Suchergebnisse

Biogaasi tootmise populariseerimine rohelise majanduse kontekstis suureneb nii Eestis kui ka teistes riikides iga aastaga ja sellest tulenevalt on üha enam hakatud Eesti tasandil rääkima biogaasi tootmisest kui uuest alternatiivsest võimalusest energia tootmisel. Eestis on biogaasi tootmise käigus saadud soojus- ja elektrienergia osakaal viimastel aastatel oluliselt kasvanud, vaatamata riigipoolsetele madalatele dotatsioonidele, mis pärsivad tegelikult selle valdkonnaga tegelema hakkamist. Kui võrrelda välisriikide näidetel Eestis makstavaid toetusi taastuvenergia kasutamiseks, siis on täiesti mõistetav, miks Eestis rajatud biogaasijaamade arv on väga väike. Biogaasi tootmise valdkonnas on Eestis läbi viidud mitmeid väga põhjalikke uuringuid, mis kõik annavad kinnitust biogaasist toodetava energia potentsiaalile just põllumajandusettevõttes tekkivatest jääkidest, mida Eesti põllumajanduses tekib üldjuhul piisavas koguses. Sellele vaatamata leidub siiski veel vähe ettevõtteid, kes toodaksid biogaasi ja suudaksid biogaasist toodetud energiaga konkureerida ka energiaturul. Selleks, et kinnitada biogaasi tootmise potentsiaalikust ja olulisust põllumajandusettevõttes, sooritati sotsiaal-majanduslike aspektide analüüs konkreetse piirkonna ja ettevõtte näitel, mille tulemusel selgus, kas biogaasijaama rajamine on majanduslikult otstarbekas või mitte. Baltic Biogas OÜ ja põllumajandusettevõtte Aravete Agro OÜ ühise projekti tulemusel valmis Aravetele, Mägise suurfarmi, biogaasijaam, mis hakkab toodetud soojusenergiaga varustama kohalikku kaugküttesüsteemi ja elektrienergiaga hakatakse konkureerima energiaturul. Investeeringu tasuvusanalüüsist selgus, et biogaasi tootmine Aravete Biogaas OÜ näitel on otstarbekas ja omab potentsiaali. Kahe võimaliku esitatud stsenaariumi puhul kujunesid tasuvusnäitajad stsenaarium 1 puhul positiivseteks, mis kujutas endast ka Aravete biogaasijaama rajamisega analoogset projekti. Stsenaarium 2 ei olnud otstarbekas projekt, sest kõik tasuvusnäitajad ja rahavood kujunesid negatiivseteks. Uurimustöös selgus, et majanduslikeks aspektideks, mis kindlustavad biogaasi tootmise võimaluse konkreetses põllumajandusettevõttes, on vajalike sisendite olemasolu ning riigipoolne finantsiline abi dotatsioonide näol. Takistuste hindamisel selgus, et jätkusuutlikku biogaasi tootmisprotsessi võib pidurdada energiaturu avanemine aastal 2013, mille tulemusel kallineb elektri hind nii tööstustarbijatele kui ka kodumajapidamistele. Samuti võib takistuseks osutuda dotatsioonide kaotamine, mille tulemusel ei ole biogaasijaama edasine opereerimine majanduslikult tasuv ning mille tulemusel ületavad ettevõtte kulud oluliselt tulusid. Kohalikus piirkonnas läbi viidud ankeetküsitluse analüüsil statistikaprogrammis SPSS selgus, et valdav osa inimestest on teadlikud kodukohta rajatavast biogaasijaamast ja on jaama rajamise suhtes positiivselt häälestatud. Kasutades !2-testi, selgus, et jaama rajamisest mitteteadlikke inimesi esines enam just noorte seas, mis on tingitud eelkõige nende liikuvamast eluviisist – mujal maakonnas õppimist või töötamisest. Sotsiaalseteks aspektideks, mis mõjutavad kõige enam kohalike inimeste rahulolu biogaasijaama rajamise suhtes, olid ebameeldiv lõhn ja võimalik sooja hinna vähenemine. Vähem tähtsateks peeti transpordikoormust ja müra taset, mis jääb tõenäoliselt samale tasemele. Biogaasijaamast pärinev soojusenergia hakkab kaugküttesüsteemi kaudu soojendama sellega ühendatud tarbijaid ja selle tulemusel on planeeritud müüa soe tarbijale 20% odavamalt, kui see siiani inimestele kättesaadav on olnud. See on ka üks peamisi põhjuseid, miks sooja hind on üheks olulisemaks mõjutajaks elanike rahulolu kujunemisel. Korrelatsioonimaatriksi analüüsimisel leiti, et sotsiaalsete aspektide (müra, sooja hind ehk jäätmete kasutamine, transpordikoormus ja õhusaaste) muutumine ei ole seotud elanike hoiaku kujunemisega biogaasijaama rajamise suhtes. Biogaasi tootmise valdkonna arengu soodustamiseks ja võimalike takistuste ületamiseks teeb magistritöö autor järgmised järeldused ja ettepanekud: 1. Selleks, et praegust Eesti energiatootmise sõltuvust põlevkivist vähendada, tuleks kindlasti tagada põllumajandusettevõtetele võimalus tegeleda biogaasi tootmisega, mis praegusel hetkel jääb pigem suurte esialgsete investeeringukulude taha seisma. Seega tuleks tõsiselt üle vaadata ja läbi mõelda toetuste süsteemid põllumajandusettevõttes tekkivatest jääkidest soojus- ja elektrienergia tootmiseks, mis ei seaks takistusi ettevõtjatele. Näiteks on PRIA poolt seatud põllumajandusettevõtjatele ülempiirangud, millest rohkem nad teatud aastate jooksul enam toetust taotleda ei saa. 2. Aasta pärast biogaasijaama töötamist tuleks kohalike elanike seas läbi viia uus küsitlus sotsiaalsete aspektide muutuste kohta, et selgitada välja, kuidas on muutunud inimeste arvates sotsiaalsed aspektid (transpordikoormus, müratase, lõhn ja sooja hind) tegelikult ning samuti selgitada välja võimalikud tekkinud murekohad. Oluline on, et uute biogaasijaamade investeeringute läbiviimisel oleks kaasatud ka kohalikud elanikud, mis lõppkokkuvõttes tõstab piirkonna ja seal asuvate ettevõtete mainet. 3. Kuigi biogaasi valdkonna uurimisega tegeletakse Eestis tõsiselt, tuleks siiski veel rohkem teadvustada potentsiaalseid ettevõtjad nende võimalustest biogaasi tootmiseks ja seda koostöös mõne kohaliku ettevõtte või operaatorfirmaga, et minimeerida kulusid ja leida sobiv tehnika. Selleks tuleks kaasata rohkem valdkonna eksperte ettevõtetele nõustajateks või teisalt tuleks läbi viia uuring, mille tulemusel kajastuksid kõik Eestis tegutsevad ja potentsiaalsed ettevõtted biogaasi tootmiseks, et suurendada omavahelist koostööd jaama opereerimisel. 4. Viimaseks oluliseks tähelepanekuks on rohkem julgustada riigi tasandil ettevõtjaid selle valdkonnaga tegelema. Selleks aga on vajalik tagada neile kindlustunne nii toetuste, energia ostukohustuse kui ka taastuvenergia toetuse näol. Käesoleva uurimustöö koostamine omab autori arvates tähtsust nii Eesti kui ka kohaliku omavalitsuse tasandil biogaasijaama sotsiaal-majanduslike aspektide analüüsimisel, sisaldades seeläbi kohalike elanike arvamust biogaasijaama rajamisest. Uurimustöö läbiviimise muutis raskeks asjaolu, et kõiki vajalikke andmeid majanduslike aspektide analüüsimiseks ei saadud Baltic Biogas OÜ konfidentsiaalsuspoliitika tõttu. Sellest tulenevalt ei ole uurimustöös leitud tasuvusnäitajad 100% tõesed, kuid siiski usaldusväärsed ning annavad üldise pildi biogaasi tootmisest põllumajandusettevõttes, millest saab teha juba iga ettevõtja omad järeldused. Uurimustöö täitis oma eesmärgi, milleks oli selgitada biogaasijaama rajamise majanduslik tasuvus Aravetele, kaasates jaama rajamise hinnangu andmisesse kohalikud elanikud. Uurimustööd võib pidada oluliseks, sest sisaldab investeeringuprojekti hindamist detailselt ja kriitiliselt OÜ Aravete Biogaas näitel, millest saavad eeskuju võtta teised ettevõtted ja huvilised edaspidiste sotsiaal-majanduslike analüüside läbiviimiseks. ; The MA thesis has been written in the Estonian language, on 83 pages. The thesis includes 16 diagrams, 5 tables, 64 scientific literary and 14 appendixes. Nowadays we need energy everywhere - in various production processes, in many parts of the households, transportation, etc. More and more there is discussion about the possibility to save energy and new ways to make it affordable and environment friendly so that the damage caused to the environment by the production and consumption would be minimal. Because human society has grown, energy use, greenhouse gas emission and also the wish to be more energy efficient have increased steadily, therefore the possibility how to save our environment is more and more under discussion. This new solution is the production of biogas in the context of the green economy, in order to save the environment and give people the opportunity to manage without damaging the environment and themselves. Biogas production in the context of green economy is aided by the fact that in recent years people have increasingly begun to promote the use of renewable energy sources to cover the costs of energy needed for life which are also foreseen by the European Union directive (2009/28/EC) of renewable energy sources by promoting the use of energy. Several extensive researches have been conducted about the production of biogas in Estonia all of which confirmed the potential of biogas energy production from the agricultural wastes, which generally occurs in sufficient quantity in Estonian agriculture. Nevertheless, there are still only a few companies who are able to produce biogas and can compete in the energy market. The aim of this MA thesis is to find out the socio-economic aspects of biogas production in the context of green economy, by analyzing the socio-economic aspects on the example of OÜ Aravete Biogaas. For the theoretical part of this MA thesis the necessary information is obtained from various scientific articles, a variety of related literature, based on past research studies, public databases, and various legislative acts. Empirical data were collected from a written interview, from various studies and through questionnaires. The analysis of the socio-economic aspects of the investment predicted what will be the economic efficiency of Aravete biogas plant. The questionnaire survey of the local population showed which social aspects influence and form people's attitudes and opinions about the construction of the biogas plant. The cost benefit analysis of the investment showed that the production of biogas on the example of OÜ Aravete Biogaas is feasible and has potential. There were two possible scenarios presented in which profitability indicators became positive for Scenario 1 – for example investment payback period was 18 years and profitability index 1,10 euros. Scenario 1 was analogous with the Aravete biogas plant project. Scenario 2 was not a feasible project, because all of the profitability indicators and cash flows turned out negative. The research work showed that the economic aspects, which provide the opportunity for biogas production in a specific farm, were the existence of the necessary inputs and state's financial assistance in form of subsidies. While assessing the obstacles to the sustainability of the biogas production it became evident, that the process may be delayed by the energy market opening in 2013, which leads to the increased price of electricity for industrial consumers and households. The elimination of subsidies may also prove to be an obstacle, which leads to the outcome, that a biogas plant is not economically viable for the future operations. Questionnaire survey conducted in the local area revealed that the vast majority of people are aware of the biogas plant and have a positive attitude towards the construction of the station. Using the !2-test showed that there were more young people among the people who didn´t know about the biogas plant building. This is mainly caused by their way of life - studying or working elsewhere in the county. Social aspects that affect people's satisfaction with the local establishment of a biogas plant the most, were an unpleasant odor and the possible reduction in the heat price. Less important were transportation and noise, which is likely to remain the same. Analyzing the correlation the author found that changes in the social aspects (noise, heat price, transportation and air pollution) are not connected with the residents' attitudes related to the construction of a biogas plant. This research is related to earlier studies on the biogas field, but has a different output, as it described primarily socio-economic aspects of biogas production in a specific region as an example. Various biogas plants have been addressed in the feasibility studies for biogas production and economic aspects of the presumed socially driven, but the opinion of the local people has not been involved but rather estimated opinions of the authors themselves have been used. To promote the development of biogas production in the area the author reached the conclusion that it should be ensured that agricultural businesses are able to practice biogas production, and for this the support systems should be seriously reviewed and analyzed. To clarify social aspects of the region, it is important that local people would be involved in the conduct of new investments in biogas plants, which ultimately increases the popularity of the area and corporations listed there. Although the biogas field investigations are studied seriously in Estonia, still awareness should be constructed for potential undertakers in terms of their potential to produce biogas, also in cooperation with a local business or a service provider, in order to minimize costs and to find a suitable technique. This should be done by involving more experts in the field of business advisers or by conducting a study, which would include all operating companies and potential businesses. Research work can be considered as important as the investment project evaluation includes a detailed case study of OÜ Aravete Biogaas. This MA thesis can be emulated by other companies and people interested in the future of socio-economic analyzes.

Objective The limited scientific knowledge on relationship between exposure and health effects in relation to geothermal activity motivated an epidemiologic investigation in Tuscan geothermal area. The study aims to describe the health status of populations living in Tuscany municipalities where concessions for exploitation of geothermal resources were granted. Design This is an ecological study, so it is not useful to produce evidence to sustain a judgment on the cause-effect link. The major limits of this type of study are the use of the residence at municipal level as a proxy of exposure to both environmental and socioeconomic factors and the use of aggregated data of health outcomes that can lead to the well-known ecological fallacy. Setting and participants Sixteen municipalities were included in the study area: eight are part of the so-called "traditional" geothermal area, defined as Northern Geothermal Area (NGA) and eight located in the Amiata Mountain defined as Southern Geothermal Area (SGA). In 2000-2006, the average resident population in the overall area was approximately 43,000 inhabitants. Thirty-one geothermal power plants were active, with a production capacity of 811 MW, 5 of them with 88 MW located in the SGA. Statistical analyses on the entire geothermal area, NGA and SGA subareas, and the sixteen municipalities were performed. Main outcome measures Mortality data were obtained from Tuscany Regional Mortality Registry for the 1971-2006 period, analysing 60 causes of death, of interest for population health status or consistent with "Project SENTIERI" criteria. Hospital discharge records of residents in Tuscany Region in 2004-2006, anywhere admitted to hospital, were analyzed considering only the main diagnosis, excluding repeated admissions for the same cause. The causes taken into account are the same analysed for mortality were considered. Age-standardized mortality rates (TSDM) and the temporal trends of TSDM for four periods (1971-1979, 1980- 1989, 1990-1999, 2000-2006) were computed. Age-standardized mortality/hospitalization ratios (SMR/SHR), with and without adjustment for the deprivation index based on 2001 census data, were calculated: mortality in the years 2000-2006 and hospitalization in 2004-2006. The expected number of events were computed using rates of residents in neighbouring municipalities (municipalities included in 50 km radius circle centred on the study area). Bayesian estimates of mortality/hospitalization ratios (BMR/BHR) at municipal level only and relating maps of the Bayesian risk estimators were elaborated. Congenital malformations (MC) were analysed using data from Tuscan Registry of Birth Defect in 1992-2006 period, relative to outcomes of pregnancies in women resident in the municipalities of study area, wherever the birth or termination of pregnancy occurred. The ratio between observed and expected cases (O/A), with expected defined according to regional rate, were calculated and O/A Bayesian estimates (BMR) are showed only at municipal level . The low weight and the males/females ratio at birth were analysed using data from Tuscany Birth Certificates, covering period 2001-2007, excluding biths occurred in facilities outside Tuscany Region. For Low birth weight (<2,500 grams), very low birth weight (<1,500 grams), low birth weight in women with normal gestational age or greater than 36 weeks, gestational age less than 36 weeks, and the frequency of males, the observed/expected ratio was calculated, with the expected number defined according to regional rate. Results Environmental background High levels of arsenic in drinking water distribution emerges as a critical element, so that several municipalities resorted to granting exemptions for the parameters laid down by the Legislative Decree in force (DLgs 31/01). However, during the final phase of the study, new blast systems activated in the SGA decreased the arsenic levels in the water supply, reaching values not requiring derogations, which, instead, are still effective in some NGA municipalities. Air quality data, from Tuscany Regional Agency for Environmental Protection-ARPAT, show that geothermal activities are able to affect air quality, especially with hydrogen sulphide in NGA, and hydrogen sulphide and mercury in SGA. A significant contribution to the presence of mercury in air is due to previous metallurgical sites. Although mercury levels are belowWHO guideline values, in SGA nearby Siena, values were significantly higher than in other geothermal areas, because of power plant PC2 (turned off in July 2011) in Piancastagnaio municipality. The hydrogen sulphide concentration levels were generally lower than WHO reference values, with occasional excesses over guideline value for health protection (150 μg/m3 as average of the 24 hours). Olfactory pollution was more critic with values exceeding 7-10 μg/m3 range even in areas without geothermal plants. ; Obiettivo Le limitate conoscenze scientifiche sui rapporti tra esposizione a fattori ambientali correlati all'attivit? geotermica e lo stato di salute della popolazione esposta hanno motivato la conduzione di una indagine epidemiologica nell'area geotermica toscana basata sull'analisi dei dati ambientali e sanitari disponibili negli archivi regionali. Lo studio ha lo scopo di descrivere lo stato di salute delle popolazioni residenti nelle aree geotermiche toscane, identificate con i territori comunali per i quali sono state rilasciate concessioni di sfruttamento della risorsa geotermica. Disegno Lo studio ? di tipo ecologico e quindi non adatto a produrre evidenze che permettano di esprimere un giudizio sul nesso causa-effetto. I maggiori limiti degli studi ecologici derivano dall'assunzione che la residenza anagrafica a livello comunale rappresenti una valida misura di esposizione a fattori sia ambientali sia socioeconomici e dall'utilizzo di dati aggregati degli esiti sanitari che possono portare a risultati affetti da fallacia ecologica. Setting e partecipanti I comuni inclusi nell'area geotermica dello studio sono 16, di cui 8 compresi nell'area geotermica cosiddetta ?tradizionale?, che include le localit? di Larderello, Val di Cornia e Radicondoli-Travale (area geotermica Nord) e gli altri 8 situati nella zona dell'Amiata senese e grossetana (area geotemica Sud). Nel periodo 2000-2006 la popolazione media residente nell'area geotermica complessiva era di oltre 43.000 abitanti. Al momento dello studio erano attive 31 centrali geotermoelettriche con capacit? di produzione di 811 MW, di cui 5 con 88 MW totali nell'area geotermica Sud. Le analisi statistiche sono state effettuate a livello di intera area geotermica, delle due subaree geotermiche (Nord e Sud) e dei 16 comuni. Principali misure di outcome La mortalit? ? stata analizzata utilizzando i dati del Registro di mortalit? regionale della Toscana per l'intero periodo disponibile (1971-2006), con dettaglio per 60 cause, scelte in quanto di interesse generale per il profilo di salute della popolazione o perch? coerenti con i criteri adottati dal Progetto SENTIERI. L'ospedalizzazione ? stata valutata analizzando i dati delle schede di dimissione ospedaliera (SDO) della Re-gione Toscana nel periodo 2004-2006, includendo i ricoverati residenti in Toscana ovunque abbiano effettuato un ricovero, considerando solo la diagnosi principale di ricovero, escludendo i ricoveri ripetuti degli stessi soggetti per la stessa causa. Le cause di ospedalizzazione selezionate per l'analisi dei ricoveri sono le stesse utilizzate per l'analisi della mortalit?. Per la mortalit? sono stati calcolati i tassi di mortalit? standardizzati per et? (TSDM) e i trend temporali dei TSDM in quattro periodi (1971- 1979, 1980-1989, 1990-1999, 2000-2006). Sia per la mortalit? del periodo 2000-2006, sia per l'ospedalizzazione del periodo 2004-2006,sono stati calcolati: i rapporti di mortalit?/ospedalizzazione standardizzati per et? (SMR/SHR), con e senza aggiustamento per l'indice di deprivazione (ID), utilizzando per il calcolo dell'ID i dati del censimento 2001, con gli attesi calcolati usando il tasso di mortalit?/ospedalizzazione della popolazione residente nei comuni limitrofi (comuni con la coordinata geografica del municipio compresa in un cerchio con raggio di 50 km centrato sull'area in studio); le stime bayesiane dei rapporti di mortalit? (BMR) e di ospedalizzazione (BHR) a livello esclusivamente comunale; le mappe (disease mapping) dei rischi bayesiani di mortalit?/ospedalizzazione comunali. Le malformazioni congenite (MC) sono state analizzate utilizzando i dati del Registro toscano dei difetti congeniti (RTDC) nel periodo 1992-2006, relativi a esiti di gravidanze di donne residenti nei comuni dell'area in studio, ovunque sia avvenuto il parto o l'interruzione di gravidanza. Per le MC ? stato calcolato il rapporto tra casi osservati e casi attesi (O/A), con gli attesi definiti in base al tasso regionale e vengono fornite le stime bayesiane del rapporto O/A (BMR) a livello esclusivamente comunale. Per valutare il basso peso e il rapporto tra maschi e femmine alla nascita sono stati utilizzati i dati dei certificati di assistenza al parto della Regione Toscana, relativi al periodo 2001-2007, con esclusione degli eventi occorsi in presidi di altre regioni. L'analisi ? stata condotta considerando i nati con: basso peso alla nascita (LW: peso <2.500 grammi), bassissimo peso alla nascita (VLW: peso <1.500 grammi), basso peso alla nascita nelle donne con et? gestazionale normale e maggiore di 36 settimane (LW36), et? gestazionale inferiore a 36 settimane, e il numero di maschi osservato. Per tutti gli indicatori ? stato calcolato il rapporto osservato/atteso, con l'atteso definito in base al tasso regionale. Risultati Il contesto ambientale Dalla descrizione del contesto ambientale, per quanto riguarda l'acqua, emerge come elemento di criticit? il riscontro talvolta di elevati livelli di arsenico nelle acque della rete di distribuzione degli acquedotti, tanto che in diverse realt? comunali si ? dovuto far ricorso alla concessione di deroghe ai parametri previsti dal decreto legislativo vigente (DLgs 31/01). Comunque, durante la fase conclusiva dello studio, nell'area geotermica Sud i nuovi sistemi abbattitori hanno ridotto i livelli di arsenico nella rete idrica fino a valori tali da non dover pi? ricorrere alle deroghe, ancora attive, invece, in alcuni comuni dell'area geotermica Nord. Le informazioni dell'ARPAT sui dati dell'aria evidenziano che l'attivit? geotermica ? in grado di modificare la qualit? dell'aria, soprattutto per l'acido solfidrico nell'area geotermica Nord, e per l'acido solfidrico e il mercurio nell'area geotermica Sud, in particolare nel versante senese dell'Amiata. Per il mercurio nell'aria, un contributo rilevante ? legato anche alle emissioni dagli ex siti metallurgici. Sebbene i livelli di mercurio nelle postazioni di monitoraggio rientrino sempre al di sotto dei valori guida raccomandati dall'OMS, le concentrazioni riscontrate nell'aria dell'Amiata senese, e perlopi? legate alla centrale PC2 di Piancastagnaio (spenta nel luglio 2011), sono significativamente superiori a quelle rilevate nelle altre aree geotermiche che, al contrario, sono assestate sugli stessi livelli registrati nei territori non geotermici. I livelli di concentrazione di acido solfidrico sono inferiori ai valori di riferimento, con occasionali superamenti del valore guida di tutela sanitaria OMS (150 μg/m3 come media delle 24 ore). Pi? critici sono i dati di inquinamento olfattivo, che si verifica con il superamento del valore di 7-10 g/m3 di acido solfidrico nell'aria, riscontrato con vario grado di intensit? in tutte le postazioni di monitoraggio, anche in aree dove non sono presenti impianti geotermici. In alcune aree con insediamenti produttivi geotermici la frequenza, la persistenza e l'intensit? dei cattivi odori sono tali da comportare condizioni di qualit? dell'aria scadente.

By questioning the facts experienced locally, the violence around protected areas in the region of Butembo, the purpose is available quickly in a constantly renewed global issue: the Fear of depletion of natural resources. Today, at least more than ever, the question is necessary and in the debates: Everyone aspires to a better life, but what planet? More than the scarcity of resources, perception, representation which is chaired shortages behaviors adopted. In the center, even the instinct to try to ensure the perpetuation of its species, the question is generally "the conservation of nature would it be novelty in the struggle for survival? " Humanity is looking for his path of sustainability, can be found on its path of life of irreversibility, and they result from bifurcations encountered, not the facts of determinism. On this journey, the conservation of nature has gone through several stages. There were first integrated policies of exploitation and keep the 17th and 18th century, and exclusive policies of intervention and imposition of protected areas that have prevailed in the 19th and 20th century and the current attempts at reconciliation, development conservation. In an effort to understand the local facts, joints between hard keeping systems and social systems in the face, this work exploits the conflicts that arise naturally from the setting facing the two logics: that of operating a survival immediate versus that of conservation for survival of future generations. That is the problem posed by the concept of sustainable development to existing policies. By scanning deployments over time of conservation systems in the region of investigation and redeployment of existing social systems in the field of conservation in this region, the work establishes the boundaries of existing conservation systems. It is the modern side by techno-management of nature or the traditional side by its symbolism and its approach using rituals or cultural. As a result, these limitations become reciprocal opportunities to seize, a potential capital to reconcile points of view. By showing that none of the two systems can no longer rely on either some or a superiority operative efficient real legitimacy, the door is open to finding solutions. The originality in this case would be to find ways to "live together" of two models that take into account the complexity and interconnectedness of environmental phenomena as well as those that govern social systems. In this context, the work explores the potential as natural or physical, socio-cultural (with a bag or a historical trajectory) and structural or institutional specific local context. Are then highlighted: - the great variability in the physical conformation of the environment, causing its spectacular wealth in terms of biodiversity (now certified and recognized landscapes Maiko-Tayna Virunga and Kahuzi-Biega), - the enormous wealth formed local cultural traditional symbolic representations that underlie the relationship between man and nature in the region and finally - the strong human capacity to establish and maintain relationships across borders or even inter-state armed conflicts that occurred in the Great Lakes region of Central Africa in recent decades. In short, the region of Butembo this predisposition in favor of physical and social integration-Conservation Development. The proposed scheme performs a double integration of conservation: - Horizontal integration, or below, proposes to set up conservation areas around the symbols of tradition (especially in masingiro and mahero in Butembo region), which are already met. The aim is not only the acceptance of protected areas but also the appropriation of conservation by local communities. The effect would be to consider the conservation beyond the rigid boundaries of protected areas and stop with the nose up positions on disputed land, currently played, which crystallize the relationship between the formal structures of conservation and the people immersed in the endless conflicts of wear. Incorporating symbols of mahero and masingiro with their respective regulatory systems, conservation and the associate Vakama that are simultaneously their protectors, those in power and land the legitimate representatives of local people. They are those who embody, in this way, the traditional moral and spiritual authority, forming the gateway to the conservation among local communities. - Vertical integration, or top, plans to combine the existing AP to form functional landscape of large more robust in terms of synergy of actions. This is to review the conservation beyond its former executives. Whether cross-border areas or even within the country, the need is to prove the (pre) measures favorable to the synergy of actions from the group consisting of protected areas affiliates. In adopting these reforms for conservation, it is then necessary to choose the concepts of "Green Networking" and "institutional networks management of protected areas." In this case the region of Butembo, the two networks are identified: the landscape Maiko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega (located entirely within the national territory) and the Greater Virunga Landscape (composed of cross-border areas between the DR Congo, Rwanda and Uganda). All combine to surpass the rigid boundaries of the old AP, the models set by top-down or bottom-up area where the animals were significantly isolated from the human field. Thus, in the new design here supported, protected areas and areas not in operation form one single community; the "integrated spaces" in order to keep renewing the links between development and conservation are required for "community sustainable living." Remains is the political will to understand these provisions in favor of integration-Conservation Development. Experiments of this scheme would make a step, and then replicate it in other areas, with a view to sustainable development in the region. ; En questionnant des faits concrets vécus localement, des violences autour des aires protégées en région de Butembo, le propos se décline vite en une problématique planétaire perpétuellement renouvelée : la phobie de l'épuisement des ressources naturelles. Aujourd'hui, en tout cas plus qu'hier, la question revient et s'impose dans les débats : tout le monde aspire à des conditions de vie meilleures, mais sur quelle planète ? Plus que la rareté des ressources, sa perception, la représentation qu'on se fait des pénuries préside les comportements adoptés. Au centre, l'instinct-même de chercher à assurer la perpétuation de son espèce, la question se pose globalement : « la conservation de la nature serait-elle la nouveauté dans la lutte pour la survivance ? » L'humanité recherchant son sentier de viabilité, on retrouve sur sa trajectoire de vie des irréversibilités ; elles résultent des bifurcations rencontrées et non des faits de déterminisme. Sur ce cheminement, la conservation de la nature est passée par plusieurs étapes. Il y a eu d'abord des politiques intégrées d'exploitation-conservation du 17e et 18e siècle, puis les politiques d'interventions exclusives et d'imposition des aires protégées qui ont prévalu au 19e et 20e siècle et les actuelles tentatives de conciliation développement-conservation. Dans une démarche de compréhension des faits locaux, des articulations difficiles entre les systèmes de conservation et les systèmes sociaux en face, ce travail exploite ces conflits qui résultent naturellement de la mise aux prises des deux logiques : celle de l'exploitation pour une survie dans l'immédiat versus celle de la conservation pour une survie des générations futures. C'est là toute la problématique que pose la notion de développement durable aux politiques actuelles. En scrutant les déploiements dans le temps des systèmes de conservation dans la région d'investigation et les redéploiements actuels des systèmes sociaux sur le terrain de la conservation dans cette région, le travail établit les limites actuels des systèmes de conservation. Qu'il soit du côté moderne par la gestion technoscientifique de la nature ou du côté traditionnel par son symbolisme et sa démarche utilisant des cérémonies rituelles ou d'ordre culturel. Du coup, ces limites réciproques deviennent des opportunités à saisir, un capital potentiel pour réconcilier les points de vue. En montrant qu'aucun des deux systèmes ne peut plus se prévaloir ni d'une certaine suprématie opérante ni d'une réelle légitimité efficiente, la porte est ouverte à la recherche des solutions. L'originalité pour ce cas serait de trouver des façons de "vivre ensemble" de deux modèles, qui prennent en compte la complexité et l'interconnexion des phénomènes environnementaux ainsi que de ceux qui régissent les systèmes sociaux. Dans ce cadre, le travail explore les potentialités tant naturelles ou physiques, socioculturelles (avec un bagage ou une trajectoire historique) que structurelles ou institutionnelles, spécifiques au contexte local. Sont alors mises en exergue : - la grande variabilité dans la conformation physique du milieu, engendrant sa spectaculaire richesse en termes de biodiversité (attestée aujourd'hui et reconnue aux paysages Virunga et Maïko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega), - l'énorme richesse culturelle locale formée des représentations traditionnelles symboliques qui fondent les relations Homme-Nature dans la région et enfin - les fortes capacités humaines à nouer et conserver des relations au-delà des frontières ou même des conflits armés interétatiques qui sont survenus en région des Grands Lacs d'Afrique centrale pendant les dernières décennies. En somme, la région de Butembo présente des prédispositions physiques et sociales favorables à une intégration Développement-Conservation. Le schéma proposé procède à une double intégration de la conservation : - l'intégration horizontale, ou par le bas, propose à la conservation des espaces constitués tout autour des symboles de la tradition (notamment le mahero et le masingiro en région de Butembo), qui sont déjà respectés. La visée est non seulement l'acceptation des aires protégées mais surtout l'appropriation de la conservation par les communautés locales. L'effet serait de considérer la conservation au-delà des frontières rigides des aires protégées et de cesser avec des positions cabrées sur des terres litigieuses, actuellement disputées, qui cristallisent les relations entre les structures officielles de la conservation et les populations plongées dans des interminables conflits d'usure. En incorporant les symboles de mahero et de masingiro, avec leurs systèmes de régulations respectifs, la conservation associera ainsi les vakama qui sont simultanément leurs protecteurs, les détenteurs du pouvoir foncier et les représentants légitimes des populations locales. Ils sont ceux qui incarnent, par ce biais, l'autorité morale et spirituelle traditionnelle, constituant ainsi la porte d'entrée de la conservation au sein des communautés locales. - l'intégration verticale, ou par le haut, envisage d'associer les AP existantes pour constituer de grands ensembles paysagers fonctionnels plus robustes, en termes de synergie d'actions. Il s'agit de revoir la conservation au-delà de ses anciens cadres. Qu'ils soient des espaces transfrontaliers ou même internes au pays, la nécessité est de prouver des (pré)dispositions favorables à la synergie d'actions dans l'ensemble formé des aires protégées affiliées. En adoptant ces réformes pour la conservation, il convient alors d'opter pour les concepts de "mise en réseaux écologiques" et de "réseaux institutionnels de gestion d'espaces protégés". Dans ce cas de la région de Butembo, les deux réseaux identifiés étant : le paysage Maiko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega (entièrement situé à l'intérieur du territoire national) et le Grand Landscape Virunga (formé des espaces transfrontaliers entre la RD Congo, le Rwanda et l'Uganda). L'ensemble concourt à surpasser les anciennes frontières rigides des AP, fixées par les modèles top-down ou bottom-up où le domaine des bêtes était nettement isolé du domaine des humains. Ainsi, dans la nouvelle conception ici soutenue, les espaces protégés et les espaces en exploitation ne formeraient plus qu'un seul milieu, des "espaces intégrés" à conserver afin de renouer les liens qui s'imposent entre développement et conservation pour des "milieux de vie durables". Reste alors la volonté politique pour comprendre ces dispositions favorables à l'intégration Développement-Conservation. L'expérimentation de ce schéma ne ferait qu'une étape, pour ensuite le reproduire dans d'autres zones, dans une perspective d'un Développement Durable dans la région. ; (SPED 3) -- UCL, 2011

By questioning the facts experienced locally, the violence around protected areas in the region of Butembo, the purpose is available quickly in a constantly renewed global issue: the Fear of depletion of natural resources. Today, at least more than ever, the question is necessary and in the debates: Everyone aspires to a better life, but what planet? More than the scarcity of resources, perception, representation which is chaired shortages behaviors adopted. In the center, even the instinct to try to ensure the perpetuation of its species, the question is generally "the conservation of nature would it be novelty in the struggle for survival? " Humanity is looking for his path of sustainability, can be found on its path of life of irreversibility, and they result from bifurcations encountered, not the facts of determinism. On this journey, the conservation of nature has gone through several stages. There were first integrated policies of exploitation and keep the 17th and 18th century, and exclusive policies of intervention and imposition of protected areas that have prevailed in the 19th and 20th century and the current attempts at reconciliation, development conservation. In an effort to understand the local facts, joints between hard keeping systems and social systems in the face, this work exploits the conflicts that arise naturally from the setting facing the two logics: that of operating a survival immediate versus that of conservation for survival of future generations. That is the problem posed by the concept of sustainable development to existing policies. By scanning deployments over time of conservation systems in the region of investigation and redeployment of existing social systems in the field of conservation in this region, the work establishes the boundaries of existing conservation systems. It is the modern side by techno-management of nature or the traditional side by its symbolism and its approach using rituals or cultural. As a result, these limitations become reciprocal opportunities to seize, a potential capital to reconcile points of view. By showing that none of the two systems can no longer rely on either some or a superiority operative efficient real legitimacy, the door is open to finding solutions. The originality in this case would be to find ways to "live together" of two models that take into account the complexity and interconnectedness of environmental phenomena as well as those that govern social systems. In this context, the work explores the potential as natural or physical, socio-cultural (with a bag or a historical trajectory) and structural or institutional specific local context. Are then highlighted: - the great variability in the physical conformation of the environment, causing its spectacular wealth in terms of biodiversity (now certified and recognized landscapes Maiko-Tayna Virunga and Kahuzi-Biega), - the enormous wealth formed local cultural traditional symbolic representations that underlie the relationship between man and nature in the region and finally - the strong human capacity to establish and maintain relationships across borders or even inter-state armed conflicts that occurred in the Great Lakes region of Central Africa in recent decades. In short, the region of Butembo this predisposition in favor of physical and social integration-Conservation Development. The proposed scheme performs a double integration of conservation: - Horizontal integration, or below, proposes to set up conservation areas around the symbols of tradition (especially in masingiro and mahero in Butembo region), which are already met. The aim is not only the acceptance of protected areas but also the appropriation of conservation by local communities. The effect would be to consider the conservation beyond the rigid boundaries of protected areas and stop with the nose up positions on disputed land, currently played, which crystallize the relationship between the formal structures of conservation and the people immersed in the endless conflicts of wear. Incorporating symbols of mahero and masingiro with their respective regulatory systems, conservation and the associate Vakama that are simultaneously their protectors, those in power and land the legitimate representatives of local people. They are those who embody, in this way, the traditional moral and spiritual authority, forming the gateway to the conservation among local communities. - Vertical integration, or top, plans to combine the existing AP to form functional landscape of large more robust in terms of synergy of actions. This is to review the conservation beyond its former executives. Whether cross-border areas or even within the country, the need is to prove the (pre) measures favorable to the synergy of actions from the group consisting of protected areas affiliates. In adopting these reforms for conservation, it is then necessary to choose the concepts of "Green Networking" and "institutional networks management of protected areas." In this case the region of Butembo, the two networks are identified: the landscape Maiko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega (located entirely within the national territory) and the Greater Virunga Landscape (composed of cross-border areas between the DR Congo, Rwanda and Uganda). All combine to surpass the rigid boundaries of the old AP, the models set by top-down or bottom-up area where the animals were significantly isolated from the human field. Thus, in the new design here supported, protected areas and areas not in operation form one single community; the "integrated spaces" in order to keep renewing the links between development and conservation are required for "community sustainable living." Remains is the political will to understand these provisions in favor of integration-Conservation Development. Experiments of this scheme would make a step, and then replicate it in other areas, with a view to sustainable development in the region. ; En questionnant des faits concrets vécus localement, des violences autour des aires protégées en région de Butembo, le propos se décline vite en une problématique planétaire perpétuellement renouvelée : la phobie de l'épuisement des ressources naturelles. Aujourd'hui, en tout cas plus qu'hier, la question revient et s'impose dans les débats : tout le monde aspire à des conditions de vie meilleures, mais sur quelle planète ? Plus que la rareté des ressources, sa perception, la représentation qu'on se fait des pénuries préside les comportements adoptés. Au centre, l'instinct-même de chercher à assurer la perpétuation de son espèce, la question se pose globalement : « la conservation de la nature serait-elle la nouveauté dans la lutte pour la survivance ? » L'humanité recherchant son sentier de viabilité, on retrouve sur sa trajectoire de vie des irréversibilités ; elles résultent des bifurcations rencontrées et non des faits de déterminisme. Sur ce cheminement, la conservation de la nature est passée par plusieurs étapes. Il y a eu d'abord des politiques intégrées d'exploitation-conservation du 17e et 18e siècle, puis les politiques d'interventions exclusives et d'imposition des aires protégées qui ont prévalu au 19e et 20e siècle et les actuelles tentatives de conciliation développement-conservation. Dans une démarche de compréhension des faits locaux, des articulations difficiles entre les systèmes de conservation et les systèmes sociaux en face, ce travail exploite ces conflits qui résultent naturellement de la mise aux prises des deux logiques : celle de l'exploitation pour une survie dans l'immédiat versus celle de la conservation pour une survie des générations futures. C'est là toute la problématique que pose la notion de développement durable aux politiques actuelles. En scrutant les déploiements dans le temps des systèmes de conservation dans la région d'investigation et les redéploiements actuels des systèmes sociaux sur le terrain de la conservation dans cette région, le travail établit les limites actuels des systèmes de conservation. Qu'il soit du côté moderne par la gestion technoscientifique de la nature ou du côté traditionnel par son symbolisme et sa démarche utilisant des cérémonies rituelles ou d'ordre culturel. Du coup, ces limites réciproques deviennent des opportunités à saisir, un capital potentiel pour réconcilier les points de vue. En montrant qu'aucun des deux systèmes ne peut plus se prévaloir ni d'une certaine suprématie opérante ni d'une réelle légitimité efficiente, la porte est ouverte à la recherche des solutions. L'originalité pour ce cas serait de trouver des façons de "vivre ensemble" de deux modèles, qui prennent en compte la complexité et l'interconnexion des phénomènes environnementaux ainsi que de ceux qui régissent les systèmes sociaux. Dans ce cadre, le travail explore les potentialités tant naturelles ou physiques, socioculturelles (avec un bagage ou une trajectoire historique) que structurelles ou institutionnelles, spécifiques au contexte local. Sont alors mises en exergue : - la grande variabilité dans la conformation physique du milieu, engendrant sa spectaculaire richesse en termes de biodiversité (attestée aujourd'hui et reconnue aux paysages Virunga et Maïko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega), - l'énorme richesse culturelle locale formée des représentations traditionnelles symboliques qui fondent les relations Homme-Nature dans la région et enfin - les fortes capacités humaines à nouer et conserver des relations au-delà des frontières ou même des conflits armés interétatiques qui sont survenus en région des Grands Lacs d'Afrique centrale pendant les dernières décennies. En somme, la région de Butembo présente des prédispositions physiques et sociales favorables à une intégration Développement-Conservation. Le schéma proposé procède à une double intégration de la conservation : - l'intégration horizontale, ou par le bas, propose à la conservation des espaces constitués tout autour des symboles de la tradition (notamment le mahero et le masingiro en région de Butembo), qui sont déjà respectés. La visée est non seulement l'acceptation des aires protégées mais surtout l'appropriation de la conservation par les communautés locales. L'effet serait de considérer la conservation au-delà des frontières rigides des aires protégées et de cesser avec des positions cabrées sur des terres litigieuses, actuellement disputées, qui cristallisent les relations entre les structures officielles de la conservation et les populations plongées dans des interminables conflits d'usure. En incorporant les symboles de mahero et de masingiro, avec leurs systèmes de régulations respectifs, la conservation associera ainsi les vakama qui sont simultanément leurs protecteurs, les détenteurs du pouvoir foncier et les représentants légitimes des populations locales. Ils sont ceux qui incarnent, par ce biais, l'autorité morale et spirituelle traditionnelle, constituant ainsi la porte d'entrée de la conservation au sein des communautés locales. - l'intégration verticale, ou par le haut, envisage d'associer les AP existantes pour constituer de grands ensembles paysagers fonctionnels plus robustes, en termes de synergie d'actions. Il s'agit de revoir la conservation au-delà de ses anciens cadres. Qu'ils soient des espaces transfrontaliers ou même internes au pays, la nécessité est de prouver des (pré)dispositions favorables à la synergie d'actions dans l'ensemble formé des aires protégées affiliées. En adoptant ces réformes pour la conservation, il convient alors d'opter pour les concepts de "mise en réseaux écologiques" et de "réseaux institutionnels de gestion d'espaces protégés". Dans ce cas de la région de Butembo, les deux réseaux identifiés étant : le paysage Maiko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega (entièrement situé à l'intérieur du territoire national) et le Grand Landscape Virunga (formé des espaces transfrontaliers entre la RD Congo, le Rwanda et l'Uganda). L'ensemble concourt à surpasser les anciennes frontières rigides des AP, fixées par les modèles top-down ou bottom-up où le domaine des bêtes était nettement isolé du domaine des humains. Ainsi, dans la nouvelle conception ici soutenue, les espaces protégés et les espaces en exploitation ne formeraient plus qu'un seul milieu, des "espaces intégrés" à conserver afin de renouer les liens qui s'imposent entre développement et conservation pour des "milieux de vie durables". Reste alors la volonté politique pour comprendre ces dispositions favorables à l'intégration Développement-Conservation. L'expérimentation de ce schéma ne ferait qu'une étape, pour ensuite le reproduire dans d'autres zones, dans une perspective d'un Développement Durable dans la région. ; (SPED 3) -- UCL, 2011

From the introduction: The rapid adoption of wind energy in the renewable energy mix can be seen in many industrialized nations in the past decade, 'in particular the need to agreed greenhouse gas reduction and stable energy supply are seen as a sound vision for a sustainable energy policy'. In an emerging market such as South Africa there are abundant renewable resources including wind energy, however there is low adoption observed to date. This study aims to investigate barriers to entry in the South African wind energy sector and what the priorities are to remove such barriers for successful deployment of wind technology. Therefore, it was required to examine successful deployment of wind energy in the European Union and how such barriers were removed; this was set in the current status of the renewable energy sector and existing barriers in South Africa. It was necessary to gain insight of the inter-related issues on opening a traditional fossil fuel based energy market to a transitional implementation of renewable energy provisioning, also considering the current utility monopoly based energy landscape in South Africa. Chapter one considers the global shift for the need to implement renewable energy and highlights key issues such as security of supply, carbon reduction linked to climate change. Section three looks at the global benefits of renewable energy within the energy mix. Section four highlights key policy shifts and wind energy potential and section five gives an overview of South Africa's renewable energy policies. Chapter two looks at the research question of the need to answer what barriers exist and how to remove these in South Africa. Section three and four describe the qualitative research method applied and the setting of sampling. Section five, six and seven look at the tools used for telephone interviews. Section eight and nine describe the literary research applied, the key institutional papers reviewed and barriers identified. Chapter three describes the lessons learned in a global context on policies for renewable energy to deploy wind energy successfully. Section three looks at the background on European lessons learned with key European wind markets focused on such as Denmark, Germany, Spain and UK. Sections four to thirteen look at the barriers to entry, key mechanism such as feed-in tariffs, tendering, effectiveness of support schemes in various EU markets and conclusion on support schemes. Sections fourteen to twenty two look at specific barriers to entry, offshore, grid access, distribution, socio-economic effects, public and environmental issues with conclusion on removal of barriers. Chapter four sections one to three look at the energy mix, policy status and wind potential in South Africa. Sections four and five look at current support mechanisms and provincial initiatives. Sections six to eight describe distribution and small scale wind barriers and socio-economic considerations. Section nine and ten look at non implementation at regulatory and legal level, issues on power purchase agreements, and inconsistencies in integrated resource planning. Chapter five looks at the survey methods used the raw data analysis and limitations of the survey. Chapter six looks at the qualitative findings in South Africa. Section two to six describes the analysis is themed on successful initiatives, unsuccessful measures, barriers to entry, on priorities to remove barriers. Chapter seven presents the discussion based on the results. Chapter eight draws conclusions and chapter nine recommends and identifies further areas of research.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Abstract3 Acknowledgements5 List of Abbreviations8 List of Illustrations9 Introduction9 Background and aims of study10 1.1.1Reasons for renewable energy in a world context12 1.2Global lessons on barriers to renewable energy12 1.3Global benefits of renewables in the energy mix14 1.4South Africa's Emissions15 1.5Scaling up wind energy17 1.6South Africa's wind energy potential18 2.Research Question20 2.1Research objective20 2.2Research method20 2.3Qualitative research method20 2.4Defining the qualitative research setting: Sampling21 2.5Method Tools21 2.6Questionnaires22 2.7Stakeholder interviews22 2.8Literary research outline22 2.9Academic sources23 3.Lessons from Europe24 3.1Lessons from Europe background24 3.2Barriers to entry25 3.3Support mechanisms26 3.4Regional harmonisation of support schemes26 3.5Tendering26 3.6Feed-in Tariffs27 3.7Fiscal mechanisms overview27 3.8Evaluation of specific support schemes29 3.9Effectiveness of support mechanisms29 3.10Effective mechanism in key wind markets in Europe31 3.11Conclusion on EU support mechanisms32 3.12Exploring barriers to entry33 3.13Gale force offshore barriers33 3.14Grid access34 3.15Smart grid and decentralized electricity34 3.16Renewable energy and socio economic effects35 3.17Public acceptance and property35 3.18Environmental impact assessment36 3.19Adverse Effects: Noise, visual and electromagnetic impact36 3.20Conclusion on removal of barriers37 4Energy Landscape in South Africa38 4.1Background38 4.2Renewable energy policy status40 4.3Barriers to wind energy in South Africa41 4.4Eskom and renewable energy sector42 4.5Barriers - Mapping the wind potential43 4.6Support mechanisms for removal of barriers45 4.7Provincial and local Initiatives47 4.8Distribution and decentralized Energy48 4.9Small scale wind49 4.10Renewable energy and socio-economic Impact50 4.11Measures remaining to remove existing barriers51 4.12Slowly off the mark – Refit53 4.13Priorities for removal53 5.1Survey Methods54 5.2Data analysis54 5.3Stakeholders interviewed55 5.4Limitations56 6.1Qualitative Findings57 6.2On current status of the South African RE sector57 6.3On successful support initiatives for renewable energy58 6.4On unsuccessful measures59 6.5On barriers to entry60 6.6On removal of barriers61 6.7On priorities to remove barriers61 7.1Discussion63 7.2Institutional and administration barriers63 7.3A question of liberalization63 7.4Market transformation65 7.5RE tradable certificates66 7.6Grid access66 7.7Issues of rising land prices67 7.8Skills transfer and training67 8.Conclusion67 9.Recommendations, Research and Development69 Appendix 1Energy from Wind70 Appendix 2Historical Overview of Promotion Strategies in European Countries73 Appendix 3Inventory of Current Support Systems74 Appendix 4Questionnaire Example78 Appendix 5Summary Research Results from Coded Analysis79 References80Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.15, Smart Grid and Decentralised Electricity: The further liberalisation of the energy markets in Europe has made decentralised energy (DE) more feasible as seen in the RE sector in Germany. A combination of RE sources and more cost effective control can balance out short-term fluctuations. Providing reliable electricity from 100 percent RE sources is shown in the combined power plant (CPP) projects linking 36 wind, solar biomass and hydropower installations throughout Germany. This follows, the World Alliance for Decentralized Energy claims that potential for DE in realizing electrification objectives is great anda far cheaper method of supplying power to local areas than grid extension including environmental benefits. Denmark for example benefits from a fifty percent shift to DE such as in case of wind turbines placed along transmission corridors, highways or train tracks. DE could therefore be of importance in the context of this investigation on support strategies in rural community electrification programmes in South Africa and improving energy efficiency. A wide range of technologies are available from the RE sector to benefit local ownership. However, barriers remain in the EU where it is recognised that inadequate progress has been made on lighter procedures for small projects implementation at local ownership level. The introduction of digital technology could present a further opportunity in form of the smart grid which allows more-efficient use of existing power capacity and of transmission and distribution, in addition to better handling of fluctuations in energy from wind and sun. Renewable Energyand Socio Economic Effects: The adoption by the European Council of the Renewable Energy Directive for 2020 sets ambitious targets for each Member State to achieve a twenty percent share of RE. In a study the EU investigated the macro- economic gross effects and net effects of RE policies in Europe, more specifically the findings suggest that the RE sector is already a very important one in terms of employment and value add. 'An estimated 2.8 million jobs by 2020 and 3.4 by 2030 will be created'.As a result of the RE support policies, the positive investment effect is currently based on installations in Europe and exports globally. However, it is recognized that inherent uncertainties about the future support of RE sources exist. In this context in the UK, the employment opportunities had been hitherto significantly underestimated. It is claimed an additional '130,000 jobs in the wind sectorby 2020 are a possibility'. Contrary to the report which claims that from a current 5000 jobs in the wind, wave and tidal energy sector, an increase to as many as 60,000 employees by 2020. However, the report suggests ' that the UK does not yet have a coherent approach to training' and step changes are required to achieve this goal. Whilst in Germany, the wind energy industry now employs close to 100,000 people. Public Acceptance and Property: In terms of property or land prices near wind farms, there appears to be conflicting and subjective evidence. A Canadian study noted that buying decisions are effected by different criteria's near wind farms such as some people finding it interesting and others do not like the look. (Wind farms and Land Values 2003 p.1) In further studies in the UK 60 percent of respondents in a Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors survey experienced negative impact on house prices. However, the EWEA observes the social acceptance of wind farms depends on the way they are developed and managed. This also means authorities learn from past experience and find mechanisms to maintain and expand public engagement in wind development. Environmental Impact Assessments: The European Directive on Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) would suggest a common approach, this however is not the case and carried out 'in different ways, in different countries and requires a more unified approach'. With specific regard to the approach in Germany, the Federal Building Code regulation is important as wind energy plants are regarded as so called 'privileged projects'. The local authorities thereby can allocate zones for wind energy utilization, or restrict construction (BWE 2009). Therefore, EIA can facilitate in this important decision process, at the same time regulation appears to give room for development. In the UK the combination of EIA and local planning may have hindered more rapid wind energy deployment as opposed to Denmark, Germany and Spain. As in other EU countries the majority of wind farm projects in the UK an Environmental Statement (ES) is required and used as a decision tool, identifying the environmental, social and economic impacts of a development. Whilst engaging local communities is a vital process in the successful deployment of RE such as wind technology. Contrary to this, however it is recognised that a more streamlined approach may be required to drive delivery of targets through the planning process. This appears to acknowledge the large body of studies on implementing EIA,linked to existing barriers as part of the planning process in the UK wind sector. Adverse Effects of Wind Technology: Noise, Visual Impact, electromagnetic interference Broadly, some observers cite concerns such as turbine noise and aerodynamic noise, in addition to electromagnet interference and migrating birds. Whilst wind turbine noise studies observe that the siting of wind turbines must take sound levels in consideration. A large body of literature exists confirming such barriers exist to implementation. Further, visual impact is a concern that has been raised and many studies have been made in this regard for on and off shore wind that can adversely effect deployment. In the wider context of environmental impact however, it is generally acknowledged that wind energy has a key role to play in not only combating climate change but also reducing CO2 emissions from electricity generation.

Inhaltsangabe:Einleitung: Piraten: Legenden vergangener Zeiten - jedoch auch heute noch ein aktuelles Thema. Piraterie ist seit jeher verflochten mit der Handels-, Kriegs-, Sozial- und Rechtsgeschichte und sie erlebt im Zeitalter der Globalisierung von Handel, Finanzen und Informationen völlig neue Formen und Dimensionen. Es geht den Piraten zwar bei heutigen Überfällen nicht um Schatztruhen und Rumvorräte des Käpt´n, sondern es handelt sich um eine Verbrecherbande, die weltweit jährlich ca. 16 Milliarden Dollar umsetzt. Die Brutalitätund der Einfallsreichtum der Seeräuber haben nicht nachgelassen. Regierungen sind darin verstrickt, die politische Landschaft ganzer Regionen ist in Gefahr. Der Reeder-Verband warnt: 'Die Piraten gefährden Schifffahrt und Seewege, weil sie Schiffe, auch vollgeladene Tanker, ohne Mannschaft und Führung lassen und damit die Gefahr erhöhen, dass Schiffe zusammenstoßen oder auf Grund laufen'. Aufgrund dieser brisanten und hochaktuellen Thematik, ist diese Diplomarbeit dieser speziellen Gefahr der Seeschifffahrt gewidmet. Problemstellung und Aufbau dieser Diplomarbeit: Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit ist es, die Seepiraterie in der heutigen Zeit, in der nahezu der gesamte internationale Warenhandel über Seetransporte betrieben wird, genauer zu untersuchen. Dazu gehört das regionale Vorkommen von Piraten und damit verbunden die Bekämpfung vor Ort durch die örtlichen Behörden.Wie sollten staatliche Behörden, Schifffahrtsgesellschaften und Versicherungen mit dem zunehmenden Problem der Piraterie umgehen und welche Möglichkeiten bieten sich sowohl auf gesetzlicher Grundlage als auch mit Hilfe von technischen Neuerungen bzw. Risikomanagement gegen Piraterie wirksam zu wehren? Des Weiteren soll im Rahmen dieser Arbeit untersucht werden, inwieweit Schäden durch Piraterie im Rahmen einer Transportversicherung gedeckt werden können und wie Versicherer derzeit mit diesem Thema umgehen. Das in der momentanen Zeit sehr brisante Thema der 'Produktpiraterie' wird nicht Bestandteil dieser Diplomarbeit sein, da diese Diplomarbeit sich ausschließlich auf die Transportversicherung und damit verbunden die Seepiraterie bezieht. Nachdem vorab der Begriff der Piraterie definiert wird, erfolgt ein kurzer historischer Überblick der nahtlos in die Untersuchung der heutigen 'Piraterievorkommen' übergeht. Gestützt werden diese Untersuchungen durch Veröffentlichungen diverser Institutionen. In diesem Zusammenhang geht diese Diplomarbeit auch auf gesetzliche Grundlagen ein. Hauptthema dieser Arbeit wird die Untersuchung des Zusammenhangs Piraterie und Transportversicherungen sowie Piraterie und Risikomanagement bilden. Was wird unter 'Piraterie' verstanden? Immer wieder ist in Tageszeitungen über gewalttätige, blutige und brutale Überfälle von Piraten auf Containerschiffe Frachter und Luxusyachten zu lesen. Sogar vor Kreuzfahrtschiffen machen sie nicht halt.Das International Maritime Bureau (IMB) in London veröffentlicht halbjährlich die neuesten Statistiken und wöchentlich die letzten Fälle von Piraterie. In Lexika finden sich unterschiedliche Definitionen über Piraterie. Zum einen wird Piraterie definiert als 'das gewaltsame Vorgehen, um sich eines fremden Schiffes in räuberischer Absicht zu bemächtigen'. Zum anderen wird sie erklärt als völkerrechtswidrigen Angriff auf ein Seeschiff zur Erbeutung der Ladung oder Gefangennahme der Passagiere ohne Ermächtigung eines Staates. Obwohl die Luftpiraterie durch die Medien als spektakulärer dargestellt wird und diese Art von Überfällen eher bekannt ist, als die 'einfache' Piraterie zur See, soll sich diese Diplomarbeit ausschließlich auf die See- Piraterie beschränken. Definitionender Pirateriedurch verschiedene Organisationen Artikel 101 der 'United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea (UNCLOS)' (Seerechtsübereinkommen siehe Kapitel 5.1 ) definiert die Piraterie als: 'Piracy consists of any of the following acts: (a) any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and directed: (i) on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft; (ii) against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State; (b) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft; (c) any act inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in sub-paragraph (a) or (b)'. Demnach ist Piraterie jeder illegale 'Akt der Gewalt, der Freiheitsberaubung oder Verwüstung, der aus eigennützigen Motiven von der Besatzung oder den Passagieren eines zivilen Schiffes auf hoher See verübt wird'. Aus dieser Definition ergeben sich zwei Schwierigkeiten. Zum einen muss der Angriff zum Zweck privater Bereicherung erfolgt sein. Es wird also von 'zivilen' Seeräubern ausgegangen, zu erwähnen ist jedoch, dass es auch bewiesene Übergriffe der staatlichen Küstenwache gibt. Aus der Definition folgt streng genommen, dass Übergriffe auf Schiffe mit staatlicher Beteiligung insbesondere in territorialen Hoheitsgewässern keine Piraterie darstellen, sondern unter die Zuständigkeit eines jeden Staates fallen. Das zweite Problem betrifft den Ort des Angriffs. Die Konvention bezieht sich ausschließlich auf Angriffe auf hoher See, also in Gebieten, die keiner staatlichen Jurisdiktion unterstehen. Damit werden aber alle Überfälle, die im Hafen oder in Küstennähe verübt werden, nicht erfasst. 1994 verabschiedete die UNO eine neue 'Convention on the Law of Sea'. Diese definiert Piraterie wiederum als 'any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed by individuals (borne aboard a pirate vessel) for private ends against a private ship or aircraft (the victim vessel)'.Wenn kein Piratenschiff beteiligt ist, bezeichnet die UNO die Besetzung eines Schiffes als 'Hijacking' . Erneut werden nur Überfälle aus privater Gewinnsucht betrachtet. Jedoch ist die Definition bezüglich des 'Tatorts' freier geworden, die Grundvoraussetzung 'auf Hoher See' ist weggefallen. Das International Maritime Board (IMB) definiert Piraterie als 'die Tat des Aufbringens eines Schiffes mit dem Ziel, Diebstahl oder ein anderes Verbrechen zu begehen und zur Durchführung Gewalt anzuwenden'. Mit Absicht wurde bei dieser Definition kein angreifendes Schiff erwähnt, da wie bereits erwähnt viele der heute stattfindenden Übergriffe vom Festland ausgehen, wenn das betreffende Schiff im Hafen vor Anker liegt. Die International Maritime Organization (IMO) definiert einen bewaffneten Raubüberfall auf Schiffe im 'Code of Practice for the Investigation of the Crimes of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships (MSC/Circ.984) (article 2.2)' wie folgt: 'Armed robbery against ships means any unlawful act of violence or detention or any act of depredation, or threat thereof, other than an act of 'piracy', directed against a ship or against persons or property on board such ship, within a State´s jurisdiction over such offences. ' Die oben angeführten Definitionen wurden von weltweit operierenden Organisationen aufgestellt. Nun ist es jedoch üblich, internationales Recht in nationales zu übernehmen und eventuell einzuschränken oder abzuwandeln. Beispielsweise haben Britische Handelsgerichte zwar, die illegale Gewaltanwendung gegen Schiffe für private Rechung als wesentliches Merkmal der Piraterie anerkannt, jedoch ist die völkerrechtliche Voraussetzung der Begehung außerhalb eines staatlichen Hoheitsgebietes für das Handelsrecht verneint worden. Abgrenzung zu Terror: Aufgrund der zunehmenden Brutalität der Piraten und der Gefahr, dass diese Schiffe mit Waffen an Bord entführen, erscheint es mir wichtig, die Piraterie vom Begriff des Terrors abzugrenzen. Laut einem GDV-Rundschreiben vom 18.12.2001 (Nr.2806/2001) sind Terrorakte 'jegliche Handlungen von Personen oder Personengruppen zur Erreichung politischer, religiöser, ethnischer, ideologischer oder ähnlicher Ziele, die geeignet sind, Angst und Schrecken in der Bevölkerung oder in Teilen der Bevölkerung zu verbreiten und dadurch auf eine Regierung oder staatliche Einrichtungen Einfluss zu nehmen'. Terrorismus ist für die zivile Schifffahrt ein noch nicht genau abschätzbares Problem. Daher gibt es hierzu weder einschlägige Rechtsprechungen im Seehandelsrecht noch eine internationale Konvention mit einer Definition. Es kann allenfalls auf ein englisches Gesetz zur Rückversicherung von Terrorschäden aus 1993 zurückgegriffen werden. Dieses definiert Terror als 'Acts of persons action on behalf of, or in connection with, any organisation which carries out activities directed towards the overthrowing or influencing, by force or violence, of Her Majesty´s Governmernt in the United Kingdomor any other government de jure or de facto'. Der Unterschied zwischen den Begriffen der Piraterie und des Terrors liegt in dem Zweck der Handlungen. Piraten kapern ein Schiff für private Zwecke, um ihren 'Lebensunterhalt' zu bestreiten. Terroristen entführen dagegen ein Schiff, um mit ihm politische Zwecke zu verfolgen. Beiden gemeinsam ist allerdings die hohe Gewaltbereitschaft. Folglich ist es denkbar, dass aus einem Piraten unter Einfluss von bestimmten Kräften ein Terrorist wird. Abgrenzung zu den Begriffen Diebstahl und Raub: Diebstahl ist eines der wichtigsten Vermögensdelikte und 'nach § 242 StGB jede Handlung, durch die jemand eine fremde bewegliche Sache einem anderen in der Absicht wegnimmt, sie sich rechtswidrig anzueignen'. 'Raub ist 'der durch Gewalt gegen eine Person oder mittels Drohungen mit gegenwärtiger Gefahr für Leib oder Leben begangene Diebstahl'. Das Strafmaß regelt sich im § 249 Strafgesetzbuch. Beim Vergleichen dieser Definitionen mit der der Piraterie, kann festgestellt werden, dass beide Elemente im Begriff der Piraterie vorkommen. Ein Pirat wendet in den meisten Fällen Gewalt an (Raub) und begeht in der Regel einen Diebstahl. Piraterie ist somit ein Spezialfall des Raubes oder Diebstahls, der immer im Zusammenhang mit einem Schiff gesehen werden muss.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: 1.Einleitung6 1.1Vorwort6 1.2Problemstellung und Aufbau dieser Diplomarbeit7 1.3Was wird unter 'Piraterie' verstanden?7 1.4Abgrenzung zu Terror10 1.5Abgrenzung zu den Begriffen Diebstahl und Raub11 2.Piraterie in der historischen Entwicklung11 2.1Piraterie in der Antike11 2.2Piraterie im Mittelalter12 2.3Piraterie in der Neuzeit13 2.4Piraterie heute13 2.4.1Gründe für die Piraterie heute14 3.Die Verbreitung der Piraterie in Zahlen16 3.1Entwicklung der Piraterie im Zeitablauf16 3.2Regionale Brennzonen18 3.3Am meisten betroffene Schiffstypen 21 3.4Zunehmende Brutalität der Piraten23 4.Organisationen und Vereinigungen24 4.1Wer ist die 'IUMI'?25 4.1.1Zweck und Ziele25 4.1.2Die Arbeit der IUMI25 4.2International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)26 4.3Das International Maritime Board (IMB) und Piraterie-Zentrum26 4.4Commercial Crime Bureau (CCB)28 4.5Die IMO (International Maritime Organisation)29 5.Internationale Vereinbarungen30 5.1Seerechtsübereinkommen der Vereinten Nationen (in Auszügen -siehe Anhang)31 5.1.1das Seerechtsübereinkommen im Kampf gegen Piraterie31 5.1.2Piraterie auf Hoher See33 5.2International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)34 5.2.1Befugnisse des Kapitäns35 5.2.2Alarmsystem zur Gefahrenabwehr auf dem Schiff35 5.2.3Alternative Maßnahmen36 5.3International Management Code for The Safe Operation and for Pollution Prevention (ISM-Code)36 5.3.1'Document of Compliance' (DOC)37 5.3.2'Safety Management Certificate' (SMC)37 5.3.3Der ISM-Beauftragte37 5.4International Ship and Port Facility Security - Code (ISPS-Code )38 5.4.1Entstehung38 5.4.2Anwendung38 5.4.3Aufbau und Inhalt39 5.4.4Company Security and Ship Security Officer40 5.4.5Schritte zur Erlangung des ISPS-Codes41 6.Die Rolle der Küsten- und Flaggen-Staaten im Kampf gegen Piraterie41 6.1Umsetzung von Internationalen Abkommen42 6.2Strafrechtliche Verfolgung von Piraten44 6.3Ausflaggung46 6.4Allgemeine Kritik der IMO49 7.Versicherungsschutz für Piraterie49 7.1Versicherungsschutz für Piraterie in der Warenversicherung51 7.1.1Piraterie in deutschen Waren-Versicherungsbedingungen51 7.1.1.1Modell der 'vollenDeckung'51 7.1.1.2Modell der 'eingeschränkten Deckung'52 7.1.1.3Vertragliche Obliegenheiten und Piraterie52 7.1.2Verträge nach englischem Recht53 7.1.2.1Marine cargo clauses (A)54 7.1.2.2Marine cargo clauses (B) und (C)54 7.2Verträge in der Kaskoversicherung55 7.2.1Seekasko55 7.2.1.1Verträge nach deutschen Versicherungsbedingungen55 7.2.1.1.1Sonderfall des Abandon im Zusammenhang mit Piraterie57 7.2.1.1.2Obliegenheitsverletzungen58 7.2.2Wassersportbootkasko59 7.3Allgemeine Underwritingmaßnahmen62 7.4Versicherungsschutz für Piraterie durch PI Clubs63 8.Havarie Grosse65 8.1Allgemeines zur Havarie Grosse65 8.2HGB65 8.2.1Piraterie in der Havarie Grosse nach HGB66 8.3York Antwerp Rules (YAR)66 8.3.1Piraterie in der Havarie Grosse nach YAR66 9.Versicherungsbetrug68 9.1automatisierte Betrugserkennung durch ISP69 9.2Versicherungsbetrug durch Piraterie69 10.Ausgewählte Schadenfälle71 10.1Louise72 10.2Sea Johanna72 10.3Alondra Rainbow72 11.Regress des Versicherers73 11.1Haftung der Staaten73 11.2Haftung der Reederei und des Kapitäns nach HGB und BGB74 11.2.1Bewusstes Einfahren in das Gebiet76 11.2.2Insider unter der Besatzung76 11.3Haftung des Verfrachters77 11.4Haftung der Täter78 12.Risikoanalyse und Festsetzung von Gegenmaßnahmen79 12.1Grundlagen79 12.1.1Definition der Sicherheit79 12.1.2Definition des Risikos79 12.1.3Risikoakzeptanz80 12.2Risikoanalyse80 13.Risikomanagement an Bord81 13.1Yachten83 13.1.1Risikomanagement vor einem Überfall83 13.1.2Risikomanagement während und nach einem Überfall84 13.2Frachtschiffe85 13.2.1Maßnahmen vor einem Überfall85 13.2.2Maßnahmen während und nach einem Überfall90 13.2.3Risikominimierung im Hafen93 13.3Risikominimierung durch Versender94 14.Fazit95 Abkürzungsverzeichnis96 Anhänge99 Literaturverzeichnis119Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 13, Risikomanagement an Bord: Wie bereits angesprochen, unterscheiden sich sowohl die Art der Überfälle als auch die regionalen Brennpunkte für die unterschiedlichen Schiffstypen. Zur Vereinfachung und besseren Übersichtlichkeit soll im Folgenden nur zwischen privat und gewerblich genutzten Schiffen unterschieden werden. Wobei eine gewerblich vermietete Yacht auch als privat genutzt zu verstehen ist. Neben speziellen Verhaltensregeln für einzelne Schiffstypen oder Fahrtgebiete gibt es auch allgemein gültige Maßnahmen, die jeder Kapitän veranlassen sollte: -bei Piratengefahr auf See: Gefährliches Seegebiet möglichst bei Tage befahren, An gefährlichen Küsten reichlich Abstand halten, Über Radar bzw. Ausguck die Umgebung des Schiffes beobachten (insbesondere zwischen ein und sechs Uhr morgens, wenn die meisten Überfälle verübt werden), Überwachung durch Wärmesensoren, Bewegungsmelder oder Videokameras, Besatzung über das Verhalten im Notfall unterrichten, Möglichkeiten des Enterns erschweren: Klüsenspülung laufen lassen, Deckwaschschläuche klar halten, Schiff nachts abdunkeln bis auf Positionslaternen, Außentüren verschließen und Schutzraum mit Funkgerät ausrüsten, Meldung an nächste Küstenwache vorbereiten, - bei Annäherung von Piraten: Generalalarm, Kursänderung, um Angreifer in Luv zu bringen, Sofortige Meldung an nächste Küstenwache, Feuerlöschschläuche einsetzen, Volle Decksbeleuchtung einschalten, Aufbau der internen Kommunikation (Ausgeben der UKW- Sprechgeräte), - bei Enterung durch Piraten: Schutzräume aufsuchen und hermetisch abdichten wegen Gefahr der Geiselnahme, Bei Konfrontation keine Gegenwehr leisten, Wenn navigatorisch erforderlich, Maschine stoppen, Verhandeln, um Zeit zu gewinnen, -nach einem Überfall: Versorgen der verletzten Personen, Verhindern der Flucht von gefangen genommenen Piraten, Warnung von Schiffen, die sich in der Nähe befinden und eventuell ebenfalls überfallen werden könnten, Beweis- und Spurensicherung für Untersuchungen durch Personal der nächsten Küstenwache, Unterstützung der eintreffenden Küstenwache durch Beschreibung der Piraten, des angreifenden Schiffes und der Fluchtrichtung, Vor dem Befahren eines gefährlichen Gebietes sollten diese Maßnahmen in Anwesenheit aller Besatzungsmitglieder wiederholt werden. Hierzu sollte ein Protokoll mit Datum und stichwortartiger Zusammenfassung der übermittelten Informationen angefertigt und von den Beteiligten unterschrieben werden. Die nun folgende Unterteilung ist nicht als absolut anzusehen. Die ein oder andere Maßnahme lässt sich mit Sicherheit in abgewandelter Form auch bei dem jeweils anderen Schiffstyp anwenden. 13.1, Yachten: 13.1.1, Risikomanagement vor einem Überfall: Echtes Risikomanagement fängt schon vor Eintritt einer Gefahr an. Das Bewusstsein dafür besteht schon seit jeher. So hat bereits 1895 der Weltumsegler Joshua Slocum in seinem Buch 'Sailing Alone Around the World' berichtet, wie er sich vor den Indianern Feuerlands mithilfe von an Deck ausgelegten Reißnägeln schützte. Da sich die Gefahrensituation in den Fahrgebieten erfahrungsgemäß sehr schnell ändert, wird im Allgemeinen empfohlen, sich kurz vor Beginn einer Reise und auch während deren Verlaufs bei Konsulaten, Auswärtigem Amt, Reiseorganisationen, Cruising Clubs und besonders wichtig über Funk bei anderen Seglern oder Amateurfunknetzen nach der jeweiligen Situation vor Ort zu erkundigen. Diese Präventivmassnahme ermöglicht es dem Freizeitskipper, besonders 'piratenverseuchte' Gebiete zu umfahren. Eine weitere Maßnahme wäre z.B. das Fahren in Konvois durch besonders gefährliche Gebiete, um sich so gegebenenfalls gegenseitig beschützen zu können und Piraten abzuschrecken. 13.1.2, Risikomanagement während und nach einem Überfall: Aufgrund der Größe der Schiffe und damit verbunden der kleinen Besatzung stehen die Chancen für eine erfolgreiche Abwehr von Piraten verhältnismäßig schlecht. Fachgremien, Segelzeitschriften und erfahrene Freizeitkapitäne streiten sich über das Für und Wider von Waffen an Bord von Yachten. Zum einen ist es extrem wichtig, mit einer Waffe umgehen zu können. Zum anderen muss das Gewehr oder der Revolver bei Überfällen auch schnell greifbar sein. Dies könnte schwierig sein, wenn die Waffe zum Beispiel beim Einklarieren vom Zoll im Schrank versiegelt worden ist. Das nächste Problem ergibt sich dann, wenn der Zoll bei der Rückkehr in den Klarierungshafen den Siegelbruch bemerkt. Nicht klarierte Waffen können zu Gefängnisstrafen oder zur Beschlagnahme des Schiffes führen. Die Erfahrung hat gezeigt, dass einige Überfälle durch das bloße Zeigen der Waffen verhindert werden konnten, andere jedoch für den Schiffsbesitzer tödlich endeten. Es ist festzustellen, dass ein '…leicht erhöhter Prozentsatz der Waffenträger…' '…mit den Waffen bzw. durch den Einsatz von Warnschüssen einen Überfall verhindern…' konnte '…ein fast gleich hoher Prozentsatz von Überfällen auf bewaffnete Boote kam so plötzlich, dass die Crew nicht an die Verstecke ihrer Waffen herankam, keine Zeit zur Gegenwehr hatte.'. Eine Alternative zum Waffenbesitz wurde erstmals im Juni 2000 von der IMO der Öffentlichkeit vorgestellt. Es handelt sich um eine spezielle, dreieinhalb Kilogramm schwere, Weste. Sie ist im Prinzip eine kugelsichere Schwimmweste mit einem integrierten Messer. 13.2, Frachtschiffe: In den 80iger Jahren stieg die Anzahl der Übergriffe überproportional an und viele Reedereien verstärkten Ihre Sicherheitsmaßnahmen. Jedoch waren sowohl Schiffseigner als auch die Behörden der Staaten, in deren Gewässern sich die Angriffe ereigneten der Ansicht, dass die Kosten für den Schutz vor Piraten die Kosten, die durch deren Übergriffe entstanden, nicht übersteigen sollten; und so wurde der Bekämpfung der Piraterie wenig Bedeutung beigemessen. Heute hat sich das Problembewusstsein gewandelt. So gibt es weltweite Anstrengungen der Piraterie her zu werden. Aufgrund der Größe der Schiffe und der Besatzung sowie der vergleichsweise höheren Werte der Schiffe und der transportierten Waren gibt es in der Literatur bedeutend mehr Empfehlungen zum Schutz von Frachtschiffen vor Seeräubern. Wie bereits erwähnt, kann mit Sicherheit jedoch auch die eine oder andere Maßnahmen auf kleinere 'Privatboote' übertragen werden. Die gesetzlichen Grundlagen für die nun folgenden Maßnahmen befinden sich wie erwähnt im ISM-Code ('innere Sicherheit') und ISPS-Code ('äußere Sicherheit'). 13.2.1, Maßnahmen vor einem Überfall: In der Literatur wird vorgeschlagen, besonders gefährliche Gebiete nicht zu befahren, sondern eine weniger gefährliche Route zu wählen. Dies erscheint mir jedoch nicht immer praktikabel, da es z.B. zur Malaccastrasse keine Alternative gibt. Des Öfteren sehen es Piraten auf den Schiffessafe ab, in dem sich mitunter beträchtliche Summen von Bargeld befinden. Daher wird von der IMO empfohlen, soweit wie möglich auf Bargeld an Bord zu verzichten. Die IMO hofft dadurch, die Anzahl der Überfälle auf Schiffe, mit dem alleinigen Ziel, das Geld aus dem Safe zu erbeuten, abzusenken.

El presente documento representa un esfuerzo por encontrar alternativas para mejorar la gestión de la diversidad biológica del Perú desde de una perspectiva global, procurando integrar conservación y desarrollo, bajo el enfoque del desarrollo sostenible. El trabajo consta de cuatro partes que se desarrollan en 14 capítulos. La Primera parte aborda aspectos relativos a los objetivos, la metodología de investigación y el marco teórico que sirven de base para la comprensión de la gestión de la biodiversidad y para el desarrollo de propuestas. Conocimientos básicos sobre la diversidad biológica Tomando en consideración que en el país el tema de diversidad biológica todavía es muy poco conocido, esta segunda parte tiene como propósito sintetizar los conocimientos básicos sobre la biodiversidad del Perú. Se abordan aspectos relevantes de los componentes básicos: diversidad de especies, diversidad de ecosistemas, diversidad genética, diversidad cultural, agrodiversidad y Áreas Naturales Protegidas. Destaca la condición privilegiada del país de ocupar el 4° lugar entre los 12 países de mayor megadiversidad en el mundo, que le confieren especial posición geopolítica internacional. Otro aspecto que se aborda es sobre la importancia de la biodiversidad del Perú en los aspectos económico, social y ambiental, destaca su importancia en la seguridad alimentaría y el gran peso en la economía del país, que representa más del 50% del PBI. Sin embargo, a pesar de su importancia la biodiversidad viene destruyéndose y deteriorando en forma acelerada, en el capítulo 6 se identifican los principales factores directos e indirectos que amenazan la conservación de la biodiversidad peruana, entre ellos: La contaminación, sobre extracción de recursos, pérdida de habitat, celeridad del cambio climático, la pobreza, fallas de mercado, falta de conciencia ambiental y la deficiente gestión pública; siendo esta última el tema central del presente trabajo, por ser uno de los factores de mayor influencia. Situación general de la gestión En esta tercera parte se busca responder a la pregunta ¿Cómo se está gestionado la biodiversidad del Perú?. Al respecto a fin de tener una visión general de la situación de la gestión, se realizó el análisis seleccionando los siguientes factores operacionales de gestión: Marco legal, planeación, organización, tecnología, infraestructura, cultura y relación con el ambiente externo. Entre los hallazgos más relevantes destacan: el grave atraso tecnológico, escasa comprensión de la importancia de la biodiversidad en el desarrollo del país, falta de un órgano directriz de la gestión integral de la biodiversidad actualmente sectorizada, falta de una visión sistémica del proceso administrativo y planes de largo plazo, dificultad en la formulación e implementación de planes estratégicos, entre otros. El Convenio sobre Diversidad Biológica (CDB) suscrito por Perú el año 1992 en la reunión de Rió de Janeiro, conjuntamente con 156 naciones, constituye el principal instrumento jurídico para la conservación y uso sostenible de la biodiversidad; desde su puesta en vigor a fines de 1993, Perú ha desarrollado importantes esfuerzos para su implementación, sin embargo el avance todavía es lento, y está más focalizado en la conservación de la biodiversidad. La Comisión Nacional de Diversidad Biológica (CONADIB) es el órgano de coordinación intersectorial, pero su accionar sólo se limita al cumplimiento del CDB. Propuestas para una mejor Gestión de la Diversidad Biológica Sobre la base de los resultados obtenidos en los capítulos anteriores, en esta cuarta parte se presentan las propuestas para una mejor gestión de la biodiversidad, en dos categorías: a) Propuestas generales por factores operacionales, en concordancia con la estructura del análisis de la gestión y b) Propuestas específicas, que desarrolla algunos aspectos prioritarios de las propuestas generales, tales como: Necesidad de un enfoque global y sistémico del proceso administrativo de la biodiversidad, en el que se toma como base el Enfoque Operacional, la planeación estratégica como parte del sistema, integración entre conservación y desarrollo, necesidad de órgano que asuma la dirección integral de la biodiversidad del país, y otros. Frente a la dificultad en la formulación de los planes estratégicos para la gestión de la biodiversidad, en el capítulo 11 se hacen propuestas sobre los aspectos más críticos de la planeación estratégica: integración al proceso administrativo total, atención a las premisas de planeación, análisis FODA, y la identificación de frentes estratégicos básicos para la conservación y aprovechamiento sostenible de la biodiversidad: 1) Conservación, 2) Uso sostenible, 3) Aprovecha-miento sostenible y competitivo, 4) Posicionamiento cultural, 5) Desarrollo Humano, y 6) Excelencia administrativa. Considerando la prioridad del país de encontrar alternativas para el desarrollo económico y la lucha contra pobreza, se desarrolla con especial prioridad el frente estratégico: "Aprovechamiento sostenible y competitivo". A fin contribuir en la implementación de planes estratégicos, en el capitulo 12 se formulan algunas propuestas al respecto: criterios básicos para una administración de excelencia, instrumentos de gestión, prioridades de investigación, capacidades humanas requeridas, y alternativas para el financiamiento de la gestión. Otro aspecto que se aborda en este capítulo, es la propuesta de criterios y lineamientos de políticas para la conservación y aprovechamiento sostenible de la biodiversidad. En la certeza de que la conservación y aprovechamiento sostenible de la biodiversidad no solo compete a unas cuantas instituciones públicas, sino que es una tarea que atañe a todos los peruanos, en él capitulo 13 se hace una propuesta de roles para los principales actores sociales tanto del sector público y privado. Finalmente en el capítulo 14 se formulan las respectivas conclusiones y recomendaciones, entre los aspectos más relevantes se tiene: la prioridad de integrar conservación y desarrollo, reconocer el aprovechamiento sostenible de la biodiversidad como uno de los principales motores para el desarrollo del país, impulsar la educación, investigación y tecnología, priorizando la biotecnología, mayor participación del Estado en el desarrollo de factores clave para la competitividad de las empresas, fortalecer CONADIB como órgano directriz de la gestión integral de la biodiversidad nacional, trascendiendo la sola implementación del CDB. ; This document intends to represent an effort in order to find some alternativas for the improvement of the biologic diversity management in Perú according to a global point of view, but also with a sustamable development approach that looks for the integration of the conservaron and the development itself. This paper has 4 parts and 14 chapters. The first part is about topics related to the objectives, methodology and scientific framework, necessary for the understanding and comprehension of the biodiversity management and development of proposals. Basic knowledge for the biologic diversity Considering that the biologic diversity is a not very well known theme in our country, the second part summarizes the basic knowledge about the biodiversity in Perú. Pertinent aspects about the basic components: species diversity, ecosistems diversity, genetic diversity, cultural diversity, agrodiversity, and protected natural áreas. This part also highlights the features of Perú as the 4* country with the greatest megadiversity in the world, which gives us a very interesting geopolítica! situation in the world. Other aspects about this are related to the importance of the biodiveristy in Perú in terms of economic, social and environmental issues, highlighting the importance on food safety and the relationship with the economy of the country (more than 50% of the GDP). However, despite its great importance biodiversity is being destroyed and deteriorated progressively. In chapter 6, the main factors that threat the conservation of the Peruvian biodiversity, direct or indirect, are presented: pollution, resources overexploitation, loss of habitáis, weather changes, poomess, market failures, lack of environmental conscrousness, and deficient public administration. The last one is the central topic of the paper since it is the factor with the biggest influence. General situation of the management In the third part we intend to answer the question, How is the biodiversity being managed in Perú? In order to have a general overview, an analysis was made by selecting some operational factors: legal framework, planning, organization, technology, infrastructure, culture and relations with the extemal environment. The most important findings were: technological backwardness, poor comprehension of the biodiversity in the development of the country, lack of an institution in charge of the integral management of the biodiversity which at the time is dispersed in sectors, lack of a systemic visión of the administrative processes and long-term plans, difficulty on formulation and implementation of strategic plans, among others. The Biological Diversity Agreement (BDA), signed by Perú in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro along with other 156 nations, is the main legal instrument for the conservation and permanent use of the biodiversity. Since it was set into effect in 1993, Perú has developed important efforts for its implementation, however the results are scarce and the process especially focuses only on the conservation of biodiversity. The National Comité for Biologic Diversity (CONABID) is the coordinating institution but its actions are defined only by the BDA. Proposals for the best management of the Biologic Diversity According to the outcomes presented in the previous chapters, the fourth part presents the proposals in order to improve the management of the biodiversity into two categoríes: a) General proposals for operational factors (analysis of the management); and b) Specific proposals, which develop the most important ítems of the general proposals, such as: need of a global and systemic approach of the administrative process of biodiversity (operational approach), strategic planning as part of the system, conservation and development integration, need of a coordinating institution for the biodiversity in the country, etc. Because of the difficulty on the formulation of strategic plans for the management of the biodiversity, chapter 11 presents proposals about the most crítica! aspects on strategic planning: integration to the general administrative process, planning features, FODA analysis, identification of the strategic sides for the conservation and use of the biodiversity: 1) Conservation; 2) Sustainable use; 3) Competitive and sustainable exploitation; 4) Cultural positioning; 5) Human development; and 6) Excellence in management. According to the necessity of the country on finding altematives for the economic development and the fight against the poorness, the item 3 is developed in a detailed way. In order to make some contribution for the implementation of the strategic plans, chapter 12 presents some proposals: basic entena for a better management, management instruments, research príoríties, required human skills. and altematives for the management financing. Another aspect that is presented in this chapter is the proposal of entena and political guidelines for the conservation and permanent use of the biodiversity. Understanding that this idea is not only a task for some public institutions but for al) the Peruvian people, chapter 13 presents many proposals for the activities that should be made for the public and prívate sector. Finally, Chapter 14 presents the conclusions and recommendations: The importance of the integration of conservation and development, recognition of the sustainable use of biodiversity as one of the main engines for the development of the country, promoting the education, investigation and technology being biotechnology priorized, more participation of the government in the development of key factors for the competitiveness of enterprises, strenghtening of the CONABID as the ruling institution for the integral management of national biodiversity. ; Tesis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, and has a strong heritable basis. We report a genome-wide association analysis of 34,627 CRC cases and 71,379 controls of European ancestry that identifies SNPs at 31 new CRC risk loci. We also identify eight independent risk SNPs at the new and previously reported European CRC loci, and a further nine CRC SNPs at loci previously only identified in Asian populations. We use in situ promoter capture Hi-C (CHi-C), gene expression, and in silico annotation methods to identify likely target genes of CRC SNPs. Whilst these new SNP associations implicate target genes that are enriched for known CRC pathways such as Wnt and BMP, they also highlight novel pathways with no prior links to colorectal tumourigenesis. These findings provide further insight into CRC susceptibility and enhance the prospects of applying genetic risk scores to personalised screening and prevention. ; At the Institute of Cancer Research, this work was supported by Cancer Research UK (C1298/A25514). Additional support was provided by the National Cancer Research Network. In Edinburgh, the work was supported by Programme Grant funding from Cancer Research UK (C348/A12076) and by funding for the infrastructure and staffing of the Edinburgh CRUK Cancer Research Centre. In Birmingham, funding was provided by Cancer Research UK (C6199/A16459). We are grateful to many colleagues within UK Clinical Genetics Departments (for CORGI) and to many collaborators who participated in the VICTOR, QUASAR2 and SCOT trials. We also thank colleagues from the UK National Cancer Research Network (for NSCCG). Support from the European Union [FP7/207–2013, grant 258236] and FP7 collaborative project SYSCOL and COST Action in the UK is also acknowledged [BM1206]. The COIN and COIN-B trials were funded by Cancer Research UK and the Medical Research Council and were conducted with the support of the National Institute of Health Research Cancer Research Network. COIN and COIN-B translational studies were supported by the Bobby Moore Fund from Cancer Research UK, Tenovus, the Kidani Trust, Cancer Research Wales and the National Institute for Social Care and Health Research Cancer Genetics Biomedical Research Unit (2011–2014). We thank the High-Throughput Genomics Group at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics (funded by Wellcome Trust grant reference 090532/Z/09/Z) and the Edinburgh Clinical Research Facility (ECRF) Genetics Core, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, for the generation of genotyping data. We thank the Lothian Birth Cohorts' members, investigators, research associates, and other team members. We thank the Edinburgh Clinical Research Facility (ECRF) Genetics Core, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, for genotyping. Lothian Birth Cohorts' data collection is supported by the Disconnected Mind project (funded by Age UK), and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC, for genotyping; BB/F019394/1) and undertaken within the University of Edinburgh Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology (funded by the BBSRC and Medical Research Council RC as part of the LLHW [MR/K026992/1]). ET was supported by Cancer Research UK CDF (C31250/A22804). This research has been conducted using the UK Biobank Resource under Application Number 7441. Generation Scotland received core support from the Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government Health Directorates [CZD/16/6] and the Scottish Funding Council [HR03006]. Genotyping of the GS:SFHS samples was carried out by the Genetics Core Laboratory at the Clinical Research Facility, University of Edinburgh and was funded by the Medical Research Council UK and the Wellcome Trust (Wellcome Trust Strategic Award "STratifying Resilience and Depression Longitudinally" (STRADL) [104036/Z/14/Z]). CFR was supported by a Marie Sklodowska-Curie Intra-European Fellowship Action and received considerable help from many staff in the Department of Endoscopy at the John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford. In Finland, this work was supported by grants from the Academy of Finland [Finnish Center of Excellence Program 2012–2017, 250345 and 2018–2025, 312041], the Jane and Aatos Erkko Foundation, the Finnish Cancer Society [personal grant to K.P.], the European Research Council [ERC; 268648], the Sigrid Juselius Foundation, SYSCOL, the Nordic Information for Action eScience Center (NIASC), the Nordic Center of Excellence financed by NordForsk [project 62721, personal grant to K.P.] and State Research Funding of Kuopio University Hospital [B1401]. We acknowledge the computational resources provided by the ELIXIR node, hosted at the CSC–IT Center for Science, Finland, and funded by the Academy of Finland [grants 271642 and 263164], the Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland. V.S. was supported by the Finnish Academy [grant number 139635] and the Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research. J.-P.M. was funded by The Finnish Cancer Foundation and The Jane and Aatos Erkko Foundation. Sample collection and genotyping in the Finnish Twin Cohort has been supported by the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, ENGAGE—European Network for Genetic and Genomic Epidemiology, FP7-HEALTH-F4–2007; [grant agreement number 201413], the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism [grants AA-12502 and AA-00145; to R.J.R. and K02AA018755 to D.M.D.] and the Academy of Finland [grants 100499, 205585, 265240 and 263278 to J.K.]. The work of the Colon Cancer Family Registry (CCFR) was supported by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) under Award number U01 CA167551. The CCFR Illumina GWAS was supported by the NCI/NIH under Award Numbers U01 CA122839 and R01 CA143237 to G.C. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the NCI or any of the collaborating centres in the CCFR, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the CCFR. The CORSA study was funded by FFG BRIDGE (grant 829675, to A.G.), the "Herzfelder'sche Familienstiftung" (grant to A.G.) and was supported by COST Action BM1206. We kindly thank all individuals who agreed to participate in the CORSA study. Furthermore, we thank all cooperating physicians and students and the Biobank Graz of the Medical University of Graz. The DACHS study was supported by grants from the German Research Council (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, BR 1704/6–1, BR 1704/6–3, BR 1704/6–4, BR 1704/6–6 and CH 117/1–1), and the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (01KH0404, 01ER0814, 01ER0815 and 01ER1505A, 01ER1505B). We thank all participants and cooperating clinicians, and Ute Handte-Daub, Ansgar Brandhorst, Muhabbet Celik and Ursula Eilber for excellent technical assistance. The Croatian study was supported through the 10,001 Dalmatians Project, and institutional support of University Hospital for Tumours, Sestre milosrdnice University Hospital Center. James East and Simon Leedham were funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Oxford Biomedical Research Centre (BRC). The views expressed not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. We acknowledge use of genotype data from the British 1958 Birth Cohort DNA collection, which was funded by the Medical Research Council Grant G0000934 and the Wellcome Trust Grant 068545/Z/02. A full list of the investigators who contributed to the generation of the data is available from http://www.wtccc.org.uk. The BCAC study would not have been possible without the contributions of the following: Manjeet K. Bolla, Qin Wang, Kyriaki Michailidou and Joe Dennis. BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A16563). For the BBCS study, we thank Eileen Williams, Elaine Ryder-Mills, Kara Sargus. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the National Institute of Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre (BRC) and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). We thank the participants and the investigators of EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition). The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucía, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom). We thank the SEARCH and EPIC teams, which were funded by a programme grant from Cancer Research UK (C490/A10124) and supported by the UK NIHR BRC at the University of Cambridge. We thank Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) for support and funding of the UKBGS, and the study participants, study staff, and the doctors, nurses and other health-care providers and health information sources who have contributed to the study. Genotyping of the PRACTICAL consortium OncoArray was funded by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) [U19 CA 148537 for ELucidating Loci Involved in Prostate cancer SuscEptibility (ELLIPSE) project and X01HG007492 to the Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR) under contract number HHSN268201200008I]. Additional analytic support was provided by NIH NCI U01 CA188392 (PI: Schumacher). The PRACTICAL consortium was supported by Cancer Research UK Grants C5047/A7357, C1287/A10118, C1287/A16563, C5047/A3354, C5047/A10692, C16913/A6135, European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme grant agreement n° 223175 (HEALTH-F2–2009–223175), and The National Institute of Health (NIH) Cancer Post-Cancer GWAS initiative grant: No. 1 U19 CA 148537–01 (the GAME-ON initiative). We would also like to thank the following for funding support: The Institute of Cancer Research and The Everyman Campaign, The Prostate Cancer Research Foundation, Prostate Research Campaign UK (now Prostate Action), The Orchid Cancer Appeal, The National Cancer Research Network UK, The National Cancer Research Institute (NCRI) UK. We are grateful for support of NIHR funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, the Spanish Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII) an initiative of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Innovation (Spain), and the Xunta de Galicia (Spain).

La presente tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo estudiar las formas que adquiere la experiencia de clase de las asambleas que en la provincia de La Rioja se pronunciaron públicamente en contra de la megaminería metalífera en la última década. La construcción de este objeto de estudio es resultado de la vinculación entre una particular posición teórica y analítica sobre la clase y su formación, por un lado; y la observación de las particulares condiciones de emergencia y lucha política de las asambleas ambientales en La Rioja, por el otro. En Argentina, los análisis de luchas por cuestiones ambientales ofrecen fuerte evidencia respecto de dos cuestiones que hacen pertinente un abordaje clasista alrededor de los procesos de constitución de sujetos: las siempre renovadas formas de dominación capitalista que estas luchas denuncian; y, las prácticas o propuestas de proyectos alternativos que sugieren o realizan de manera más o menos sistemática. A partir de dar cuenta de este conjunto de antecedentes, este trabajo sostiene teóricamente el carácter procesual, relacional y dinámico de la formación política de la clase: la clase remite a la forma subjetiva a partir de la cual los sujetos se reconocen y actúan en el marco de un conjunto de enfrentamientos antagónicos que tienen con otros sujetos por establecer, reorganizar o alterar sus condiciones sociales de existencia. A nivel analítico, es la categoría thompsoniana de experiencia la que nos permite desagregar una serie de dimensiones que guían el análisis sistemático y comparativo: 1) una situación de clase (el conjunto de relaciones y posiciones sociales que, para los sujetos, se presentan definiendo sus condiciones de vida); 2) unos intereses que los convocan y oponen a otros, con cierta intensidad y escala; 3) unas determinadas estrategias de acción política, que son respuesta a las estrategias de sus adversarios; 4) y, por último, unas formas de solidaridad, desde y hacia otros sujetos en lucha. El proceso de constitución de clase de un colectivo en lucha se dirime en la particular combinación y disposición histórica de todos estos aspectos que involucran en su experiencia de clase. La principal hipótesis orientativa con la que se encaró este estudio sostuvo la posibilidad de identificar una específica experiencia de clase de las asambleas riojanas. Asimismo, presumimos que, a lo largo de 10 años, esa experiencia de clase no constituiría un proceso lineal y permanente en el tiempo, sino que se producirían desplazamientos o modulaciones. Estos supuestos explican que los materiales y las técnicas de producción y de análisis de datos se correspondan con un diseño metodológico cualitativo de la investigación. Por un lado, este trabajo constituyó un corpus de 117 comunicados públicos escritos por las asambleas riojanas, entre los años 2006 y 2016. A ello se le suman 34 entrevistas en profundidad realizadas a integrantes de estas asambleas entre los años 2010 y 2016. Por otro lado, a efectos de reconstituir los contextos de lucha a lo largo de 10 años, recurrimos al análisis de datos secundarios: notas periodísticas, documentos legales (leyes, políticas, resoluciones ministeriales) y resultados de otras investigaciones. El análisis cualitativo de estos materiales incluye una combinación entre técnicas de análisis de contenido - apoyadas en el uso de herramientas informáticas- y técnicas propias del análisis del discurso - especialmente basadas en las marcas de la enunciación. El principal resultado del análisis expone una experiencia de clase en las asambleas riojanas que, al menos en el periodo estudiado, no se expresa en una auto-identificación explícita como clase. Ello, no obstante, no es un obstáculo para corroborar, a través del discurso, una particular experiencia de clase que observa tres modulaciones diferentes; éstas se corresponden con tres maneras de elaborar las cuatro dimensiones analíticas que definimos como parte de la experiencia de clase. Analizar la situación de clase, los intereses de lucha, las estrategias de acción y las formas de solidaridad, nos permitió abrir un importante abanico de respuestas sobre cómo entran en conflicto las asambleas riojanas, cómo se organizan y cómo se auto-definen en tanto sujetos políticos en lucha; cómo plantean, resuelven o re-organizan las relaciones de antagonismos que sostienen y protagonizan.En su correspondencia y relación, estas modulaciones constituyen tres "momentos" o "instantes" de la experiencia de clase de las asambleas riojanas que, en su particular (dis)continuidad, crean una temporalidad propia. Acceder a esa temporalidad (dis)continua requiere, más bien, unir esos "instantes" o "instantes" excepcionales en los que emerge la experiencia de clase de las asambleas riojanas, inaugurando un modo único de constitución clasista en y por relaciones históricas y cambiantes de lucha. Por último, la relación entre tales "momentos" de la experiencia de clase es una relación de ruptura que abre nuevos cauces a la politización de la experiencia de lucha y a sus planos de acción política. Estos momentos no pueden ser simplemente superpuestos entre sí para un objetivo comparativo; no representan "adiciones" o "reacomodamientos" de aspectos o sentidos" como si fueran, por ejemplo, cubos de igual tamaño que solo presentan variaciones en sus componentes internos, o cubos de distintos tamaños que pueden introducirse uno adentro de otro. Más bien, el "paso" de un "momento" de la experiencia de clase a otro se comprende mejor como una "catarsis" que supone la liberación o eliminación de las antiguas conexiones, y una reformulación cualitativamente diferente. ; The objective of this doctoral thesis is to study the forms acquired by the class experience of the assemblies that have spoken publicly against the metalliferous mega mining in the last decade in the province of La Rioja. The construction of this object of study is the result of the link between a particular theoretical and analytical position about the class and its formation, on the one hand; and the observation of the particular conditions of emergence and political struggle of the environmental assemblies in La Rioja, on the other.In Argentina, analyzes of struggles for environmental issues offer strong evidence regarding two issues that make a class approach relevant to the processes of constituting subjects: the always renewed forms of capitalist domination that these struggles denounce; and, the practices or proposals of alternative projects that suggest or perform more or less systematically. Based on this set of antecedents, this work theoretically supports the procedural, relational and dynamic character of the political formation of the class: the class refers to the subjective form from which the subjects recognize themselves and act in the frame of a set of antagonistic confrontations that have with other subjects for having established, reorganized or altered their social conditions of existence.At the analytical level, it is the Thompsonian category of experience that allows us to disaggregate a series of dimensions that guide the systematic and comparative analysis: 1) a class situation (the set of relationships and social positions that, for the subjects, are presented defining their living conditions); 2) some interests that summon them and oppose others, with a certain intensity and scale; 3) certain strategies of political action, which are a response to the strategies of their adversaries; 4) and, finally, some forms of solidarity, from and towards other subjects in struggle. The process of class formation of a collective in struggle is resolved in the particular combination and historical disposition of all these aspects that involve their class experience.The main guiding hypothesis with which this study was conducted supported the possibility of identifying a specific class experience of the Riojan assemblies. Furthermore, we presume that, during 10 years, that class experience would not constitute a linear and permanent process over time, but would produce displacements or modulations. These assumptions explain that the materials and techniques of production and data analysis correspond to a qualitative methodological design of the research. On the one hand, this work constituted a corpus of 117 public communiqués written by the Riojan assemblies, between 2006 and 2016. To this is added 34 in-depth interviews with members of these assemblies between 2010 and 2016. On the other side, inorder to reconstitute the contexts of struggle over 10 years, we resort to the analysis of secondary data: journalistic notes, legal documents (laws, policies, ministerial resolutions) and results of other investigations. The qualitative analysis of thesematerials includes a combination of content analysis techniques -supported by the use of computer tools-and techniques of discourse analysis -especially based on the marks of enunciation. The main result of the analysis exposes a class experience in Riojan assemblies that, at least in the period studied, is not expressed in an explicit self-identification as a class. This, however, is not an obstacle to corroborate, through discourse, a particular class experience that observes three different modulations; these correspond to three ways of elaborating the four analytical dimensions that we define as part of the class experience. Analyzing the class situation, the interests of struggle, the strategies of action and the forms of solidarity, allowed us to open an important range of answers about how the Riojan assemblies come into conflict, how they are organized and how they define themselves being political subjects in struggle; how they pose, solve or re-organize the relationships of antagonisms that sustain and lead.In their correspondence and relationship, these modulations constitute three "moments" or "instants" of the class experience of the Riojan assemblies that, in their particular (dis)continuity, create a temporality of their own. Accessing that (dis)continuous temporality requires, uniting those "instants" or exceptional "instants" in which the class experience of the Riojan assemblies emerges, inaugurating a unique mode of class constitution in and because of historical and changing relationshipsof struggle. Finally, the relationship between such "moments" of the class experience is a relationship of rupture that opens new channels to the politicization of the experience of struggle and its planes of political action. These moments can not simplybe superimposed on each other for a comparative purpose; they do not represent "additions" or "rearrangements" of aspects or meanings -as if they were, for example, cubes of equal size that only show variations in their internal components, or cubes of different sizes that can be introduced inside each other. Rather, the "passage" from one "moment" of class experience to another is better understood as a "catharsis" that involves the liberation or elimination of the old connections, and a qualitatively different reformulation. ; Fil: de la Vega Avila Tulian, Candela. Universidad Católica de Córdoba. Área de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba; Argentina

In Germany, secondary school students differ greatly in their science achievement, a dispersion that is far above the OECD average (Schiepe-Tiska, Rönnebeck, & Neumann, 2019). Immigrant students tend to be at the lower end of the scale in Germany – on average, they achieve substantially less well in science than non-immigrant students (OECD, 2016d), which is partially due to the German school system (Zoido, 2013). These differences in achievement translate into underrepresentation of immigrants in science-related jobs in Germany (OECD, 2008). Achievement and career choices are closely intertwined with academic self-concept (for an overview see Marsh & Craven, 2006). Regarding science self-concept, the pattern that immigrant students tend to score lower is present in many countries (e.g. Riegle-Crumb, Moore, & Ramos-Wada, 2011). The goal of the present research project was to investigate these inequalities between immigrant and non-immigrant secondary school students. This was done focusing on secondary school students' chemistry self-concepts. Chemistry self-concepts were focused on because achievement in chemistry is an important factor for careers in natural sciences (Cohen & Kelly, 2019). Research on chemistry self-concept has concentrated on young adults (e.g. Bauer, 2005; Xu & Lewis, 2011) and so little is known about secondary school students. Besides the impact of students' migration background, the research project analyses the role that gender plays because gender has important effects on science self-concepts (e.g. Jurik, Gröschner, & Seidel, 2013; Riegle-Crumb et al., 2011; Wan & Lee, 2017). A big challenge in this context was that the prevailing methods in academic self-concept research are prone to yield biased data (Byrne, 2002; Byrne et al., 2009). Although this was pointed out more than 15 years ago, the problem persists in science self-concept research. The present research project addresses this issue and presents a new mixed methods approach to culture-sensitive academic self-concept research. The term 'culture' is used in the sense of migration background, a concept that categorizes people's migration histories in Germany. A combination of qualitative interview data and quantitative data permit an investigation of certain types of bias defined by Byrne and colleagues (2009). The pilot study operated with a chemistry self-concept questionnaire (N=116) and qualitative interviews (N=43). The main study was based on an extended questionnaire comprising several other scales (N=585) and deeper qualitative interviews (N=48). The hypotheses based on the literature were that in Germany, (h1) immigrant students would show more negative chemistry self-concepts than non-immigrant students. (h2) Female students would show more negative chemistry self-concepts than male students. The third hypothesis (h3) was that the home environment has an important impact on students' chemistry self-concepts. The first two hypotheses (h1 and h2) were not confirmed. Gender and migration background did not show a significant effect on students' chemistry self-concepts. Instead, gender relations differ depending on the students' migration background. Among students without a migration background, boys tend to have stronger chemistry self-concepts than girls. In contrast, among students with a Turkish migration background, girls tend to have stronger chemistry self-concepts. Existing science self-concept literature did not explain this. Literature on gender relations in science in Turkey suggests that this interaction effect could be due to a more gender-neutral conception of science in Turkey. Slightly more women than men work in science in Turkey (OECD, 2009a) and girls achieve substantially better (Batyra, 2017a, 2017b). According to the third hypothesis (h3), the gender conceptions in Turkey could potentially be transmitted to students with a Turkish migration background in the home environment, through their parents or other people. Science education literature did not provide a satisfying model for conceptualizing the influence of the home environment on students in the field of chemistry that would allow investigating the third hypothesis (h3). Therefore, the concept of chemistry capital was introduced based on the analysis of the interviews in the main study. Chemistry capital was developed based on the concept of science capital by Archer and colleagues (2015). Chemistry capital conceptualizes the resources a person possesses that have value in the field of chemistry. This encompasses social networks (e.g. knowing a chemist) as well as emotional and cognitive resources (e.g. attitudes towards chemistry and chemistry knowledge), and the engagement in chemistry-related activities. In particular, the concept allows analyzing the transmission processes of chemistry from the home environment to the individual student. The qualitative analyses in the main study showed that the chemistry capital home environment influences the students in the field of chemistry in multiple ways. This supports hypothesis 3 (h3). Further, the data suggest that structural inequalities in the German school system might foster differences in chemistry. Students who already possess little chemistry capital in their home environments are in addition found more often at the type of school (Hauptschule) in which the proportion of chemistry teachers who do not hold a university degree in chemistry is the highest, depriving these students of another possible source of chemistry capital. Vice versa, students who already possess a lot of chemistry capital in their home environments more often attend school types (Gymnasium, Realschule) where also more formally qualified chemistry teachers are available, thus potentially widening the gap. The mixed methods analysis in the main study suggested that a simple linear relationship between student chemistry self-concept and chemistry capital in the home environment does not exist. A study based on quantitative (or mixed methods) analyses of data of a larger sample on chemistry capital in the home environment and students' chemistry self-concepts could provide further insights. It is not yet clear if the third hypothesis (h3) is true. To sum up, the present research project thus advances the field of chemistry education in three regards: (i) it provides an approach to culture-sensitive academic self-concept. This approach proved to increase both the validity and the explanatory power of chemistry self-concept research. It is not chemistry-specific and can, thus, be used in other areas of research as well. (ii) The research discovered an interaction effect of gender and migration background on chemistry self-concept that was unknown in science education literature. (iii) It introduces and defines the concept of chemistry capital which permits to analyze chemistry education from a sociocultural perspective. Employing the concept of chemistry capital helps to shift the focus from the individual student to the resources a student possesses in the sociocultural context that help him or her succeed in the field of chemistry. This allows uncovering social inequalities in the field that need to be addressed in educational policy. Moreover, it can inspire intervention studies and application-focused research (e.g. approaches to culture-sensitive chemistry teaching). ; Schülerinnen und Schüler in Deutschland unterscheiden sich immens in ihren Leistungen in den Naturwissenschaften, eine deutlich breitere Streuung als im OECD-Mittel (Schiepe-Tiska et al., 2019). Schülerinnen und Schüler mit Migrationshintergrund befinden sich in Deutschland tendenziell am unteren Ende der Leistungsskala – im Durchschnitt zeigen sie erheblich schlechtere Leistungen in den Naturwissenschaften als Schülerinnen und Schüler ohne Migrationshintergrund (OECD, 2016d). Dies scheint zu einem Teil dem deutschen Schulsystem geschuldet (Zoido, 2013). Diese Leistungsunterschiede in den Naturwissenschaften schlagen sich auf dem Arbeitsmarkt nieder: In Deutschland sind Personen mit Migrationshintergrund in naturwissenschaftsnahen Berufen unterrepräsentiert (OECD, 2008). Leistungen und Berufswahl sind eng mit akademischen Selbstkonzepten verwoben (for an overview see Marsh & Craven, 2006). Und auch hier zeigt sich, dass Schülerinnen und Schüler mit Migrationshintergrund in vielen Ländern schwächere naturwissenschaftliche Selbstkonzepte haben (e.g. Riegle-Crumb et al., 2011). Ziel des vorliegenden Forschungsprojekts war es, diese Ungleichheiten zwischen Schülerinnen und Schülern der Sekundarstufe zu untersuchen. Hierzu wurden ihre Selbstkonzepte analysiert, mit besonderem Fokus auf den Aspekt des Migrationshintergrunds. Genauer gesagt wurden Chemie-Selbstkonzepte untersucht, da Leistungen in diesem Fach eine Gatekeeper-Funktion für naturwissenschaftliche Karrieren besitzen (Cohen & Kelly, 2019). Die Forschung über Chemie-Selbstkonzepte hat sich in der Vergangenheit auf junge Erwachsene beschränkt (e.g. Bauer, 2005; Xu & Lewis, 2011), weshalb wenig über die Chemie-Selbstkonzepte von Schülerinnen und Schülern der Sekundarstufe bekannt ist. Neben dem Migrationshintergrund wird auch Gender als Variable betrachtet, da Gender bedeutenden Einfluss auf naturwissenschaftliche Selbstkonzepte ausübt (e.g. Jurik et al., 2013; Riegle-Crumb et al., 2011; Wan & Lee, 2017). In diesem Kontext stellte sich die große Herausforderung, dass die vorherrschenden Methoden in der Forschung zu akademischen Selbstkonzepte möglicherweise verzerrte Daten liefern (Byrne, 2002; Byrne et al., 2009). Obwohl diese Problematik schon vor über 15 Jahren thematisiert wurde, besteht es in der naturwissenschaftlichen Selbstkonzeptforschung bis heute fort. Das vorliegende Forschungsprojekt befasst sich mit diesem Problem und legt einen neuen Forschungsansatz für kultursensible akademische Selbstkonzeptforschung im Mixed-Methods-Design vor. Der Begriff der 'Kultur' wird hier im Sinne des Migrationshintergrunds genutzt, ein Konzept, mit dem sich die Migrationsgeschichten der Menschen in Deutschland kategorisieren lassen. Die Kombination aus qualitativen Interviewdaten und quantitativen Daten ermöglicht es, einige der Arten von Verzerrungen zu detektieren, die von Byrne und Kollegen (2009) definiert wurden. In der Pilotstudie wurden Daten mittels eines Fragebogens zum Chemie-Selbstkonzept (N=116) sowie qualitativer Interviews erhoben (N=43). Die Hauptstudie basiert auf Fragebogen (N=585), der einige weitere Skalen umfasst, sowie qualitativen Interviews (N=48). Aus der Literatur wurden folgende Hypothesen abgeleitet: (h1) Schülerinnen und Schüler mit Migrationshintergrund zeigen vermutlich schwächere Chemie-Selbstkonzepte als solche ohne Migrationshintergrund. (h2) Weibliche Schülerinnen zeigen vermutlich schwächere Chemie-Selbstkonzepte als männliche Schüler. (h3) Das häusliche Umfeld übt vermutlich einen bedeutenden Einfluss auf die Chemie-Selbstkonzepte der Schülerinnen und Schüler aus. Die ersten beiden Hypothesen (h1 und h2) bestätigten sich nicht. Gender und Migrationshintergrund zeigten keine signifikanten Effekte auf die Chemie-Selbstkonzepte der Schülerinnen und Schüler. Stattdessen zeigte sich, dass die Geschlechterverhältnisse von den Migrationshintergründen der Schülerinnen und Schüler abhängen. Bei den Schülerinnen und Schülern ohne Migrationshintergrund haben Jungen tendenziell stärkere Chemie-Selbstkonzepte als Mädchen. Im Gegensatz hierzu zeigen bei den Schülerinnen und Schülern mit türkischem Migrationshintergrund die Mädchen tendenziell stärkere Chemie-Selbstkonzepte als die Jungen. Die bestehende Forschung zu naturwissenschaftlichen Selbstkonzepten vermochte diese Befunde nicht zu erklären. Literatur über die Geschlechterverhältnisse in den Naturwissenschaften in der Türkei legt die Vermutung nahe, dass dieser Interaktionseffekt auf einem stärker genderneutralen Konzept der Naturwissenschaften in der Türkei beruhen könnte. In der Türkei arbeiten etwas mehr Frauen als Männer in naturwissenschaftlichen Berufen (OECD, 2009a) und Mädchen zeigen deutlich bessere Leistungen in Naturwissenschaften (Batyra, 2017a, 2017b). Nach der dritten Hypothese (h3) könnten diese Gender-Konzepte möglicherweise durch das häusliche Umfeld, also durch Eltern oder andere wichtige Bezugspersonen an die Schülerinnen und Schüler mit türkischem Migrationshintergrund weitergetragen werden. Die naturwissenschaftsdidaktische Literatur hielt kein zufriedenstellendes Modell bereit zur Konzeptualisierung des Einflusses des häuslichen Umfelds auf die Schülerinnen und Schüler im Feld der Chemie und somit zur Untersuchung der dritten Hypothese (h3). Aus diesem Grund wurde im vorliegenden Forschungsprojekt das Konzept des chemistry capital entwickelt und in die Forschungsliteratur eingeführt. Chemistry capital basiert auf der Forschung zu science capital nach Archer und Kollegen (2015). Chemistry capital konzeptualisiert die Ressourcen einer Person, die im Feld der Chemie Wert haben. Dies umfasst soziale Netzwerke (z. B. Kontakt zu einer Chemikerin/einem Chemiker), emotionale und kognitive Ressourcen (z. B. Chemie-Wissen und Einstellung gegenüber Chemie) sowie chemiebezogene Aktivitäten. Die qualitativen Analysen zeigten, dass das chemistry capital im häuslichen Umfeld die Schülerinnen und Schüler im Feld der Chemie auf vielfältige Weise beeinflusst. Dies unterstützt Hypothese 3 (h3). Weiterhin legen die Daten die Vermutung nahe, dass strukturelle Ungleichheiten im deutschen Schulsystem die Unterschiede in Chemie verstärken. Schülerinnen und Schüler mit wenig chemistry capital in ihrem häuslichen Umfeld besuchen tendenziell Schulen, in denen der Anteil an fachfremden Chemielehrkräften besonders hoch ist. Hierdurch wird diesen Schülerinnen und Schülern eine wichtige Quelle von chemistry capital vorenthalten. Im Gegensatz hierzu scheinen die Schülerinnen und Schüler, die bereits in ihrem häuslichen Umfeld über chemistry capital verfügen, tendenziell Schulen zu besuchen, in denen Chemie fast ausschließlich durch Fachlehrkräfte unterrichtet wird. Die Mixed-Methods-Analyse in der Hauptstudie legte die Vermutung nahe, dass zwischen Chemie-Selbstkonzept der Schülerinnen und Schüler und chemistry capital im häuslichen Umfeld kein linearer Zusammenhang besteht. Eine Studie mit größerem Stichprobenumfang basierend auf quantitativen (oder Mixed-Methods-) Analysen von chemistry capital im häuslichen Umfeld und Chemie-Selbstkonzept könnte tiefere Einblicke bieten. Es ist derzeit noch unklar, ob die dritte Hypothese (h3) wahr ist. Das vorliegende Forschungsprojekt treibt die chemie- und naturwissenschafts-didaktische Forschung also in dreifacher Hinsicht voran: (i) Es legt einen Ansatz für kultursensible Erforschung akademischer Selbstkonzepte vor. Dieser Ansatz verbesserte sowohl die Validität als auch die Erklärungskraft der Chemie-Selbstkonzeptforschung. Er ist nicht chemiespezifisch und kann daher in anderen Bereichen der Selbstkonzeptforschung genutzt werden. (ii) Ein Interaktionseffekt von Gender und Migrationshintergrund wurde entdeckt, der in der Literatur zuvor noch nicht beschrieben wurde. (iii) Das Konzept des chemistry capital wurde definiert und in die Literatur eingeführt. Es ermöglicht Analysen des Chemielernens aus einer soziokulturellen Perspektive. Der Fokus verschiebt sich von den individuellen Schülerinnen und Schülern hin zu den Ressourcen, über die eine Schülerin oder ein Schüler in seinem oder ihrem sozikulturellen Kontext verfügt und die sie oder ihn im Feld der Chemie unterstützen. Dies erlaubt es, soziale Ungleichheiten in dem Feld aufzudecken, mit denen sich die Bildungspolitik befassen muss. Weiterhin birgt chemistry capital das Potential, Interventionsstudien und anwendungsorientierte Forschung (z. B. Ansätze zu kultursensiblem Chemieunterricht) zu inspirieren.

The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) was concluded among the countries of Southeastern Europe with the aim to promote further trade integration. The agreement states the objective to 'expand trade in goods and services and foster investment by means of fair, clear, stable and predictable rules.' While recent literature on trade in the CEFTA region has focused on analyzing trade in goods, the purpose of the paper is to identify the remaining barriers to trade in services among the CEFTA countries. The paper presents: (i) the economic and trade importance of the service sector in CE

This paper surveys empirically the broad features of trade policy in goods for 31 major economies that collectively represented 83 percent of the world's population and 91 percent of the world's GDP in 2013. It addresses the following five questions: Do some countries have more liberal trading regimes than others? Within countries, which industries receive the most import protection? How do trade policies change over time? Do countries discriminate among their trading partners when setting trade policy? Finally, how liberalized is world trade? The analysis documents the extent of cross-sectional heterogeneity in applied commercial policy across countries, their economic sectors, and their trading partners, over time. It concludes that substantial trade policy barriers remain as an important feature of the world economy.

An Analysis of Six Case Studies in Developing and High-Income Countries ; This paper focuses on core aspects of the political economy of reform, drawing on case studies of three economies transitioning to stronger business environments (Hungary, the Republic of Korea, and Mexico) and three countries with well-developed business environments (Australia, Italy, and the United Kingdom). The purpose is threefold: first, to identify so-called drivers of reform among successfully reforming countries; second, to explore how a reform strategy can make optimal use of the opportunities provided by the drivers of change; and third; to suggest how these lessons can be proactively used by other reformers to design and guide reforms. The case study findings suggest that, regardless of the content of reform, success is influenced by an evolving mix of seven drivers of change: i) globalization or competitiveness; ii) crisis; iii) political leadership; iv) unfolding reform synergies; v) technocrats; vi) changes in civil society, and vii) external pressure. The case studies suggest that reformers can influence the direction and pace of change by mobilizing and exploiting drivers of it. Rather than a cause-and-effect scenario in which a single driver-such as a crisis-creates and defines the success of a body of reforms, what happens is an unfolding series of events in which various drivers become more and less important in defining phases of the reform process.

Brazil grew 2.4 percent per year on average in the last 25 years-somewhat less than Latin America, a good deal less than the world, far less than the emerging countries of Asia in the same period, and indeed far less than Brazil itself in previous decades. If anything stands out favorably in recent Brazilian experience, it is not growth but stabilization and the successful opening of the economy. The purpose of this paper is more modest. It is limited to setting out the authors' particular view of recent efforts to consolidate democracy in Brazil while controlling inflation and resuming economic growth. At the same time the paper presents, as objectively as possible, some thoughts on the limits but also the relevance of action by political leaders to set a course and circumvent obstacles to that process. Here and there, the paper refers to the experiences of other Latin American countries, especially Argentina, Chile, and Mexico, not to offer a full fledged comparative analysis but merely to note contrasts and similarities that may shed light on the peculiarities of the Brazilian case and suggest themes for a more wide-ranging exchange of views.

Aquest número comença amb l´article de Mireia Alcón i José Luis Menéndez sobre el paradigma de l´avaluació autèntica i la contribució específica de les rúbriques al disseny i implantació de sistemes d´avaluació coherents amb el paradigma esmentat. La literatura especialitzada ha insistit en la vinculació de l´avaluació autèntica amb la idea d´una avaluació posada al servei de l´aprenentatge. Així ho demostra l´èmfasi en que l´avaluació se centri en l´acompliment dels estudiants respecte de problemes rellevants en entorns socials i professionals. També, l´èmfasi en que l´avaluació estigui alineat amb els altres components del context educatiu donat que, sense aquesta coherència, és impossible aconseguir els aprenentatges que suposa una educació basada en competències. Tanmateix, hom ha insistit menys en el potencial que té l´avaluació autèntica per reorganitzar l´activitat docent del professorat i per a la millora dels currículums. Aquest model requereix una reflexió compartida del professorat sobre l´àmbit professional i la pròpia cultura acadèmica de la disciplina, sobre el perfil del titulat, sobre els objectius d´aprenentatge i llur integració coherent en el pla d´estudis, i sobre els entorns didàctics més adequats per tal que l´estudiant assoleixi els resultats previstos. Perquè només des d´aquesta perspectiva pot implantar-se una avaluació autèntica. En l´article, els autors insisteixen en una idea similar en relació amb les rúbriques. A banda d´ésser instruments d´avaluació, aquestes han d´ésser considerades també recursos educatius que permetin a l´estudiant enjudiciar i resoldre problemes importants del seu àmbit disciplinari en diàleg constant amb els seus companys i professors. Pel professorat, el disseny i la utilització de rúbriques són un motiu d´anàlisi i discussió concret, però activen simultàniament una consciència més profunda i una major responsabilitat sobre la seva pràctica professional. L´autenticitat segueix present en l´article d´Eva Gregori sobre la validesa d´un model de carpeta d´aprenentatge utilitzat en el grau de Belles Arts. La validesa no és una condició suficient per afirmar l´autenticitat d´un sistema d´avaluació, però sí que en constitueix una de les seves condicions necessàries. Un sistema d´avaluació pot ésser perfectament vàlid perquè les inferències que genera respecte els aprenentatges dels estudiants són adequades i útils per aconseguir aquests aprenentatges. No obstant, aquest sistema d´avaluació pot valorar resultats d´aprenentatge que no són rellevats en contextos socioprofessionals reals. De fet, la transferència i generalització dels judicis vàlids sobre l´aprenentatge dels estudiants depèn de la pertinença, importància, amplitud i profunditat dels citats aprenentatges, cosa que confereix interès a aquells judicis vàlids en contextos educatius més amplis. L´autora aborda l´assumpte des de la perspectiva contrària: d´acord amb la literatura especialitzada, reconeix l´autenticitat de la carpeta per ser un recurs en el que l´estudiant justifica i exemplifica el seu procés i resultats d´aprenentatge per, acte seguit, demostrar la validesa del model de carpeta emprat. L`anàlisi inclou un examen dels constructes en els quals es va organitzar la carpeta i de la seva consistència interna, per demostrar la coherència amb els objectius d´aprenentatge i la seva adequació al context educatiu. Un examen de la càrrega de treball dels estudiants en llur elaboració i de les qualificacions obtingudes li serveixen per justificar la seva adequació al perfil de l´estudiant de nou ingrés en la titulació analitzada. L´assumpte de l´avaluació autèntica està també implícit en l´article de María Isabel Arbesú i Leticia Reyes sobre l´eficàcia docent. Per bé que l´article se circumscriu a un estudi de la percepció que tenen estudiants de grau i postgrau de ciències i arts per al disseny, aquest estudi forma part d´una investigació més àmplia que involucra altres actors del sistema educatiu. Investigacions d´aquesta mena són encara més importants en l´actualitat, quan la literatura especialitzada ha plantejat seriosos dubtes sobre la validesa i fiabilitat de les enquestes habituals sobre la qualitat docent, i quan hom reafirma la tendència a descarregar exclusivament en les espatlles del professorat la responsabilitat d´uns resultats educatius insuficients. És significatiu que l´anàlisi no versi sobre l´eficiència del professor sinó sobre l´eficàcia; és a dir, l´adequació dels resultats de l´activitat del professorat al paper que han de jugar en la institució educativa, i que no és altre que el de generar oportunitats d´aprenentatge pels seus estudiants. En aquest sentit, és de particular interès que els propis estudiants identifiquin dimensions d´avaluació que no acostumen a recollir-se en els qüestionaris. De confirmar-se això, aquests resultats subratllarien un cop més el risc cert d´incórrer en insuficiències que posarien en entredit la validesa d´aquests instruments. D´aquesta manera, hom posa de manifest com els problemes de validesa menyscaben l´autenticitat del sistema avaluador. Els dos darrers articles provenen de l´àmbit de la Teoria de l´Art. El signat per Bibiana Crespo realitza un decurs històric del concepte de dibuix des de l´antiguitat greco-romana fins a les avantguardes històriques. No s´ha de cercar una anàlisi exhaustiva de les reflexions d´artistes i teòrics sobre el tema, cosa impossible en un article; l´autora es basa en una selecció de textos de diferents èpoques per a demostrar la presència d´un fil condcutor en la idea de dibuix com activitat intel•lectual i com aquesta idea va evolucionant en els diferents períodes de la història de l´art. Sobre aquesta base, s´afirma el valor específic del dibuix com a art, però també el seu paper rellevant com activitat artística i, en aquest sentit, la seva contribució a la resta de les arts plàstiques. En l´article s´observen les relacions canviants entre els diferents aspectes del dibuix segons hom consideri la seva relació amb la naturalesa; la seva relació amb les altres arts plàstiques; amb la pròpia activitat mental de l´artista i el seu correlat amb el procés d´ideació, d´una banda, i amb el d´execució de l´altra; amb el seu vincle amb diferents facultats mentals –sigui l´intel•lecte, la intuïció, la imaginació, l´enginy o el sentiment–; o amb la seva pròpia naturalesa lingüística que esdevé motiu central de reflexió en el tram final de la modernitat. L´article de Ricard Ramon adopta l´enfocament més sociològic dels estudis de cultura visual per examinar el paper desenvolupat per l´art i el discurs artístic en les estratègies de legitimació i en les campanyes publicitàries de les principals empreses i corporacions. L´autor presenta el cas de l´empresa de ceràmica Lladró per a plantejar l´existència de relacions entre la seva activitat industrial i comercial, el seu interès en el col•leccionisme d´obres d´art, la col•laboració amb reconeguts especialistes del camp de la història de l´art i la creació del propi museu Lladró. L´interès de l´article rau en que el seu objecte d´estudi està molt poc tractat en el camp de la Història de l´Art perquè, des d´una concepció tradicional de la disciplina, aquest objecte queda fora del seu àmbit. És innegable que una de les funcions que l´art ha exercit històricament és ser mitjà de representació i legitimació pública dels valors i grups de poder dominants. Tanmateix, en les societats democràtiques avançades, concorren aspectes nous que suposen un salt qualitatiu. La qüestió rau en el procés d´acceleració històrica, les conseqüències de la naturalesa tecnològica de la societat de la informació i comunicació, i la crisi d´altres metarelats que fan de contrapès als arguments exclusivament econòmics. Tot plegat explica la proliferació de les interferències entre els discursos i fenòmens artístics, aquells altres que es desenvolupen en el disseny i la publicitat, i els interessos comercials i financers del món dels negocis. Aquest fet dóna especial rellevància al debat sobre els límits i les juxtaposicions entre aquests discursos i interessos, sobre llurs diferències i finalitats respectives, i sobre les repercussions recíproques que tindran en cadascun d´aquests àmbits. ; This issue begins with an article by Mireia Alcón and Jose Luis Menendez on the paradigm of authentic assessment and the specific contribution of rubrics to the design and implementation of assessment systems within this paradigm. The specialist literature strongly advocates the linking of authentic assessment with the idea of assessment at the service of learning. For example, it emphasizes the fact that assessment should focus on students' performance with respect to relevant problems in social and professional settings, and also that assessment should be closely aligned with the other components of the educational context because otherwise it is impossible to achieve the learning that a competency-based education requires. However, less attention has been paid to the potential of authentic assessment to reorganize teaching activities and improve curricula. A model of this requires a shared reflection of teachers on their professional environment and the academic culture of the discipline, on the graduate profile, on learning objectives and their integration into the curriculum, and on the learning environments that can help students to obtain the desired results. Only from this perspective can an authentic assessment be put in place. In the article, the authors put forward a similar idea in relation to rubrics. Besides being assessment tools, rubrics should be considered as educational resources that allow students to tackle important problems in their discipline, in constant dialogue with peers and teachers. For teachers, the design and use of rubrics is a source of analysis and discussion, but simultaneously activates a deeper awareness and a greater collective responsibility for their professional practice. The question of authenticity is also present in the article by Eva Gregori on the validity of a learning portfolio model used in the degree of Fine Arts. Validity is not a sufficient condition to affirm the authenticity of an assessment system, but it is a necessary component. An assessment system can be perfectly valid because the inferences it generates regarding students' learning are appropriate and useful for this learning; however, it may evaluate learning outcomes that are not relevant to real socioprofessional contexts. The transfer and generalization of valid judgments on students' learning depends on the relevance, breadth and depth of this learning. The author addresses the issue from the opposite perspective: in accordance with the specialist literature, she recognizes the authenticity of the portfolio as a resource in which students justify and exemplify the learning process and results, and then demonstrates the validity of the portfolio model used. The analysis includes an examination of the constructs in which the portfolio was organized and its internal consistency in order to demonstrate its suitability with regard to the learning objectives and its relevance in the educational context. On the basis of a review of students' workload in the preparation of the portfolio and of the test scores obtained, the author concludes that the portfolio is a highly useful instrument for students in the first years of the Fine Arts degree. The issue of authentic assessment is also implicit in the article by Maria Isabel Arbesú and Leticia Reyes on teacher effectiveness. Although the article is limited to a study of the perceptions of science and fine arts undergraduates and graduates, the study is part of a wider investigation involving other actors in the education system. Investigations of this type are particularly important today, at a time when the specialist literature has raised serious questions about the validity and reliability of the surveys currently used to assess teaching quality, and when there is a tendency to lay all the responsibility for poor educational outcomes at the door of the teachers. Significantly, the analysis does not focus on teachers' efficiency but on their effectiveness; that is, the relevance of the results of their activity to the role they should play in the school, that is, to generate learning opportunities for their students. In this context, it is particularly important that the students themselves identify dimensions of assessment which are not usually included in questionnaires. If confirmed, these results underline once again the risk of certain deficiencies that call into question the validity of these instruments. Thus, it becomes clear how problems of validity undermine the authenticity of the assessment system. The last two articles are from the field of art theory. The piece by Bibiana Crespo takes a historical view of the concept of drawing, from the Graeco-Roman world until the early-20th-century avant-garde movement. An exhaustive analysis of the reflections of artists and theorists on the subject would be beyond the scope of the article; the author bases her contribution on a selection of texts from different periods to demonstrate the presence of an underlying thread in the idea of drawing as an intellectual activity and to trace the evolution of this in different periods of art history. On this basis, she affirms the specific value of drawing as art, but also stresses its important role as an artistic activity and, in this respect, its contribution to the rest of the Fine Arts. The article reflects the changing relationships between different aspects of drawing according to a consideration of their relationship with nature; its relationship with the other arts; its relationship with the artist's mental activity and its correlation with the process of ideation on the one hand and with the process of execution on the other; its link with various mental faculties such as the intellect, intuition, imagination, ingenuity or feeling; and with its own linguistic nature which becomes the central cause for reflection in the final stage of modernity. Ricard Ramon article adopts a more sociological approach to the studies of visual culture to examine the role of art and artistic discourse in the strategies of legitimation and advertising campaigns of major companies and corporations. The author presents the case of Lladró, the ceramics company, to exemplify the existence of relations between its industrial and commercial activities, its interest in collecting works of art and in collaborating with renowned experts in the field of art history, and the creation of the Lladró museum. The article is important because its subject lies outside the scope of the traditional conception of art history and has been largely neglected inside the discipline. It is undeniable that one of art's historical functions has been as a means of representation and public legitimation of the dominant values and power groups inside a community. However, in advanced democratic societies, new aspects come together that represent a qualitative leap forward. The key lies in the process of historical acceleration, the consequences of the technological nature of the information and communication society, and the crisis of other metanarratives that act as a counterweight to the purely economic arguments. All this explains the proliferation of interferences between artistic discourses and phenomena, other discourses that are at work in design and advertising, and the commercial and financial interests of the business world. This confers special relevance on the debate about the limits and juxtapositions between these discourses and interests, their differences and their respective aims, and on the reciprocal repercussions that they have in each of these areas. ; Este número comienza con el artículo de Mireia Alcón y José Luis Menéndez sobre el paradigma de la evaluación auténtica y la contribución específica de las rúbricas al diseño e implantación de sistemas de evaluación coherentes con dicho paradigma. La literatura especializada ha insistido en la vinculación de la evaluación auténtica con la idea de una evaluación puesta al servicio del aprendizaje. Así lo demuestra el énfasis en que la evaluación se centre en el desempeño de los estudiantes respecto de problemas relevantes en entornos sociales y profesionales. También, el énfasis en que la evaluación esté alineada con los otros componentes del contexto educativo puesto que, sin esta coherencia, es imposible alcanzar los aprendizajes que supone una educación basada en competencias. Sin embargo, se ha insistido menos en el potencial que tiene la evaluación auténtica para reorganizar la actividad docente del profesorado y para la mejora de los currículos. Dicho modelo requiere una reflexión compartida del profesorado sobre el ámbito profesional y la propia cultura académica de la disciplina, sobre el perfil del egresado, sobre los objetivos de aprendizaje y su integración coherente en el plan de estudios, y sobre los entornos didácticos más adecuados para que el estudiante alcance los resultados previstos. Porque solo desde esta perspectiva puede implantarse una evaluación auténtica. En el artículo, los autores insisten en una idea similar en relación con las rúbricas. Además de ser instrumentos de evaluación, estas deben ser consideradas también recursos educativos que permitan al estudiante enjuiciar y resolver problemas importantes de su ámbito disciplinario en diálogo constante con sus compañeros y profesores. Para el profesorado, el diseño y la utilización de rúbricas son un motivo de análisis y discusión concreto, pero activan simultáneamente una conciencia más profunda y una mayor responsabilidad colectiva sobre su práctica profesional. La autenticidad sigue presente en el artículo de Eva Gregori sobre la validez de un modelo de carpeta de aprendizaje utilizado en el grado de Bellas Artes. La validez no es una condición suficiente para afirmar la autenticidad de un sistema de evaluación, pero sí que constituye una de sus condiciones necesarias. Un sistema de evaluación puede ser perfectamente válido porque las inferencias que genera respecto de los aprendizajes de los estudiantes son adecuadas y útiles para conseguir tales aprendizajes. Sin embargo, ese sistema de evaluación puede valorar resultados de aprendizaje que no son relevantes en contextos socioprofesionales reales. De hecho, la transferencia y generalización de los juicios válidos sobre el aprendizaje de los estudiantes depende de la pertinencia, importancia, amplitud y profundidad de tales aprendizajes, lo que confiere interés a aquellos juicios válidos en contextos educativos más amplios. La autora aborda el asunto desde la perspectiva contraria: de acuerdo con la literatura especializada, reconoce la autenticidad de la carpeta por ser un recurso en el que estudiante justifica y ejemplifica su proceso y resultados de aprendizaje para, a continuación, demostrar la validez del modelo de carpeta empleado. El análisis incluye un examen de los constructos en que se organizó la carpeta y de su consistencia interna, para demostrar su coherencia con los objetivos de aprendizaje y su adecuación al contexto educativo. Un examen de la carga de trabajo de los estudiantes en su elaboración y de las calificaciones obtenidas le sirven para justificar su adecuación al perfil del estudiante de reciente ingreso en la titulación analizada. El asunto de la evaluación auténtica está también implícito en el artículo de María Isabel Arbesú y Leticia Reyes sobre la eficacia docente. Aunque el artículo se circunscribe a un estudio de la percepción que tienen estudiantes de grado y posgrado de ciencias y artes para el diseño, dicho estudio forma parte de una investigación más amplia que involucra otros actores del sistema educativo. Investigaciones de este tipo son aun más importantes en la actualidad, cuando la literatura especializada ha planteado serias dudas sobre la validez y fiabilidad de las encuestas al uso sobre la calidad docente, y cuando se reafirma la tendencia de descargar exclusivamente en los hombros del profesorado la responsabilidad de unos resultados educativos insuficientes. Es significativo que el análisis no verse sobre la eficiencia del profesor sino sobre la eficacia; esto es, la adecuación de los resultados de la actividad del profesorado al papel que deben desempeñar en la institución educativa, y que no es otro que generar oportunidades de aprendizaje para sus estudiantes. En este sentido, es de particular interés que los propios estudiantes identifiquen dimensiones de evaluación que no acostumbran a estar recogidas en los cuestionarios. De confirmarse, estos resultados subrayarían una vez más el riesgo cierto de incurrir en insuficiencias que pondrían en entredicho la validez de estos instrumentos. De este modo, se pone de manifiesto cómo los problemas de validez menoscaban la autenticidad del sistema evaluador. Los dos últimos artículos provienen del ámbito de la Teoría del Arte. El firmado por Bibiana Crespo realiza un decurso histórico del concepto del dibujo desde la antigüedad greco-romana hasta las vanguardias históricas. No hay que buscar un análisis exhaustivo de las reflexiones de artistas y teóricos sobre el tema, cosa imposible en un artículo; la autora se basa en una selección de textos de diferentes épocas para demostrar la presencia de un hilo conductor en la idea de dibujo como actividad intelectual y como esta idea va evolucionando en los diferentes períodos de la historia del arte. Sobre esta base, se afirma el valor específico del dibujo como arte, pero también su papel relevante como actividad artística y, en este sentido, su contribución al resto de las artes plásticas. En el artículo se observan las relaciones cambiantes entre los diferentes aspectos del dibujo según se considere su relación con la naturaleza; su relación con las otras artes plásticas; con la propia actividad mental del artista y su correlato con el proceso de ideación, por un lado, y con el de ejecución por el otro; con su vínculo con diferentes facultades mentales –sea el intelecto, la intuición, la imaginación, el ingenio o el sentimiento–; o con su propia naturaleza lingüística que pasa a ser motivo central de reflexión en el tramo final de la modernidad. El artículo de Ricard Ramon adopta el enfoque más sociológico de los estudios de cultura visual para examinar el papel desempeñado por el arte y el discurso artístico en las estrategias de legitimación y en las campañas publicitarias de las principales empresas y corporaciones. El autor presenta el caso de la empresa de cerámica Lladró para plantear la existencia de relaciones entre su actividad industrial y comercial, su interés en el coleccionismo de obras de arte, la colaboración con reconocidos especialistas del campo de la historia del arte y la creación del propio museo Lladró. El interés del artículo radica en que su objeto de estudio está muy poco tratado en el campo de la Historia del Arte porque, desde una concepción tradicional de la disciplina, dicho objeto queda fuera de su ámbito. Es innegable que una de las funciones que el arte ha desempeñado históricamente es ser medio de representación y legitimación pública de los valores y grupos de poder dominantes. Sin embargo, en las sociedades democráticas avanzadas, concurren aspectos nuevos que suponen un salto cualitativo. La clave radica en el proceso de aceleración histórica, las consecuencias de la naturaleza tecnológica de la sociedad de la información y comunicación, y la crisis de otros metarrelatos que actúan de contrapeso ante los argumentos exclusivamente económicos. Todo ello explica la proliferación de las interferencias entre los discursos y fenómenos artísticos, aquellos otros que se desarrollan en el diseño y la publicidad, y los intereses comerciales y financieros del mundo de los negocios. Este hecho confiere especial relevancia al debate sobre los límites y las yuxtaposiciones entre estos discursos e intereses, sobre sus diferencias y fines respectivos, y sobre las repercusiones recíprocas que tendrán en cada uno de estos ámbitos.