to dismiss a professed of perpetual vows. (b) Particular sufficient reasons (c. 647, § 2, 2°). A sufficient reason on the part of the institute is the lack of aptitude stated in the preceding paragraph. Sufficient-reasons on the part of the religious himself can be reduced to intelledtual defects, which is included under aptitude above, to health, which will be explained below, and to moral defects. Moral defects constitute" tl~e principal motive for dismissal. The code mentions only one sufficient cause of dismissal by way of ex-ample, and this is a habitual moral defect, i. e., a defect of 2Cf./IEwsw FOg RELXG~OL~S, July, 1957, 216-18. 268 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY ]INSTITUTES religious spirit that is a cause of scandal to others. This defect can be ascertained from the conduct and motives of the religious and from the effect of his conduct on others. Such a religious seems to lack all supernatural motives, and' acts almost constantly from those that are purely natural. He is de~oid of love, attachment, and devotion to the religious life and its duties. His transgressions arise from habitual negligence, sloth, weariness, perversity, and ill will, not from accidental weakness and frailty. He ,manifests little care or effort for per-sonal sanctification. In his conduct he "habitually violates the constitutions, rules, customs, and usages of the.institute, even if not in relatively serious matters. He obeys superiors with diffi-culty in matters that are not strictly commanded. He habitually omits, performs carelessly, or places little value on religious exer-cises. In its effect on others, the conduct described above is already scandalous in a person consecrated to God. Such conduct and the fact that .the motives and state of his will externally manifest themselves decrease in others respect and 'devotion to the religious life and its duties and make observance of religious disci-pline by others more difficult. Often there, is added the direct insti-gation of others to violations of religious duties and discipline. Among the equivalent habitual moral defects are the follow-ing. 1° Obedience. Habitual, unwilling, and grudging obedience; .habitual murmuring against and criticism of superiors; habitual negligence in fulfilling duties assigned by superiors. 2° Poverty. Repeated violations of the vow and of common life, even if not in serious matters. 3° Anger. One who is habitually quarrelsome or has an" ungovernable temper that~ breaks out in frequent and serious fitsof anger and causes frequent disturb-ance of the peace of the community, loss of peace of soul, insults, and injuries to companions, .and dissensions in the community. 4° Charity. One who is addicted to faults of the tongue that annoy, disturb, or provoke others to quarrels, Or that consist of frequent calumnies, detractions, imprudenc~e in speech or violations of secrets. 5° Disturber of the peace. A 269 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious habitual disturber of the peace of the community who creates or fosters dissatisfaction, dissensions, factions, or provokes to quarrels. 8. Necessity of repeated admonition and salutary penance with-out effect (c. 647, § 2, 2°). Any habitual moral defect is a sufficient reason for dismissal only when a repeated admonition together with a salutary penance has produced no effect. The code demands only that the subject should have been admon-ished at least twice, orally or in writing, secretly or in a manner /hat can be proved, by a local or higher superior, to reform his conduct. Canon law does not require here that the admoni-tion be given in virtue of a mandate from a higher superior or that a threat of dismissal be. added to the admonition. The salutary penance to be added to each admonition i~ one suitable for effecting the reform of the religious and the reparation of the scandal" already given. It will consist of the penances in use in the particular institute, e. g., recitation of determined prayers, an act of humility, or a public acknowledgment or reprehension of defects. A sufficient period of time is to be allowed to pass "after the second admonition to permit the religious to reform his conduct. After this period, if he has ¯ nbt reformed his conduct to such an extent that it can no longer be considered a sufficient cause for dismissal, he may be dismissed. Both for the reform of the religious and proof in the eCent of dismissal and recourse, the more secure and prudent ¯ dgctrine is to be followed in practice, i. e., a threat of dismissal is to be added to each admonition and the admonition and penance are to be given in such a way that there will be proof that both were given and received. This can be accomplished b'y¯giving the admonition and penance before two witnesses or in writing. A copy of such a document is to be retained. by the institute. 9. A single act as a sufficient reason. A religious of temporary vows may be dismissed because of a very serious single act, 270 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES e. g., a grave external s_in against chastity; formal contempt of the authority of superiors; violation of a formal precept .of obedience; an act that creates a danger of notable harm or infamy to the institute; serious scandal given once or twice in the community, or what is more serious, to seculars, when there are indications that the same thing will happen again.-~ A pro-fessed of temporary vows who becomes a fugitive from religion or does the same thing as an apostate from religion, even though he cannot technically be called an apostate because he is not in perpetual vows, may be dismissed because of either of these acts. :~ 10. Insul/icient reasons (c. 647, ~ 2, 2°). The statement of the religious that he never possessed or has lost a religious vocation or the mere agreement of the institute and the religious that he be dismissed are insufficient reasons. In either case, the religious, giving all the reasons that actually exist, may ask for an indult of secularization or may wait and depart at the expiration of temporary vows. Ill health is a sufficient reason for dismissal only if it was certainly fraudule.ntly concealed or dissimulated before the first profession of temporary' vows. Everything said under exclusion from a further profession because of ill health, lack of ability arising from ill health, ailments such as hysteria and neurasthenia, and insanity apply here also.~ 11. Procedure (c. 647, § 2, 3°). No special process is pre-scribed for attaining certainty of the existence and sufficiency of the reasons for dismissal nor for decreeing the dismissal. If it is d~cided to proceed to dismissal, the .necessary preliminary data should be written out first, i. e., the religious and family name of the subject, age, date of entrance into the postulancy and noviceship, date or dates of temporary profession, and the houses and employments to which the religious had been assigned. To this should be added a brief and accurate descrip-tion of the previous conduct of the religious. The formalities 3 Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, May, 1957, 162-63. -1 Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, July, 1957, 219-20. 271 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious of dismissal are practically always preceded by a protracted period o'f most unsatisfactory conduct. The decision on dis-missal is then to be studied and obviously with the greatest care. The matters to be decided are whether certain proof is had of the existence and sufficiency of the reasons, of the admonitions given privately and of those given in writing or before witnesses with a threat of dismissal, and of the lack of effect, of these admonitions. Proof of the existence of the reasons will ordinarily be from signed statements of local superiors and councilors, principals of schools, companions in religion, etc. Canon 647, ~ 2, 3°, prescribes that all the reasons for dismissal, not the proofs nor the names of the witnesses, be manifested to the religious orally or in writing before dismissal. The proposal of the reasons in writing is preferable for proof. The religious must be given full liberty and a su~cient amount of. time to reply to the charges. He is .to be counseled to reply in writing. If his replies are given orally, they are to be taken down immediate!y in writing and he is to be requested to sign them. If he refuses, this is to be noted in the document on which his replies are given. His replies are to be submitted fully to the authority competent for dismissal. Everything given above in this number should have been followed also by the superior general and his council in a diocesan congregation and the superioress and her council in a monastery of nuns before tl~e written petition for dismissal is forwarded to the competent authority. The vote of the council should be given in writing to this authority. In a monastery of nuns, this vote must be deliberative.~ In a diocesan .congregation, the superior general will present the petition for a dismissal to the local ordinary; but the constitutions will frequently require the con-sultive or deliberative vote of his council for such a petition. The local ordinary and the regular superior must have certainty ~Cf. Tabera, Commentarium Pro Religiosis, 12-1931-372-73; Larraona, ibid., 2-1921-364-65; Schaefer, 010. cir., n. 1584. 272 September', 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES of the existence and sufficiency of the reasons alleged in the representations of the superior. They accordingly have the right and duty of investigating the existence of the reasons, although this is usually proved in the proposal of the superior, and of weighing the seriousness of these reasons. 12. Dismissal. If the decision is for dismissal, a decree" of dismissal should be drawn up containing the date, name of the religious, the reasons for dismissai, and the statement that the religious is therewith informed of his right of suspensive recourse against the decree to the Sacred Congregation of Religious. The decree should either be read to the religious or he should be given a copy of it. Either the original-or a copy of the decree and of all the proofs and documents in the case is to be retained in the files of the institute. It would be well to give the religi-ous a written statement to the effect that he was l~gitimately dismissed from the institute and freed of all his vows and obligations. In the presence of two religious as witnesses, the dismissed religious is to be asked to sign the following or a similar docu-ment after it has beenread to him. "I realize that I am hereby informed that'I have the 'right of recurring to the Sacred Congregation of Religious against this decree of dismissal and that, if I make this recourse within ten days from this date, such a recourse will suspend the effect of this decree until offi-cial notification is received that the decree has been confirmed by the same Sacred Congregation." The two religious witnesses are also to sign as such. If the dismissed religious will riot sign, this refusal is to be noted on the document; and the two religious witnesses ard also to attest on the document to this refusal. This document also is to be retained by the institute. If the religious has already left the institute illicitly, th'e notification of the decree and of the right of suspensive recourse is to be sent to him by certified mail, which provides for a receipt, to the sender and a record of delivery at the offi~ce of the address. 13. Suspensive recourse (c. 647, § 2, 4°). The one who 273 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious communicates the decree of dismissal is counseled in a reply of the Sacred Congregation of Religious to inform the religious of his right of recourse.° This should always be done; and several authors advise that this information be included, as above, in the decree of dismissal. The religious has the right of making a suspensive recourse to the Sacred Congregation of Religious against the decree of dismissal within ten days from the date on which he was informed of the decree. The first day is not counted. If the religious was informed of the decree on June 1, the time begins to run on June 2 and expires ~it midnight of June 11-12. The time does not run for any period during which the subject is ignorant of his right or unable to act, e. g., because of illness. The recourse is to be made by letter, either immediately by the subject or mediately through the superior who communicated the decree to him. The subject is to give his reasons againsf the dismissal. Proof that he had made the recourse is had by the authentic document of his own letter or the testimony of two trustworthy witnesses. The recourse within ten, days suspends the effect of the decree, which is completely ineffective until the authority that issued the decree is notified of its confirmation by the Sacred Congre-gation of Religious. While the recourse is pending, the subject is not dismissed and remains a religious with the same obligations as any other professed of temporary vows. He has the right and obligation of dwelling, under obedience to superiors, in the religious house assigned by them. If the religious does not wish to make recourse but to leave the institute immediately after the. decree is communicated to him, he may do so. Superiors may oblige him to leave immediately only if he has declared in writing that he will not m~ike recourse.7 Otherwise the religious is to remain until the ten days have elapsed without recourse having been 0 Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest, 1,329. ¢ Cf. c. 1880, 9°; Coronata, Manuale Practicum luris Discipli~iaris et Criminalis Regularium, n. 248. 274 September, 1957~ DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES made. A subject may als6 make recourse after the lapse of the ten-day period, but such recourse does not suspend the effect of the dismissal, 14. Effects of dismissal (c. 648). Canon 648 frees a professed of temporary vows, as soon as the decree of dismissal is effective, from all the vo~,s of his religious profession. There is no need of a dispensation from the vows. The ~ther effects are the same as explained under secularization in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September, 1956~ 233-36. III. Dismissal. By Decree of a Professed of~ Perpetual Vows (cc. 649,52; 669, .~ li 672, ~ 1) 15. Sufficient reasons. (a) In institutes of men (cc. 649; 656, I°). Three grave and external crimes of the same or different species in the proper sense of canon 2195, § 1, two admonitions, and incorrigibility a~e necessary. A violation of any positive law accompanied l~y special gravity or scandal is also a crime (c. 2222, § 1). The following are examples of sufficient ¯ reasons:' serious sins against common life, external si~s against chastity, disobedience to formal precepts, formal contempt of authority, rebellion against superiors, seriously impeding the government of superiors, creating or fomenting factions in the community, drunkenness, striking companions in religion, seri-ous diffamation of others or 0f the institute, apostasy or flight from religion, as also violations of the vows or of the ~onstitutions that constitute a specially grave offense or give rise to~ grave scandal in or outside the institute. These acts must be seriously sinful objectively and subjectively. Crimes of different species should be such as to reveal, when viewed collectively, a will obstinate in evil (c. 657).s (b) In institutes of women (c. 651, § 1). The same reasons are required for the dismissal of any religious woman of per-petual vows, whether solemn or simple. The reasons must be s Cf. Creusen, Religious Men and Women in the Code, n. 353; Bastien, Directoire Canonique, n. 634, 1, 1°; Tabera, op. cit., 14-1933-267; Beste, Introductio in Codicem, 443,448. 275 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious external, culpable, serious, and joined with incorrigibility. The reasons have to be external to the extent that they are known by others. The code requires culpable but does not certainly demand seriously culpable reasons. Inculpable reasons, e. g., lack of aptitude and physical and intellectual defects do not suffice for the dismissal of a perpetually professed religious. The reasons must be serious or grave. Finally, the reasons must be joined with incorrigibility, i. e., attempts at correction were made and their lack of success proves that there is no hope of amendment. ~The following are general examples of sufficient reasons: violations of the vows, constitutions, and religious dis-cipline that are considered more serious, even though in them-selves they are not mortal sins, or that cause serious scandal in or outside the community; and conduct that causes a notable spiritual or temporal harm to the community. The following are examples of particular sufficient reasons: repeated violations of~the vow of poverty, even after admonitions, reprehensions, penances, and even though the matter in itself does not consti-tute a serious sin; repeated and more serious acts of disobedi-ence; exciting others to rebellion and insubordination; arousing others against superiors by word or conduct; impeding the authority of superiors; disturbing the peace of the community by constant murmuring and complaints; causing dissensions and factions in the community; and the diffamation of the institute or its members among seculars. The reasons given above for men also evidently suffice for the. dismissal of women, since less serious reasons are required for the dismissal of women. Incorrigibility supposes repeated or habitufil actions. There-fore, one violation does not suffice for the dismissal of a per-petually professed religious woman. As in the case of religious men of perpetual vows, there must be at least three violations or one continued violation which, after a double admonition, becomes vi'rtually three violations. These three violations may all be of the same species, e. g., all against poverty; they may be of different species, e. g., one against poverty, the second 276 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES against obedience, and the third contrary to charity. The one continued violation is verified in such things as apostasy from religion, being a fugitive from religion, and a refusal to obey. The apostate who has been admonished twice to return to religion and refuses commits virtually three violations, the original act of apostasy and the two refusals to return (c. 657). 16. Attempts at correction and 'incorrigibility (cc. 649; 656- 62; 651, § i). Everything below on the admonitions and incor-rigibility is of obligation 'from canon law in lay institutes of men. The code does not determine just what' 'the attempts at correction are to consist of in the case 'of religious women but leaves these and the judgment of the incorrigibility to the supeiioress. However, the doctrine that is more probable :in itself and to be followed in practice is that the canons on religious men should be extended to women, i. e., there should be two admonitions coupled with suitable corrections and penances. When these produce no effect, the religious wom£n may be judged in-corrigible. 17. Admonitions (cc. 658-62). (a) Prerequisite certitude of first violation (c. 658). Before the first admonition may be given, there must be certitude, not mere suspicion, probability, or conjecture, of the commission of the first violation. If cer-titude is not had, a further investigation of the conduct of the religious may be. made. If the investigation does not give certitude, an admonition may not be given. (b) Matter of the admonitions (c. 661). The' essentialnotes of an admonition are three: the superior reprehends the religiou~ for the violation already committed; warns him to avoid slich conduct in the future; and adds a threat of dismissal if the religious should persist in such conduct. The thi:eat of dismissal is always to be added to the admonition in the case of a per-petually professed religious man or woman (c. 661,. § 3). 9 Statuta a Sororibus Externis 8er~anda, n. 119; Coronata, lnstltutiones luris Canonici, I, n. 651; Palombo, De Dimissione Religiosorum, n. 179; Tabera, o~. cit., 13-1932-123; Bastien o/,. tit., rt. 639, 3. 277 JOSEPH ~. GALLEN Review for Religious The superior is also to add to the admonitions: 1° an apt exhortation, i. e., to give motives to the religious for the reform of his conduct; 2° an apt correction, i. e., to show the religious the disorder of his past conduct, its effect on himself and .others, on the community and the institute; 3° preventive measures against a future violation. Almost necessarily these will imply putting the religious under the vigilance of a superior. Other such measures that the particular case demands are also to be employed, e. g., changing the employment or house of the religious and, in general, removing and lessening the occasion of a future violation. 4° apt penances. These are to be added to each admonition. Their aptitude is to be judged from their suitability for effecting the amendment of the religious and the reparation of the scandal already given. (c) Number and form of the admonitions (c. 660). There must be two admonitions, one for each of the first two viola-tions. In a continued violation, at least three full days must elapse between the first and second admonition. The admoni-tions are to be given in such a way that there will be proof that ' they were given and received. They are accordingly to be given before two witnesses or in writing.When given before witnesses, it is better to have the admonition also written out, to retain a copy, and have the two witnesses sign this copy to the effect that they witnessed the giving of the admonition. If given in ¯ writing, the religious is always to be made to sign a document to the effect that he received the admonition, a copy of the admonition is always to be retained, and two witnesses are to attest that the copy agrees with the original. If the religious is'outside the institute, e. g., as an apostate or fugitive, the admonition is to be sent to him in writing by certified mail (cf. n. 12). (d) Competent superior for admonitions (c. 659). In institutes of men, the admonitions should be given by the immediate higher superior personally or through another authorized for the purpose. An authorization given for the first admonition 278 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LA~ INSTITUTES suffices also for the second. From analogy, the same principles are to be followed in an institute of women. (e) Interval and violation after the second admonition (c. 662). After the second admonition, there must be a third vio-lation or a refusal to obey the second admonition in the case of a continued violation. An interval of at least six full days is to elap, se between the second admonition and any further action in a continued violation.'° After the third violation or the lapse of the six days without sincere repentance, the religious is canonically incorrigible and may be dismissed. If he sincerely repents within the six days, ¯ he is not incorrigible and may not be dismissed. If such repen-tance is verified only after the third violation or after the six days, action on the dismissal may be continued, since the religious is canonically incorrigible; but it would be better to discontinue such action provisionally, because the religious is not in fact incorrigible,n If the religious later commits another violation, the formalities of dismissal may be continued unless the reforma-tion of thereligious was sincere and complete. Such a reforma-tion excludes the computation or inclusion of past violations and admonitions and requires that the formalities of dismissal be begun anew. A sincere and complete reformation demands that the religious, e. g., have avoided the occasions of violations, have been willing to repair scandal by public penance, and have been more than ordinarily faithful to religious observance. The common doctrine is that such an amendment of conduct should have continued for three years, but a lesser space of time, e. g., a year, will su~ce in the case of extraordinary repentance.12 l°Cf. Tabera, 0p. cit., 14-1933-273; Toso, Commentaria Minora, II, II, 268; Chelodi-Ciprot~i, lus Canonicura de Personis, n. 291; De Carlo, Jus Religiosorum, n. 587. 11Cf. Goyeneche, De Religiosis, 217; De Carlo, oiO. cir., n. 587; Schaefer, oil: clt., n. 1629; Palombo, 0/~. cir., n. 113; Coronata, 0/L cir., 867; Beste, 0/~. cir., 450; Jone, Commentarium in Codicem Iuris Canonici, I, 586. ~2Cf. Goyeneche, op. cir., 217; De Carlo, oiO. cir., n. 587; Schaefer, o/,. cir., n. 1629; Palombo, op. tit., n. 114; Beste, oiO. cit., 450; Jone, o~O. tit., 586; Coropata, op. cit., 864. 279 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious 18. Procedure (cc. 650-52). (a). Intervention of the superior general and his council. In pontifical or diocegan lay institutes of men, canon 650, §§ 1-2, not only require that- the dismissal of a professe~ of perpe~tual vows be submitted to th~ superior gen-eral but also demand a deliberative vote of his council for such a dismissal. Canon law "does not clearly demand the interven-tion of the mother general nor of her council in the dismissal of .a professed of perpetual vows. However, from analogy with the law on the dismissal of religious men of perpetual vows and the constant practice of the Sacred Congregation of Religi-ous in the approval of constitutions, the dismissal of a professed woman of perpetual vows in both pontifical'and diocesan congre-gations is to be referred to the mother general and h'er council and the council is to have a deliberative vote.la For the same reasons, the deliberative vote of the council is required in a monastery of nuns. The remarks on the provincial and his council in n. 2 (a)apply here also. A proviricial should prac-tically never initiate the formalities of dismissal except after having consulted the superior general. The superior general and his council should have the pre-liminary data on the' religious drawn up, as stated in n. 11. To'this document are to be added a description of the three violations, proof of their existence, and proof that the admoni-tions Were properly given and received. As explained in n. 11, the reasons for the dismissal are tg, be fully manifested to the religious; and his replies in writing are to be submitted to the authority competent for dismissal. The matters .to be decided are whether certain proof is had of the three violations, of the giving and reception of the admonitions, and of the incorrigi-bility of the religious. (b) If the decision is for dismissal. 1° In a pontifical congre-gation. The mother general is to transmit all the acts and a:~Cf. Larraona, Commentarium Pro Religlosis, 2-1921-364-66; Ta~era, op. cir., 14-1933-53-54; Schaefer, op. cit., n. 1608; Jone, op. cit., 578; Muzzarelli, Tractatus Canonicus de Congregationibus Iuris Dioecesani, 175; Goyeneche, op. cit., 219; Bastien, op. cir., n. 640. 280 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES documents of the case along with the vote of her council to the Sacred Congregation of Religious (cf. n. 2). In a congregation of brothers, the same things are to be sent to .the Sacred Con-gregation. However, the brother general,, with the deliberative vote of his council, decrees the dismissal; but this has no effect until it is confirmed by the Sacred Congregation (cf. n. 2). A superior who transmits a case to the authority competent for dismissal may include further information from himself or the members of the council in, addition to the latter's vote. 2° In a diocesan congregation, of brothers or sisters. The same things are to be forwarded to the local ordinary (cf. n. 3). The matters to be decided by the ordinar~ are the same as those stated above. He may summon the religious, defer the dis-missal and prescribe further attempts at correction, deny the dismissal, or issue the decree of dismissal. 3° In a monastery of nuns. The superioress is to transmit the same things to the local ordinary and the regular superior (cf. n. 5). 19. Dismissal. The religious is dismissed only at the moment that he or she receives legitimate notification of the decree of dismissal or of the confirmation of the Sacred Congregation of Religious in the case of religious men.~ Before that time he may neither leave the institute nor may the institute eject him. He is then to leave the institute, unless he is a member of a diocesan congregation, as will be immediately explained. 20. Recourse. (a) In any pontifical lay institute of men or women. The religious may recur io the Holy See against the decree of dismissal, but this recourse does not suspend the effect of the dismissal. The code gives no such right, and the Holy See has both examined ihe reasons of the religious against the dismissal and has itself effected or confirmed the dismissal. (b) In any diocesan congregation of men or women. The code says nothing on the right of the religious to recur to the Holy See against a dismissal effected by the local ordinary. a4 Palombo, op. cit., nn. 144, 187; O'Leary, Rdi.oious Dismissed after Perpetual Profession, 47-50. 281 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious However, it is admitted that the religious has the right of recur-ring. to the Sacred Congregation of Religious against the decree; and, if made within ten days from the date on which the religi-ous was informed of the decree, this recourse suspends the effect of the dismissal. This right to a suspensive recourse follows a fortiori from the fact that such a right is granted to a religious of temporary vows dismissed by the local ordinary (c. 647, ~ i, 4°). Therefore, everything said in n. 13 under ¯ the dismissal of a professed of temporary vows applies here also. 21'. Effects of dismissal (cc. 669, § 1; 672, § 1). (a) If dis-missal frees from the vows. The code itself (c. 669, § 1 ) does not free a dismissed religious of perpetual vows from the vows of religious profession by the very fact of the dismissal. Such a liberation may be effected by a provision of the particular constitutions, or the Holy See may append a dispensation to the dismissal, or the dismissed religious may petition the Sacred Congregation of Religious in the case of pontifical institutes or the local ordinary in that of diocesan institutes for a dispen-sation. 1~ The religious is to be most earnestly encouraged to make such a petition, and the superiors are willingly to aid him. Constitutions of lay congregations submitted to Rome in the earlier years after the Code of Canon Law became effective, May 19, 1918, uniformly do not provide that legitimate dismis-sal of a perpetually professed religious frees from the vows; tho~e submitted in more recent years frequently contain this provision. The latter practice should be followed in any revis-ion of pontifical or diocesan constitutions. Ill such a provision is contained in the constitutions, the dismissal frees from all the vows of religious profession as soon as the decree is effective. There is no need of a dispensation from the vows. The other effects are the same as explained under secularization in the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September, 1956, 233-36. (b) If the dismissal does not free from the vows (c. 672, § 1). Canon 672, § 1, prescribes that a religious of perpetual is Cf. Muzzarelli, o~. cir., 306. 282 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES vows who has been dismissed without being freed of his vows is obliged to reform his.life so that he will be worthy .of being received back into the institute. If the dismissed religious has manifested a complete reform during a period of three years, he is obliged to return to the institute and the la'tter~ is obliged to take him back. Howe.ver, it is the far more probable interpre-tation that this canon applies only to a religious in sacred orders (priest, deacon, subdeacon).'6 If the dismissed lay religious will not voluntarily petition a dispensation from the vows, the practical remedy is to submit the case immediately to the Sacred Congregation of Religious. A professed of~ perpetual vows is also to be given an official statement to the effect that he had been l~gitimately .dismissed, and mention should b~ made as to whether he had been freed of the vows by the dismissal or a concomitant or subsequent dispensation. IV. Dismissal By Law (c. 646) 22. Definition. This dismissal is effected automatically by canon 646 itself by the very fact and at the instant that any of the three crimes specified in the canon is committed. Therefore, the law itself, not the decree or declaration of a superior, effects the dismissal. In its nature, the dismissal is a punishment in-flicted for the crime and also a means given to religious, insti-tutes to free themselves immediately of members who have perpetrated most serious crimes against the religious life. 23. Subject. The subject of the il~so facto or dismissal by law of canon 646 is any professed religious, man or woman, of solemn or any type of simple vows, whether perpetual or tem-porary, and the members who have been aggregated perpetually or temporarily in societies living in common without public vows (c. 681). A postulant or novice is not the subject, but the commission of any of these three crimes is certainly more 'than a sufficient reason for his dismissal by the decision of the competent superior. ~6 Cf. Fanfani, De lure Religiosorum, 703-705. 283 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious 24. "Religious who have publicly apostatized from the Catholic faith" (c. 646, § 1, 1°). The crime is simply public apostasy from the Catholic faith. (a) Simply. The canon does not demand that the religi-ous have joined a non-Christian sect, e. g., Judaism, Buddhism, Mohammedanism. The crime can be" verified either in or out of such a sect. "(b) Public (c. 2197, 1°). In the case of a religious, a crime is public when it is actually known or is in serious and immediate danger of being known by at least a notable part of the mem-bers of the religious house to which the delinquent is attached.1~ It is not necessary that such knowledge or danger extend.to the province, institute, or to externs. External apostasy that has not attained this publicity does not effect dismissal by law. (c) Apostasy from the Catholic faith (c. 1325, ~ 2). Apos-tasy is the act of a baptized person who formally" denies or positively doubts about the entire Christian-faith. The unbap-tized are infidels, not apostates, heretics, or schismatics. Formally means that there must be a subjective mortal sin in the act. A doubt is the suspension of the acceptance of the intellect. A positive doubt is had when the intellect judges that there are sufficient reasons for affirming and denying the proposition, that the reasons on neither side are convincing, and therefore the intellect suspends assent to the proposition. In a negative doubt, the intellect suspends assent because it does not p~rceive reasons either for affirming or 'denying the proposition. This is to be classed rather as ignorance. As in heresy, /~ positive doubt constitutes an injury to the faith and is sufficient four apostasy.18 The one who so doubts has had the truth suffi-ciently proposed to him, but he positively judges that the truth is not sufficiently proposed and that contrary reasons make it uncertain. ~ Cf. Michiels, De Delictis et Pornis, 117-18. ~8 Ciprotti, De Consummatione Delictorum, 15; Coronata, o,O. cir., IV, n. 1856. 284 Septe,~be~', 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES Apostasy is a denial or positive doubt concerning the entire Christian faith, e. g., the existence of God, the fact or possibility of the Christian revelation, the fact or possibility of the supernatural order. Apostasy is therefore distinguished from heresy or schism. A heretic is a baptized person who formally denies or positively doubts about one or some dogmas of faith. A schismatic is a baptized person who formally refuses to submit to the spiritual authority of the Roman Pontiff or to communicate with the other members of the Church (c. 1325, ~ 2). Canon 646 mentions only apostasy and thus inflicts dis-missal by law only on apostates, not on heretics or schismatics. (d) Excommunication (c. 2314). An apostate incurs by the very fact of the apostasy an excommunication reserved in a special manner to the Holy See. An excommunication demands merely that the act be external and not that it be public. 25. "A religious man who h~as run away with a woman or a religious woman who has run away with a man" (c. 646, ~ I, 2°). The crime will be explained with a religious man as the subject. Four notes are required to constitute this crime. The last three are only probably required in theory but are certainly necessary in fact to effect the dismissaI (cc. 15, 19). (a) The religious man must be united physically or morally in flight from one place to another with a woman. It is not required that the r.eligious be an apostate or fugitive from religion in the canonical sense of canon 644J" Flight in canon 646 has the common and ordinary sense of running away with a woman. The crime, is completed as soon as this notion is verified, without any consideration whatever of the length of absence from the religious house. The intention of returning or not returning, of contracting or not contracting marriage has nothing to do with the crime. Both must flee, since the canon demands that the religious man have run away with a woman. This is verified physically if both start out from the religious house; it is verified morally. 19 Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, May, 1957, 155-64. 285 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for "Religious if the religious alone flees in virtue of a previous agreement to meet the woman. The moral union is caused l~y the previous agreement; if such an agreement does not exist, there is no flight. In a doubt, this agreement is'to be presumed if.there was an illicit attachmehr or familiarity beforehand and union shortly after the departure of the religious; otherwise the agree-ment must be proved. The dismissal is effected at the begin-ning. of the flight. The flight described above is always neces, sary. Without such flight, neither concubinage nor the illicit leaving of the. house to sin with a woman, even though done frequently and furtively, constitutes the crime. When tlqe flight of this canon is difficult to prove, as is often true, an investiga-tion is to be made as to the existence of a marriage ceremony. It is rare in such cases that the woman does not insist on some form of marriage ceremony. (b) Probably the motive of the ,flight must be the satisfaction of lust. The iaecessity of such a motive is implicit in the text of the law and is part of the common notion of running away with a woman. Ordinarily this motive is to be presumed as soon as the other notes are verified.2° (c) Probably the woman must have attained puberty and not be a relative by blood or marriage in the direct line (mother, grandmother, etc.) or in the first degree .o~ the collateral line (sister) of the religious man. Puberty in a girl is attained can-onically on the day after the twelfth birthday, in a boy on the day after the fourteenth birthday (c. 88, § 2). The correspond-ing relatives will apply in the case of a religious woman, i. e., father, grandfather, brother. The necessity of this note is founded on the extrinsic authority of several authors. It has little foundation in the text of the law. The sense of the law is rather that the lustful motive is presumed not to exist with such persons but, if proved, the crime exists. Otherwise, the state of the woman is indifl:erent. It is of no import that she z°Cf. Tabera, Ol~. cir., 11-1930-416; Goyeneche, oil. cir., 209; Vermeersch, Periodica, 19-1930.122". 286 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES is married, unmarried, capable or incapable of contracting marriage validly;. (d) Probably proof must exist of the preceding, requisites. The probability of this doctrine arises from the fact that the other two crimes of canon 646, public apostasy and marriage, are of their nature capable of proof and from the extrinsic authority of some authors. If the religious has verified the other notes but the crime is so secret that this fourth note is not verified, he is not dismissed by law."~l Any proof that gives moral certi-tude suffices, e. g., the testimony of reliable witnesses. (e) Excommunication (c. 2385). Obviously the flight described above will usually also imply apostasy from religion if the religi-ous has perpetual vows and thus the incurring i/)so fdcto of an excommunication reserved to the ordinary.-~" 26. "A religious who attempts or contracts marriage, even the so-called civil marriage" (c. 646, § 1, 3°). The crime is the contracting (validly) or the attempting (invalidly) of marriage by any type of Catholic, non-Catholic, or civil ceremony pro-vided both parties gave a naturally valid consent. The form of celebration of a civil marriage must be valid according to the civil law of the place of celebration. A solemn vow of chastity renders marriage invalid; a simple vow forbids but does not invalidate marriage. The crime presupposes a marriage consent valid" from the natural law and is not verified if the consent is vitiated in either party by an essential defect, e. g., ignorance, simulation, physical violence, grave fear. However, it is to be presumed that true consent was given; and this pre-sumption is sufficient to declare the religious~dismissed. In itself, the invalidity of the marriage does not exclude the crime, i. e., the crime is still verified if the marriage is invalid because it was attempted outside the Church or because of a diriment impedi-ment. ~lGoyeneche, Quaestiones Canonicae, II, 153; Schaefer, op. cir., n. 1578; Bas-tien, op. cir., 446, note 2; Jone, o~0. tit., 572; Jombart, RevUe des Communautets Religieuses, 6-1930-148. 22 Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, May, 1957, 158. 287 JOSEPH ~. GALLEN Review for Religious Excommunications (cc. 2388; 2319, § 1, I°~; 2385). By presum-ing to attempt marriage, both a solemnly professed religious and the other party incur an excommunication reserved simply to the Holy See (c. 2388, §.1); if the vows of the religious are simple but perpetual, the presuming to contract or attempt marriage is punished in both parties by an excommunication reserved to the ordinary (c. 2388, § 2). If the marriage is attempted before a non-Catholic minister, the punishment of a Catholic is an excommunication reserved to the ordinary (c. 2319, § 1, 1°). A marriage ceremony implies an intention never to return to the institute and thus results in an excommunication for apostasy from religion reserved to the ordinary in the case of a religious of perpetual vows (c. 2385). A civil ceremony is not punished by the code, but in some dioceses of the United States it is punished by an excommunication reserved to the o~dinary and in some others it constitutes a reserved sin. 27. Effects (c. 646, ~ 1). Upon the commission of any of the three crimes, the religious is immediately an.d i~pso facto dis-missed, by canon 646. This dismissal by law is a legitimate dis-missal and produces all the effects of the ordinary dismissal by decree. Therefore, in the case of a professed of temporary vows, the effects are ~he same as those described in n. 14; if the religious is. of p.erpetual vows, the effects are those of the'ordinary dismissal exp!ain~d in n. 21. 28. Declaration of fact (c. 646, ~ 2). This canon commands the higher superior with the consultive vote of his council to make a declaration of fact concerning the crime. Some con-stitutions restrict this right to the superior general, and some also demand a deliberative vote of the council. In monasteries of nuns, the declaration is to be made by the superioress of the monastery with the consultive or deliberative vote of the council or chapter as commanded by the constitutions. The declaration of fact is merely a description of the pertinent points of the case, the headings of the proof, e. g., a copy of the marriage record, statement of witnesses, etc., and the conclu- 288 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES sion that the religious ~was dismissed in virtue of canon 646. The local superior is ordinarily in the best position to secure these proofs, e. g., the statements of witnesses. Frequently a trustworthy man such as a lawyer or priest should be deputed to secure some of the proofs in the case of an institute of women, e. g., the copy of the marriage record. The declara-tion and proofs are to be retained in the secret files of the house of the higher superior who made the declaration. The pur-pose of the declaration is to possess proof of the automatic dismissal and to prevent future doubts and difficulties, particu-larly for the eventuality of a recourse by the subject to the local ordinary or the Holy See. V. Provisional Sending Back to Secular Life (c. 653) 29. Subject. The subject of thi~ provisional return is any pro-fessed religious, man or woman, and any aggregated member of a society living in common (c. 681). Canon 653 speaks explicitly only of the perpetually professed; but afortiori, from afialogy of law, the common opinion of authors, and the practice of the Holy See in approving constitutions, the same canon applies to the professed of only temporary vows and to the aggregated members whose bond with the society is only tem-porary. 30. Reasons required. The reason must be either of the fol-lowing: (a) Grave external scandal. This is a culpable defamatory act, committed within or outside the religious house, which is well known outside the house or known only to a few externs, who, however, will not keep the matter a secret, e. g., a sin against good morals. (b) Very serious imminent injury to the community. This is an extraordinary injury or harm certainly and proximately threatening at least reductively, not merely one or some individ-uals but the religious house, province, or institute. The religious must be the cause of this harm but it is not certain that he 289 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for" Religious must be a culpable cause. Examples of this reason are the proximate judicial accusation of a defamatory crime in either the moral or political order; sexual actions with students in an institute devoted to education when it is foreseen that these wil][ become public and bring infamy on the house, province, or institute; a serious threat to set the house on fire or against the life of a superior or another member of the institute; and a serious loss of temporal property of the house, province or institute. (c) Three conditions required in both cases. Since such an extraordinary action should not be taken against a religious because of mere probability, conjecture, or suspicion, the ex-istence of the cause must be certain; it must also be impossible to avoid the scandal or harm in other ways, e. g., by transferring the religious to another house; and there must be at least prob-ability that the scandal or harm can be averted or appreciably diminished by the provisional return to secular life. 31. Competent authority. (a) Ordinarily. Canon 653 gives the right for such action in lay institutes to the higher superior with the consent of his council. The right is therefore given by the ~ode also to provincials, even though the constitutions may affirm it only of the superior general. In prudence and if possible, the provincial should refer the case to the superior general or at least consult the latter. In a monastery of nuns, "the competent authority is the superioress with the consent of her council. (b) In a more urgent case. In a case in which the time re-quired for recourse to the superior general or provincial would imperil the avoidance of the scandal or injury, the competent authority is the local superior with the consent of his council and also the consent of the local ordinary. If it is impossible to have recourse to the local ordinary and the case will not admit _.3 Berutti, De Religiosis, 349; Bouscaren-Ellis, Canon La~w, 319. 290 September, 1957 DISMISSAL IN LAY INSTITUTES o~. delay, it is.safely probable that this action may be taken by the local superior with only the consent of his council.'~4 32. Final adjudication of the case. (a) Report. A report of the case should always be made out without delay and submitted to the authority competent for a final decision of the matter. The report is to contain the religious and family name of the subject, date, age, date of entrance, date of temporary or perpetual profession, house to which he was assigned at the time of the return to secular life, cause of this return, proofs and present state of this cause, a brief record of the past of the religious insofar as it is pertinent to the cause 6f his return and dismissal, the name and rank of the superior who effected the return, the fact that the consent of the council and of the local ordinary, when prescribed, was obtained; and, if the latter was not secured, the report is to state the reasons that'justified its omission. (b) Authority competent for a final decision. Canbn 653 states that the case is to be referred to the Holy See without delay. This canon, however, is to be interpreted in the light of the other canons on the competent authority for dismissal; and it is admitted doctrine that the authority competent for an ordinary dismissal by decree is competent also for the final decision in the case of a provisional return to secular life.~'~ Therefore, the case is to be referred, according to the nature of the institute and the vows of the subject, to the authority competent for dismissal by decree stated in nn. 2-5. 33. Effects. As soon as the provisional return is decided, the re-ligious puts off the religious habit and leaves the institute. The return to secular life is a provisional measure. It is not a dismissal and does not produce the effects of a dismissal. The competent authority mentioned above decides for or against dismissal and 24Cf. Tabera, 0p. tit., 14-1933-58; Goyeneche, De Religiosis, 221, note 31; Palombo, op. cir., n. 192; Schaefer, 0iL cir., n. 1609; O'Neill, The Dismissal of Religious in Temporary l/o~vs, 104. 25Cf. O'Neill, op. cir., 103-104; Schaefer, op. cir., n. 1636; Wernz-Vidal De Religiosis, 490, note 13; Bastien, o~0. cir., n. 645, 4; Palombo, op. cir., n. 195; Tabera, op. cir., 14-1933-57; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome luris Canonicl, I, n. 807. 291 JOSEPH F. GALLEN decrees the dismissal in the t~ormer case. The charitable subsidy is to be given to a religious woman who is provi~ionally sent back to secular lithe.2° SOME BOOKS RECEIVED [Only books sent directly to the Book Review Editor, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana, are included in our Reviews and Announcements. The following books were sent to St. Marys.] The 1957 National Catholic Almanac. Edited by Felician A. Foy, O.F.M. St. Anthony's Guild, Paterson, New Jersey. $2.00 (paper cover). Does God Exist? By Alfred M. Mazzei. Translated by Daisy Corinne Fornacca. Society of St. Paul, New York, N.Y. $3.50. St. Bernadette Speaks. By Albert Bessi~res, S.J. Translated by The Earl of Wicklow. Clonmore & Reynolds Ltd., 29 Kildare St., Dub-lin. 10/6. Queen of Heaven. By Ren~ Laurentin. Translated by Gordon Smith. Clonmore & Reynolds Ltd., 29 Kildare St., Dublin, 12/6. Le Ciel ou l'Enfer. II. l'Enfer. By Chanoine G. Panneton. Beau-chesne et ses Fils, Rue de Rennes, Paris. Methods of Prayer in the Directory of the Carmelite Reform of Touraine. By Kilian J, Healy, O. Carm. Institutum Carmelitanum, Via Sforza Pallavicini, 10, Rome. Some Philosophers on Education. Edited by Donald A. Gallagher. Marquette University Press, 1131 Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee 3, Wis-consin. $2.50 (paper cover). Wellsprings of the Faith. By Most Reverend John C. McQuaid, D.D. Clonmore & Reynolds Ltd., 29 Kildare St., Dublin. 18/-. The Reluctant Abbess. By Margaret Trouncer. Sheed and Ward, 840 Broadway, New York 3, New York. $3.75. Quadalupe to Lourdes. "By Frances Parkinson Keyes. Catechetical Guild Educational Society, St. Paul 2, Minnesota. $0.50 (paper cover). The Mystery of My Future. By Jean De Larhove. Society of St. Paul, 2187 Victory Blvd., Staten Island 14, New York. $2.50. Of the Imitation of Christ. By Thomas a Kempis. Translated by Abbot Justin McCahn. The New American Library of World Literature, Inc., 501 Madison Ave., New York 22, New York. $0:50 (paper cover). The Caiholic Booklist 1957. Edited by Sister Mary Luella, O.P. Rosary College, River Forest, Illinois. $0.75 (paper cover). ¯ _,6 Cf. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOt;S, September, 1956, 235-36. 292 Our Supernat:ural Organism Daniel J./~. Callahan, $.J. GOD IS THE author of all things. The more science ad-vances, the more does it disclose the wonders of His crea-tion. Even a superficial reading of a manual of biology or physics or chemistry or astronomy wrings from us the words of the Psalmist: "How great are thy works, O Lord. Thou hast made all things in wisdom; the earth is filled with thy riches" (Ps. 103:24 ). These divine masterpieces, especially as mani-fested in man, qualify us by analogy for the marvels of the supernatura! order. God gives life in the embryonic state and with it an or-ganism capable of developing the tiny creature into the pleni-tude of its specific perfection. The fundamental natural prin-ciple of this evolution is the vital principle within it, which energizes it and is the source of its least activity. Its separation from the bodily element would mean the termination of growth, deterioration, death. In us the human soul is the basic source of our natural life; its faculties or powers are the immediate cause of our vital activities and these in turn bring to perfec-tion our human life. To all this the supernatural is closely analogous as will appear from a brief study of the components of its organism. Sanctifying Grace Appropriately this may be styled the soul of the higher life in us. Only from divine revelation do we know its exis-tence and nature, and it will be useful to recall here what rev-elation tells us about this precious endowment. It is something most real; a spiritual quality inherent in our soul and of such an excellence'that only God could be its principal cause; it is a stable quality, an adornment abiding in the soul till forfeited through mortal sin; it is a totally free gift to which no one of us could lay claim and which transforms us into God:like 293 DANIEL J. M. (~ALLAHAN Review for Religious beings resembling our eternal Father and enabling us to share, in a finite manner, in His life. That life comprises the infinite contemplation;, love, and possession of His uncreated perfec-tion. To this no creature by its native powers could aspire. By a privilege entirely gratuitous God destines us for the immediate visiofi of Himself in heaven and adapts us ~or it through sanctifying grace. Attended by faith; hope, and charity such grace equips us to know, love, possess God, imperfectly, of course," as He knows, loves, and possesses Himself; and thus we enter into the divine life and become truly His children. And while this life is distinct from our natural life, it is not merely superimposed on the latter: it penetrates it through and through, elevating and transforming it. Leaving intact all the natural goodness that is ours, sanctifying grace imparts a new orientation to everything within us, establishes new relations to the Blessed Trinity, and inaugurates on earth the life of the blessed. To aid us in the apprehension of this prerogative, writers resort to many comparisons and illustrations. They liken the soul to a living image of the adorable Trinity., divinely impressed on the soul as the seal leaves its image on the wax, lavishing on it an entrancing beauty since the prototype and the artist is no other than God. Again such a soul is compared to a trans-parent body receiving the sun's rays and, all aglow" itself, radiating them in all directions; to a bar of steel plunged into a furnace and sharing the heat, brightness, and pliancy of the fire; to a branch engrafted into a plant, maintaining its identity while partaking of the life of the plant; to the union in us of soul and body where the soul quickens and energizes the body even as grace communicates a new life and effects our most intimate union with God. Finally, an analogy with the hypo-static union in Christ is introduced; and, though the soul's union with God is only accidental, yet it is the union of a substance with a substance; and, while the hypostatic union results in the God-man, the union through grace issues in a God-like being, 294 September, 1957 OUR SUPERNATURAL ORGANISM whose actions are performed at once by the Creator and His creature, even as in Christ His actions were shared in by both His divine and human nature. And though our union with God is neither hypostatic nor substantial in the proper sense, for we always retain our personality and the union is only accidental, it is not merely the intimacy of two friends, for it rests on a/physical quality abiding in the soul and on physical bonds intensifying and safeguarding that union. The three Divine Persons are immediately presefit to the soul in a com-pletely new way and are possessed and enjoyed by it. Though the precise nature of this extraordinary inhabitation continues to exercise theologians, we are assured that it is capable of indefinite expansion up to the last breath of life here below, and this in p.roportion to our surrender to the Holy Spirit through the removal of all barriers and the cultivation of the infused virtues and the gifts of the Holy Ghost. The Infused Virtues In the natural order our soul functions through its faculties or powers. It thinks through the intellect; .it loves through the will; it senses through our different senses. These faculties bestowed on us together with the soul, by means of their varied activities, are susceptible of tremendous development. In the supernatural order grace parallels the soul, and the infused virtues are its chief faculties. These emanate from sanctifying grace, elevate our mind and will, enable us to perform supernatural, meritorious deeds. Virtue may be described as a good habit designed for action. It is natural if it has been acquired through the repeti-tion of the same specific act and communicates facility in doing so; if directly granted by God and if it confers the ability to do something, it is called infused. The natural virtues facilitate nat-ural righte6usness; the infused confer the power to act on a superhuman level. These latter are usually divided into theologi-cal and moral. The former have God for their formal and principal material object; in the concrete they are faith, hope, and charity and unite the soul directly to God. The moral 295 DANIEL J. M. CALLAHAN Review for Religious virtues have for their objective some moral good distinct from God, serve to eliminate the hindrances to divine union and to stabilize it, and are commonly listed under the four cardinal vi£tues. The theological virtues certainly accompany sanctifying grace and integrate the process of justification, and it is the generally accepted doctrine that the moral virtues also are then bestowed. ¯ All of these virtues are susceptible of increment and 'do increase proportionally with the increase of grace, just as the branches of the tree ke~p pace with the expansion of the trunk. Apart from the complete loss of the virtue, may they diminish? In general, any activity that is discontinued or exercised bnly rarely tends to decline or even to cease. Venial sins, especially when frequent and deliberate, considerably impede the practice of virtue and thus diminish the facility previously attained. Neglect of actual graces may likewise occ~lsion the privation of such helps as notably conduce to acts of virtue and add vigor and polish to them. And though venial sins do not directly decrease or destroy the infused virtues, it remains true that such failings open the way for serious lapses and the destruction of th.e virtues. Do all grave sins deprive us of these? Faith is destroyed only through a mortal sin of infidelity, hope through the same and that of despair; charity and the infused moral virtues, through any mortal sin. Relative to the duration ot~ all such virtues, in the lost none of them persists; the theological remain in the souls in purgatory; in heaven there will be neither acts of faith nor of hope relative to God, and most probably not relative to objects distinct from Him. And whereas neither the moral virtues nor those of faith and hope will endure in the blessed, these will retain the virtue of charity and live a life of the purest actual love. The Gifts of the Holy Spirit There is unanimity among Catholic theologians about the existence of such gifts, but their specific nature is widely contro-verted. In accordance with the doctrine of St. Thomas (Summa, 296 September, ~957 OUR SUPERNATURAL ORGANISM I-II, q. 68, a. 3), the most prevalent opinion is that they are supernatural habits, distinct from the virtues, implanted in the soul conjointly with sanctifying grace, which impart a recep-tiveness, a docility to the impulse of the Holy Spirit, a more prompt and more generous cooperation with His grace. They would appear to be, at least in the early stages, not operative habits like the virtues, but rather dispositive, adjusting the soul for a better reaction to the divine intervention. Their func-tion, then, is that 0f perfecting the exercise of the virtues. There is no certainty about their number; and, while conferred simultaneously with grace, a more copious outpouring may be the fruit of the sacrament of confirmation. The docility issu-ing from these' gifts improves perceptibly through prayer for fidelity to grace, through a life of faith and recollection, through the cultivation of the moral virtues and due control over our passions, for unless these latter are consistently mortified, the inordinate attachments in the soul will hamper us in discerning, accepting, and responding to the inspirations of grace. We must combat the spirit of the world which is diametrically op-posed to the divine and school ourselves in prompt, magnani-mous compliance with God's will. The more complete our surrender' to Him, the more will He be pleased to enlighten and inflame us. Actual Grace just as in the natural order we cannot bring power into motion without the concurrence of the Almighty, so also in the supernatural. Such cooperation is known as actual grace to distinguish it from habitual grace previously considered. It is a transitory aid imparted by God, consisting in the illumina-tion of the mind and the urge of the will for the performance of a supernatural act. It sets the intellect and heart in motion and enables them to function on a superhuman level. In the concrete, it is a holy thought, a salutary incitement of the will, produced by God who directly influences our rational faculties, stimulating them to operate, and cooperating with them to 297 DANIEL J. M. CALLAHAN Review for Religious elicit a good thought and a salutary desire in keeping with the special need of the moment. The thought is most real and comes directly'from God; it is a holy thought, designed for the spiritual benefit of the individual. When we say "salutary desire," we understand any good act of the will, for instance, the love of good, hatred of evil, fear of divine punishment, sorrow for sin, joy 'in well-doing. It is a real act of the will. Antecedent to our activity God lovingly takes the initiative and continues to act within us and with. us for the accomplishment of a deed that will conduce to life eternal. This assistance is not permanent; it persists only while its purpose lasts; and it influences us in a moral way through attraction and persuasion and physically by adding energy to our intellectual faculties too weak to act of themselves. As religious we are to be profoundly penetrated with the conviction of our need of such divine assistance. It is necessary for the achievement of every supernatural act: for the prelim-inary acts of faith, hope, sorrow requisite for the remission of sin. The constant endeavor to resist temptations which assail even the just, as well as our steadfastness in good living, are the fruits of actual grace. Obviously, then, we have not the power to persevere in religion and even to reach perfection through our unaided strength. Christ's memorable words, "Without Me you can do nothing" (Jn. 15:6), are pertinent to the natural and supernatural levels. Everyone who attains the use of reason needs this grace and all such receive it. It proceeds from the love of God; the ordinary channels for its dispensation are the sacraments, prayer, and'our meritorious deeds; and the more generous our cooperation with grace received the more will be granted, for here, as in the entire economy of salvation, God takes the initiative, awaits our free reaction, and assures us that He will" bestow th~ necessary help for the completion of our project. Conformity to the divine will, consequent peace of soul, trust, and magnanimity are supremely important in the struggle for real sanctity. 298 September, 1957 OUR SUPERNATURAL ORGANISM Appreciation "If thou didst know the gift of God" (Jn. 4:19) spoke Jesus to the Samaritan woman, referring to the supernatural life which He communicates to us through His vivifying action, here compared to water springing from an unfailing source. Religious have totally consecrated themselves to God; to Him they belong entirely; and there must be in them the life that is His. In them the supernatural must always be dominant. It is a treasure to be courageously safeguarded even at the cost of sacrifice; it is an endowment to be zealously augmented; it is a life and life is essentially progressive. Cessation of growth soon induces recession. In the wake of tepidity and lethargy spiritual death follows closely. The law of spiritual gravity is to be counteracted through p.urity of intention at all times, through earnestness even in small affairs, through fervent, per-severing prayer, and through the frequent reception of the sacraments of penance and Holy Communion. "Walk in a manner worthy of the calling with whic'h you are called," wrote 'St. Paul to the Ephesians (4:1 ff.), "with all humility and meek-ness, with patience bearing with one another in love, careful to preserve the unity of the. spirit iri the bond of peace; one body and one 'Spirit . . . one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all who is above all and .throughout all and in all." Surely a relevant injunction for all religious. OUR CONTRIBUTORS BONAVENTURE BALSAM is engaged in parish work at St. Anthony's Priory, 4640 Canal Street, New Orleans, Louisiana. JOSEPH F. GALLEN is professor of canon law at Woodstock Col-lege, Woodstock, Maryland. DANIEL J. M. CALLAHAN is profes-sor of ascetical and mystical theology at Woodstock College, Wood-stock, Maryland. 299 Survey ot: Roman Documen!:s R. ~. Smil:h, S.J. IN THIS survey only those documents will be considered which appeared in the ./Iota/lpostolicae Sedis (AAS) during the months of April and May, 1957. Hence all page references throughout the survey are to AAS of 1957 (v. 49). The African Missions On Easter Sunday, April 21, 1957 (AAS, pp. 225-48),. the Holy Father issued a new encyclical letter which is entitled Fidei Donum (TheGift of Faith) and which treats of Africa and its missions. After noting that man'.s gratitude for the gift of faith is best shown by spreading the light of Christ's truth, His Holi-ness remarks that while he is not unaware of the grave and pressing problems attending the spread of the Faith in all parts of the world, yet special attention is needed in the case of Africa, for this continent now finds itself on the threshold of its political and cultural maturity and faced with circumstances the import-ance of which is rivaled by nothing in the previous history of /~frica'. The Vicar of Christ then begins the first of the four sections into which the encyclical letter is divided. This first section is devoted to an over-all picture of the missionary scene in Africa. Most of the countries of the continent, the Pope says, are in the midst of profound social, economic, and political changes which will have a lasting effect on the fut.ure lives of these nations. The Church which has seen the rise and growth of so many nations cannot but be intensely interested in the peoples of Africa who are now attaining their civil rights. It is at this point that the Holy Father exhorts the coloniz-ing nations to grant civil rights to peoples who are prepared for them; and at the same time he urges the colonial peoples of 300 ROMAN DOCUMENTS Africa to be grateful .for .~vhat they have received from the vari-ous countries of Europe. Only such a harmonious attitude will exclude prejudice and exaggerated nationalism and will permit the peoples of Africa to experience the entire range of benefits which flow from the religion of Christ. Pius XII is especially concerned that in many countries of Africa atheistic materialism has been spreading the seed of its doctrine, thereby arousing jealousy between nations, inducing false perspectives in the matter of temporal prosperity, and excit-ing to rebellion. The presence of this atheistic materialism in Africa, thinks the Pontiff, is particularly grave owing to the fact that the peoples of Africa, because they wish to accomplish in a few years what ~he peoples of Europe took centuries to achieve, are psychologically vulnerable to the specious .promises which materialism offers. The H01y Father continues by remarking that of all the missionary regions of the world, Africa is the one with the greatest needs. African mission posts which have been estab-lished in the last ten or twenty years cannot expect a sufficient number of native clergy for a long time, while the missionaries in such stations are few and widely scattered throughout large regions where, moreover, non-Catholic religions are also spread-ing their doctrines. The gravity of the situation can be illustrated by one region of Africa where there are 2,000,000 inhabitants but only 50 priests whose energies, moreover, are completely absorbed in the care of the 60,000 persons already converted to Catholicism. Twenty more missionaries in such regions at the present time would mean, the Vicar of Christ sadly comments, the spreading of the banner of the cross in places which twenty years from now will be impossible of access. Moreover, twenty more missionaries would mean that the Church could educate in such regions a corps of African Catholics equipped to meet the social and political needs of the continent. Nor are difficulties lacking in African missionary centers which have long been established. Such centers too feel the 301 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious extreme lack of missionaries. Moreover, the bishops and vicars apostolic of Africa are obliged to provide for their flocks a full Catholic life; and this necessitates in turn schools, colleges, social institutes, all the modern communication arts. Such needs can be met only by a great flow of material and apostolic help to the continent of Africa where 85,000,000 human beings are still attached to the practice of paganism. The Holy Father centers the second part of his encyclical around the theme that the problems of the Church in Africa are not merely local difficulties, but are of vital concern to the entire Mystical Body. Bishops, those preeminent members of the Mystical Body, should have a special concern for the Church in Africa, for they as the legitimate successors of the apostles retain the duty of preaching to all nations. Moreover, continues the Holy Father, there ig not a Catholic in the world who should not be interested in the problems of the Church in Africa. Nothing that is characteristic of the Church should be absent from the mental outlook of the individual Catholic. If then catholicity or universality is one of the characteristics of that Church which is the mother of all nations, breadth of outlook must also mark the individual Catholic. In the third part of the encyclical the Holy Father dis-cusses the means by which Catholics can aid the missions of Africa. ~The first means is that of continual and earnest prayer. The best prayer, of course, will be that which Chris~, our High Priest, daily offers on our altars. And while the faith-ful should be instructed that it is good to offer Mass for their private intentions, still they should also be taught to give atten-tion to those petitions with which the Mass is primarily and neces-sarily concerned and "which include the we~Ifare and propaga-tion of the entire Church. To prayer must be added alms or material help, for present needs far exceed the help now being given. The faithful in other parts of the world should compare their conditions with the 302 September', 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS situations of missionary countries and see who are the real need~i of the Church. Hence the Vicar of Christ urges that each Catholic make an examination of conscience to consider if there is not something tl~at can be given up in order that material aid might be given to the missions. The third way of helping Africa is through the fostering of vocations to missionary work.~ Bishops should train their flocks in such a way that there will always be members of that flock ready to heed the Lord's command i~ Genesis 12:1 to leave one's land and the house of one's father. Dioceses with a suffi-ciency of priests should give of their workers to the missions; and even dioceses which themselves suffer from a scarcity of priestly workers can still offer their mite as did the widow in the gospel story. The problem of missionary recruitment, however, can be met only by the ~oncerted work of all the bishops who should encourage the Missionary Union of the Clergy, foster the work of pontifical missionary associations, and be aware of the needs of those religious institutes which do missionary work but which cannot increase the number of their vocations without th~ under-standing assistance of the local ordinary. Finally, the Holy Father approves the practice of a diocese lending some of its priests to missions for a limited time. The fourth part' of the encyclical consists of a brief conclu-sion in which the Holy Father repeats that he is as interested in all the missions as he is in those of Africa. To all missionaries of the entire world he extends his gratitude and his congratula-tions and exhorts them to labor fervently in the work to which they have been called. Lenten and Easter Messages On March 5, 1957 (AAS, pp. 208,15), the Holy Father gave his usual Lenten allocution to the parish priests and Lenten preachers of Rome. The present year, begins the Holy Father, marks the fifth anniversary ot: the inauguration of the movement 303 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious "Fora Better World." After detailing the work accomplished in the diocese of Rome during that period and after noting the things yet to be done, His Holiness then urges his listeners to sow the seed that is the word of God. To preach anything but the word of God, he warns them, is to sow destruction. He gives special attention to the matter of Sunday preaching, insist-ing that nothing can achieve so much as this regular and familiar custom so long in use in the Church. Finally,. he recalls to his listeners the fact that the true sower of the good seed is God and that they are but instruments in His hand; what changes then would sweep the world if all who preached did so as ones truly coming with the power of God. The Holy Father's Easter message, delivered on April 21, 1957 (AAS pp. 276-80), was a meditative reflection on the phrase "O truly blessed night" of Holy Saturday's E, xultet. The night preceding the Resurrection, His Holiness begins, was one of desolation, tears, and darkness: Christ is dead; His flock is scattered; all is apparently in ruin. Nevertheless, even in that night there are signs of the dawn to come: the body of Christ suffers not the slightest taint of corruption and Mary prays in quiet confidence and expectation. That night before the Resurrection is also a symbol, adds the Vicar of Christ, of the night in which modern men find themselves: they must live in fear; their intelligences are cap-tured by error; immorality has reached a new depth. Neverthe-less, there are signs of a new day dawning. Science is provi-dentially multiplying the means to a fuller and freer life, while technology is providing the way to make these means available on a large scale. Moreover, men are now beginning to realize that the night of modern times is here because Christ has again been betrayed and crucified. Day will finally come to modern man when Christ restores grace to the individual soul and takes His rightful place in human social life. The Holy Father con-cludes his Easter message to mankind with a prayer that Christ may send the angel of the Resurrection to remove the obstacles 304 September, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS which men have built up :but which they are now powerless to remove. To Hospital Sisters On April 24, 1957 (AAS, pp. 291-96), Pius XII spoke to some 2,000 Italian hospital sisters who had met for the first time in a national meeting to discuss their common problems. The Pontiff began with a forceful statement of the part that religious women play in the life of the Church today, remarking that many branches of the Church's apostolate, especially those concerned with education and with works of chariiy, would be inconceivable without the existence of religious sisters. This said, the Holy Father then began to discuss with them the ideals of their relig-ious life. It is.a truth of our faith, he notes, that virginity is higher than the married state; for through virginity the soul achieves an immediate relationship with God that is one of absolute and indissoluble love. The virginal soul takes everything that God has given her to be a wife and mother and offers it back to Him in a complete and perpetual holocaust. In order to love God, the vi,rginal soul does not reach Him through other loves: noth-ing is interposed between such a soul and God. Hence it is that a religious must be a true spouse of our Lord, uniquely, indissolubly, and intimately united with Him. Hospital sisters then must take care that their assistance to the sick does not interfere with their spirit of absolute and perpetual devotion to God, guarding against all disordered activity which leaves them neither time nor repose for prayer to Christ. They must also guard themselves against long and frequent withdrawals from common life, that strong protection of the interior life. And they must watch carefully over their spirit of individual and collective poverty, making certain that their hospitals do not assume the character of merely money-making organizations. Turning now to their work for the sick, the Vicar of Christ notes that the existence of special institutions for the care of the 305 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious sick stemmed historically from the charity of the Church. Even today, when so many are interested in the care of the suffering, the Church will never abandon her task of caring' for the sick, for no one can take the place of the Church at the side of one who besides a body also possesses a soul whose needs and claims are often greater than those of the body. It is for this reason that the Holy Father urges hospital sis-ters to continue their work. Besides being perfect religious, they must also know and use the latest scientific methods and ap-paratus. They must train themselves to a motherly kindness that is linked with a strong element of firmness. They must lead a fully dynamic life and still retain their calm and serenity. Here the Holy Father adds that superiors must see to it that community time-schedules and practices do not make the sisters' work ineffi-cient and more difficult. In conclusion the Holy Father dwells at some length on the recommendation that the sisters train themselves always to see Christ in each of their patients. If they do so, he notes, then it will be easy to pass from the chapel to the sick room; religious observance and care for the sick will not interfere one with the other; and there will be no interruption of the sisters' union with Christ. The Holy Father then blessed the assembled sisters and concluded ~ith a remark that all hospital sisters will treasure: "The Church, the Pope, are depending on you: on your complete dedication, on your abilities, and on your spirit of love." Miscellaneous Matters Under the date March 19, 1957 (AAS, pp. 176-77), the Holy Father issued the rnotu proprio Sacram Co~nmunionern in which he provided that henceforth local ordinaries (with the exception of vicars general) may permit daily celebration of after-noon Mass provided the spiritual good of a notable part of the faithful warrants such a permission. His Holiness also further mitigated the Eucharistic fast. The drinking of water does not 306 September, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS break the fast'; and the time element for the Eucharistic fast is the following: Before the celebration of Mass in the case of priests and before the reception of Communion in the case of the faithful, solid food and alcoholic drink must be abstained from for three hours, while non-alcoholic drink must be abstained from for one hour. These time regulations extend both to morning and afternoon celebration of Mass and reception of Communion; and they must also be observed by those celebrating Mass at midnight or at the early hours of the morning as well as by those receiving Communion at such times. Finally, the Holy Father grants to the sick, even those not confined to bed, the .permission to take non-alcoholic drinks as well as liquid or solid medicine at any time before the celebration of Mass or the reception of Communion: Three documents of April and May of this year concerned the saints. The first of these is an apostolic letter of the Roman Pontiff which is dated June 8, 1956 (AAS, pp. 199-200), and which appoints St. Dominic Savio the patron of all choir boys. The other two documents are decrees of the Sacred Congre- - gation of Rites, both being dated January 22, 1957 (AAS, pp. 251-56). In the first of these decrees the congregation affirms the heroic virtue of the Venerable Servant of God Sister Mary Celine of the Presentation, professed nun of the Second Order of St. Francis (1878-97); the second decree affirms the heroic virtue of the Vdnerable Servant of God Sister Teresa of Jesus Journet Ibars, foundress of the Congregation of Little Sisters of the Indigent Aged (1843-97). Priests will be interested in the Holy Father's letter, dated March 25, 1957 (AAS, pp. 272-75), and sent to Cardinal Feltin of Paris on the.occasion of the 300th anniversary of the death of Jean-Jacques Olier, founder of the Society of St. Sulpice. - Olier, the Holy Father notes, recalls to the present generation the truth that the greatness and power of a priest consists in being a man of God and a man of ihe Church. As a man of God the priest must have two indispensable qualities: prayer 307 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious exercised especially through meditation and the Divine Office; and asceticism, manifested principally by a perfect chastity of heart and body. The priest then must always be aware that union with God is the indispensable prerequisite for apostolic fecundity and that the cross is the only instrument of salvation: evil is still cast out only by prayer and fasting. As a man of the Church, concludes the Holy Father, the priest must realize that all personal sanctity and apostolic effectiveness must be founded on constant and-exact obedience to the hierarchy. ¯ Several documents of the period surveyed are concerned in one way or another with matters educational and intellectual. On March 24, 1957 (AAS, pp. 281-87), the Holy Father addressed a group of 50,000 college students of Rome and gave them some detailed advice on their studies, urging them to dedicate them-selves completely to the pursuit of truth. A month later on April 25, 1957 (AAS, pp. 296-300), His Holiness spoke to the members of the eleventh plenary assembly of Pax Romana, telling them that no Catholic can be indifferent to the new world com-munity now in process of formation. This is especially true, he says, of Catholics engaged in intellectual work, for it is their task to spread Catholic truth and to give it practical application in all areas of human activity. Educational and intellectual matters also figure in two decrees issued by the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Universities. In the first of these decrees, dated-November 4, 1956 (AAS, pp. 219-20), provision is made for the canonical erection of a faculty of theology in Sophia University in Tokyo. In the other decree, dated December 20, 1956 (AAS, p. 308), . a faculty of philosophy was canonically erected in the Catholic University of Quito. Thre~ documents of April and May of this year pertain to political matters. On February 16, 1957 (AAS, pp. 201-5), a c-onvgntion was ratified betweeri the Holy See and the German Federal State of North-Rhine-Westphalia concerning the estab-lishment of a new diocese of Essen. On March 28, 1957 (AAS, 308 September, 1957 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS pp. 287-88), the Pontiff:addressed a group of young Berlin Catholics, telling them that the state must always respect the rights of individuals and of families and adding a plea for a united Europe and for the moral conditions without which such a union can never be realized. On Aprii 28, 1957 (AAS, pp. 300-301), the Pope gave a brief address on Communism, empha-sizing that the events of the last fdw months have clearly shown' to all men the aberrations of that way of life. Two other documents may be mentioned by way of conclud-ing this survey. On March 6, 1957 (AAS, pp. 215-17), the Holy Father sent a radio message to the school children of the United States exhorting them to be generous in contributing help for the needy children of other countries. And on Apri'l 23, 1957 (AAS, pp. 289-90), His Holiness spoke to a small group of Paris lawyers, extolling their° dignity as men devoted to the defense of law and of humanity and remarking that their profession is noteworthy as showing the value of humanism in a world where technical and scientific education is at a premium. Questions and Answers [The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. GaIlen, S.J., professor of canon law at Woodstock Coll~ge, Woodstock, Maryland.'] 29 Are the professed of temporary vows obliged by canon law to return to the motherhouse two months before perpetual profession, remain there, and prepare for this profession? No. You are applying to the professed of temporary vows what an instruction of the Sacred Congregation-of Religious, November 3, 1921, had commanded only for novices employed in the external works of a congregation during the second year of noviceship. The code does not even command a retreat before perpetual profession. The constitutions almost universally prescribe such a retreat, and the usual duration is eight full. days. A shorter retreat is also found, for" 309 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religioue example, five or six days. It seems evidvnt enough that the constitu-tions or customs should command a retreat before perpetual profession. It would also be reasonable and profitable to prescribe a longer period of greater recollection .before perpetual profession. REVIEW FOR RE-LIGIOUS, September, 1953, 267; November, 1955, 313. --30-- Hasn't the movement of renovation and adaptation suggested any new laws whatsoever concerning poverty? This movement is primarily spiritual, theological, educational, formative, and apostolic. It is only very secondarily canonical or legal. Therefore, in the matter of poverty the emphasis of the move-ment is on the striving for detachment that. leads to an intensified love of God (REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1955, 302; September, 1956, 269-70). No new laws on poverty have been enacted by the Holy See, and no important suggestion for a new law has been made by authors with regard to the poverty of solemn profession. In the 'matter of the poverty of institutes of simple vows, suggestions have been.maple for inclusion in constitutions that are being origitxally approved or revised. The purpose of these suggestions is to make the poverty of simple p*ofession at least approach that of solemn profession. They are founded on the principle that in itself it is more in accord with evangelical poverty to give away one's property than to retain it for life and to be deprived or restricted in the right of acquiring property for oneself than to retain this right in an almost unlimited manner. The su.ggestions are thus reducible to two headings. 1. Right of acquisition. A limitation of the right of acquisition is according to the mind of the Sacred Congregation of Religious. In new or revised constitution~, congregations of men or women may in-clude an article of the following type: "After profession, whether of temporary or perpetual ~,ows, the religious acquire for themselves only property received as an inheritance or legacy from relatives to the second degree. All other temporal goods are acquired for the con-gregation." This practice may be followed only by institutes that have such a provision in their approved constitutions. An article of this nature would effect a purer poverty and would also eliminate some practical 310 September, 1957 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS difficulties and abuses. The meaning of relativ.es may be confined to blood relatives or extended also to relatives by marriage. The degrees would be computed according to canon law. 2. Giving away or renouncing one's property. New or revised con-stitutions of women may contain an ~rticle of the following type: "A professed sister, whether of temporary or perpetual vows, may not alienate the ownership of her property by a free gift effective during her lifetime. However, the professed of perpetual vows may (or, are counselled to) give all the property they own to the congregation under the form of a dowry." The similar article for institutes of men would be: "A professed religious, vShether of temporary or per-petual vows, may not alienate the ownership of his property by a free gift effective during his lifetime. However, the professed of perpetual vows may (or, are counselled toI give all the property they own to the congregation under the condition that the capital sum will be restored to them if they should leave or be dismissed." Either of the practices of the preceding paragraph, since they are not contrary to the code, may be ~ollowed even if not contained in the constitutions. The second sentence in Zither article may be introduced by an apt spiritual phrase, e. g., lCor their greater sancti-fication, for their greater poverty, for the greater purity of their evangelical poverty. There would be no difficulty also in applying either practice to the professed of temporary vows. In both cases the capital sum of the property will be restored to a religious who leaves, is excluded from further profession, or is dismissed. This fact would pro.tect the right of the religious to leave, if he wishes to do so, aad ,~iould also prevent want in the case of a departure, both of which constitute the purpose of the retention of property in congregations. Neither practice would prevent the religious from applying part or all of the income oa his property to other good purposes, e. g., to needy relatives, nor, with the permissioa of the Holy ~;ee, all or part of the capital sum of his personal property. However, it does not seem contrary to the mind of the Sacred Congregation for new or revised constitutions not merely to permit or counsel but to impose either practice with regard to all the personal property of a religious (REvIsw FOP, RELIGIOUS, September, 1953, 258-59; Escudero, /Iota et Documenta Congressus Generalis de Statib'us Per[ectionis, I, 377; Muzzarelli, ibid., 430-31). 311 ~UEsTIONS AND ~NSWERS ~31m What is the law for the last Gospel according to the simplified rubrics? The last Gospel is always that of St. John except in the third Mass on Christmas and low Masses on Palm Sunday at which the palms are not blessed. Cf. Bugnini-Bellocchio, De Rubricis ad Sira-pliciorem Formam Redi#endis, 69; Bugnini, The Simpli/ication of the Rubric, s, 113; J. B. O'Connell, Simpii[yin# the Rubrics, 71; The Cele-bration o[ Mass, 178. What Mass may be said on the Saturday of Our Lady (S. Maria in Sabbato)? The Mass of the Saturday of Our Lady; the Daily Mass of the Dead and any votive Mass that is not of the BlesSed Mother, but both of these, if low, are forbidden during the three periods of January 2-5; January 7-12; and Ascension-Vigil of Pentecost; and the Mass of an occurring simple feast or mere commemoration, e. g., on Jan-uary 5, 19; July 13, 27; August 3; September 28; October 5, 26 in the ordo of the Universal Church for 1957. As stated above, the only Mass of the Blessed Mother permitted is that of S. Maria in Sabbato. Cf. Wuest-Mullaney-Barry Matters Liturgical, n. 252. --33-- What should be done if a check in a small amount is received for your own personal, use? Endorse the check and drop it in the treasurer's box. The inten-tion of such a donor is certainly not that the religious should sin by using the money without permission. Neither are we to presume that a donor intends that the religious should make use of the gift in a way that is contrary to the greater perfection of the religious. Externs are fully conscious that the religious is in the state of perfection and that his life should be distinguished by renunciation and self-denial. They are readily scandalized at the lack of these qualities. If you have any material necessity, the more perfect time to ask for it is not on the occasion of receiving a gift. Cf. gEVlEW FOg gELIG~OUS, January, 1949, 39. 312 Book Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] THE ROMAN CATACOMBS AND THEIR MARTYRS. By Lud-wig Hertling, S.J., and Engelb~rt Kirschbaum, S.J. Translated from the German by M. Joseph Costelloe, S.J. Pp. 224. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee I. 1956. $3.50. It is a pleasure to ir~troduce this excellent hook to readers of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. The subject is nowhere so well presented, to my knowledge, within the compass of one modest volume. It is com-petent; it is well ordered; it is readable; it is warm with the sympathies of the Christian tradition of culture. Archaeology, in all its branches, has a remarkable appeal to many people today, no doubt becauseit brings to them a new and vivid revelation.of the community of human nature with itself. The catacombs of Rome, with their touching expression of the pi.eties of our forefathers in the faith, reveal to Christians the communion of saints. A Catholic feels wonderfully at home in these ancient resting places of our dead. The authors are professors of ecclesiastical history and of achae-ology, respectively, in the Gregorian University and scholars of estab-lished authority in their fields. Father Kirschbaum was one of the four commissioned by Pius XII to investigate the reputed site, under the high altar of St. Peter's, of the apostolic tomb. A brief account of the results Of their quest is among the points of major interest in this book. Father Costelloe'meets with ease the two great exigencies of the translator's art, faithfulness to the thought of his author and to the idiom of his reader. A skilled initiate in Roman archaeology, he can write so clearly about these matters which he understands so well. With the praiseworthy permission of Fathers Hertling and Kirsch-baum, he has added his own notes to theirs and some quite new matter in the body of the book, known through the advance reports of explorations yet unpublished. By this positive contribution, he gives to English readers a welcome revision as well as a sound version of the original. 313 BOOK REVIEWS Review' for Religious The scope of the book may be indicated by running down the titles of the chapters: The Exploration of the Catacombs;. The Ceme-teries; The Tombs of the Popes; The Tombs of the Martyrs; The Tombs of the Apostles; The Persecutions; On the Way to Martyrdom; The Eucharist; Baptism; The People of God; The Art of the Cata-combs; The Creed of Catacombal Art. Forty-five plates and eight figures make an important complement to the text. By some fault of printing, twoor three of them, in my copy, are rough to the touch. Generally, the publisher has done 'a good job, and at a remarkably low price.--ED~;~,g R. SMOTH~P,S, S.J. FRANCIS OF THE CRUCIFIED. By Myles Schmitt, O.F.M.Cap. Pp. 152. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee 1. 1956. $3.00. Father Myles Schmitt, of St. Francis Capuchin College, Washing-ton, D. C., offers his readers a series of conference-chapters on the Franciscan way of perfection. Writers of general treatises on spiritual theology, such as Tanquerey and de Guibert, can present a .particular way of perfection only in skeletal form. Father Schmitt develops at suitable length the Franciscan way. At the same time, he is constantly concerned to relate it to the Christian way. For, at root, all Christian perfection is one, no matter the diversity of ways proposed for arriv-ing at it. In a way reminiscent of Gerald Vann's The Heart of Man, Father Schmitt organizes the life of perfection around the Beatitudes. His book is not as complete and detailed as Theodosius Foley's Spiritual Conferences for Religious Based on the Franciscan Ideal. Nor does it follow the life of St. Francis as closely as de Tour's Franciscan Perfection. But his choice of the Beatitudes as an organizing principle keeps the main line of argument simple, strong, and progressive and still gives him room enough to touch on a variety of subjects. Father Schmitt is especially good at describing the spiral move-merit of growth in perfection. Not only must ofie try to live more and more in accordance with his vision of the ideal; but, at the same time, one's vision must grow correspondingly in depth and p~netration. This spiral movement is particularly clear in St. Francis's religious life which began with what might be called an "inaugural vision" and grew as that vision' deepened and matured. Father Schmitt takes great pains .to delineate the initial vision of the Franciscan way, to map out 314 September, 1957 BOOK REVIEWS the s~ag'es of progress of that vis~ion, and to relate to it all growth in perfection. Basically, then, the Franciscan must focus his attention on the imitation of Christ crucified through a living out of the gospel life as envisaged by the Beatitudes. The foundation of this life is poverty leading to that poverty of personality called humility. Keeping before his eyes his nothingness in the presence of God, the~ Franciscan makes a sacrifice of himself and .thus fulfills simple justice. With mercy and simplicity, he takes on the role of peace-maker, courageous!y overcoming the opposition of a world set against Christ and at war ,with itself. His is a life of love, of devotion to the Eucharist, of love of Mary sorrowful. And oil such is his .vision, his necessary response will be apostolic action. Obviously the book's usefulness is not limited to Franciscans. Inasmuch as all the means proposed are the common heritage of Christi
Parte I. Caracterización general de las formas contemporáneas de esclavitud -- Aproximación a la realidad de las formas contemporáneas de esclavitud / Gulnara Shahinian -- Los nuevos retos para la erradicación de las formas contemporáneas de esclavitud / Urmila Bhoola -- Reflexiones sobre la globalización, esclavitud histórica y renovación del abolicionismo contemporáneo en España / Aurelia Martín Casares -- Globalización, pobreza y esclavitud contemporánea: una mirada cosmopolita / Federico Arcos Ramírez -- Sujetos vulnerables, trata y formas contemporáneas de esclavitud: el papel de las instituciones / Thomas Casadei -- ¿Es Qatar un estado esclavista? Sobre el uso y abuso del concepto de esclavitud / José Antonio Navarro Fernández -- Parte II. Conceptualización legal de las formas contemporáneas de esclavitud -- 125 años de abolición: el derecho de la esclavitud y la explotación humana / Jean Allain -- La interpretación de los conceptos de esclavitud y de otras prácticas análogas a la luz del ordenamiento jurídico internacional: aproximación teórica y jurisdiccional / Jordi Bonet Pérez -- Concepción jurisprudencial de las formas contemporáneas de esclavitud / Eulogio Bedmar Carrillo -- Los crímenes de esclavitud y de esclavitud sexual en el marco de un conflicto armado: principales hitos en la jurisprudencia penal internacional / Eva Díez Peralta -- Las nuevas formas de esclavitud en los textos constitucionales y declaraciones internacionales de derechos / Ricardo Martín Morales -- La prohibición de las formas contemporáneas de esclavitud en diversas constituciones americanas y europeas. Especial referencia al constitucionalismo en América Latina / Ma. Dolores Martínez Cuevas -- Parte III. La respuesta penal frente a las formas contemporáneas de esclavitud, con especial consideración a la trata de seres humanos -- Tratamiento jurídico-penal de las formas contemporáneas de esclavitud / Esteban Pérez Alonso -- La trata de personas como expresión de formas contemporáneas de esclavitud en América del Sur / Paulo César Corrêa Borges -- El delito de trata de personas y sometimiento a esclavitud en el Código Penal Alemán (sec. 233 del Strafgesetzbuch) / Patricia Esquinas Valverde -- Ausencia de un delito de esclavitud, servidumbre y trabajos forzosos en el Código Penal Español / Ana Balén Valverde Cano -- El delito de trata de seres humanos en derecho penal español tras la reforma de 2015 / Carolina Villacampa Estiarte -- El delito de trata de seres humanos en la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Supremo / Luis Lafont Nicuesa -- El delito de matrimonio forzado / Ma. Ángeles Cuadrado Ruiz -- Parte IV. La respuesta legal frente a la epxlotación sexual -- La prostitución voluntaria: ¿una forma de esclavitud o de ejercicio de libertad personal, de trabajo y de empresa? / Sofía Olarte Encabo -- Aspectos laborales de la prostitición voluntaria: perspectiva comunitaria y modelos comparados / Pilar Rivas Vallejo -- Prostitución voluntaria y contrato de trabajo / Yolanda Cano Galán -- El tratamiento legal de la prostitución: ¿forma de esclavitud o trabajo sexual? / José Fernando Lousada Arochena -- Trata de personas y regulación de la prostitución / Mercedes García Aran -- Argumentos políticocriminales y jurídicos a favor de regularizar la prostitución voluntaria de adultos en el ordenamiento español a partir de la conflictiva figura del art. 187.1, 2o CP en materia de proxenetismo lucrativo / Concepción Carmonal Salgado -- Lucrarse explotando la prostitución ajena, aún con el consentimiento: ¿cabe el reconocimiento de la prostitución consentida como una relación laboral? / Elena Marín de Espinosa Ceballos -- Parte V. La respuesta legal frente a la explotación laboral -- Nueva esclavitud y trabajo forzoso. Un intento de delimitación conceptual desde la perspectiva laboral / Eduardo Rojo Torrecilla -- Servidumbres domésticas en contextos latinoamericanos: aproximaciones socio-jurídicas / Romina Lerussi -- Directrices para el análisis y persecución penal en la explotación económica en condiciones de esclavitud o similares / Esther Pomares Cintas -- Tráfico ilegal de mano de obra (art. 312.1 CP) / Juan Luis Fuentes Osirio -- Parte VI. La respuesta legal para la asistencia y protección de las víctimas -- El avance irrestible de la concepción de la trata como violación de derechos humanos: luces y sombras de las políticas protectoras de las víctimas en la normativa internacional e interna / Ángeles Lara Aguado -- Hacia un nuevo sistema de protección de las víctimas de trata en derecho español de extranjería -- Ricardo Rueda Valdivia -- Las debilidades del derecho español en el amparo legal de las extranjeras esclavas de la trata con fines de explotación sexual / Carmen Ruiz Sutil -- La mutilación genital femenina: ¿una nueva forma de esclavitud contemporánea? Retos y oportunidades / Nuria Marchal Escalona -- La protección de la víctima de trata como testigo en el proceso penal / Ma. Ángeles Caralina Benavente -- APRAMP: asistencia y protección integral a mujeres y niñas víctimas de trata / Rocío Mora -- DNA-PROKIDS en la lucha contra el tráfico de menores en la sociedad actual / María Saiz Guinaldo, Sheila Laso Izquierdo, Juan Carlos Álvarez Merino, Begoña Lorente-Remón, Arthur Jay Eisenberg y José Antonio Lorente Acosta -- Apéndice -- Síntesis I Congreso jurídico internacional sobre formas contemporáneas de esclavitud. Abril 2014 / Eulogio Bedmar Carrillo y Ana Belén Valverde Cano -- Síntesis II Congreso jurídico internacional sobre formas contemporáneas de esclavitud. Marzo 2015 / Andrea Bosi y Eulogio Bedmar Carrillo -- No esclavos, sino hermanos / Isabel Cuenca Anaya
In the coming decades, the general public will be required ever more often to understand complex environmental issues, evaluate proposed environmental plans, and understand how individual decisions affect the environment at local to global scales. Thus it is of fundamental importance to ensure that higher quality education about these ecological issues raises the environmental literacy of the general public. In order to achieve this, teachers need to be trained as well as classroom practice enhanced. This volume focuses on the integration of environmental education into science teacher education. The book begins by providing readers with foundational knowledge of environmental education as it applies to the discipline of science education. It relates the historical and philosophical underpinnings of EE, as well as current trends in the subject that relate to science teacher education. Later chapters examine the pedagogical practices of environmental education in the context of science teacher education. Case studies of environmental education teaching and learning strategies in science teacher education, and instructional practices in K-12 science classrooms, are included. This book shares knowledge and ideas about environmental education pedagogy and serves as a reliable guide for both science teacher educators and K-12 science educators who wish to insert environmental education into science teacher education. Coverage includes everything from the methods employed in summer camps to the use of podcasting as a pedagogical aid. Studies have shown that schools that do manage to incorporate EE into their teaching programs demonstrate significant growth in student achievement as well as improved student behavior. This text argues that the multidisciplinary nature of environmental education itself requires problem-solving, critical thinking and literacy skills that benefit students` work right across the curriculum. TOC:Preface Alec M. Bodzin, Beth Shiner Klein, and Starlin Weaver PART I. INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Chapter 1. The History and Philosophy of Environmental Education Robert L. Carter and Bora Simmons Chapter 2. Professional Preparation for Science Teachers in Environmental Education James T. McDonald and Lynn A. Dominguez Chapter 3. Approaches to Environmental Education Austin A. Winther, Kim Cleary Sadler, and Gerry Saunders Chapter 4. Environmental Education Within the Early Childhood Linda Plevyak and Amy Mayfield Chapter 5. Environmental Education Service-Learning in Science Teacher Education Teddie Phillipson-Mower and April Dean Adams Chapter 6. Beyond terra firma: Bringing Ocean and Aquatic Sciences to Environmental and Science Teacher Education Diana L. Payne and Timothy D. Zimmerman PART II. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PEDAGOGY Section 1: Outdoor Learning and Place-Based Environments Chapter 7. Promoting the Use of Outdoor Learning Spaces by K-12 Inservice Science Teachers Through an Outdoor Professional Development Experience Mark A. Bloom, Molly Holden, April T. Sawey, and Molly H. Weinburgh Chapter 8. Integrating Environmental Education Field Trip Pedagogy Into Science Teacher Preparation Bryan Rebar and Larry G. Enochs Chapter 9. "Eeew! There`s Dew On My Toes": Common Characteristics of Preservice Elementary Teacher Learning in Environmental Education and Instructional Strategies for Science Teacher Educators J. William Hug Chapter 10. Name That Plant! Overcoming Plant Blindness and Developing a Sense of Place Using Science and Environmental Education Jennifer Kreps Frisch, Matthew M. Unwin, and Gerald W. Saunders Chapter 11. Place-Based Inquiry: Advancing Environmental Education in Science Teacher Preparation Somnath Sarkar and Richard Frazier Chapter 12. Summer Methods in Summer Camps: Teaching Projects WILD, WET, and Learning Tree at an Outdoor Environmental Education Center Charles J. Eick, Doyle, E. Keasal, Karni Perez, and Sarah Carrier Chapter 13. Teachers Connecting Urban Students to Their Environment Sherri L. Brown, Nikki L. Votaw, and Thomas R. Tretter Section 2: Instructional Strategies Chapter 14. Exploring Preservice Teachers` Mental Models of the Environment Christine Moseley, Blanche Desjean-Perrotta, Courtney Crim Chapter 15. Pedagogy, Environmental Education, and Context: Promoting Knowledge Through Concept Mapping Barbara A Austin and Nina Schmidt Chapter 16. Unraveling the Scientific, Social, Political and Economic Dimensions of Environmental Issues Through Role-Playing Simulations James G. MaKinster Chapter 17. Exploring Environmental Education Through Eco-feminism: Narratives of Embodiment of Science M.E. Spencer and Sherry E. Nichols Chapter 18. The Value of Non-formal Environmental Education-Based Professional Development in Preservice Science Teacher Preparation Tamara E. Peffer and Alec M. Bodzin Chapter 19. Using Environmental Education Project Curricula with Elementary Preservice Teachers Adele C. Schepige, Patricia D. Morrell, Cindi Smith-Walters, Kim Cleary Sadler, Miriam Munck, and Donna Rainboth Section 3: Technology Chapter 20. Situated Learning in Environmental Education: Using Geospatial Technologies for Preservice Secondary Teachers Rita A. Hagevik, Harriett S. Stubbs, and Diane C. Whitaker Chapter 21. Using Podcasting to Address Nature-Deficit Disorder Beth Shiner Klein and Starlin D. Weaver Chapter 22. Integrating Web-based Activities and Site-based Experiences to Investigate Environmental Issues Alec M. Bodzin
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Frontmatter -- CONTENTS -- Acknowledgments -- General Introduction: Readings in Imperialism and Orientalism -- Volume Introduction: The Scramble for Africa -- I . THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1885: MAKING/MAPPING HISTORY -- Introduction: The Scramble for Africa: From the Conference at Berlin to the Incident at Fashoda -- Chronology of Events -- Africa in 1886: The Scramble Half Complete [map] -- Africa after the Scramble, 1912 [map] -- Africa 1898, with Charter Companies [map] -- Excerpts from Heart of Darkness -- Africa -- General Act of the Conference of Berlin -- ''The Black Baby'' (1894) [illustration] -- International Rivalry and the Berlin Conference -- ''The 'Irrepressible' Tourist'' (1885) [illustration] -- Excerpt from ''The Modern Traveller'' -- The Fashoda Incident -- Geography and Statecraft -- ''Marchez! Marchand!'' (1898) [illustration] -- Excerpt from Travels in Africa during the Years 1882–1886 -- ''Africa Shared Out'' (1899) [editorial with cartoon] -- II. THE BODY POLITIC : RATIONALIZING RACE -- Introduction: The Body Politic: Rationalizing Race -- SLAVES -- The African Slave Trade -- William Pitt the Younger Indicts the Slave Trade and Forsees a Liberated Africa -- The Nigger Question -- The Noble Savage -- SPECIES -- Moral and Intellectual Characteristics of the Three Great Varieties -- Struggle for Existence -- On the Formation of the Races of Man -- Excerpt from ''Darwin'' -- Comparative Physiognomy -- Excerpts from The Future of Science -- SELF-GOVERNANCE -- Nation-Making -- The Primitive Man—Intellectual -- The Principles of the Relations of Our Civilization to the Tropics -- Excerpts from Kafir Socialism -- How the Leopard Got His Spots -- III. THE POLITICAL CORPS -- THE MISSION -- Introduction: The Mission: Christianity, Civilization, and Commerce -- Excerpts from Salvation Army Songs -- Dr. Livingstone's Cambridge Lectures -- Excerpts from How I Found Livingstone -- Livingstone's Journeys, 1841–1856 [map] -- Preparing the Empire: Livingstone and Stanley in Central Africa -- In Memory of Dr. Livingstone -- Dr. Livingstone -- Influence of Christianity upon Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races -- The Bishop and the Philosopher -- Excerpts from The Surplus -- Excerpts from The Salvation Army British Empire Exhibition Handbook -- The Administration: Lugard and the royal niger company -- Introduction: Inheritors of Empire, Agents of Change: Lord Lugard and Mary Kingsley -- Royal Charter Granted to the National African Company, Later Called the Royal Niger Company -- Selected Correspondence: The Royal Niger Company -- Exerpts from The Diaries of Lord Lugard: Nigeria -- Duties of Political Officers and Miscellaneous Subjects -- Excerpts from The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa -- The Clash of Cultures -- A Letter to the Editor of ''The New Africa'' -- Excerpts from A Tropical Dependency -- The Administration: Cecil J. Rhodes And The British South Africa Company -- INTRODUCTION Cecil J. Rhodes: Colossus or Caricature? -- Excerpt from Trooper Peter Halket of Mashonaland -- ''The Rhodes Colossus'' (1892) [illustration] -- ''My Career Is Only Beginning!'' (1896) [illustration] -- ''South Africa before and after Cecil Rhodes'' (1896) [map] -- We Abandon Hope -- My Uncle's Gift Is Many Times Multiplied -- Excerpts from The Speeches of Cecil Rhodes 1881–1900 -- Excerpts from Men, Mines, and Animals in South Africa -- Personal Reminiscences of Mr. Rhodes -- The Last Will and Testament of Cecil John Rhodes -- The Burial -- IV. CRISES OF EMPIRE -- Gordon at Khartoum -- Introduction: Gordon at Khartoum: From Cavil to Catastrophe -- Chronology of Events -- Excerpts from The Journals of Major-General C. G. Gordon, C. B. at Kartoum -- ''At Last!'' (1885) [illustration] -- ''Too Late!'' (1885) [illustration] -- Letters to Mary Gordon -- The End of General Gordon -- Relief Expedition -- Excerpts from Gordon at Khartoum -- The Desertion of General Gordon -- Excerpt from In Relief of Gordon -- Excerpt from Fire and Sword in the Sudan -- The Siege and Fall of Khartum -- Act the Fifth: The End -- ''Fuzzy-Wuzzy'' -- The Graphic Christmas Number, 1887 -- ''Gordon's Dream—The Martyr-Hero of Khartoum'' (1887) [illustration] -- The Anglo-Boer war -- Introduction: The Boer War: Accusations and Apologias -- Excerpt from An English–South African's View of the Situation -- ''Across the Dark Continent'' (1899) [illustration] -- Excerpt from A History of the Transvaal -- Political Position in Cape Colony -- The Absent-Minded Beggar -- Mr Thomas Atkins -- D. F. Advertiser. Kimberley, friday, february 16, 1900 -- Excerpt from Report of a Visit to the Camps of Women and Children in the Cape and Orange River Colonies -- Excerpt from What I Remember -- Prisoners of War -- Methods of Barbarism -- Suggestions for a New Departure -- Further Charges against British Troops -- Excerpt from Hague Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 29 July 1899 -- Treaty of Vereeniging, 31 May 1902 -- The Congo -- Introduction: The Congo: Abominations and Denunciations -- The Congo State -- The Congo Report -- The 1903 Diary -- An Open Letter to Roger Casement -- Native Life under Congo State Rule -- Excerpts from History of the Congo Reform Movement -- An Open Letter to His Serene Majesty Leopold II -- King Leopold's Soliloquy -- Excerpts from The Crime of the Congo -- ''The Guilt of Delay'' (1909) [illustration] -- INDEX
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Fun coincidence, as I was asked to speak at a conference on the Strategic Implications of the 2024 US election the same day that Trump got convicted of ... 34 felonies. Oh my.Anyhow, the folks at RAS-NSA, a Canadian defence research network asked me to speak about what the future of US relations with Canada and the world might be next year.Here is what I said:
I have good news and bad news:
The good news is that if Biden wins, US foreign policy will mostly stay the same, the US will remain committed to NATO and NORAD and will only badger Canada a bit about 2% and such
The bad news is that if Trump wins, it will be catastrophic.
Ok, the good news is that Biden is more likely to win.
Let me explain the Trump future scenario:
For those who are younger and don't remember Trump's term that well, and for those wishful thinking bubble was not sufficient pop by Trump's near wars with NK/Iran and his complete failure to manage the covid crisis, let's remember
a) Trump largely appointed arsonists to most government agencies who were much more knowledgeable and determined than expected although not as much at DoD until the end of his term. Tillerson was an exception, Pompeo was not.
b) When those folks got disgraced sufficiently or pissed off Trump enough, he replaced them with worse people. And it always got worse, never better.
c) Trump replaced a racist Attorney General who still more or less believed in the DoJ as an independent actor with Bill Barr who used his position to protect Trump from Mueller and all the rest.
a. Except for the document case and the Jan 6th stuff, most of Trump's crimes were public but DoJ didn't do anything about it under Barr.b. Trump replaced a wildly incompetent Tillerson with Pompeo, a Christian nationalist.
e) Trump delegated all responsibility to the running of the wars to the military, so they naturally escalated everywhere. He did get the US partially out of Syria by betraying the Kurds and he did start the process to get out of Afghanistan by selling out to the Taliban
a. He tried to use the US army against protestors, which ultimately caused a rift with his second SecDef and his Chairman, which led to him trying to find replacements after the election.
Ok, why will it be worse?
a) The so-called adults in the room who were actually pretty right wing are no longer there. The names being mentioned as potential DoD/CIA/State/NSC are truly horrific people
b) Trump's primary motives are resentment and profit. He resents Trudeau and Canada greatly for taking credit for managing him and for making jokes about him at NATO meetings and for being … Canadian. We were not sufficiently deferential.
c) He views all deals he did not make as exploitative since he projects from his own attitude about deals—that he should always be ripping off his partners. So, he will want to kill NATO and NORAD.
What does this mean for Canada?
What worked last time won't work this timeCanada will not have allies among Republicans in Congress—today's GOP is different from the last oneTrump will do stuff through extra-institutional pathways where governors and Congress will matter far less.2024 may be the last meaningful election for quite some time so the usual electoral incentives may no longer applyThings might not be that better for Canada with Poilievre. How does Trump get along with Ted Cruz?On other hand, the resentment level will be re-set.People told me that they appreciated my bluntness. It is either my weakness or my superpower. Anyhow, let's enjoy this moment of justice as it may not last. Especially with a Supreme Court with at least two pro-insurrectionists and a Chief Justice abetting them.
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The campus protests over the Israel-Gaza war and similar demonstrations throughout the United States are ongoing, with questions about free speech, law enforcement overreach, anti-semitism, and individual university responses dominating the headlines.While there have been some pro-Israel "counter-protesters," the overwhelming energy right now is in sympathy for the Palestinians and the thousands of innocent civilians whose lives were lost due to Israel bombardments and tank fire, not to mention the second hand effects of the siege and lack of healthcare. They demand that the U.S. government stop fueling the war with American weapons, and for a ceasefire to end the suffering. But at this point has the media — and therefore the American public — been more focused on the protests rather than the life and death issues the demonstrators ostensibly want raised? This seems particularly apparent given that most of the coverage tends to treat the civilians' plight and apparent Israeli atrocities — what students are actually protesting — as a kind of side point, if those topics are mentioned at all.In the midst of the protests last week, the United Nations revealed, "Disturbing reports continue to emerge about mass graves in Gaza in which Palestinian victims were reportedly found stripped naked with their hands tied, prompting renewed concerns about possible war crimes amid ongoing Israeli airstrikes, the UN human rights office, OHCHR, said on Tuesday."The story continued: "The development follows the recovery of hundreds of bodies 'buried deep in the ground and covered with waste' over the weekend at Nasser Hospital in Khan Younis, central Gaza, and at Al-Shifa Hospital in Gaza City in the north. A total of 283 bodies were recovered at Nasser Hospital, of which 42 were identified."Then the gruesome description from the U.N.: "Among the deceased were allegedly older people, women and wounded, while others were found tied with their hands…tied and stripped of their clothes." This news of the mass graves is known to some. Most major news outlets carried it, but below the proverbial fold. It was not a major topic of discussion, on cable news panels or at the top of any headlines in the United States. Meanwhile, children continued to be killed by airstrikes throughout Gaza, and in a grim turn of events, a premature infant who had been taken alive from the womb of her dead mother after a bombing died in the incubator last week.Ironically, a major media focus on stories like these in the first months of the war since Oct. 7 led in part to the protest movements, which have exploded in recent days on college campuses. So how does this bode for American public opinion today, when most of the news coverage is about campus protests and not on the ongoing airstrikes, the lack of food, clean water, healthcare or the pending Rafah invasion? The conditions on the ground have not changed, but media interest has, apparently.After Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu recently announced that he intended to push his country's forces into the westernmost provision of Rafah, Rep. Ro Khanna (D-Calif.) asked the Biden administration on Tuesday about the potential for civilian casualties. Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin responded that Israel's offensive has claimed "far too many civilian deaths already." "We certainly would want to see things done in a much different way" than operations across the rest of Gaza, Austin said.How many Americans saw this exchange in their social media feeds, as opposed to the saturation of protest footage and accompanying vitriol between both sides over the students' rights – or not – to be overtaking buildings, constructing tent cities, shutting down classes, and more? The media should have the ability to cover more than one story at a time, but so often, they refuse to. So, somewhat ironically, the protests have even been a distraction from the actual war in the Middle East. ABC News even acknowledged it, reporting Wednesday, "After weeks of nonstop coverage of destruction and death in the Gaza Strip, media across the wider Middle East have latched onto the demonstrations roiling American university campuses over the Israel-Hamas war."It is much easier for the protests to overshadow the actual misery in Gaza and that is clearly what is happening. While many protesters' intentions might be noble, is there a better distraction right now for Israel to do as it pleases?This is not an argument for or against the protests. Just an observation that probably deserves at least a minimum moment of thought by anyone genuinely concerned about the current plight of the Palestinians.
