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L'hydatidose ou échinococcose cystique est une zoonose majeure et pourtant négligée. Elle est endémique dans plusieurs pays à travers le monde, dont particulièrement le pourtour méditerranéen. Au Maroc, malgré les efforts menés dans le cadre d'un programme national de lutte contre l'hydatidose (PNLH), initié depuis 2007, cette zoonose présente toujours une cause de morbidité importante. Face à cette situation, l'établissement d'une proposition efficace pour améliorer le PNLH est nécessaire. Notre étude part du principe que, pour améliorer le PNLH, il faut d'abord l'analyser et comprendre ses différents enjeux et facettes. Une approche multidisciplinaire a été suivie, basée sur l'estimation des pertes monétaires et non monétaires causées par cette zoonose, ainsi que des analyses participatives de ses parties prenantes, de sa mise en œuvre et des voies de son amélioration. Nous avons pu relever les multiples défis auxquels fait face le PNLH et avons étudié la possibilité d'instaurer une nouvelle stratégie de lutte, basée sur la vaccination des ovins et le traitement des chiens. Théoriquement apte à éliminer cette zoonose au bout de 15 ans, le succès de cette stratégie dépendra en effet de l'aptitude du programme national à la mener et de son acceptabilité auprès de la population directement concernée. Une évaluation précise de la charge de morbidité est essentielle pour la sensibilisation des décideurs, car elle permet de donner la priorité au financement des mesures de lutte en temps opportun. Dans ce but, une première étude a été menée pour estimer les pertes économiques causées par cette zoonose à l'échelle nationale et provinciale en combinant des méthodes financières et non financières. Au niveau de la santé humaine, les pertes d'années de vie corrigées de l'incapacité (DALY), les frais médicaux et les pertes de productivité ont été estimés. Chez l'animal, les pertes liées aux saisies d'organes au niveau des abattoirs et les pertes de production causées par une réduction du lait, de la fertilité, du poids de la carcasse et de la production de laine ont été estimées aussi. L'indicateur zDALY, modifiant l'indicateur DALY pour y intégrer les impacts de santé animale des maladies zoonotiques, a été calculé afin de joindre ces deux composantes. Des simulations de Monte-Carlo ont été utilisées pour calculer les valeurs numériques approchées. Les pertes totales oscillent entre 222 millions USD et 234 millions USD. Les DALYs ont été estimés au niveau national à 0,5 an pour 100 000 habitants et le zDALY à 55 ans pour 100 000 habitants. Selon ces évaluations, les pertes perçues ne représentent que la pointe de l'iceberg, la majeure partie des pertes étant causée par la perte de la productivité humaine chez les cas non diagnostiqués et les pertes de production animale. Cette étude a mis en lumière les pertes énormes causées par cette zoonose, sur tout le territoire marocain, indiquant la nécessité d'une amélioration des mesures de prévention et de contrôle. Les résultats de la première étude ont montré la persistance de l'hydatidose/échinococcose au Maroc et la non-atteinte des objectifs du PNHL. Ceci nous a poussé à poser la question des causes de cet échec. Pour répondre à cette question, une deuxième étude sur les enjeux et les obstacles qui ont entravé la réussite du PNHL a été menée. Une approche qualitative a été menée au niveau de cinq régions du Maroc : Rabat-Salé-Kénitra; Béni Mellal-Khénifra; Sous-Masaa; Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra et Guelmim-Oued Noun. Nous avons posé le choix pour cette étude d'ouvrir le cadre d'application au-delà de la seule hydatidose/échinococcose, nommément à la rage et à la tuberculose bovine, afin de mettre en évidence les défis communs que le contrôle de ces zoonoses présente. Des observations participantes et 81 entretiens individuels ont été réalisés avec les vétérinaires, les autorités locales et les abatteurs. Les enregistrements ont fait l'objet d'une transcription intégrale et les narratifs été analysés avec le logiciel R, en utilisant le package RQDA. L'étude a révélé un manque de rigueur professionnelle, un manque de cadre législatif, ainsi qu'un chevauchement de pouvoirs et d'intérêts entre les différentes structures, alors que la stratégie multisectorielle est essentielle dans la lutte contre les zoonoses. Cette analyse a amené à notre troisième étude, qui a analysé les parties prenantes du PNLH pour approfondir notre compréhension des relations de chaque acteur avec le programme. La troisième étude vise donc à analyser les acteurs du PNLH pour identifier des pistes de son amélioration et de proposer des voies plus adaptées. Des parties prenantes ont été identifiées, et au total, 163 entretiens semi-structurés ont été menés dans les mêmes régions que la deuxième étude, ainsi qu'un atelier interministériel à Rabat. Les catégories classiques d'analyse des parties prenantes, c'est-à-dire l'implication, l'intérêt, l'importance, l'influence, la priorité et le pouvoir, ont été semi-quantifiées. Un cadre analytique a été proposé combinant ces catégories pour évaluer les acteurs par trois attributs: l'appropriation des mesures, l'agence politique et l'agence sociotechnique. L'étude a mis en évidence une organisation déficiente de la diversité des acteurs impliqués, se traduisant dans une déficience dans les trois attributs mobilisés. Cette étude a proposé une approche analytique et informative, particulièrement utile pour une orientation de la lutte contre les zoonoses dans laquelle la coordination multisectorielle est capitale. Dans la recherche de nouvelles stratégies de lutte contre l'hydatidose/échinococcose, des essais de vaccination des ovins (le vaccin EG95) associés au traitement anthelminthique des chiens ont été menés dans le Moyen Atlas, la région du pays ayant la prévalence la plus élevée. Cette étude présente l'analyse de la faisabilité et de l'acceptabilité sociale de cette stratégie, dont le but est de tracer une approche pour l'élaboration d'un guide pour mener une telle intervention dans l'avenir. Onze groupes de discussion et seize entretiens individuels approfondis ont été menés avec les éleveurs, les femmes, les autorités locales, les médecins et vétérinaires privés, ainsi que les fonctionnaires des structures responsables de la mise en œuvre potentielle du PNLH en parallèle avec les essais du vaccin. Les enregistrements ont été transcrits et analysés avec le logiciel R, en utilisant le progiciel RQDA. Cette étude a mis en évidence différentes réserves émises par les acteurs sur la faisabilité de la stratégie. L'étude a permis de collecter les propositions des participants pour une meilleure mise en place de cette nouvelle stratégie. Ces réserves et propositions devront impérativement être prises en compte pour l'élaboration d'un plan renouvelé. En conclusion, l'étude a mis en évidence l'impact de l'hydatidose/échinococcose dans tout le territoire marocain, qui cause des pertes qui arrivent à 0.07% du PIB du Maroc. Ainsi, l'approche qualitative nous a permis d'abord de comprendre le fonctionnement du PNLH sur le terrain, et de proposer un schéma d'instauration d'une nouvelle stratégie de lutte, que théoriquement, pourra contrôler cette zoonose au bout de 15 ans. ; Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a major zoonosis, however, it is neglected. It is endemic in several countries around the world, particularly around the Mediterranean. In Morocco, despite the efforts carried out within the framework of a national hydatidosis control program (NHCP), initiated in 2007, this zoonosis still presents a major cause of morbidity. Faced with this situation, the establishment of an effective proposal to improve the NHCP is necessary. Our study is based on the principle that, in order to improve the NHCP, we must first analyze and understand its different issues and facets. A multidisciplinary approach was followed, based on the estimation of monetary and non-monetary losses caused by this zoonosis, as well as participatory analyzes of its stakeholders, its implementation and ways of improving it. We were able to raise the multiple challenges facing the NHCP and studied the possibility of establishing a new control strategy, based on the vaccination of sheep and the treatment of dogs. Theoretically capable of eliminating this zoonosis in 15 years, the success of this strategy will indeed depend on the ability of the national program to carry it out and on its acceptability among the population directly concerned. Accurate assessment of the burden disease is essential for sensitizing decision-makers, as it helps prioritize funding for timely control measures. In this objective, a first study was carried out to estimate the economic losses caused by this zoonosis at the national and provincial level by combining financial and non-financial methods. In terms of human health, loss of disability-adjusted life years (DALY), medical costs and productivity losses were estimated. For animals, organ seizure losses at slaughterhouses and production losses caused by reducing milk, fertility, carcass weight and wool production were also estimated. The zDALY indicator, modifying the DALY indicator to include the animal health impacts of zoonotic diseases, was calculated to combine these two components. Monte-Carlo simulations were used to calculate the approximate numerical values. Total losses range from USD 222 million to USD 234 million. DALYs were estimated nationally at 0.5 years per 100,000 person and zDALY at 55 years per 100,000 person. According to these assessments, perceived losses are only the tip of the iceberg, with most of the losses being caused by loss of human productivity in undiagnosed cases and losses in animal production. This study highlighted the enormous losses caused by this zoonosis, throughout Morocco, indicating the need for improved prevention and control measures. The results of the first study showed the persistence of CE in Morocco and the failure that meet NHCP objectives. This prompted us to ask the question of the causes of this failure. To answer this question, a second study on the issues and obstacles that hindered the success of the NHCP was conducted. A qualitative approach was carried out in five regions of Morocco: Rabat-Salé-Kénitra; Béni Mellal-Khénifra; Sous-Masaa; Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra and Guelmim-Oued Noun. We made the choice for this study to open the framework for application beyond hydatidosis alone, namely rabies and bovine tuberculosis, in order to highlight the common challenges that the control of these zoonoses presents. Participatory observations and 81 individual interviews were conducted with veterinarians, local authorities and slaughterers. The recordings were fully transcribed and the narratives analyzed with R software, using the RQDA package. The study revealed a lack of professional rigor, a lack of legislative framework, as well as an overlap of powers and interests between the different structures, while the multisectoral strategy is essential in the fight against zoonoses. This analysis led to our third study, which analyzed NHCP stakeholders to deepen our understanding of each stakeholder relationship with the program. The third study, therefore aims to analyze the actors of the NHCP in order to identify avenues for improvement and to propose more suitable ways. Stakeholders were identified, and a total of 163 semi-structured interviews were conducted in the same regions as the second study, as well as an inter-ministerial workshop in Rabat. The classic categories of stakeholder analysis, i.e. involvement, interest, importance, influence, priority and power, have been semi-quantified. An analytical framework was proposed combining these categories to evaluate the actors by three attributes: the appropriation of the measures, the political agency and the socio-technical agency. The study highlighted a deficient organization of the diversity of the actors involved, resulting in a deficiency in the three attributes mobilized. This study proposed an analytical and informative approach, particularly useful for an orientation of the fight against zoonoses in which multisectoral coordination is essential. In the search for new CE control strategies, sheep vaccination trials (EG95 vaccine) associated with anthelmintic treatment of dogs were carried out in the Middle Atlas, the region of the country with the highest prevalence. This study presents the analysis of the feasibility and social acceptability of this strategy, the aim of which is to outline an approach for the development of a guide for carrying out such an intervention in the future. Eleven focus groups and sixteen in-depth individual interviews were conducted with breeders, women, local authorities, private doctors and veterinarians, as well as officials from the structures responsible for the potential implementation of the NHCP in parallel with the trials of the vaccine. Recordings were transcribed and analyzed with R software, using RQDA software package. This study highlighted various reservations expressed by the players on the feasibility of the strategy. The study made it possible to collect participants' proposals for a better implementation of this new strategy. These reservations and proposals must imperatively be taken into account for the development of a renewed plan. In conclusion, the study highlighted the impact of CE throughout the Moroccan territory, which causes losses reaching 0.07% of Morocco's GDP. Thus, the qualitative approach allowed us first to understand the functioning of the NHCP in the field, and to propose a scheme for the establishment of a new control strategy, which theoretically, could control this zoonosis in 15 years.

Die Tierproduktion bleibt ein kritischer Aspekt der ländlichen Lebensgrundlagen, die vor allem den Armen in den Entwicklungsländern unterschiedliche Zwecke erfüllen. Eine verbesserte Produktivität der Tiere hat somit das Potenzial, das Wachstum nachhaltig zu stimulieren und gleichzeitig den Wohlstand zu stärken und zu verbessern. Dies ist besonders kritisch in Subsahara-Afrika (SSA) angesichts unvollkommener Input- und Output Märkte, fehlender Kredit- und Versicherungsmärkte sowie begrenzter Beschäftigungsmöglichkeiten außerhalb der Landwirtschaft. Die Produktivität der Tiere wird jedoch durch das Auftreten von Krankheiten und den Einsatz veralteter Technologien eingeschränkt. Studien zeigen jedoch, dass Tiere der Armen aufgrund unzureichender Investitionen in gesundheitsfördernde Techniken und Technologien anfälliger für Krankheiten sind. Diese Arbeit zielt darauf ab, zu einem besseren Verständnis des Adoptionsverhaltens moderner Nutztierinterventionen und ihrer Auswirkungen auf das Wohlergehen der Haushalte in SSA beizutragen. Konkret geht es in der Arbeit darum, zu untersuchen: (1) die Triebkräfte für die Einführung der so genannten "best-bet" Management-Technologien gegen die Afrikanischen Tier-Trypanosomose (AAT) - und ihre Auswirkungen auf die Ernährungssicherheit in Haushalten; (2) die Beziehung zwischen Management-Praktiken wie Entwurmung, Vektorkontrolle, Veterinärbehandlung und Nahrungsergänzungsmitteln. Konkret untersucht das Papier, ob diese Praktiken als Ergänzung oder Ersatz übernommen werden und welche Faktoren ihre Annahme antreiben; 3) die Erträge aus Maßnahmen zur Bekämpfung von Tierseuchen, die insbesondere Maßnahmen zur Steigerung der Tierproduktivität und der Armut und Vulnerabilität der Haushalte verbinden, und (4) die Rolle der Diversifizierung der Haushalte in Bezug auf die pflanzliche und tierische Erzeugung bei der Anpassung an Klimaveränderungen. Die Daten für diese Arbeit stammen von Kleinviehhaltern in den Regionen Kara und Savana in Togo und der Southern Nations Nationalities and People Region (SNNPR) in Äthiopien. Die Auswahl der Befragten erfolgte durch mehrstufige Stichprobenverfahren, um angesichts der geografisch-diversen Untersuchungsregion eine gleich hohe Wahrscheinlichkeit der Auswahl zu gewährleisten. In Togo wurden zwei Datenwellen gesammelt, während in Äthiopien eine Welle gesammelt wurde. Im Jahr 2013 wurden insgesamt 486 bzw. 492 Haushalte aus Togo und Äthiopien befragt. Im Jahr 2016 wurde in Togo eine Folgebefragung unter den gleichen Haushalten durchgeführt, die 2013 befragt wurden. Aufgrund einer Fluktuation von 6% umfasste die Folgeerhebung jedoch 443 Haushalte. Ein umfassender Datensatz, der aus sozioökonomischen Informationen der Haushalte besteht und alle Arten von einkommensschaffenden Tätigkeiten wie Selbständigkeit, außerbetriebliche Beschäftigung und andere in diesem Zeitraum ausgeübte Lohnarbeit umfasst. Bemerkenswert sind die Informationen über die Rinderproduktion wie Herdenzusammensetzung, Krankheits- und Schädlingsinzidenz und Gesundheitsmanagement. Es wurden Haushaltsrisiken und -schocks sowie Indikatoren für Vermögen, Konsum und Ernährungssicherheit erhoben. Zusätzlich zu den Daten auf Haushaltsebene wurden 2013 durch Interviews mit Interessengruppen Informationen auf Dorfebene wie Krankheitsschwere und -häufigkeit, Arzneimittelresistenz und Institutionen und Infrastruktur gesammelt. Verschiedene methodische Ansätze wurden verwendet, um die Daten in dieser Arbeit zu analysieren. Im ersten Beitrag bildet die Theorie der Maximierung der Haushaltsnutzen unter Risiken und unvollkommenen Märkten die Grundlage für die empirische Schätzung der Adoptionsentscheidung über den rationalen Medikamenteneinsatz und dessen Auswirkungen auf die Ernährungssicherheit. Ein binäres Logit-Modell wird verwendet, um die Faktoren zu schätzen, die die Akzeptanz beeinflussen, während das Propensity Score Matching (PSM) verwendet wird, um die Auswirkungen auf die Ergebnisse der Ernährungssicherheit zu bestimmen. Im zweiten Beitrag wird die Einführung mehrerer Disease-Management-Praktiken als Funktion der Krankheitsbelastung (Risiken) in einer Rinderherde modelliert. Dies geschieht empirisch durch ein multivariates Maximum-Likelihood-Schätzverfahren. Im dritten Papier, unter Berücksichtigung der unvollständigen Randomisierung der Behandlung und mögliche endogene Heterogenitätseffekte, eine Reihe von quasi-experimentellen Identifikationsstrategien, wurden implementiert, um die kausale Beziehung zwischen den Interventionen und Haushaltshilfe festzustellen. Die Umsetzung der verschiedenen Strategien kontrolliert mögliche empirische Fallstricke, wie der Selbstauswahl und unbeobachteter Heterogenität, die die Ergebnisse verzerren würden. Im vierten Papier zur Diversifizierung der Lebensgrundlagen wird davon ausgegangen, dass die Haushalte bei Vorliegen von Klimaschwankungen mit fehlenden oder unvollkommenen Kredit- und Versicherungsmärkten eine Kombination von Lebensgrundlagenstrategien wählen, um den zukünftigen Wohlstand zu maximieren und die aktuellen Ergebnisse vor negativen Wetterereignissen zu schützen. Die Entscheidung über den Portfoliomix basiert im Wesentlichen auf zwei Motivationen - Überleben oder Chancensuche. Die empirische Schätzung erlaubt es, das übergeordnete Motiv der Diversifizierung der Haushalte zu bestimmen. Da die verschiedenen Diversifikationsentscheidungen korreliert sein können, modellieren wir gemeinsam die Determinanten der Diversifikation unter Verwendung der Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) mit Mundlak-Korrekturfaktor, um mögliche Endogenitätsprobleme zu berücksichtigen, die sich aus unbeobachteter Heterogenität ergeben. Korrelierte Zufallseffektabschätzungen, die mit den Annahmen Probit und Generalized Least Square (GLS) ausgestattet sind, werden verwendet, um die Auswirkungen der Diversifizierung auf Armut und Konsumergebnisse abzuschätzen, bzw. mit einer inhärenten unbeobachteten Endogenitätsverzerrung, die durch den Mundlak-Korrekturfaktor berücksichtigt wird. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit tragen in vielfältiger Weise zur empirischen Literatur bei. Erstens zeigt die Abschätzung der Faktoren und Auswirkungen der Technologieeinführung auf die Ernährungssicherheit, dass der Zugang zu Informationen und Veterinärdiensten, die Verbesserung des Wissens und der Zugang zu Medikamenten entscheidend für die Adoptionsentscheidung über verbesserte Disease-Management-Praktiken sind. Die Auswirkungen der Adoption sind im Allgemeinen positiv. So zeigen die Ergebnisse beispielsweise, dass Landwirte, die verbesserte Praktiken anwenden, eine höhere Produktivität der Tiere und einen höheren Pro-Kopf-Verbrauch aufweisen. Die Verbesserung der Gesundheit der Tiere durch die Einführung wissensintensiver integrierter Bekämpfungsmaßnahmen ist ein vielversprechender Weg, um die Lebensgrundlagen und die Ernährungssicherheit kleiner, von Rindern abhängiger Haushalte in Afrika südlich der Sahara zu verbessern. Dennoch ist die Akzeptanz verbesserter Disease-Management-Praktiken bei den Rinderzüchtern nach wie vor gering. Strategien, die das lokale Veterinärpersonal in die Verbreitung von Technologien und Inputs einbeziehen, sollten in Betracht gezogen werden, um die Adoptionsrate zu fördern. Zweitens zeigt die Untersuchung der Einführung von veschiedenen best bet AAT Management Praktiken unter Verwendung der Daten von Kleinbauern in Äthiopien, dass diese Praktiken nicht komplementär, sondern substitutiv sind. Dies ist auf Ressourcen- und Haushaltsengpässe bei diesen Landwirten zurückzuführen. Auch das beobachtete geringe Wissen über das Management von AAT bei den Befragten erklärt den beobachteten Substitutionseffekt. Die Landwirte übernahmen und wandten meist eine Technologie an, nämliche die Verabreichung von Trypanozidmedikamenten - die beliebteste Praxis mit wenig oder gar keiner Investition in Entwurmung oder Schädlingsbekämpfung. Das Ergebnis verdeutlicht die Notwendigkeit eines gezielten Erweiterungsansatzes, um die Art und Weise, wie diese Technologie verbreitet wird, neu zu definieren. Es zeigt ferner, dass die Anwendung traditioneller Methoden zur Verbreitung dieser Praktiken die gleichzeitige Einführung von Agrartechnologien bei den Nutztierhaltern behindern könnte. Drittens zeigt die Messung der Auswirkungen des gezielten AAT-Kontrollinterventionsprogramms mit Hilfe des Paneldatensatzes aus Togo im Allgemeinen positive Ergebnisse für die teilnehmenden Landwirte. Die Ergebnisse zeigen zum Beispiel, dass die Teilnehmer ihre Kenntnisse und Praktiken in Bezug auf die Diagnose und das Management von Tierkrankheiten im Allgemeinen und AAT im Besonderen verbessert haben. Darüber hinaus verzeichneten die Tiere der Programmteilnehmer eine höhere Produktivität, gemessen an der Milchleistung, und reduzierte Krankheitsinfektionen. Höhere Tierproduktivität und geringere Krankheitsinfektionen führten zu einem zusätzlichen Einkommen, das den Pro-Kopf-Konsum deutlich steigerte und die Armut verringerte. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Interventionen, die auf die Viehbewirtschaftung von Kleinbauern in SSA abzielen, zu positiven Ergebnissen bei der Existenzsicherung führen können. Schließlich zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass die Portfoliodiversifikation im ländlichen Togo im Allgemeinen von Vermögensvariablen getrieben wird, wenn man sich die Triebkräfteder Diversifikation zuwendet und wie die Diversifikation den Haushalten hilft, mit den Auswirkungen der Klimaschwankungen umzugehen. Außerdem zeigen die Ergebnisse einen negativen Zusammenhang zwischen der Diversifizierung der Haushalte und den Klimaschwankungen. Im Hinblick auf die Auswirkungen auf das Wohlergehen deuten die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass die Diversifizierung der Nutztiere das Potenzial hat, das Wohlergehen eines Haushalts zu verbessern und auch die negativen Auswirkungen der Klimaschwankungen abzumildern. Die Institutionen scheinen die Diversifizierung von Nutzpflanzen und Nutztieren zu unterstützen und tragen auch zur Verringerung der Armut bei. Die derzeitige Einrichtung von Institutionen ist jedoch nicht wirksam, um negative Auswirkungen eines zunehmend risikoreichen Umfelds abzumildern. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es notwendig ist, die Kredit-, Landwirtschafts- und Marktinstitutionen als mögliche politische Ziele für die Förderung der Diversifizierung der Lebensgrundlagen als Bewältigungsstrategie für Gebiete zu stärken, die negativen Auswirkungen der Klimaschwankungen und fehlenden oder unvollkommenen Märkten ausgesetzt sind. ; Livestock production remains a critical aspect of rural livelihoods serving different purposes especially for the poor in developing countries. Enhanced livestock productivity thus has the potential to stimulate growth in a sustainable way and also to strengthen and improve welfare. This is especially critical in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in the face of imperfect input and output markets, missing credit and insurance markets, as well as limited off-farm employment opportunities. However, livestock productivity is constrained by the incidence of diseases and the use of obsolete technologies. Yet, studies show that livestock of the poor are more vulnerable to diseases because of inadequate investments in health improving techniques and technologies approaches. This thesis aims to contribute to an improved understanding of the adoption behavior of modern livestock interventions and their impact on household welfare in SSA. Specifically, the thesis sets out to investigate: (1) the drivers of adopting the so called "best–bet" African Animal Trypanosomosis (AAT) management technologies and its impact on household food security; (2) the relationship between disease management practices such as deworming, vector control, veterinary treatment, and feed supplements. Specifically, the thesis investigates if these practices are adopted as complements or substitutes and what factors drive their adoption; 3) the returns to livestock disease control interventions especially linking interventions to animal productivity and household vulnerability and poverty and (4) the role of household diversification with respect to crop and livestock production in adapting to climate variability. The data for this thesis comes from small scale cattle farmers in the Kara and Savana regions of Togo and the Southern Nations Nationalities and People Region (SNNPR) of Ethiopia. Selection of respondents involved multi stage random sampling procedures to ensure equal probability of being selected given the geographically dispersed nature of the study region. Two waves of data were collected in Togo while one wave has been collected in Ethiopia. In 2013, a total of 486 and 492 households from Togo and Ethiopia respectively were interviewed. In 2016, a follow up survey was conducted in Togo involving the same households interviewed in 2013. A comprehensive data set consisting of household socio-economic information, involving all kinds of income generating activities such as self-employment, off-farm employment and other on-farm wage employments undertaken in the period. Noteworthy are the information on cattle production such as herd composition, disease and pest incidences, and health management. Household risks and shocks as well as assets, consumption and food security indicators have been collected. In addition to the household level data, village level information such as disease severity and incidence, drug resistance and village level institutions and infrastructure have been collected through stakeholder interviews in 2013. Different methodological approaches have been used to analyze the data in this thesis. In the first paper, the household utility maximization theory under risks and imperfect markets forms the basis for the empirical estimation of the household adoption decision and impact of rational drug use on food security. A binary logit model is used to estimate the factors influencing adoption while the Propensity Score Matching (PSM) is used to determine the impact on food security outcome. In the second paper, the adoption of multiple disease management practices is modelled as a function of disease load (risks exposed) in a cattle herd. This is done empirically through a multivariate maximum likelihood estimation procedure. In the third paper, considering the incomplete randomization of the treatment assignment and possible endogenous heterogeneity effects, a number of quasi–experimental identifications strategies, such as difference in difference, fixed effects and the fixed effects instrumental variable, have been implemented to determine the causal relationship between the interventions and household welfare. The implementation of the multiple strategies controls for potential confounding issues of self-selection and unobserved heterogeneity that would bias results. In the fourth paper on livelihood diversification, it is assumed that in the presence of climate variability with missing or imperfect credit and insurance markets households choose a combination of livelihood strategies to maximize future welfare as well as protecting current outcomes against adverse weather events. The portfolio mix decision is based cardinally on two motivations – survival or opportunity seeking. The empirical estimation allows determining the overriding motive by households to diversify. Different diversification decisions may be correlated therefore the determinants of diversification are jointly estimated using the Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) with Mundlak correction factor to account for possible endogeneity issues arising from unobserved heterogeneity. Correlated random effects estimation fitted with logit and Generalized Least Square (GLS) assumptions are used to estimate impact of diversification on poverty and consumption outcomes respectively with inherent unobserved endogeneity bias taken care for by the Mundlak correction factor. The results from this thesis contribute to the empirical literature in a number of ways. First, the estimation of drivers and impacts of technology adoption on food security shows that access to information and veterinary services, improved knowledge, and access to disease inputs are critical to the adoption decision of improved disease management practices. Adoption impacts are generally positive. For example, results show that farmers who adopt improved practices have higher livestock productivity and higher consumption per capita. Improving livestock health by introducing knowledge-intensive integrated control measures is a promising way to enhance livelihoods and to improve food security of small-scale cattle dependent households in sub-Saharan Africa. Nonetheless, adoption of improved disease management practices remains low among cattle farmers. Policies that involve local veterinary personnel in the dissemination of technologies and inputs should be considered to stimulate adoption. Second, investigating the adoption of multiple best bet AAT management practices using the data from small scale farmers in Ethiopia shows that these practices are not complementary, but substitutional. The study finds this to be as a result of resource and budgetary constraints. Also, the observed low knowledge of the management of AAT amongst respondents explains the observed substitutional effect. Farmers mostly adopted and applied one technology – trypanocidal drugs– the most popular practice with little or no investment in deworming or pest control. The result highlights the need for targeted extension approach to redefine how such technology is disseminating. It further shows that the use of traditional extension methods to disseminate these practices could be hampering the simultaneous adoption of farm technology among livestock farmers. Third, measuring the impacts of the targeted AAT control intervention program using the panel data set from Togo generally shows positive outcomes for participating farmers. For example, the results show that participants improved their knowledge and practices in relation to diagnosing and management of livestock diseases in general and AAT in particular. Furthermore, the animals of program participants recorded higher productivity measured in milk output and reduced disease infections which are both direct benefits of the program intervention. Higher animal productivity and lower disease infections resulted in additional income that significantly increased per capita consumption and decrease poverty headcount, i.e., two important welfare indicators in rural SSA. The results show that interventions targeted at managing livestock of small scale cattle producers in SSA can lead to positive livelihoods outcomes. Finally, turning to drivers of diversification and how diversification helps households cope with climate variability effects, the results show that portfolio diversification in rural Togo is generally driven by wealth variables. Also, the results show a negative correlation between household diversification and climate variability. In terms of welfare implications, the results indicate that livestock diversification has the potential to improve a household's welfare and also mitigate adverse effects of climate variability. Institutions seem to be supportive in crop and livestock diversification and also contribute to decreases in poverty. However, the current set up of institutions is not effective to mitigate negative effects from an increasingly risky environment. The results point to the necessity of strengthening credit, agricultural and market institutions as possible policy targets for stimulating livelihood diversification as a coping strategy for areas exposed to negative effects of climate variability and with missing or imperfect markets. ; European Commission/Global Program on Agriculture Research for Development (ARD)/DE-2009-GED2210158025/EU

Online news websites are becoming one of the most popular and influential social media platforms allowing people to easily access information about daily life topics, share their opinions on different issues, and give feedback on published content. The tremendous increase of published news requires effective recommendation techniques that help users to find interesting news articles that match with their interests. Thus, users are continuously encouraged to participate to online news websites and keep sharing their opinions, which represent a valuable source of social information. In this thesis, we have investigated how to exploit user-generated-content for personalized news recommendation purpose. The intuition behind this line of research is that the opinions provided by users, on news websites, represent a strong indicator about their profiles. By mining such content, we can extract valuable information about the domains of interests of users, their inclination towards a certain version of news articles, their political orientation, their favorite sport teams, their preferences, and many other interesting features. Furthermore, such content can also be used to enrich the content of news articles, particularly for those describing controversial news articles that can reveal various aspects that are not well described or even not found in their content. Thus, user-generated-content is the core component of our work. This thesis is divided into three main parts, as described in the bellow, which represent the different steps of developing a news recommendation system based on user-generated-content.In the first part, we have developed a fine-grained model that captures both users and article profiles. The profile of each user is extracted from all the opinions and the reactions that are provided on the news websites, while the profile of an article is extracted from its content. A profile is mainly composed of the entities, the aspects, and the sentiments expressed in the corresponding content. While the extraction of entities is a well-established problem, aspect extraction often relies on supervised techniques, which are domain dependent. For a more general solution, we have proposed an unsupervised technique for aspect extraction from opinions and articles. We have investigated two types of models in three different applications.The first model, called a sentiment-dependent profile, exploits the sentiments related to each entity and aspect to define the orientations of users towards a specific trend. For this purpose, we have built a knowledge base of trends, more specifically of political orientations, that guides the extraction of profiles in an unsupervised manner. We have assessed the accuracy of the extracted profiles on two datasets crawled from CNN and Al-Jazeera and the results show that our approach gives high quality results. The second model, called a sentiment-independent profile, focuses only on entities and aspects and is used on the purpose of news recommendation. This model was used to define both users' interests and the content of news articles. We have test it on a large test collection based on real users' activities in four news websites, namely The Independent3, The Telegraph4, CNN and Al-Jazeera. The results show that our model outperforms baseline models achieving high accuracy. In the third application, we have used a combination of the two former models for news recommendation purpose: the sentiment-independent profile model to define users' interests is combined with the sentiment-dependent profile model to describe the content of news articles. The main goal of this application was to give a method that deal with the problem of redundancy on the list of recommended news articles. For this purpose, we have used a diversification model on news articles profiles to reduce the redundancy of the list of recommended news articles. We have tested our approach on real users' activities on four news websites CNN, Al-Jazeera, The Telegraph, and The Independent. The results show that diversification improve the qualityof recommended news articles. In the second part, we have focused on how to enrich the article profiles with user generated-content. The idea behind is to exploit the rich structure of opinions to tailor the articles to the specific needs and interests of users. The main challenge of this task is how to select the opinions used for profile enrichment. The large number and the noisy nature of opinions calls for an effective ranking strategy. To achieve this goal, we have proposed a novel-scoring model that ranks opinions based on their relevance and prominence, where the prominence of an opinion is based on its relationships with other opinions. To find prominent opinions, we have (1) suggested a directed graph model of opinions where each link represents the sentiment an opinion expresses about another opinion (2) built a new variation of the PageRank algorithm that increases the scores of opinions along links with positive sentiments and decreases them as well as links with negative sentiments. We have tested the effectiveness of our model through extensive experiments using three datasets crawled from CNN, The Independent, and The Telegraph news websites. The experiments showed that our scoring model selects meaningful and insightful opinions.In the third part, we have focused on the development of a recommendation technique that exploits the results of the previous part and use them to enrich the content of news articles. We have tested various methods of leveraging opinions on the content of news articles. Concretely, we have worked on two main aspects. Firstly, we have only focused on sentiment-independent profiles, which consist on entities and aspects, and investigated of thoroughly the profile construction process. Secondly, we have enhanced the opinion ranking strategy described earlier by proposing an opinion diversification model based on authorities, semantic and sentiment diversification. The goal is to deal with redundant information and have a wide coverage of topic aspects. We have tested our approach by running large experiments on four datasets crawled from CNN, The Independent, The Telegraph, and Al-Jazeera. The results show that our model provide effective recommendation, particularly when enriching the content of news articles with a diversified set of opinions. ; Les sites de presse en ligne deviennent une des plateformes les plus populaires et les plus influentes des médias sociaux. Ils permettent aux gens d'accéder facilement aux informations sur des sujets de la vie quotidienne, de partager leurs opinions sur différentes questions, et de donner des commentaires sur le contenu publié.L'augmentation considérable des informations publiées nécessite des techniques de recommandation efficaces qui aident les utilisateurs à trouver les articles de presse qui correspondent à leurs intérêts. Ainsi, les utilisateurs sont constamment encouragés à participer à des sites de presse en ligne et à continuer à partager leurs opinions, qui représentent elles-mêmes une source précieuse d'information sociale.Dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié comment exploiter les contenus générés par les utilisateurs à des fins de recommandation personnalisée.L'intuition derrière cette ligne de recherche est que les opinions fournies par les utilisateurs, sur les sites de presse représentent un indicateur fort sur leurs profils. En exploitant ce type de contenu, nous pouvons extraire des informations précieuses sur les domaines d'intérêts des utilisateurs, leur inclination vers une certaine sorte d'articles de presse, leur orientation politique, leurs équipes sportives préférées, leurs préférences, et de nombreuses autres caractéristiques intéressantes.En outre, ce contenu peut également être utilisé pour enrichir le contenu des articles de presse eux-mêmes. En particulier, le contenu ajouté par les utilisateurs peut permettre de révéler des aspects qui ne sont pas bien décrits ou même ne se trouvent pas du tout dans l'article.Le contenu généré par l'utilisateur est le composant de base de notre travail. Cette thèse est divisée en trois parties principales qui représentent les différentes étapes du développement d'un système de recommandation d'articles de presse sur la base des contenus joutés par les utilisateurs.Dans la première partie, nous avons développé un modèle à grain fin qui capture les deux profils de l'article et de l'utilisateur. Le profil de chaque utilisateur est extrait de toutes les opinions et de toutes les réactions qui sont fournies sur les sites de presse étudiés, tandis que le profil d'un article est extrait de son contenu. Un profil est composé principalement des entités, des aspects et des sentiments exprimés dans le contenu correspondant. Bien que l'extraction d'entités est un problème bien établi, l'extraction d'aspect repose souvent sur des techniques supervisées, qui dépendent du domaine. Pour une solution plus générale, nous avons proposé une technique non-supervisée pour l'extraction des aspects, des opinions et des articles. Nous avons étudié deux types de modèles dans trois applications différentes.Le premier modèle, appelé profil dépendant du sentiment, exploite les sentiments liés à chaque entité et l'aspect de définir les orientations des utilisateurs vers une tendance spécifique. A cet effet, nous avons construit une base de connaissances des tendances, plus précisément des orientations politiques, qui guide l'extraction des profils d'une manière non supervisée. Nous avons évalué la précision des profils extraits sur deux ensembles de données glanées sur CNN et Al-Jazeera et les résultats montrent que notre approche donne des résultats de haute qualité.Le second modèle, appelé un profil indépendant du sentiment , se concentre uniquement sur les entités et les aspects et est utilisé avec un objectif de recommandation. Ce modèle a été utilisé pour définir à la fois les intérêts des utilisateurs et le contenu des articles de presse. Nous l'avons testé sur une grande collection d'articles et sur les activités réelles des utilisateurs dans quatre sites de presse, à savoir The Independent, The Telegraph, CNN et Al-Jazeera. Les résultats montrent que notre modèle surpasse les modèles existants et atteint une grande précision.Dans la troisième application, nous avons utilisé une combinaison des deux modèles précédent pour la recommandation d'articles de presse : le profil indépendant du sentiment pour définir les intérêts des utilisateurs est combiné avec le modèle de profil dépendant du sentiment pour décrire le contenu des articles de presse. L'objectif principal de cette application était de donner une méthode qui traite le problème de la redondance sur la liste des articles de presse recommandés. A cet effet, nous avons utilisé un modèle de diversification des profils des articles de presse pour réduire la redondance de la liste des articles recommandés. Nous avons testé notre approche sur les activités réelles des utilisateurs sur quatre sites de presse CNN, Al-Jazeera, The Telegraph, et The Independent. Les résultats montrent que la diversification améliore la qualité des articles de presse recommandés.Dans la deuxième partie, nous nous sommes concentrés sur la façon d'enrichir les profils d'article avec le contenu ajouté par les utilisateurs. L'idée consiste à exploiter la structure riche des opinions pour adapter la recommandation des articles aux besoins et aux intérêts de chaque utilisateur. Le principal défi de cette tâche consiste à savoir comment sélectionner les opinions utilisées pour le profil d'enrichissement. Le grand nombre et la nature bruitée des opinions demande une stratégie efficace de classement. Pour atteindre cet objectif, nous avons proposé un nouveau modèle de classement des avis en fonction de leur pertinence et de leur importance, où l'importance d'une opinion est basée sur ses relations avec d'autres opinions. Pour trouver des avis importants, nous avons (1) proposé un modèle de graphe orienté d'opinions où chaque lien représente le sentiment qu'une opinion exprime sur une autre opinion (2) construit une nouvelle variante de l'algorithme PageRank qui augmente ou diminue les scores des opinions liens selon qu'elles sont liées avec des sentiments positifs ou négatifs. Nous avons testé l'efficacité de notre modèle par le biais de vastes expériences en utilisant trois ensembles de données glanées à partir des sites de presse de CNN, The Independent, et The Telegraph. Les expériences ont montré que notre modèle de classement sélectionne des avis utiles et perspicaces.Dans la troisième partie, nous nous sommes concentrés sur le développement d'une technique de recommandation qui exploite les résultats de la seconde partie afin d'enrichir le contenu des articles de presse. Nous avons testé différentes méthodes pour tirer parti des avis sur le contenu des articles de presse. Concrètement, nous avons travaillé sur deux aspects principaux. Tout d'abord, nous avons seulement mis l'accent sur les profils indépendants du sentiment, entités et aspects seulement, et étudié le processus de construction du profil. Deuxièmement, nous avons amélioré la stratégie de classement des opinions décrite précédemment en proposant un modèle de diversification basé sur l'autorité de chaque utilisateur. Nous avons testé notre approche à grande échelle avec quatre ensembles de données glanées sur CNN, The Independent, The Telegraph et Al-Jazeera. Les résultats montrent que notre modèle fournit des recommandations précises, en particulier lorsque le contenu des articles de presse est enrichi avec un ensemble diversifié d'opinions.

*This series is the result of an adaptation of a paper presented as part of a seminar on "Theories and Research in International Relations" at Hebrew University, July 2012. Commentaries are welcome to daniel.wajner@mail.huji.ac.il Click here to read Part II of the series In the first article of this series we have introduced the debates on the ontology of power, while in the second one we have presented the main epistemological approaches of the different paradigms. In this third and final article we will deal with methodological schemes for Power Analysis in IR, while indicating areas for possible innovation using the "Arab Spring" cases as illustrations. Power, Outcomes, and what brings them togetherAs we have seen in the last part, the contribution made by Barnett and Duvall with his taxonomy of four dimensions of power is very helpful as theoretical framework; nevertheless, it is still weak to implement as a methodological tool - it is very difficult to distinguish in a real case what is originated through the structure or the actor, as well as to measure if the specificity is direct or diffuse.But the same could be expressed about the majority of the mentioned schemes. In fact, Dahl itself warned about the difficulties of combining variables to compare power relations and argued that it depends on the requirements of the research.1 This complexity is even larger when normative factors are included; for example, despite the proposal of Nye of measuring soft power through polls and focus groups, he also cautioned about the limits of the intangible variables.2 Hurt addresses certain ways of skipping the difficulties in measuring the power of legitimacy, such as examining: the rates of compliance, the reasons given for compliance and for non-compliance, the support given by the centers of Power and the need for legitimacy argument (akin to a counterfactual technique).3 But, once again, no combined power relations framework is presented.In addition, Lukes argues that power depends on the "significance" of the outcomes, namely, in the capacity of affecting the interests of the agents. He refers to two methods: by changing incentives structures (indoctrination) and by influencing interests (subject freedom). However, Lukes confesses that the main question remains open: how to use certain power to shape certain preferences?4In conclusion, in these approaches no power relation mechanism explains, in a measurable way, how material and normative resources are combined to shape power and influence decisions. Therefore, I would like to subsequently suggest a very simple framework that may allow us to implement the knowledge mentioned hitherto to study specific cases in IR.In line with the majority of the authors, in order to make power measurable I consider that we have to divide it in two variables: material power (or simply Power) and legitimation power (or legitimacy). In international politics, the power of an actor is expressed by its military (backed-by-economical) resources, and for the scheme it would receive "high" or "low" values. The legitimacy of the actors, which is based on their capacity to be perceived as norms-compliers and to build consensus around them5, would receive also "high" or "low" values.A power analysis based on the combination of those two variables, as it is shown below in illustration I, leads us to the taxonomy of four types of cases, each one ascribed to an "outcome". It is important to clarify that, for this paper, the outcomes would reflect the domestic situation of the main agent (the State) given an international system; it is a sort of outside-in analysis if we take into account Gourevitch´s second image reversed.6 Further work has to be done to adapt this scheme so as to explain the conduct of the State vis-à-vis other States as well as to include the domestic sphere of legitimacy.The first actor, which has high power and high legitimacy, could describe his situation as "stable"; that means, the actor would overcome the domestic and external challenges without internal changes and high international costs.The second actor, having high power but low legitimacy, is considered to be in a "changeable" situation. Although this actor is capable of overcoming internal and external challenges, due to the fact that it lacks of support from the other actors he could suffer from high international costs and possibly domestic changes.Illustration I – Taxonomy of Power-Legitimacy outcomesPOWERLEGITIMACYHigh PowerLow Power High Legitimacy "STABLE" "PROTECTABLE" Low Legitimacy "CHANGEABLE" "REVOLUTIONABLE" To the third actor, which has low power but high legitimacy, his situation is defined as "protectable". Due to his incapacity to overcome alone the internal and external challenges, this actor may count on the support of other actors to reduce the possibility of domestic changes; otherwise he will suffer from it.The fourth actor, with low power and low legitimacy, is placed in a "revolutionable" situation; that means, this actor is candidate to suffer from internal changes and high international costs at the time he would face challenges.Testing the Power Analysis framework with the "Arab Spring"The phenomenon known as the "Arab Spring", composed of dozens of countries in which massive protests were held, constitutes an outstanding test for the theory. A large quantity of those cases happened in a very short range of time, with all the variety of domestic conditions, reactions from the regime and from the world, as well as different outcomes. This makes those events ideal for the present examination; even though it is just a "sample" of a more deeply study.7Although no State of those that suffered uprisings is considered in a "stable" situation at all, Saudi Arabia and Jordan could be mentioned as good examples of Arab countries that combined high power (relatively, of course) and high legitimacy. Their regimes faced the uprisings from the beginning (mid-January 2011), but were capable of overcoming the internal challenges through a combination of repression and reforms, without suffering changes in their regime and being supported by the international community.Egypt is probably the best representation of a country whose regime kept high power at the moment of facing domestic challenges but received low legitimacy from the world; this "changeable" situation caused drastic changes at the top of the leadership (including the president, ministers, etc), albeit not of the whole regime (still leaded by the Military Council). Syria seems to be in a similar situation; while the power of the regime is still high, the legitimacy is not low enough to bring to major changes due to the sustained support of Russia, China and Iran. As a result, Syria constitutes today an excellent test for the power of legitimacy (and norms) in international politics.Between those countries that experienced a combination of low power and high legitimacy, experiencing a "protectable" situation, it is possible to mention Bahrain. Despite its regime was not capable of overcoming the internal revolts alone, it counted with the support of most of the Arab countries in the repression, and the Western approval of the "regional intervention" leaded by Gulf countries around the GCC. Yemen was in a comparable position, but at the end of 2011 the legitimacy of its regime was reduced when the region and the world understood the necessity to remove the President to maintain the remaining, in what was denominated later "the Yemenite option".Finally, Libya constitutes the case in which the regime was in a "revolutionable" situation, owing to its low Power to contain the rapid domestic rebellion and its low legitimacy after the first days of tremendous repression. The international costs were so high that included a military intervention leaded by NATO (with the endorsement of the Arab League), that led to the total collapse of the regime. It is possible to say that Tunisia was in an analogous situation while it did not need for a civil war and an external intervention to consummate finally a revolution (i.e., the complete removal of the existing regime).ConclusionsThroughout the paper we were able to observe that the ontological, epistemological and methodological discussions about the complex concept of Power maintain their relevance in the main schools of IR, and in some cases even constitute an essential part of their latest developments.At the same time, the inter-paradigmatic efforts of the last decades are demanding new power analysis approaches; that means, theoretical schemes that would embed a combination of the different factors at stake (material and non-material, resources and interactions, agents and structures) to specific cases of study.Deeper examinations of the "Arab Spring" cases need to be implemented so as to confirm the presented findings, as it was previously said. However, these small samples could possibly reveal that the implementation of a framework that combines both material and non-material resources is possible and, even more, desirable, to a better understanding of the devices of power in IR. 1 Robert A. Dahl, "The concept of Power", p.2142 Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power- The Means to Success in World Politics. p.63 Ian Hurt, "Legitimacy and Authority in International Politics". International Organization 53 No2 (Spring 1999), 390-3914 Stephen Lukes, "Power and the Battle for Hearts and Minds", p.4925 This short definition is based on concepts presented in Ian Clark, "Legitimacy in International Society" (London: Oxford University Press, 2005). It includes components both from the structure and the agent.6 Peter Gourevitch, "The second image reversed – the international sources of domestic politics" International Organization 32 No4, (Autumn 1978), 881-911.7 An investigation is "under construction", called "The Arab League and its legitimation role in the Arab Spring". It focuses on the power of the Arab League to yield legitimacy (or not) in six different cases. Bibliography Bachrach, Peter and Baratz, Morton S. "Two Faces of Power". The American Political Science Review 56 No4, (December 1962), 947-952 Baldwin, David A. Paradoxes of Power (NYC: Basil Blackwell, 1989). Barnett, Michael and Duvall, Raymond. "Power in International Politics", International Organization 59, No1 (Winter 2005), 39-75 Berenskoetter, Felix and Williams, Michael J. Power in World Politics. (NYC: Routledge, 2007) Bourdieu, Pierre. Language & Symbolic Power (NYC : Polity Press, 2001) Carr, Edward H., The Twenty Years' Crisis,1919-1939 (NYC: Harper Torchbooks, 1964) Clark, Ian. "Legitimacy in International Society" (NYC: Oxford University Press, 2005) Claude, Inis L., Power and International Relations (New York: Random House, 1962). Dahl, Robert A. "The concept of Power", Behavioral Science 2 No3, (July 1957), 201-215 Haas, Ernst B. When Knowledge is Power (University of California Press, 1990). Finnemore, Martha and Sikkink, Kathryn "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change," International Organization 52, No. 4 (Autumn 1998), 887-917. Foucalt, Michael. Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-77 (Brighton: Havester, 1980) Franck, Thomas M., "The Power of Legitimacy and the Legitimacy of Power: International Law in an Age of Power Disequilibrium." American Journal International 88 (2006), 88-106 Gourevitch, Peter. "The second image reversed – the international sources of domestic politics" International Organization 32 No4, (Autumn 1978), 881-911. Guzzini, Stefano, "The Concept of Power: A Constructivist Analysis" Millennium 33 No3, 2005, 495-521. Guzzini, Stefano, "Structural power: the limits of neorealist power analysis", International Organization 47, No3 (Summer 1993), 443-478. Hurt, Ian, "Legitimacy and Authority in International Politics". International Organization 53 No2 (Spring 1999), 379-408 Ikenberry, John and Kupchan, Charles A. "Socialization and hegemonic power", International Organization 44, No3 (Summer 1990), 283-315. Keohane, Robert O. and Nye, Joseph S., Power and Interdependence, 2nd edition (New York: Harper Collins, 1989) Krasner, Stephen D. "Regimes and the Limits of Realism: Regimes as Autonomous Variables", International Organization 36 (Spring 1982), 497-510 Lukes, Stephen. "Power and the Battle for Hearts and Minds", Millennium 33 No3, (2005), 477-493 Mearsheimer, John. The Tragedy of Great power Politics (NYC: Norton, 2001) Morgenthau, Hans J., Politics among Nations, 4th edition (NYC: Knopf, 1967). Nye, Joseph S. Soft Power- The Means to Success in World Politics (NYC: PublicAffairs, 2004) Putnam, Robert. "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games," International Organization 42, No3, (1988), 427-460 Risse, Thomas. "Let's Argue! Communicative Action in World Politics," International Organization 54 No1 (Winter 2000), 1-40. Schmidt, Brian C. "Competing Realist Conceptions of Power", Millennium 33 No3, 523-549 Walt, Stephen. The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987) Waltz, Kenneth. Theory of International Politics. (NYC: McGraw-Hill, 1979) Weber, Max. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. (California: University of Berkeley, 1978. Edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich). Wendt, Alexander. "Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics," International Organization 46 (1992), 391-425. Wendt, Alexander. "The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations Theory", International Organization 41/3 (1987), 335-370. Fabian Daniel Wajner is a Research and Teaching Assistant at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Department of International Relations) and a Fellow of the Liweranth Center for Latin America Studies.

Unlike much of the secondary literature on Shakespeare, "Immanent Shakespeares: Politics, Performance, and Pedagogy" labors less to determine what Shakespearean texts might mean than to explore the cultural work these texts do while working in conjunction with contemporary institutions of learning and technologies of performance. Shakespeare studies too often takes the determination (or destabilization) of meaning as its telos, even when it's largely informed by performance criticism. This project sets meaning aside to focus on how Shakespeare's textuality gets mobilized through performance in order to produce material effects--effects that exceed and shape semantic meaning. Semantic and hermeneutic vocabularies leave performance scholars very few terms with which they might interrogate performance's most salient features: duration, embodiment, light, discipline or affect. Making and coming to terms with what Shakespeare can do inevitably involves refiguring the relationship between Shakespeare's text and performance practices. In the dissertation, I argue that the field of Shakespeare studies too often figures the difference between textuality and performance spatially . These spatial models figure performance in prepositional relation to textuality: performances arise from the text or are interpretations of textuality. Performance has largely been understood as an interpretation of a Shakespearean meaning residing within a static (albeit polysemic) textuality. On stage or on screen, performance is continually represented as exterior to--and is considered over-determined by--textuality. My project, instead, figures the difference between stage/screen and page in terms of time. This move, from figures of space to figures of time, forces a reconsideration of many disciplinary assumptions (in literary, film and performance studies). Cultural studies' spatializing tendency, inseparable from the way it often figures difference (as "difference between" two discrete identities), is rooted in a long history of transcendental dialectics. Textuality and performance are framed, spatially, in terms of transcendence (even when stage-centered criticism tries to invert this relation, prioritizing performance, it nevertheless continues to understand difference within a transcendental relation). My project moves from a transcendental, spatial understanding of difference to one rooted in immanent, temporal duration. Giorgio Agamben recently identified "two different trajectories in contemporary French philosophy, both of which pass through Heidegger: a trajectory of transcendence , which includes Levinas and Derrida and goes back through Hussurl to Kant; and a trajectory of immanence , which includes Foucault and Deleuze, and goes back through Nietzsche to Spinoza." The dissertation works throughout to illustrate how this shift--from transcendental, spatial constraint to immanent, temporal production--allows for more nuanced discussions of elements constitutive of performance. The project considers Shakespearean performance within a variety of institutional arenas; different chapters consider reading practices, teaching practices, student performance, theatrical enactment, and new (and old) media engagement. This approach entails a series of interlocking, close, rhetorical readings of particular performances, theatrical/filmic/video/digital media technologies, arts/educational legislation, as well as the institutional discourses accompanying each. These close readings work to refigure the problem of textuality and performance in civic, aesthetic and pedagogical discourses; each chapter, subsequent to this refiguration, ends by proposing innovative, practice-based solutions. In Chapter One, I build on the critique of spatialized understandings of text and performance outlined in the introduction in order to argue that the humanities' figuration of difference and power (alongside attendant assumptions about the relationship between self and structure) continues to hide more than it reveals about culture, history, power and performance. In the chapter, I argue for and illustrate what an alternative, immanent critique might look like. The chapter focuses on two "objects" (a methodological term which seems to point to how performance is always already spatialized): 1) a "radical" or "transgressive" performance of Macbush , a contemporary re-imagining of Macbeth , and 2) a seemingly co-opted, official, "normative" performance of Macbeth sponsored by Boeing, the "right-wing" NEA, and the US Department of Defense. The chapter examines these two ostensibly opposed productions by rehearsing a dialectical or "transcendental" critique and using a common (hackneyed) reading of de Certeau's strategy/tactic distinction--one which emphasizes and prioritizes de Certeau's interest in space. I then complicate this reading by showing how de Certeau's figuration of power and performance within the panoptic city already includes an inclination towards an immanent understanding of power's circulation--one that emphasizes time and complicates the spatial cartographies upon which dialectical movement finds its ground and proper "identity." Through this immanent reading, I argue that dialectical understandings of culture and power rely upon a particular way of understanding the priority of space, one strengthened by Cold War discourses of cultural fronts and quantitative, incursive movements through homogenous space (both Macbeth and Bush, in prioritizing the stability of space over the contingencies of time, make this same tragic flaw in different ways). Ultimately, I argue that an immanent understanding of culture and power corresponds with contemporary changes in the shape of Empire and new ways of conceptualizing the flows of global capital, ways rooted in performance's duration and affect. Further, this immanent reading (and the shape of Empire and history correlative to this approach) highlights the dangers of the Left's reliance upon historical analogies that flatten important differences between Vietnam and Iraq or between Bush and Macbeth. Chapter Two develops the notion of immanent critique by revisiting dualistic notions of self and structure in film theory and performance studies. In this chapter, I look at the spatial arrangement of spectators, specific media, and apparatuses of projection. Through a reading of Prospero's Books , a 1991 "new media" film using proto-HDTV technologies and bourgeoning CGI graphics software, this chapter looks at film's ability, through these technologies, to trouble film theory's traditionally spatial understanding of filmic semiotics and the spectator's relation to the (transcendent) filmic apparatus. This chapter introduces an immanent performance theory to film theory by offering a new reading of the latter's key texts--from Munsterberg and Armheim, to Balazs and Metz, to Benjamin's Artwork essay--highlighting along the way each theorist's relation to the "immanent turn" in cultural studies. Key here will be the role each theorist gives to temporal relations. Particularly useful in rethinking the spectator's relationship to the (new or old media) apparatus is Benjamin's notion of "creative innervation"--a term he uses to show how the spectator's body is productively enlivened, rather than negatively determined, by a technological apparatus which becomes, for him or her, a prosthesis. This chapter puts Benjamin into contact with Deleuze to sketch out what an immanent model of reception might entail once traditional notions of the filmic apparatus' (over-) determinism have collapsed. This immanent understanding of filmic reception--a productive reception modeled in Prospero's Books --builds upon various notions of "pseudopresences" and theories of "affective faciality/physiognomy" sketched out by twentieth century film theorists in order to rethink the presence/absence binary and the various ways in which this binary gets unevenly mapped onto the disciplines of theatre and film. Chapter Three looks at how changing technologies continue to reconstitute the disciplinary gulf between film and theatre. In this chapter, I look at two interlocking performances: Richard Burton's 1964 Electronovision Hamlet and the Wooster Group's "new media" Hamlet . Working with Deleuze's idea of "the theatre of repetition," and continuing to work with Walter Benjamin's notion of "creative innervation," this chapter examines the technologies of repetition each Hamlet employs in order to read, write, and perform with the pre-recorded yet affective and "pseudopresent" specters of history. In July of 1964, three performances of the Burton-Gielgud Hamlet were recorded and edited together thanks to "miracle of Electronovision." The resulting "Theatrofilm" was then screened for two days in over one thousand theaters in order to give audiences the "liveness" of a Broadway show right in their own local theater. Recently, the Wooster Group has been staging another version of Hamlet , one that utilizes the Isadora and Final Cut Pro platforms to digitally remix and reframe the Burton-Gielgud production as an historical background upon which the company acts. Onstage, The Wooster Group imitates the 1964 Hamlet gesture for gesture in what the group likens to an archeological reconstruction, but I argue for an alternate figuration, one that is less spatial and more temporal in its figuration of history. This chapter uses these two performances (and their contemporary technologies) to ask how the so-called "new" media differently mediate our relationship with the past. I argue that new technological interfaces enable us to engage in historiographical research on stages and screens in ways that are singularly durational and within registers that are incommensurate to the textual historiographies of journals and monographs. Each of the Hamlet productions I treat figures a relation to history, treating the past as an interactive ensemble of images that are engageable yet immutably scripted. Chapter Four begins my engagement with critical pedagogy as I attempt to rework Freirean accounts of the classroom as a space of cultural contradiction and potential "liberation." The chapter asks how we might instead see classroom practices as productive of political, economic and ethical behaviors. Since the 1980s, critical pedagogy has rallied for the inclusion of "hip hop in the classroom" as part of a culturally relevant, Freirean model of connecting language with the lived experience of inner-city youth. But the movement begins to achieve success at the very moment hip hop begins losing its geographic specificity. Recently, a number of programs ("Shakespeare is Hip Hop," "Shakespeare: the Remix," and "Shakespeare in Urban Slang") have sought to connect Shakespeare and hip hop as a way of bridging the divide between the spaces of high and low culture. In this chapter, I examine the strange effects of local, culturally specific pedagogical practices fusing Shakespeare and hip hop which--like the music itself--have been removed, practiced and copied outside of what was once their "proper" space. What happens when suburban youth are asked by their teachers to perform Macbeth in hip hop vernacular? YouTube abounds with blackface Shakespeare. More importantly, though, the chapter rethinks intercultural borrowing and how the logic of "appropriation" falsely frames culture as private property at the same time that young people who identify with remix culture increasingly strive for a "creative commons" and continually challenge the spatial proprieties of culture. This chapter puts the "culture wars" into dialogue with the "copyright wars" and argues that, in a world where the line between public and private properties and spaces is increasingly blurred by virtual glocalities, digital rights management software and copyleft legal theories, cultural studies needs to rethink the spatial logic of cultural appropriation. Chapter Five brings immanent critique to the space of the classroom by examining another the Shakespeare teaching docudrama. These films, both fictional and documentary, chronicle "successful" pedagogues and the at-risk students whose lives they transform. In this chapter, I look at a few of these films alongside the No Child Left Behind Act's legislation on "character education." Performing a genealogy of the "character education movement" from the Greeks to 21st century US contexts, this chapter looks at the way in which Shakespearean repetitions operate to construct both a particularly American Shakespeare as well as a particularly American characterization of the student body. Centering on Prince Hal's Saint Crispin's Day speech, this chapter also explores the way in which discourses of national "character" and their corresponding pedagogies rely upon a particularly vertical (patrilineal, spatial, transcendental) notion of repetition and differentiation, one which might be refigured by Hardt and Negri's notion of how the immanent multitude operates in time. This chapter moves from the performance of character to a notion of "performing character." Much as earlier chapters refigured text/performance or apparatus/performance oppositions, this chapter shows how dialectical pedagogies might give way to durational, embodied performance pedagogies. The dissertation's concluding chapter, its post-script, uses the pedants of Love's Labour's Lost to engage in an interdisciplinary genealogy of the geek. I focus on three figures of the student body's relation to technology (the bookworm, the computer nerd, and the drama queen) in order to better understand how the "geek" has gained increased importance as a category of social difference and exclusion. The conclusion asks: How does the alterity of the geek historically produce and trouble the mutual exclusivity of love and labor , humans and machines, males and females, the curricular and the extracurricular, and/or the physical and the metaphysical? As a means of overcoming learning's alienation from the social, the dissertation concludes by introducing a "geek chic" performance pedagogy. This pedagogy uses training in digital video editing to include the social, and often virtual, extracurricular lives of students. Through editing their own performances (as they often already do within the world of social networking sites), students will rehearse the behaviors, gestures, expressions and temporal movements that constitute what we perceive as character. By examining these "character effects," students are trained to understand character differently--less as an originary space or cause of performance and more as a legible effect of performative behavior.

Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen. I am very pleased that you were all able to accept my invitation to join me here today on this landmark occasion for nursing education. It is fitting that all of the key stakeholders from the health and education sectors should be so well represented at the launch of an historic new development. Rapid and unpredictable change throughout society has been the hallmark of the twenty-first century, and healthcare is no exception. Regardless of what change occurs, no one doubts that nursing is intrinsic to the health of this nation. However, significant changes in nurse education are now needed if the profession is to deliver on its social mandate to promote peopleÃ'´s health by providing excellent and sensitive care. As science, technology and the demands of the public for sophisticated and responsive health care become increasingly complex, it is essential that the foundation of nursing education is redesigned. Pre-registration nursing education has already undergone radical change over the past eight years, during which time it has moved from an apprenticeship model of education and training to a diploma based programme firmly rooted in higher education. The Secretary General of my Department, Michael Kelly, played a leading role in bringing about this transformation, which has greatly enhanced the way students are prepared for entry to the nursing profession. The benefits of the revised model of education are clearly evident from the quality of the nurses graduating from the diploma programme. The Commission on Nursing examined the whole area of nursing education, and set out a very convincing case for educating nursing students to degree level. It argued that nurses of the future would be required to possess increased flexibility and the ability to work autonomously. A degree programme would provide nurses with a theoretical underpinning that would enable them to develop their clinical skills to a greater extent and to respond to future challenges in health care, for the benefit of patients and clients of the health services. The Commission has provided a solid framework for the professional development of nurses and midwives, including a process that is already underway for the creation of clinical nurse specialist and advanced nurse practitioner posts. This process will facilitate the transfer of skills across divisions of nursing. In this scenario, it is clearly desirable that the future benchmark qualification for registration as a nurse should be a degree in nursing studies. A Nursing Education Forum was established in early 1999 to prepare a strategic framework for the implementation of a nursing degree programme. When launching the ForumÃ'´s report last January, I indicated that the Government had agreed in principle to the introduction of the proposed degree programme next year. At the time two substantial outstanding issues had yet to be resolved, namely the basis on which nurse teachers would transfer from the health sector to the education sector and the amount of capital and revenue funding required to operate the degree programme. My Department has brokered agreements between the Nursing Alliance and the Higher Education Institutions for the assimilation of nurse teachers as lecturers into their affiliated institutions. The terms of these agreements have been accepted by all four nursing unions following a ballot of their nurse teacher members. I would like to pay particular tribute to all nurse teachers who have contributed to shaping the position, relevance and visibility of nursing through leadership, which embodies scholarship and excellence in the profession of nursing itself. In response to a recommendation of the Nursing Education Forum, I established an Inter-Departmental Steering Committee, chaired by Bernard Carey of my Department, to consider all the funding and policy issues. This Steering Committee includes representatives of the Department of Finance and the Department of Education and Science as well as the Higher Education Authority. The Steering Committee has been engaged in intensive negotiations with representatives of the Conference of Heads of Irish Universities and the Institutes of Technology in relation to their capital and revenue funding requirements. These negotiations were successfully concluded within the past few weeks. The satisfactory resolution of the industrial relations and funding issues cleared the way for me to go to the Government with concrete proposals for the implementation of degree level education for nursing students. I am delighted to announce here today that the Government has approved all of my proposals, and that a four-year undergraduate pre-registration nursing degree programme will be implemented on a nation-wide basis at the start of the next academic year, 2002/2003. The Government has approved the provision of capital funding totalling Ã'£176 million pounds for a major building and equipment programme to facilitate the full integration of nursing students into the higher education sector. This programme is due to be completed by September 2004, and will ensure that nursing students are accommodated in purpose built schools of nursing studies with state of the art clinical skills and human science laboratories at thirteen higher education sites throughout the country. The Government has also agreed to make available the substantial additional revenue funding required to support the nursing degree programme. By 2006, the full year cost of operating the programme will rise to some Ã'£43 million pounds. The scale of this investment in pre-registration nursing education is enormous by any yardstick. It demonstrates the firm commitment of myself and my Government colleagues to the full implementation of the recommendations of the Commission on Nursing, of which the introduction of pre-registration degree level education is arguably the most important. This historic decision, and it is truly historic, will finally put the education of nurses on a par with the education of other health care professionals. The nursing profession has long been striving for parity, and my own involvement in the achievement of it is a matter of deep personal satisfaction to me. I am also pleased to announce that the Government has approved my plans for increasing the number of nursing training places to coincide with the implementation of the degree programme next year. Ninety-three additional places in mental handicap and psychiatric nursing will be created at Athlone, Letterkenny, Tralee and Waterford Institutes of Technology. This will yield 392 extra places over the four years of the degree programme. A total of 1,640 places annually on the new degree programme will thus be available. This is an all-time record, and maintaining the annual student intake at this level for the foreseeable future is a key element of my overall strategy for ensuring that we produce sufficient "home-grown" nurses for our health services. I am aware that the Nursing Alliance were anxious that some funding would be provided for the further academic career development of nurse teachers who transfer to one of the six Universities that will be involved in the delivery of the degree programme. I am happy to confirm that up to Ã'£300,000 in total per year will be available for this purpose over the first four years of the degree programme. In line with a recommendation of the Commission on Nursing, my Department will have responsibility for the administration of the nursing degree budget until the programme has been bedded down in the higher education sector. A primary concern will be to ensure that the substantial capital and revenue funding involved is ring-fenced for nursing studies. It is intended that responsibility for the budget will be transferred to the Department of Education and Science after the first cohort of nursing degree students have graduated in 2006. In the context of todayÃ'´s launch, it is relevant to refer to a special initiative that I introduced last year to assist registered nurses wishing to undertake part-time nursing degree courses. Under this initiative, nurses are entitled to have their course fees paid by their employers in return for a commitment to continue working in the public health service for a period following completion of the course. This initiative has proved extremely popular with large numbers of nurses availing of it. I want to confirm here today that the free fees initiative will continue in operation until 2005, at a total cost of at least Ã'£15 million pounds. I am giving this commitment in order to assure this yearÃ'´s intake of nursing students to the final diploma programmes that fee support for a part-time nursing degree course will be available to them when they graduate in three years time. The focus of todayÃ'´s celebration is rightly on the landmark Government decision to implement the nursing degree programme next year. As Minister for Health and Children, and as a former Minister for Education, I also have a particular interest in the educational opportunities available to other health service workers to upgrade their skills. I am pleased to announce that the Government has approved my proposals for the introduction of a sponsorship scheme for suitable, experienced health care assistants who wish to become nurses. This new scheme will commence next year and will be administered by the health boards. Successful applicants will be allowed to retain their existing salaries throughout the four years of the degree programme in return for a commitment to work as nurses for their health service employer for a period of five years following registration. Up to forty sponsorships will be available annually. The new scheme will enable suitable applicants to undertake nursing education and training without suffering financial hardship. The greatest advantage of the scheme will be the retention by the public health service of staff who are supported under it, since they will have had practical experience of working in the service and their own personal commitment to upgrading their skills will be informed by that experience. I am confident that the sponsorship scheme will be warmly welcomed by health service unions representing care assistants as providing an exciting new career development path for their members. Education and health are now the two pillars upon which the profession of nursing rests. We must continue to build bridges, even tunnels where needed to strengthen this partnership. We must all understand partnerships donâ?Tt just happen they are designed and must be worked at. The changes outlined here today are powerful incentives for those in healthcare agencies, academic institutions and regulatory bodies to design revolutionary programmes capable of shaping a critical mass of excellent practitioners. You have an opportunity, greater perhaps than has been granted to any other generation in history to make certain those changes are for the good. Ultimately changes that will make the country a healthier and more equitable place to live. The challenge relates to building a seamless preparatory programme which equally respects both education and practise as an indivisible duo whilst ensuring that high tech does not replace the human touch. This is a special day in the history of the development of the Irish nursing profession, and I would like to thank everybody for their contribution. I want to express my particular appreciation of two people who by this stage are well known to all of you – Bernard Carey of my Department and Siobhán OÃ'´Halloran of the National Implementation Committee. Bernard and Siobhán have devoted considerable time and energy to the project on my behalf over the past fourteen months or so. That we are here today celebrating the launch of degree level education is due in no small part to their successful execution of the mandate that I gave them. We live in a rapidly changing world, one in which nursing can no longer rely on systems of the past to guide it through the new millennium. In terms of contemporary healthcare, nursing is no longer just a reciprocal kindness but rather a highly complex set of professional behaviours, which require serious educational investment. Pre-registration nurse education will always need development and redesign to ensure our health care system meets the demands of modern society. Nothing is finite. Today more than ever the health system is dependent on the resourcefulness of nursing. I have no doubt that the new educational landscape painted will ensure that nurses of the future will be increasingly innovative, independent and in demand. The unmistakable message from my Department is that nursing really matters. Thank you.

Our interest in irrigation development predates recorded history. We have always recognized the important role of irrigation development in sustaining agricultural development Our early irrigation systems are mostly small, gravity irrigation systems that were built, operated and maintained by farmer-irrigators These systems have built-in stability as crop cultural practices as well as soil and water conservation practices arc interwoven in their design, operation and management (O&M) Starting in 1908, the government took a more active role in irrigation development It centralized irrigation development under the Bureau of Public Works This set in motion a seemingly irreversible process of viewing irrigation development as a typical public works project whose orientation is mainly engineering in nature and focused on infrastructures From the 1960s through the mid- 1980s, there was a rapid expansion in the area under irrigation There was a shill in emphasis towards medium- and large-scale gravity irrigation systems serving rice monocultures Irrigation development was heavily subsidized and under government monopoly In the late 1980s, it became quite clear that not all is well in as far as irrigation development is concerned A host of interrelated technical, social, economic, institutional and hydrologic issues and constraints added costs on irrigation facilities and services Scarce public resources were allocated to irrigation activities and technologies that were not cost-effective, efficient or sustainable Moreover, gravity irrigation systems were rapidly deteriorating at a rate of about 70,0(X) ha taken out of the irrigation command area annually As gravity irrigation systems rapidly deteriorated and failed to distribute water efficiently and equitably, service fee collections fell much short of the needed operation and maintenance costs, raising serious doubts about their sustainability The policy of continuing to invest in the development and rehabilitation of medium- to large-scale gravity irrigation systems has increasingly been questioned Rehabilitation and new area generation from 1992 to 1996 covered more than 410,000 ha, averaging about 83,000 ha annually The massive efforts resulted in a total increase of only 61,000 ha of irrigated area during the dry season, or an average annual increase of 12,000 ha pa year Though nearly 40 percent of the total service area in 1996 had either been newly generated or rehabilitated, the 1996 dry season cropping intensity was only about 56 percent Efforts to rationalize irrigation development started in the late 1980s and continue to date. The Department of Agriculture's (DA) shallow tubewell irrigation (STW) project which was launched in the early 1990s was a big step to promote cost-effective and sustainable irrigation technologies, increase participation of farmers in irrigation development and their control over facilities, privatize irrigation and gradually phase out irrigation subsidies. Present analysis confirmed the cost-effectiveness, by many folds, of STW and low lift pump ix (LLP) over alternative systems in terms of increasing effective cropped area and of empowering farmers. From 1990 onwards, STW and LLP irrigation became the engines of growth of irrigated agriculture, expanding at a rate of more than 10 percent annually. The command area of these modes of irrigation is estimated to be over half a million ha at present. Much of the available information show that the country is realizing less than half of the potential benefits from irrigation development. Moreover, there are alarming indications of decreasing efficiency in the planning and implementation of national irrigation systems (NIS) and communal irrigation systems (CIS) as attractive schemes get fewer and fewer and vital watersheds are increasingly subject to exploitation by an ever increasing population. On the average, irrigation service fee (ISE) collection for NIS and CIS only amount to about 58 percent of the assessed fees. This is despite the fact that the assessed fees are generally way below the amount required for their adequate repair, operation and maintenance (O&M). Thus, there is a need for frequent rehabilitation. On the average. irrigation service fee (ISE) collection for NIS and CIS only amount to about 58 percent of the assessed fees. This is despite the fact that the assessed fees are generally way below the amount required for their adequate repair, operation and maintenance (O&M). Thus, there is a need for frequent rehabilitation. Fortunately, the Philippines is blessed with abundant shallow groundwater resources. The National Water Resources Board (NWRB) estimated that we have an aggregate of 5.1 million ha shallow well area. Yet only about 1.4 million ha is currently irrigated by all modes of irrigation. It is clear that the small, fanner-controlled (collectively referred to as minor) irrigation technologies arc the most appropriate technologies for the future. This is more so in the case of STWs and LLPs which require much lower investment cost, have very short gestation periods, yield higher unit area productivity levels, give farmers a greater degree of control over their irrigation water, and are amenable to crop diversification. The Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) clearly recognized this fact when it called for a shift in focus to new minor irrigation facilities (STWs, LLPs and similar low-cost, farmer-controlled, privatized and sustainable irrigation systems). These cost-effective, efficient, farmer-controlled minor irrigation technologies offer the best growth opportunities for Philippine agriculture in the short and medium-terms. There are opportunities for optimizing the benefits from irrigation development through expanded and concerted irrigation research and development (R&D) efforts, which are almost non-existent at present, and through the development of appropriate policy and institutional environment conducive to sustainable irrigation development. There are also potentials for increasing the unit area productivity of irrigated agriculture by improving the performance of existing irrigation systems. Among others, this will require improved O&M; on-farm water management; farming systems intensification and diversification; effective and timely delivery of irrigated agricultural support services such as integrated irrigation water. soil and fertilizer, pests and seeds and seedling management; and farm mechanization. However, improving the performance of our present irrigation systems will require considerable rehabilitation efforts in order to rectify design shortcomings and arrest the decline in the command area and performance of NIS and CIS. A policy and program framework for accelerated and sustained irrigation development has been formulated after an in-depth analysis of the trends, issues and constraints as well as options in irrigation development. The program framework envisions that the country will soon have in lace a coherent.lice from together with a strategic vision for the transfo a highly productive, intensive and diversity, Page 11 / 123 CC term (5 — 10 years) scenario that can then sustained irrigation development guided by the intent and spirit of the AFMA. Among others, an accelerated and sustained irrigation development would require the following: I) Generation of an additional command area of about 100 thousand ha annually during year I and 2, with a 10 percent incremental increase annually from year 3 to 9. levelling off at 200 thousand ha per year thereafter. About 90 percent of the new area will come from STWs and LLPs. The rest will be from other modes of irrigation including Small Water Impounding Projects (SWIPs), Small Farm Reservoirs (SFRs). NIS, CIS and inundation schemes. 2) Rehabilitation of about 50 thousand ha of NIS and CIS annually for the next 10 years assuming that the present irrigation service areas are cut down to realistic level (by about 30%). This will maintain the present level of development of the NIS and CIS. Rehabilitation will be on a cost-sharing basis among stakeholders. After rehabilitation, a system must be self-sustaining (full 0 & M cost recovery from ISF). 3) Effective and efficient 0 & M of existing national, communal and small-scale irrigation facilities serving about I million ha (irrigation command area) at present. 4) Improved performance of irrigated agriculture. This will imply achieving a cropping intensity of 170 to 200 percent and unit area productivity of at least 7 Uha/year in terms of grain for STW and LLPs and a cropping intensity of at least 140 percent and unit area productivity of 5.5 t/ha/year for NIS and CIS. 5) Increasingly diversified, intensified and highly productive agriculture in areas served by small, farmer-controlled irrigation facilities. 6) Enhanced institutional capacity at all levels for the effective and timely delivery of essential irrigated agriculture support services and functions including policy planning. monitoring and evaluation, research and extension, training. credit and marketing facilities, and inputs supply and distribution • Assuming timely and effective implementation of the proposed framework and that irrigation development will be focused on rice production, palay production is expected to increase (from a base level of about 11.0 million metric tons at present) by at least 4.5 percent per year. Much of the incremental increase in production will come from the development of new STW and LLP irrigation systems. The rice supply and demand scenario resulting from the projected increase in rice production given the present level of per capita rice consumption of about 95 kg per year, a population growth rate of 2.3 percent and a 65 percent milling recovery shows that rice self-sufficiency will be attained in year 5 of successful program implementation. When per capita rice consumption is assumed to increase from 95 to 110 kg per year, self-sufficiency in rice will be attained in year 7 of program implementation. A total of 30 percent of the budget for agriculture and fishery modernization has been earmarked for irrigation development. Hence, a budget of at least about P6 billion is to be allocated for irrigation development for the year 2001. This sizeable budgetary allocation is xi likely to be allocated in the coming years since the national government is committed to achieving the goals and intent of the AFMA. The provision of a relatively large budget for irrigation development raises the issue of how to allocate to the various aspects of irrigation development such as O&M, rehabilitation and new systems development and to the various irrigation technologies so as to engender broad-based sustained agriculture growth and enhanced poverty alleviation. Given the numerous aspects and modes by which irrigation development may be carried out, it is but logical to allocate the financial resources optimally to maximize the benefits derived from these endeavors. An initial outlay of P6.0 billion pesos will be required. Of these, about P2.3 billion, P2.7 billion and P0.8 billion will be used for the development of new systems, for rehabilitation, and for the improvement in 0 & M of existing irrigation systems, respectively. The total program cost will level of about P8.9 billion from year 10 onwards. As stipulated by AFMA. the focus in new irrigation systems development is on small farmer irrigation systems such as STWs and LLPs. 'the development of these irrigation schemes is private sector-led. The rehabilitation of existing irrigation systems should be based on a cost-sharing arrangement among the Department of Agriculture (DA), Local Government Units (LGU) and the farmer-beneficiaries. The public sector should continue to contribute the lion's share in the cost of improving the 0 & M of NIS and CIS, in the delivery of essential irrigated agriculture support services and in the protection of critical watersheds and aquifers. About two-thirds of the initial budgetary outlay of P6.0 billion should come from the government. From year 8 onwards, the share of the public sector will be less than that of the private sector. The proposed program framework approach does not advocate totally displacing the share of gravity irrigation systems in favor of STWs and LLPs. With 58 percent collection rate for NIS and CIS, irrigation service fees are insufficient to cover the O&M costs of gravity irrigation systems. Without public financing to cover shortfalls in resources for O&M, losses in irrigated areas eventually set in from gravity system decay. In effect, these losses offset pan of hectare gained from promoting STWs. Calculations indicate a cropping intensity of 70 percent during the wet season and 50 percent during the dry season in NIS with a total service area coverage of 800.000 ha. The estimated budgetary requirements were based on the assumption that the heritage (240.000 ha) that can not be effectively served by the NIS anyway, even in the wet season, will be excised from the existing irrigation service area. This will reduce the required rehabilitation costs of gravity irrigated command areas as well as the shortfalls in irrigation service fees which need to be covered from the public coffers.

Mickey Levy's excellent WSJ oped leaves some thoughts. Inflation has fallen, though I still suspect it may get stuck around 3-4%. But prices "are 18.9% higher than its [their] pre-pandemic level." And some important prices have risen even more. "Rental costs continue to rise in lagged response to the 46.1% surge in home prices."  Those who are taking a victory lap about the end of inflation (the rate of change of prices) are befuddled by continuing consumer (and voter) anger. Well, prices are not the same thing as inflation. Our current monetary policy has, for decades, forgotten past mistakes. If inflation surges to 10%, and prices rise 10%, it is considered a victory, and battle over when inflation gets back to 2%, though prices are still 12% higher than they were. It wasn't always this way. Under the gold standard, prices were stable for long periods, which means that bouts of inflation were quickly followed by bouts of deflation. I'm absolutely not advocating for the gold standard, but it's worth remembering that price stability rather than inflation stability is possible.  Why the fuss? As Mickey points out, not all prices rose the same amount. In particular, "Increases in wage and salaries ... haven't kept pace with the CPI and have resulted in a decline in real wages." No wonder "the public isn't pleased." This offers an interesting moment to rethink the basic idea of bygones will be bygones in monetary policy. Wages are, by common agreement, a lot more sticky than prices. Eventually wages will catch up, but it will be a long and contentious process. Wouldn't it be better, after a bout of inflation, for prices to come down quickly,  to match the current level of nominal wages? "Real wage restoration" has a nice ring to it that even Fed doves and inequality worriers might appreciate. MortgagesMickey also points to a fascinating puzzle of our mortgage markets: Tens of millions of homeowners who locked in mortgages at rates below 3% between 2020 and 2021 are now unwilling to sell. The result is a shortage of homes on the market and higher prices. ..That in turn has impaired labor mobility, historically an important factor for production and labor-market efficiencies.In the US, if you wish to protect yourself against rising mortgage interest rates by buying a fixed rate mortgage, you can only do it bundled with one particular house. You cannot easily say, "I don't want to get hit by interest rate rises, but I might want to move and still be able to afford a big house."  So we are stuck with this interesting puzzle, that higher interest rates to combat inflation lead to people staying parked in houses they really don't want, unwilling to move to take a better job somewhere else, to downsize, to cash out of a house-poor expensive area (Palo Alto), to upsize for more children or elderly parents, and so on. 30 year fixed rate non-transferrable mortgages with a complex option to prepay and refinance when interest rates go down, and little consequence for default (whew)  are not a law of nature. It is not this way around the world, and I've been fascinated to talk to economists at other central banks about their very different worries. In many countries almost all mortgages have floating rates, that quickly catch up to any rise in short term interest rates. In many of these countries, it is not easy to default. If interest rates rise from 2% to 6% and you can't afford to triple your monthly payment, you can't just give the bank the keys as you typically can in the US. In Sweden, I was told,  if you default on a mortgage, the bank will grab all your other assets, and also garnish your wages for several years. You will live on their minimum social assistance income, about $15,000 at the time of this conversation, for several years. As a result, central banks in these countries have a completely different set of worries about raising interest rates. Rather than worry about defaults that will imperil banks, they worry that people will stop spending on everything else before defaulting on their mortgage. So monetary policy (raising interest rates), surprisingly ineffective right now in the US, can be dramatically more "effective" with that sort of mortgage market. (Yes, inducing a fall in consumption is the point of raising interest rates.) I don't know of mainstream models that include this distinction but it seems first order for the effect of interest rates on the economy. Central bankers also worry a lot more about public backlash when mortgage costs for the whole population can swiftly double or more. Back to the US. Why can you not keep your mortgage when you change houses? Why must protection against interest rate rises -- a form of insurance, really -- be tied to staying in one house? Put that way, you can come up with a dozen legal, regulatory, and perhaps even economic reasons. The 30 year fixed rate itself is an invention of 1930s federal housing policy. Banks hold very few mortgages. Pretty much the whole mortgage market gets securitized with a credit guarantee by federal housing agencies (Fannie, Freddy, etc.). So if their rules for acceptable mortgage says you can't change houses, well, you can't change houses, no matter what demand. Subsidies for a particular version of a product kill product innovation. One real estate economist I asked this of suggested that the mortgage originators like it this way, as it forces you to pay fees to move. And one can speculate that lenders don't want you to substitute a worse house as collateral. I don't think that holds, because acceptability of the house follows simple rules, but it's possible. So, today's bright idea: Why don't banks also routinely sell retail fixed for floating swaps? These are standard financial contracts that have been around for decades. Here's how it works: You take out a floating rate mortgage, at say 2%. Fixed rate mortgages are, say, 3%. So along with your mortgage, you agree with the bank that you will pay the bank 3% a year, fixed for 30 years, and the bank will pay the floating mortgage rate. That's 2% now, but if interest rates rise, the bank has to pay 5% and you keep paying 3%. Now you can sell the house. When you get a new house, you use the floating rate (5%) to pay the new higher mortgage on the house, while you keep paying 3% out of pocket. We have synthesized a portable mortgage. Why doesn't this happen? I await your speculation in the comments. Banks trade fixed for floating swaps among themselves all the time, so laying off the risk is not hard. As usual, I am drawn to wonder what tax or regulation is in the way.  I can think of  a few. First, you will get the mortgage interest tax deduction only on the actual mortgage. The actual 3% fixed mortgage lets you deduct the whole 3%. You will pay income tax on fixed for floating payments. This is really an insurance payment, like fire insurance, which shouldn't be taxable, but the IRS will likely treat it as such. Perhaps if insurance companies sold the product they could lobby Washington for rules to extend the tax exemption,  but then you lose some of the efficiency of banks doing what is properly the business of banks. Heaven knows how bank regulators and consumer financial protection regulators will do to tangle up a perfectly sensible product. The Fed finally caved in to political pressure to put climate in financial regulation:  banks must manage their balance sheets for physical risks from climate change, such as flooding or drought, as well as the "stresses to institutions or sectors arising from the shifts in policy, consumer and business sentiment, or technologies associated with the changes that would be part of a transition to a lower carbon economy."...Shifts in policy? OK Citi, what will happen to your balance sheet if a Republican gets elected and cancels electric vehicle mandates? Oh, maybe that's not the "change in policy" banks are supposed to anticipate.  Banks will also have to conduct a "climate-related scenario analysis"—don't call them stress tests—that extend "beyond the financial institution's typical strategic planning horizon" and account for potential losses in "extreme but plausible scenarios." Well, if anvils fall from the sky... But I digress. With this sort of thing coming from regulators, who has the time to create and get approval for a new product that might actually serve homeowners and help to unlock housing supply in places where it's scarce? If you can think of other regulatory (or economic) barriers, comment away.  Or maybe, just maybe, we're waiting for a sharp fintech company to figure out that floating + swap is a product consumers would want. (Swaps also require counterparties to post collateral, i.e. put in enough cash that the other side can be sure the payment stream keeps going, and in the event of default come out even. On the household side, equity in the house should serve as it does for mortgages; it would be like a second mortgage claim on home equity. That's a reason to bundle retail swaps with the mortgage issuance. One could have banks post collateral too, though enough priority in bankruptcy should do the trick as these are retail contracts. )  (The madness of refinancing fixed mortgages is also puzzling. I know a lot of very good financial economists, and not one can figure out the optimal time to refinance a fixed rate mortgage. Why not just sell mortgages that adjust down but not up? Sure, you'll pay a few basis points extra, but we save a lot of complexity and the costs of getting that option wrong. The same answers as above may apply.) Update:I long ago proposed "health status insurance," which is insurance against health insurance premium increases. If you get sick and your health insurance increases, the premium insurance pays the higher health insurance, or a lump sum so you can do it. What I'm suggesting here is also  "mortgage rate rise insurance." Get a floating rate mortgage and separate mortgage rate insurance. If the mortgage rate rises, the insurance pays the higher rate, or a lump sum so you can do it. While we're at it, the major difference between buying and renting is that buying allows you to stay in the house no matter if rents go up, where renters bear the risk of higher rents. It's puzzling that you can get long-term commercial leases, but residential leases allow the rent to rise each year. Rent increase insurance could work the same way. Rent for a year, buy rent increase insurance, and if the rent goes up, rent increase insurance pays the difference or pays a lump sum so you can do it. (Renters synthesize this somewhat by renting and then voting in rent control!) Update 2:As many commenters point out, another way to handle the problem is for borrowers to be able to buy their own mortgage back, as is done in Denmark.  

Este trabajo de tesis doctoral, que tiene por objeto esencialmente la protección que el valor medio ambiente tiene en nuestro sistema constitucional, se estructura en cuatro capítulos que contextualizan dicha protección y que aportan elementos de aplicación concreta en el ámbito local y en las prácticas ciudadanas. Sus cuatro grandes bloques temáticos se inician con uno inicial que aborda el estudio de los aspectos internacionales de la protección del medio ambiente, que incluye la protección del medio ambiente a nivel universal, en particular las cumbres internacionales de Naciones Unidas sobre medio ambiente, desde la primera de 1992 hasta las celebradas en 2019 Nueva York y Madrid. Este capítulo primero también se centra en la Unión Europea, en sus diferentes programas de acción de los últimos cuarenta años, abordando también los últimos avances, en particular, la nueva normativa de la Unión Europea frente al cambio climático, o el Pacto Verde Europeo, uno de los ejes estratégicos de la nueva Comisión Europea para el período político 2019-2024. Por último, este capítulo inicial aborda la protección constitucional del medio ambiente en algunos Estados iberoamericanos (Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, México, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay y Venezuela), y la importante Encíclica del Papa Francisco Laudado Si, de 2015, Sobre el Cuidado de la Casa Común. La parte central de la tesis doctoral se dedica al tratamiento que la constitución española de 1978 otorga al medio ambiente. Desde aspectos conceptuales previos, hasta la protección del medio ambiente como objetivo constitucional, pasando por el establecimiento normativo de sanciones penales derivadas de la protección constitucional del medio ambiente, la naturaleza de la protección del medio ambiente en nuestra Constitución o la obligación constitucional de conservar el medio ambiente como contenido del Estado social, con varias propuestas de reforma constitucional. También se aborda en esta parte central el reparto competencial entre el Estado y las Comunidades Autónomas de la materia medio ambiente, las competencias del Estado Español en materia ambiental, descendiendo a cuestiones concretas como la organización administrativa estatal, el Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica, así como instrumentos de planificación política como el Plan Nacional Integrado de Energía y Clima 2021-2030. En la parte final de este capítulo segundo se abordan cuestiones como las competencias de las Comunidades Autónomas en medio ambiente, la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Constitucional en relación la protección del medio ambiente, o el enfoque multinivel en la protección del medio ambiente, con un epígrafe dedicado al papel de los Ayuntamientos. El capítulo tercero se dedica a la protección del medio ambiente en la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía. En concreto, se abordan cuestiones como la protección del medio ambiente en el Estatuto de Autonomía para Andalucía, las competencias de la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía en materia ambiental, normativa andaluza ambiental de desarrollo en materia de prevención y control ambiental, sobre calidad ambiental, sobre gestión del agua o la nueva ley andaluza frente al cambio climático, así como la organización política-administrativa de la gestión ambiental en Andalucía. Y en cuarto lugar, se aborda la parte experimental de la tesis doctoral, derivada de una amplia experiencia profesional, institucional, académica y ciudadana del autor en relación al objeto temático de la tesis doctoral. Bajo la denominación de "ciudadanía, participación y medio ambiente", se tratan cuestiones como el bien común medioambiental, la implicación de la ciudadanía en la protección del medio ambiente, las iniciativas ciudadanas en la ciudad de Córdoba en defensa del patrimonio común, la participación ciudadana en la gestión del medio ambiente, el movimiento universal de la juventud en defensa del medio ambiente (acción global los viernes por el futuro), ecofeminismo, o la cooperación del poder local con la ciudadanía en la aplicación de políticas concretas de protección del medio ambiente. En la parte final de este esencial capítulo de la tesis doctoral se incorpora la experiencia de la ciudad de Córdoba en la protección del medio ambiente, en particular la experiencia en la gestión de los residuos urbanos en la Ciudad de Córdoba en la que el autor estuvo vinculado durante varios años como responsable de gestión municipal, la labor educativa del Instituto Municipal de Gestión Medioambiental de Córdoba, la iniciativa ciudadana por el Parque Natural Sierra Morena de Córdoba o el foro ciudadano por el derecho a la ciudad, iniciativas ciudadanas en las que el autor ha participado activa y directamente. Entre las conclusiones del trabajo, destacan algunas de reforma constitucional, otras de acciones públicas concretas, ya sean legislativas o de implementación de políticas públicas, así como de impulso desde la sociedad civil de iniciativas ciudadanas de cuidado del bien común medio ambiental. En la última de las conclusiones, la trigésima, el autor plantea la oportunidad de que, en este final de década del siglo XXI, pudiera surgir el "Estado ecologista", como una profundización y especial compromiso del Estado social. La estructura estatal, como organización racional del poder político, que empezó siendo un Estado liberal de Derecho, que evolucionó hacia el Estado democrático y, finalmente, pensando en el bienestar material general, llegó a ser un Estado social en el siglo XX, quizá en la tercera década del presente siglo, esa estructura política Estado ha de pensar en el entorno de vida que nos rodea, con carácter transversal y prioritario, y convertirse así, en una cuarta dimensión, en un "Estado ecologista". La tesis incluye, finalmente, un anexo documental con los hechos históricos 1901-2019 sobre movilidad urbana y cambio climático a nivel global, en España y en Córdoba, otro con datos básicos del medio ambiente en Andalucía, un tercero con normativa ambiental de Andalucía, otro con normativa ambiental de España, y uno final con modelos de escritos a la Administración en temas ambientales, así como un amplio apartado de bibliografía y de fuentes de información electrónicas. ; This doctoral thesis work, which essentially aims at the protection that the environmental value has in our constitutional system, is structured in four chapters that contextualize said protection and that provide elements of concrete application at the local level and in citizen practices. Its four major thematic blocks begin with an initial one that addresses the study of international aspects of environmental protection, which includes the protection of the environment at a universal level, in particular the United Nations international summits on the environment, from the first of 1992 until those held in 2019 New York and Madrid. This first chapter also focuses on the European Union, in its different action programs of the last forty years, also addressing the latest developments, in particular, the new European Union regulations on climate change, or the European Green Pact, One of the strategic axes of the new European Commission for the 2019-2024 political period. Finally, this initial chapter deals with the constitutional protection of the environment in some Latin American states (Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela), and the important Encyclical of Pope Francisco Laudado Si, of 2015, About the Care of the Common House. The central part of the doctoral thesis is dedicated to the treatment that the Spanish constitution of 1978 gives to the environment. From previous conceptual aspects, to the protection of the environment as a constitutional objective, through the normative establishment of penal sanctions derived from the constitutional protection of the environment, the nature of the protection of the environment in our Constitution or the constitutional obligation to preserve the environment as content of the social State, with several proposals for constitutional reform In this central part, the competence distribution between the State and the Autonomous Communities of the environment, the competences of the Spanish State in environmental matters, descending to specific issues such as the state administrative organization, the Ministry for Ecological Transition, as well as as instruments of political planning such as the National Integrated Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030. In the final part of this second chapter, issues such as the competences of the Autonomous Communities in the environment, the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court in relation to the protection of the environment, or the multilevel approach to environmental protection are addressed, with a dedicated heading to the role of the Town Halls The third chapter is dedicated to the protection of the environment in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. Specifically, issues such as environmental protection are addressed in the Statute of Autonomy for Andalusia, the competences of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia in environmental matters, Andalusian environmental regulations for environmental prevention and control, on environmental quality, on water management or the new Andalusian law against climate change, as well as the politicaladministrative organization of environmental management in Andalusia. And fourthly, the experimental part of the doctoral thesis is approached, derived from a broad professional, institutional, academic and citizen experience of the author in relation to the thematic object of the doctoral thesis. Under the name of "citizenship, participation and environment", issues such as the common environmental good, the involvement of citizens in the protection of the environment, citizen initiatives in the city of Córdoba in defense of the common heritage, participation are discussed citizen in environmental management, the universal youth movement in defense of the environment (global action on Friday for the future), ecofeminism, or the cooperation of local power with citizens in the application of concrete environmental protection policies environment. In the final part of this essential chapter of the doctoral thesis, the experience of the city of Córdoba is incorporated into the protection of the environment, in particular the experience in the management of urban waste in the City of Córdoba in which the author was linked for several years as responsible for municipal management, the educational work of the Municipal Institute of Environmental Management of Córdoba, the citizen initiative for the Sierra Morena Natural Park of Córdoba or the citizen forum for the right to the city, citizen initiatives in which the Author has participated actively and directly. Among the conclusions of the work, some of the constitutional reform, others of concrete public actions, whether legislative or the implementation of public policies, as well as the promotion from civil society of citizen initiatives for the care of the common environmental good stand out. In the last of the conclusions, the thirtieth, the author raises the opportunity that, in this end of the decade of the 21st century, the "Ecological State" could emerge, as a deepening and special commitment of the social State. The state structure, as a rational organization of political power, which began as a liberal State of Law, which evolved into the democratic State and, finally, thinking about general material welfare, became a social State in the twentieth century, perhaps in In the third decade of the present century, that political structure of the State must think about the environment of life that surrounds us, with a transversal and priority nature, and thus become, in a fourth dimension, an "Ecological State". The thesis includes, finally, a documentary annex with the historical events 1901-2019 on urban mobility and climate change at a global level, in Spain and in Córdoba, another with basic data of the environment in Andalusia, a third with environmental regulations of Andalusia, another with environmental regulations in Spain, and a final one with written models to the Administration on environmental issues, as well as a large section of bibliography and electronic sources of information.

En esta cuarta sección del evento Economía de la Informalidad Conferencia 2020, se presento la Ponencia de la profesora Pascaline Dupas, profesora de la Universidad de Stanford, La ponencia de la profesora Pascaline Dupas, titulada Informality in the time of Covid-19 (Informalidad en tiempos de Covid-19) hace un recorrido sobre las relaciones económicas que se desarrollan en un contexto de informalidad y analiza cómo la pandemia ha afectado de manera diferencial a poblaciones formales e informales a través de tres fuentes de datos diferentes. Dupas divide su presentación en tres partes. La primera muestra una perspectiva amplia de la informalidad y la correlación entre este fenómeno y el desarrollo económico de los países. La segunda es sobre las razones por las cuales la pandemia de Covid-19 podría imponer retos en relación con la informalidad. La tercera es sobre los impactos que se han observado en el corto plazo como consecuencia del Covid-19. En la primera parte de su ponencia, Dupas hace énfasis en que la informalidad no es únicamente laboral (por ejemplo, firmas que se ocultan de la regulación del gobierno, o trabajadores que no cuentan con contratos laborales formales), sino que trasciende a los ámbitos de vivienda, transporte, comercio, pagos, seguros, consumo, gravámenes e instituciones. De hecho, resalta que estos aspectos suelen sobreponerse y ocurrir simultáneamente, o uno como consecuencia de algún otro. Más aún, la informalidad en cada una de estas áreas está relacionada con condiciones de vida más difíciles y menos oportunidades. Por ejemplo, Dupas presenta amplia evidencia de la correlación entre las dimensiones de la informalidad usando datos para la capital marfileña Abiyán, mostrando que las personas que viven en asentamientos informales adolecen de derechos de propiedad, son más propensas a tener que hacer pagos informales a autoridades locales para evitar desalojos, suelen depender de instituciones informales y suelen tener menor cobertura de tarjetas gubernamentales de identificación. Los empleados informales, por su lado, tienen ingresos irregulares que les dificulta aceptar compromisos con entidades formales. Por esta razón, cuando requieren una red de seguridad frente a riesgos, suelen acudir a seguros informales, así como a créditos informales. Asimismo, pagos informales a las autoridades (corrupción) permiten que se mantenga la informalidad en asentamientos, contratos y comercio. Esto lleva a la pregunta sobre si la informalidad es una elección. Frente a esto, Dupas argumenta que, por el lado de los trabajadores, la mayoría preferirían tener contratos formales reconocidos frente a la ley y con seguridad social. Por su lado, las firmas informales preferirían mantenerse en esa condición por cuestiones de viabilidad (no serían rentables en escenarios formales). A su vez, Dupas dice que las personas que viven en asentamientos informales no encuentran otras opciones de vivienda asequible que estén a una distancia razonable de las oportunidades laborales. En la segunda parte de su ponencia, Dupas argumenta que el Covid-19 ha levantado preocupaciones por sus efectos sobre la población informal. En primer lugar, los asentamientos informales son más propensos para la transmisión masiva del virus, pues son muy densos en términos de población, tienen muchas personas por hogar, tienen fuentes acuíferas comunales, acceso limitado a redes de saneamiento y a instalaciones de higiene. De la misma forma, se desplazan usando medios de transporte congestionados y compran en lugares muy concurridos. Lo anterior se traduce en el hecho de que hay una seroprevalencia de Covid-19 del 54% en los asentamientos informales de Mumbai (India) y del 53% en los de Buenos Aires (Argentina). Por otro lado, la informalidad está relacionada con menor resiliencia a las cuarentenas o bloqueos relacionados con el Covid-19. Lo anterior se debe a que estas medidas eliminan los ingresos de los trabajadores, obligan a los individuos a acceder a mercados más costosos, imponen restricciones al transporte público informal y dificultades de movilidad. A esto se suma que, dado que tienen menor acceso a cuentas financieras formales, se hace más difíciles de alcanzar con ayudas gubernamentales. Asimismo, suelen experimentar una caída en los ingresos de remesas. En la tercera parte, Dupas documenta una serie de impactos económicos del Covid-19. Hace referencia a casos de estudio en Colombia, México, Costa de Marfil y Ghana. En el caso de Colombia y México, analizan la encuesta IPA RECOVR realizada por IPA, que incluye tanto a Bogotá como al Distrito Federal. En estas ciudades, se evidenciaron pérdidas de trabajos, que fueron más pronunciadas sobre la informalidad. Las personas formales en estas ciudades reportaron pérdidas de empleo de un 40%, mientras que esa cifra alcanzó el 80% entre los informales. Los trabajadores informales reportaron que, post-Covid, trabajaron menos horas que antes y ganaron menos que antes. En el caso de Ghana, Dupas hizo referencia a los efectos causales de la educación sobre la resiliencia ante choques como el de la pandemia de Covid-19. Frente a esto, mostró resultados que indican que las beneficiarias de programas educativos tuvieron mayor resiliencia laboral en términos de permanencia e ingresos. Finalmente, Dupas concluyó con cuatro puntos. Primero, que la informalidad tiene muchos dominios interconectados entre sí. Segundo, que la informalidad estuvo relacionada con vulnerabilidad aumentada frente a las crisis. Tercero, que los impactos del Covid-19 tienen una gran probabilidad de extenderse en el largo plazo. Lo anterior, sobre todo, porque las inversiones en nutrición de la primera infancia y en educación han caído debido a la pandemia. Y estas inversiones son muy importantes para el desarrollo de mediano y largo plazo de los niños, niñas y adolescentes. Por último, resaltó que la recuperación de esta situación va a ser intrincada. Esto, debido a la destrucción de negocios, activos y trabajos que significó la pandemia y las cuarentenas consecuentes para los individuos. Todo esto, con un enfoque diferencial frente a la informalidad que indica que va a ser mucho más difícil recuperarse para los que antes de la pandemia ya eran informales. ; In this fourth section of the Economics of Informality Conference 2020 event, the Presentation by Professor Pascaline Dupas, a professor at Stanford University, The presentation by Professor Pascaline Dupas, entitled Informality in the time of Covid-19 (Informality in times of Covid-19) takes a tour of the economic relations that develop in a context of informality and analyzes how the The pandemic has differentially affected formal and informal populations through three different data sources. Dupas divides his presentation into three parts. The first shows a broad perspective of informality and the correlation between this phenomenon and the economic development of the countries. The second is about the reasons why the Covid-19 pandemic could pose challenges in relation to informality. The third is about the impacts that have been observed in the short term as a consequence of Covid-19. In the first part of his presentation, Dupas emphasizes that informality is not only labor (for example, firms that hide from government regulation, or workers who do not have formal labor contracts), but that it transcends of housing, transport, commerce, payments, insurance, consumption, taxes and institutions. In fact, it highlights that these aspects tend to overlap and occur simultaneously, or one as a consequence of some other. Furthermore, informality in each of these areas is related to more difficult living conditions and fewer opportunities. For example, Dupas presents ample evidence of the correlation between dimensions of informality using data for the Ivorian capital Abidjan, showing that people who live in informal settlements lack property rights, are more likely to have to make informal payments to authorities. To avoid evictions, they tend to rely on informal institutions and tend to have less coverage from government identification cards. Informal employees, on the other hand, have irregular income that makes it difficult for them to accept commitments with formal entities. For this reason, when they require a safety net against risks, they tend to turn to informal insurance, as well as informal loans. Likewise, informal payments to the authorities (corruption) allow informality to be maintained in settlements, contracts and commerce. This leads to the question of whether informality is a choice. Faced with this, Dupas argues that, on the workers' side, the majority would prefer to have formal contracts recognized by the law and with social security. For their part, informal firms would prefer to remain in that condition for viability reasons (they would not be profitable in formal settings). In turn, Dupas says that people living in informal settlements do not find other affordable housing options that are within a reasonable distance of job opportunities. In the second part of his presentation, Dupas argues that Covid-19 has raised concerns about its effects on the informal population. First, informal settlements are more prone to massive transmission of the virus, as they are very dense in terms of population, have many people per household, have communal water sources, limited access to sanitation networks and hygiene facilities. In the same way, they travel using congested means of transport and shop in crowded places. This translates into the fact that there is a Covid-19 seroprevalence of 54% in the informal settlements of Mumbai (India) and 53% in those of Buenos Aires (Argentina). On the other hand, informality is related to less resilience to quarantines or blockades related to Covid-19. This is because these measures eliminate workers' income, force individuals to access more expensive markets, impose restrictions on informal public transport and mobility difficulties. Added to this is that, given that they have less access to formal financial accounts, it is more difficult to achieve with government aid. They also tend to experience a drop in remittance income. In the third part, Dupas documents a series of economic impacts of Covid-19. It refers to case studies in Colombia, Mexico, Ivory Coast and Ghana. In the case of Colombia and Mexico, they analyze the IPA RECOVR survey conducted by IPA, which includes both Bogotá and the Federal District. In these cities, job losses were evidenced, which were more pronounced on informality. Formal people in these cities reported job losses of 40%, while that figure reached 80% among informal ones. Informal workers reported that, post-Covid, they worked fewer hours than before and earned less than before. In the case of Ghana, Dupas referred to the causal effects of education on resilience to shocks such as the Covid-19 pandemic. Faced with this, it showed results that indicate that the beneficiaries of educational programs had greater work resilience in terms of permanence and income. Finally, Dupas concluded with four points. First, that informality has many interconnected domains. Second, that informality was related to increased vulnerability to crises. Third, that the impacts of Covid-19 have a high probability of spreading in the long term. The above, above all, because investments in early childhood nutrition and education have fallen due to the pandemic. And these investments are very important for the medium and long-term development of children and adolescents. Finally, he stressed that the recovery from this situation will be intricate. This, due to the destruction of businesses, assets and jobs that the pandemic meant and the consequent quarantines for individuals. All this, with a differential approach to informality that indicates that it will be much more difficult to recover for those who were already informal before the pandemic.

344 p. ; Este libro es un enorme esfuerzo de investigación transdisciplinaria, y se destaca tanto por su complejidad, como por su pertinencia para responder a los problemas acuciantes de la región y es, verdaderamente, un aporte para su conocimiento, para la metodología de los estudios territoriales y la elaboración de las políticas públicas, privadas y comunitarias relacionadas con el territorio. Es una amplia y comprometida tarea académica que asume los retos de la territorialidad y de la territorialización en diálogo con la gente que la habita y la realiza. Este compromiso recorre todo el libro y la labor emprendida por un equipo que proviene de distintas disciplinas, como la antropología, ciencias agropecuarias, ingeniería ambiental, acuicultura, ciencias ambientales, biología y microbiología, gestión del riesgo, economía y desarrollo económico, matemáticas y estadística, actuariado, etc., investigación realizada dentro del marco de la Convocatoria 748 de COLCIENCIAS. Destaco, en este prólogo, tres aspectos fundamentales que contribuyen al estudio del territorio: la amplitud de los factores y fuentes considerados para abordarlo, la metodología que no sólo condiciona la construcción de los datos sino, en consonancia, la propuesta teórica transdisciplinar –y al revés– con la que, como equipo, operan en la investigación, así también se destaca la articulación de los campos académicos con las problemáticas sociales, culturales y políticas, en un mismo proceso conjunto. Como corolario, se observa, en la formulación de "lineamientos" y "actividades", una intención política, en el sentido de aportar a mejorar al ordenamiento territorial. Así pues, este equipo integrado por Alexis Carabalí Angola, Martha Ligia Castellanos Martínez, David Alexander Robles Chavez, Raimar Joel Isaza-Delgado, Rosario Anaya-Zabala, Alcides Daza Daza, Adrian Radillo Cotes, Haroldo De Luquez Viloria, Dainer Gutiérrez Vergara, Rubén Dario Tapias Chica, Kiana Valbuena Mejía, Katherin Pérez Mendoza, Anne Oduber Peñaloza, Yolmis Nicolás Rojano Alvarado, Rafael Meléndez Surmay, autores de diferentes capítulos, provienen de distintos agrupamientos institucionales de investigación: Grupo de Investigación Territorios Semiáridos del Caribe y Grupo de Investigación BIEMARC, de la Universidad de La Guajira, y Grupo de investigación Innova y Emprende del SENA, quienes colaboran para este inusual e importante logro académico, intelectual y social, bajo el proyecto denominado "Lineamientos para el ordenamiento territorial costero y marino del departamento de La Guajira desde la diversidad cultural". Un eje articulador de la metodología de investigación asumido en el estudio, y que vertebra un enfoque que enfatiza elementos de poder y resistencia (De Certeau, 1996; Raffestein, 1980; Guatari, 1996), es el que contrasta el quehacer cotidiano de las comunidades –"territorialidad intrínseca", la denominan– versus la planificación y ordenamiento territorial que realizan las entidades públicas, de cuya interrelación surgen las contradicciones y conflictos que afectan a las poblaciones, como bien lo señalan en las primeras páginas: "La Ley Orgánica de Ordenamiento Territorial, busca organizar el territorio de "arriba hacia abajo", imponiendo una serie de normas que desde el punto de vista del legislativo son convenientes para el funcionamiento administrativo y planificado de la Nación colombiana (LOOT, Ley 1454 de 2011). Sin embargo, como sus críticos lo señalan, no atiende realmente al manejo del "bien común", es decir, lo que favorece a todos los colombianos, sino que desarrolla aspectos que le importan preferencialmente a los inversionistas y a los dueños de las actividades económicas dando ventajas territoriales importantes, o causando perjuicios evidentes a los intereses regionales, contrariando normas que ya estaban estatuidas en la Constitución de 1991 y que eran de obligatorio cumplimiento". Así, esta investigación, según los autores, se propone contrastar y analizar las "propuestas de ordenamiento del Estado, frente al saber ancestral de sus culturas y las propuestas de soluciones a sus propios problemas". Lo anterior no se emplaza en una suerte de romanticismo arcaísta, sino pretende contribuir a "propiciar los cambios que sean necesarios para mejorar sus condiciones de vida, sus ingresos y la posibilidad de satisfacer al menos sus necesidades básicas y monetarias más urgentes por sus propios medios y formulando sus proyectos de vida y sus propios proyectos comunitarios de ordenamiento para su propio desarrollo." Es éste un enfoque que posibilita negociar los intereses a diferente escala, única manera de resolver el conflicto entre lo local, regional, nacional y global y de prevenir conflictos violentos, que se justifican precisamente en la ausencia de conocimientos y diálogo. Este enfoque se confronta, por ejemplo, con aquello que ellos señalan: "… … el Estado ha planteado en numerosas ocasiones que los derechos comunitarios a la consulta previa se han vuelto un problema para el desarrollo de las actividades extractivas". Un componente metodológico básico es el de escala, instrumento ineludible en los estudios del territorio, por ello, al incorporar a la comunidad en las diferentes fases de la investigación señalan, por ejemplo, que "lo que cambia la visión simple del extractivismo a ultranza, por una visión desde la complejidad en su relación comunidad-naturaleza, muy diferente a la relación empresa-recursos, que simplemente depende de la existencia de las materias primas (carbón, petróleo, sal, etc.) o de los servicios prestados (puertos, transporte férreo y de carretera, etc)." La comunidad no sólo participa como sujeto pasivo durante la fase del trabajo de campo, sino en talleres donde se les presenta los resultados del estudio donde señalan sus puntos de vista los propios pobladores, reflexionando sobre su rol y sobre los agentes externos que operan en diferentes escalas. Teniendo como referente al departamento de la Guajira, se planean dos grandes zonas de estudio que, congruente con el Proyecto, se caracteriza por la articulación de lo cultural con lo ambiental: 1. Entre Palomino (Municipio de Dibulla), hasta Riohacha, ubicada en la denominada zona de la "Línea Negra", donde se halla el territorio sagrado para los cuatro pueblos indígenas de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Kogui, Wiwa, Kankuano y Arhuaco), con siete sitios simbólicos dedicados al ritual a sus deidades. Aquí se traslapan con la zona habitada por grupos negros que comprende las localidades de Camarones, Perico, La Punta de los Remedios y Dibulla, y también con la zona mestiza en inmediaciones de Riohacha y la zona wayuu al sur de Riohacha en las rancherías de Chentico, Las Delicias, Puerto Caracol y el Ahumao, las Cachacas, entre otras. Este territorio constituye la zona de mayor diversidad cultural. 2. La segunda es la zona norte, es exclusivamente wayuu y comprende desde el norte de la ciudad de Riohacha hasta el extremo norte de la península en el límite con Venezuela en la bahía de Cocinetas. Así se observa un ordenamiento tradicional diverso al sur y unitario al norte, donde se desarrollan las diferentes actividades económicas y culturales como el comercio, la pesca, el turismo, la minería, la actividad portuaria, termoeléctrica, artesanal, agricultura, ganadería y actividades festivas y sociales, que en conjunto, por las actividades de los actores, articulan y diferencian las subregiones de este territorio. ; Listado de autores 3 Prólogo 11 Territorialización, un abordaje complejo y transdisciplinario 11 Aspectos metodológicos a resaltar13 Donde la mitología y la ecología se encuentran 15 Los lineamientos del ordenamiento territorial 17 Referencias bibliográficas20 INTRODUCCIÓN Lineamientos para el ordenamiento territorial costero y marino del departamento de La Guajira desde la diversidad cultural Introducción23 Bibliografía 30 CAPÍTULO 1 Contexto de las zonas costeras Generalidades de las costas y realidad del litoral guajiro33 Referencias35 CAPÍTULO 2 La Metodología Interdisciplinar del Proyecto: "Lineamientos para el ordenamiento territorial costero y marino del Departamento de La Guajira desde la diversidad cultural" Introducción39 Zona de estudio 39 Comunidades participantes51 Fases del proceso investigativo53 Principios del proceso investigativo 53 Socialización de la investigación y el consentimiento informado 57 Revisión bibliográfica57 Introducción caracterización social 58 Cartografía63 Caracterización biofísica 67 Determinación calidad de agua68 Caracterización calidad de suelos 71 Caracterización ecosistemas y agrosistemas 73 Evento de retroalimentación y validación de la información74 Sistematización y Análisis de la información74 A manera de conclusión 76 Bibliografía 77 CAPÍTULO 3 Costa Guajira: problemáticas y principios para el ordenamiento territorial costero y marino desde la diversidad cultural Elementos conceptuales81 Problemáticas costeras83 Principios de Ordenamiento Territorial Costero y Marino 86 Referencias bibliográficas90 CAPÍTULO 4 Lineamiento 1 Preservar la diversidad cultural de la costa guajira Materiales y métodos95 Resultados y Discusión96 Diversidad étnica municipio de Riohacha 98 Diversidad étnica municipio de Manaure 99 Diversidad cultural en el municipio de Uribia 99 Las etnias y el medio ambiente costero 100 Lineamiento 1 Preservar la diversidad cultural de la costa guajira104 Conclusiones110 Referencias bibliográficas110 CAPÍTULO 5 Lineamiento 2 Asegurar el acceso al agua potable y saneamiento básico en las poblaciones costeras de La Guajira Introducción115 Metodología119 Resultados121 Sólidos disueltos totales (TDS) 126 Coliformes Totales y E coli en agua Marina y Ríos 126 Percepción de las comunidades sobre la calidad del agua de consumo129 Referencias bibliográficas132 CAPÍTULO 6 Lineamiento 3 Proteger y preservar los ecosistemas costeros continentales de La Guajira para mantener su sostenibilidad Introducción137 1 Marco referencial 139 2 Materiales y Métodos141 3 Resultados y discusión 147 Referencias bibliográficas187 CAPÍTULO 7 Lineamiento 4 Proteger y preservar los ecosistemas marino-costeros y promover el desarrollo sostenible de los recursos hidrobiológicos y pesqueros en La Guajira Introducción 192 1 Antecedentes y marco referencial192 2 Materiales y Métodos197 3 Resultados y Discusión202 Referencias bibliográficas215 CAPÍTULO COMPLEMENTARIO Evaluación ecológica rápida de pastos marino en zona costera del departamento de La Guajira Introducción221 Metodología222 Resultados y Discusión223 Referencias bibliográficas227 CAPÍTULO 8 Lineamiento 5 Reducir la vulnerabilidad y exposición de las comunidades ante amenazas natuales y antrópicas Introducción231 Materiales y métodos235 Resultados y discusión 235 Lineamiento 5 Reducir la vulnerabilidad y exposición de las comunidades ante amenazas naturales y antrópicas236 Zona alta Guajira 238 Municipio de Manaure 238 Municipio de Uribia 239 Conclusiones245 Referencias bibliográficas245 CAPÍTULO 9 Lineamiento 6 Fortalecer las economías locales costeras Introducción249 Marco teórico y normativo 250 Economía local de la costa guajira 251 Resultados de la retroalimentación: Actividades252 Reflexiones finales 257 Referencias258 CAPÍTULO 10 Lineamiento 7 Concertar los criterios para el desarrollo urbano y rural costero de La Guajira Introducción261 Definir el tipo de edificaciones y su distribución en los centros urbanos y zonas rurales costeros guajiros262 Caracterizar la infraestructura costera en términos de sostenibilidad económica y ambiental 263 Realizar un análisis de las necesidades de educación técnica y superior de acuerdo a las actividades empresariales de la zona 266 Desarrollar infraestructura marítima (puertos, muelles)269 Realizar una propuesta que mejore la calidad de las vías desde los centros poblados a las cabeceras urbanas269 Encadenamiento de las acciones en educación, salud, actividades comerciales y servicios públicos entre las comunidades y gobiernos locales270 Conclusiones274 Referencias bibliográficas275 CAPÍTULO 11 Lineamiento 8 Desarrollo de actividad empresarial responsable Introducción279 Materiales y métodos285 Resultados y Discusión285 Retroalimentación sobre Actividades del Lineamiento Desarrollo Empresarial ambientalmente sostenible y socialmente responsable286 Conclusiones292 Referencias bibliográficas293 CAPÍTULO 12 Lineamiento 9 Desarrollar oferta turística responsable Introducción297 De las Perlas al Comercio299 El territorio Wayuu 301 El turismo en Colombia301 Actividad Costera en el Distrito Especial, Turístico y Cultural de Riohacha303 Actividad Costera en el Municipio de Manaure304 Actividad Costera en el Municipio de Uribía 305 Actividad Costera en el Municipio de Dibulla306 LINEAMIENTO No 9 Desarrollar oferta turística responsable Actividades Propuestas y Algunas Generalidades 308 Conclusiones 321 Referencias Bibliográficas 321 CAPÍTULO 13 Lineamiento 10 Articular la acción institucional en la costa guajira Introducción326 Materiales y métodos327 Resultados y discusión 327 Etapa retroalimentación con comunidades e instituciones328 Recomendación para intervención de comunidades Wayuu332 Referencias bibliográficas333 Modelo de ordenamiento territorial para la costa guajira desde la diversidad cultural 335

Malaltia de Chagas; Dones embarassades llatinoamericanes; Salut maternoinfantil ; Enfermedad de Chagas; Mujeres embarazadas latinoamericanas; Salud maternoinfantil ; Chagas disease; Latin american pregnant women; Maternal and child health ; La malaltia de Chagas (MCH) continua sent un problema important de salut pública. L'OMS estima que en el món hi ha 8 milions de persones infectades per Trypanosoma cruzi, la majoria a l'Amèrica Llatina. En països no endèmics, com és el cas del nostre entorn, l'MCH s'observa en persones infectades que provenen de països endèmics o en infants nascuts en països no endèmics, però la mare dels quals ha estat infectada (transmissió congènita). A Catalunya, per tal de fer el control i la vigilància de l'MCH, l'any 2010 es va posar en marxa el Programa de prevenció i control de la malaltia de Chagas congènita a Catalunya, coordinat pel Departament de Salut i que inclou el diagnòstic, el control, el seguiment i el tractament de l'MCH congènita dirigits a les dones embarassades i als seus fills. En el marc del Programa, es va elaborar el Protocol de cribratge i diagnòstic de malaltia de Chagas en dones embarassades llatinoamericanes i en els seus fills, que es va editar el 2010. Aquest document va ser fruit de l'esforç conjunt de professionals sanitaris experts en la malaltia, de diferents societats científiques i de professionals del Departament de Salut de la Generalitat de Catalunya, amb el suport del Grup de Treball de Països No Endèmics i del Departament de Control de Malalties Tropicals Oblidades de l'OMS. El Protocol que es presenta, a més d'incloure les mateixes línies que la primera edició, disposa d'actualitzacions de diferents aspectes clínics, de diagnòstic i de vigilància epidemiològica basats en l'experiència i l'evidència observades durant aquests vuit anys del Programa de prevenció i control de la malaltia de Chagas congènita a Catalunya. Durant aquests darrers anys, s'ha reforçat la perspectiva de salut pública en el Programa, en el qual han participat un gran nombre de professionals de la xarxa assistencial i agents comunitaris de salut amb l'objectiu de reduir l'efecte de la transmissió vertical de l'MCH a Catalunya. La primera part del document recull les característiques clíniques de l'MCH que, encara que és d'aparició relativament recent en el nostre entorn, gràcies a la informació facilitada tant en l'àmbit sanitari com en l'àmbit comunitari durant els últims anys, ha deixat de ser una malaltia oblidada i desconeguda a Catalunya. En els darrers anys, els avenços i l'experiència en el nostre entorn en el diagnòstic de l'MCH ens han fet arribar a un consens sobre la utilització de mètodes directes moleculars, tal com es descriu en aquest Protocol. Així mateix, la concreció de dades epidemiològiques sobre prevalença d'infecció i incidència de casos de la malaltia ha millorat molt gràcies a la vigilància i notificació de dades recollides en el marc del Programa de prevenció i control de la malaltia de Chagas congènita a Catalunya pels professionals que formen part del Grup de Treball de la Malaltia de Chagas Congènita. En aquest aspecte i per tal de millorar-ne el control s'han incorporat els metges de família i salut comunitària, ja que són uns dels professionals clau que es troben més propers als pacients. Un aspecte fonamental que es desprèn d'aquest document i del funcionament del Programa és la multidisciplinarietat. El repte del sistema de salut i de la vigilància de la salut pública és la coordinació i el treball dels professionals de diferents àmbits sanitaris, com poden ser els ginecòlegs, els microbiòlegs, els llevadors, els pediatres d'atenció primària i hospitalària, els metges de família i salut comunitària, el personal d'infermeria, els infectòlegs, els epidemiòlegs i els agents de salut comunitària que treballen de manera conjunta per a l'assoliment de l'objectiu plantejat. El present Protocol constitueix un document eminentment pràctic, mitjançant el qual els professionals sanitaris disposen dels elements essencials per a la realització del cribratge en la dona embarassada. A partir d'aquest Protocol s'espera també aconseguir la detecció i el tractament precoç dels casos d'MCH en la població pediàtrica, nadons i altres fills a Catalunya, amb l'objectiu últim de millorar la salut maternoinfantil a Catalunya. ; La enfermedad de Chagas (ECH) sigue siendo un problema importante de salud pública. La OMS estima que en el mundo hay 8 millones de personas infectadas por Trypanosoma cruzi, la mayoría en América Latina. En países no endémicos, como es el caso de nuestro entorno, la ECH se observa en personas infectadas que provienen de países endémicos o en niños nacidos en países no endémicos, pero cuya madre ha sido infectada (transmisión congénita). En Cataluña, para hacer el control y la vigilancia de la ECH, en 2010 se puso en marcha el Programa de prevención y control de la enfermedad de Chagas congénita en Cataluña, coordinado por el Departamento de Salud y que incluye el diagnóstico, el control, el seguimiento y el tratamiento de la ECH congénita dirigidos a las mujeres embarazadas y a sus hijos. En el marco del Programa, se elaboró el Protocolo de cribado y diagnóstico de enfermedad de Chagas en mujeres embarazadas latinoamericanas y en sus hijos, que se editó en 2010. Este documento fue fruto del esfuerzo conjunto de profesionales sanitarios expertos en la enfermedad, de diferentes sociedades científicas y de profesionales del Departamento de Salud de la Generalidad de Cataluña, con el apoyo del Grupo de Trabajo de Países No Endémicos y del Departamento de Control de Enfermedades Tropicales Olvidadas de la OMS. El Protocolo que se presenta, además de incluir las mismas líneas que la primera edición, dispone de actualizaciones de diferentes aspectos clínicos, de diagnóstico y de vigilancia epidemiológica basados en la experiencia y la evidencia observadas durante estos ocho años del Programa de prevención y control de la enfermedad de Chagas congénita en Cataluña. Durante estos últimos años, se ha reforzado la perspectiva de salud pública en el Programa, en el que han participado un gran número de profesionales de la red asistencial y agentes comunitarios de salud con el objetivo de reducir el efecto de la transmisión vertical del ECH en Cataluña. La primera parte del documento recoge las características clínicas de la ECH que, aunque es de aparición relativamente reciente en nuestro entorno, gracias a la información facilitada tanto en el ámbito sanitario como en el ámbito comunitario durante los últimos años, ha dejado de ser una enfermedad olvidada y desconocida en Cataluña. En los últimos años, los avances y la experiencia en nuestro entorno en el diagnóstico de la ECH nos han hecho llegar a un consenso sobre la utilización de métodos directos moleculares, tal como se describe en el presente Protocolo. Asimismo, la concreción de datos epidemiológicos sobre prevalencia de infección e incidencia de casos de la enfermedad ha mejorado mucho gracias a la vigilancia y notificación de datos recogidos en el marco del Programa de prevención y control de la enfermedad de Chagas congénita en Cataluña por los profesionales que forman parte del Grupo de Trabajo de la Enfermedad de Chagas Congénita. En este aspecto y para mejorar su control se han incorporado los médicos de familia y salud comunitaria, ya que son unos de los profesionales clave que se encuentran más cercanos a los pacientes. Un aspecto fundamental que se desprende de este documento y del funcionamiento del Programa es la multidisciplinariedad. El reto del sistema de salud y de la vigilancia de la salud pública es la coordinación y el trabajo de los profesionales de diferentes ámbitos sanitarios, como pueden ser ginecólogos, microbiólogos, comadrones, pediatras de atención primaria y hospitalaria, médicos de familia y salud comunitaria, personal de enfermería, infectólogos, epidemiólogos y agentes de salud comunitaria que trabajan de manera conjunta para el logro del objetivo planteado. El presente Protocolo constituye un documento eminentemente práctico, mediante el cual los profesionales sanitarios disponen de los elementos esenciales para la realización del cribado en la mujer embarazada. A partir de este Protocolo se espera también conseguir la detección y el tratamiento precoz de los casos de ECH en la población pediátrica, bebés y otros hijos en Cataluña, con el objetivo último de mejorar la salud maternoinfantil en Cataluña. ; Chagas disease (CHD) continues to be a major public health problem. The WHO estimates that there are 8 million people in the world infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, the majority in Latin America. In non-endemic countries, as is the case in our environment, CHD is seen in infected people who come from endemic countries or children born in non-endemic countries, but whose mother has been infected (congenital transmission). In Catalonia, in order to control and monitor the CHD, in 2010 the Program for the Prevention and Control of Congenital Chagas' Disease in Catalonia was launched, coordinated by the Department of Health and includes diagnosis, control, follow-up and treatment of congenital CHD directed at pregnant women and their children. Within the framework of the Program, the Protocol for the Screening and Diagnosis of Chagas' Disease in Latin American pregnant women and their children was prepared, which was published in 2010. This document was the result of the joint effort of health professionals who are experts in the disease, of different scientific societies and professionals of the Department of Health of the Government of Catalonia, with the support of the Working Group of Non-endemic Countries and the Department of Control of Forgotten Tropical Diseases of WHO. The Protocol that is presented, in addition to including the same lines as the first edition, has updates on different clinical, diagnostic and epidemiological surveillance aspects based on the experience and evidence observed during these eight years of the Prevention and Control Program. Congenital Chagas disease in Catalonia. During these last years, the perspective of public health in the Program has been reinforced, in which a large number of professionals of the health care network and community health agents have participated with the aim of reducing the effect of the vertical transmission of CHD in Catalonia. The first part of the document includes the clinical characteristics of the CHD that, although it is relatively recent in our environment, thanks to the information provided both in the health field and in the community in recent years, has ceased to be a disease forgotten and unknown in Catalonia. In recent years, the advances and experience in our environment in the diagnosis of CHD have led us to reach a consensus on the use of direct molecular methods, as described in this Protocol. Likewise, the specification of epidemiological data on prevalence of infection and incidence of cases of the disease has improved greatly thanks to the monitoring and reporting of data collected within the framework of the Program for the Prevention and Control of Congenital Chagas' Disease in Catalonia by professionals. that are part of the Working Group on Congenital Chagas Disease. In this aspect and to improve their control, family doctors and community health have been incorporated, since they are one of the key professionals who are closest to patients. A fundamental aspect that emerges from this document and the operation of the Program is multidisciplinarity. The challenge of the health system and public health surveillance is the coordination and work of professionals from different health areas, such as gynecologists, microbiologists, midwives, pediatricians of primary and hospital care, family physicians and community health , nurses, infectious disease specialists, epidemiologists and community health workers who work together to achieve the stated objective. This Protocol is an eminently practical document, through which health professionals have the essential elements for carrying out screening in pregnant women. Based on this Protocol, it is also expected to achieve the detection and early treatment of cases of CHD in the pediatric population, babies and other children in Catalonia, with the ultimate goal of improving maternal and child health in Catalonia.

Para empezar, es menester explicar al lector las implicaciones que genera para las víctimas la conciliación como medio alternativo de solución de conflictos dentro del incidente de reparación integral, el cual procura la reparación del daño de los bienes jurídicos tutelados, así como de sus derechos, y esto al interior del proceso penal, tal como lo indica la norma, de tal manera que evite la vulneración de los mismos. El sistema Penal Acusatorio en Colombia se ha abanderado con la postura de darle protagonismo a la víctima dentro de la Litis penal, hecho que cambia el concepto de justicia retributiva a restaurativa; de tal manera que la víctima es incluida dentro del proceso penal haciéndola partícipe con el fin de llegar a repararla integralmente. Sin embargo, no es un secreto para los colombianos que la justicia penal sufre un raquitismo coyuntural, en el cual aunque la ley ha pretendido darle un lugar a la víctima en el sistema penal, buscando así una protección jurídica para sus intereses, esto de alguna manera desencadena más bien en una restricción de su capacidad procesal para actuar dentro del proceso, es así debido a que aquella no puede intervenir en la audiencia pública del juicio oral y debe ser representada por medio del fiscal delegado del caso, o el representante de víctimas, simbolizado por el ministerio público. Es sabido que es la Fiscalía el ente acusador que propende por el bienestar de la Nación, por lo tanto, tiene el deber de encasillar la conducta punible dentro de la tipología penal, esto lo hace ajustando la conducta a la realidad, buscando la reparación y procurando que se cumplan los fines del Sistema Penal Acusatorio y el Acto Legislativo 03 de 2002. Este último es de suma importancia ya que trajo nuevas prerrogativas para las víctimas, entre ellas la estipulada en el artículo 250 de la Constitución Política de Colombia y el Libro VI del Código de Procedimiento Penal colombiano, que habla de la tan mencionada pero realmente poco conocida "justicia restaurativa". Por otro lado, en la actualidad las víctimas no tienen claro a qué tienen derecho dentro del proceso penal. Si bien es cierto que ellas cuentan con la figura de un representante, es tanta la carga dentro del ámbito judicial que a veces el mismo proceso penal, estando ejecutoriada la sentencia, vence el término para dar inicio al incidente de reparación integral; entonces, en esos casos, ya sea por estar estancado en el anaquel del juzgado o del Centro de Servicios Judiciales, o sencillamente por desconocimiento de la norma, hace falta una debida asesoría, que la víctima sea escuchada y pueda ir en busca de lo que realmente requiere para sentirse debidamente reparada. Esto es importante mencionarlo porque no siempre se satisface la voluntad de la víctima con una pena carcelaria, incluso en ocasiones lo que se anhela es una reparación simbólica o económica, que materialice la finalidad de la justicia restaurativa que reza la ley procesal penal; Así, uno de los principales derechos que tiene la víctima es el derecho a la verdad en el proceso y más exactamente en el mecanismo de conciliación como medio de justicia restaurativa, en el cual se deben prestar todas las garantías por parte del Estado, en representación de la fiscalía, el juez, representante de víctimas y todos aquellos funcionarios que hagan sus veces para propender al aseguramiento y cumplimiento del propósito de la víctima; de hecho, la víctima exhausta de un litigio penal tedioso, en algunas ocasiones se desliga del mismo proceso reparador así sus derechos sigan siendo menoscabados puesto que el sistema penal en sí le genera una doble victimización. El fin de la verdad como uno de los principales derechos que tiene la víctima en la norma se pone en duda a lo largo de la persecución penal al acusado, es por ellos que tal se convierte en la razón por la que se formuló la siguiente pregunta de investigación: ¿El mecanismo de conciliación en el incidente de reparación integral satisface el fin de la verdad como medio reparador de la justicia restaurativa para las víctimas en el delito de injuria y calumnia? Para resolver este problema investigativo, se han propuesto dos hipótesis: • El mecanismo de conciliación en el incidente de reparación integral, SI satisface el fin de la verdad como medio reparador de la justicia restaurativa para las víctimas en el delito de injuria y calumnia ya que el concepto de verdad en el proceso se toma como uno de los principales fines de la justicia, y se desarrollan a través del mismo todas las garantías sustanciales y procesales para que a las víctimas del delito de injuria y calumnia se les propenda el reconocimiento de los derechos morales y la recuperación de su honra basado en los fines de la justicia restaurativa que reza la ley procesal. • El mecanismo de conciliación en el incidente de reparación integral, NO satisface el fin de la verdad como medio reparador de la justicia restaurativa para las víctimas en el delito de injuria y calumnia ya que dentro del proceso, de penal, y en el incidente de reparación integral, no se da la búsqueda de la verdad como una finalidad de este, en vista de ello la víctima queda en un camino de incertidumbre, y es dejada de lado la verdad como derecho para la misma e incumple con la finalidad de la justicia restaurativa que está encaminada al acercamiento entre las partes; por el contrario, se busca dictar sentencia del proceso sin importar si se falló bajo hechos verdaderos o sencillamente a favor del mejor discurso, dejando de lado los derechos personalísimos como la honra. De acuerdo con lo anterior, el objetivo general de esta investigación es: "Establecer el mecanismo de conciliación en el incidente de reparación integral, frente al fin de la verdad como medio reparador de la justicia restaurativa para las víctimas en el delito de injuria y calumnia". En ese sentido, se propusieron como objetivos específicos los siguientes: 1. Definir la conciliación como medio alternativo de solución de conflictos en el incidente de reparación integral. 2. Identificar el concepto de verdad como fin de justicia restaurativa dentro del proceso penal. 3. Determinar el delito de injuria y calumnia frente a los derechos de las víctimas del mismo. Es preciso decir que esta investigación se denomina básica jurídica, definida según Héctor Fix-Zamudio con las siguientes palabras: La actividad intelectual que pretende descubrir las soluciones jurídicas, adecuadas para los problemas que plantea la vida social de nuestra época, cada vez más dinámica y cambiante, lo que implica también la necesidad de profundizar en el análisis de dichos problemas, con el objeto de adecuar el ordenamiento jurídico a dichas transformaciones sociales, aun cuando formalmente parezca anticuado. Así las cosas, el método de investigación utilizado fue pues el básico jurídico, que se refiere a un conjunto de elementos de carácter reflexivo cuyo objetivo es el estudio de la norma, considerando las dinámicas sociales; como lo dijo Leoncio Lara Sáenz, "hay que precisar que la investigación jurídica persigue identificar y caracterizar al objeto de conocimiento denominado derecho, y que en general los conocimientos jurídicos generalizados y válidos constituyen el destino de la ciencia del derecho", dicho esto, esta investigación se caracteriza por utilizar el método dogmático, definido así: El método dogmático es valorativo porque se analiza la norma como un fenómeno cambiante, forma concepciones universales, por ejemplo, el bien jurídico protegido sirve para aplicar una norma a un caso concreto, ejemplo, en el delito de injuria la tipificación señala "el que por cualquier medio y de modo directo ofenda a otro en su dignidad y decoro incurrirá en prestación de trabajo" análisis del ejemplo según el método dogmático A) CONTENIDO: El bien jurídico protegido es el honor, entendido por el sentimiento o conciencia de la propia dignidad, su reconocimiento dependerá del grado y estima de los demás. B) ALCANCE: Depende la jurisprudencia que existe. Análisis: (Premisa Mayor): el que por cualquier medio y de modo directo ofendiere a otro en su dignidad y decoro, (Premisa Menor): Juan mediante la prensa ha ofendido a Evo, señalando que este es un incapaz y corrupto. CONCLUSIÓN: JUAN ha cometido el delito de injuria. Asimismo, se aplicó exegético, tratando de descifrar de la manera más transparente lo que quiso decir el legislador utilizando el tipo documental, dependiendo fundamentalmente de la recolección de datos, documentos o cualquier material escrito tendiente a ser analizado y procesado. Los instrumentos que se utilizaron en esta investigación fueron las fuentes secundarias, entiéndase este tipo de fuentes a la información derivada de interpretaciones ya elaboradas por teóricos, legistas o las normas, monografías, textos de índole periodístico, manuales, diccionarios, entre otros, que ayuden a alimentar y empoderar este documento. En cuanto al nivel de esta investigación, es considerada un estudio descriptivo debido a que en este tipo de estudios se exponen principalmente las características de los fenómenos que son de mayor interés en la sociedad o en los grupos sociales. De allí que en el presente estudio sean indispensables porque permiten resaltan conceptos de trascendencia dentro de la sociedad colombiana; en complementariedad, la técnica que se usa es el análisis de textos, la jurisprudencia, teorías, dogmática, normas, revistas indexadas y todo tipo de material que sea útil para el tópico de investigación. Habiendo dicho esto, es oportuno decir que la presente monografía consta de cuatro capítulos, en el primer capítulo se explica al lector los presupuestos metodológicos, seguido del marco referencial, en el cual se encuentra el estado del arte, expresado en trabajos de investigación, artículos y demás documentos que sirven para analizar los antecedentes de nuestra investigación, extrayendo similitudes y aspectos novedosos de esta monografía ya que la multidimensionalidad del conocimiento es muy rica y variada; consecutivamente se encuentra el marco teórico en el cual se da un abrebocas de los autores que sustentan nuestra investigación teóricamente; Sucesivamente en el segundo capítulo se mostrará al lector un acercamiento a la conciliación dando un bosquejo y sumergimiento al respecto y significado de la misma, sus características, y manejo de ella en el ámbito penal, y por supuesto en el incidente de reparación integral que es nuestro objetivo, sin dejar de un lado la explicación del término "justicia restaurativa" interpretado por el autor Elías Neumann, para finalizar y procurando el acercamiento al siguiente capítulo, se da el concepto de verdad como derecho a la víctima. Continuando en el tercer capítulo se abordará y tártara de encontrar el significado de verdad según el autor Michele Taruffo, quien a través de su teoría muestra cual es el camino correcto para hacerse al concepto en estudio por medio de valoraciones de términos que suelen confundirse con la verdad, así mismo y por medio de la prueba muestra cual es la verdadera importancia que ella merece en el proceso para alcanzar el tan anhelado fin y lograr que la víctima se sienta plena y resarcida en su derecho, así las cosas el lector irá interpretando sí el concepto en estudio se da como uno de los principales fines del proceso penal y más acertadamente en el incidente de reparación integral y sí ley da las suficientes garantías sustanciales y procesales para que esto ocurra. Finalizando y no siendo menos importante se encuentra el cuarto capítulo en el cual se describen los delitos de injuria y calumnia, definidos como delitos que afectan la integridad moral de la víctima, visualizados más desde el punto de vista jurisprudencial en el cual se muestra como afectar al concepto de honor basado en la noción de dignidad humana, y por supuesto los derechos que la víctimas tienen ante este y el papel que desempeña dentro de la Litis penal, finalizando con las conclusiones. ; Facultad de Derecho - Centro De Investigaciones Sociojurídicas

Tese de doutoramento em Sociologia, apresentada à Faculdade de Economia da Universidade de Coimbra ; La presente investigación se propone analizar cómo se configura la acción política por medio del activismo que se centra en el arte como práctica política. Discute en que medida se reinventa la acción política feminista con y a través del arte, las varias formas de entender y poner en práctica la relación entre el arte y la política, el lugar de las artes feministas comprendidas como prácticas políticas con sus propios repertorios y el lugar de los feminismos en el trabajo artístico. Las categorías de análisis que entrecruzan esta investigación son: arte y política, acción política, activismo feminista desde el arte, acción política artística, políticas feministas, renovación de la política, renovación del arte, y potencia política del arte. Como las preguntas que motivan esta investigación no se resuelven solo en el ámbito teórico sino que son los modos de hacer, las prácticas, las diferentes vivencias, las que pueden dar posibles respuestas, ampliar las miradas y hacer otras preguntas, fue importante hacer partícipes de esta investigación a quienes rompen justamente con formas tradicionales de las políticas feministas en Colombia. Dos colectivas feministas: La Tremenda Revoltosa Batucada Feminista y Féminas Festivas, dos grupos artísticos feministas: el grupo de teatro La Máscara y la banda de punk Polikarpa y sus Viciosas y dos artistas feministas: Ana María Villate y Diana Molina son las sujetas de esta investigación; coproductoras del conocimiento que de aquí se deriva desde sus activismos que potencian lo político en el arte constituyendo las expresiones artísticas en prácticas políticas feministas. Esta propuesta es un ejercicio de Investigación Activista Feminista, un trabajo de construcción colectiva de conocimiento situado desde y para la acción política con la metodología de las Producciones Narrativas. La construcción de las narrativas se realizó a partir de sesiones de trabajo colectivas e individuales, entrevistas y observación participante en las actividades que fue posible acompañar durante el trabajo de campo; las narrativas construidas se disponen y manejan en la tesis de tal manera que constituyen el eje articulador de los análisis aquí desarrollados. En cuanto a la estructura de la investigación se presentan los principales debates del movimiento feminista en Colombia, en relación con dicho movimiento en Latinoamérica y el Caribe para comprender las políticas feministas que lo caracterizan. Se parte de los estudios sociales del arte y sus diferentes miradas sobre la relación arte y política considerando la política en el arte, la estetización de la política, el arte político y el arte activista. Para abrir los límites de la política se aproxima a las propuestas que se encuentran sobre la política y su redefinición en los feminismos, a las prácticas políticas de las sujetas de la investigación y el reconocimiento de otras prácticas para pensar cómo se renuevan y se hacen otras políticas; asimismo se aproxima a los movimientos sociales y su apuesta por redimensionar la política, pensando la cultura como un hecho político, y la articulación de los feminismos con los movimientos sociales en la participación concreta de las sujetas de esta investigación en la vida política del país. Para ampliar la mirada sobre el arte, se retoman los aportes de la sociología en los territorios del arte y la cultura y se incluye el análisis decolonial, las lecturas de la crítica institucional y las experiencias de las artistas y activistas sujetas de la investigación en el mundo del arte. Asimismo, se aborda la potencia política del arte relacionado con la importancia política de lo simbólico. Se presenta la noción de acción política artística y feminista en relación con las artes feministas en los activismos analizados, además de los modos de hacer de cada colectiva, grupo artístico y artista que llevan a comprender como hacer del arte una práctica política feminista. Finalmente se presentan unas reflexiones metodológicas en cuando a las potencialidades y dificultades de las Producciones Narrativas y se problematiza la relación activismo-academia, presentando así los límites, aprendizajes, retos y propuestas suscitadas en esta experiencia de investigación. ; A presente investigação propõe-se analisar como se configura a acção política através do activismo que se centra na arte como prática política. Discute em que medida se reinventa a acção política feminista com e através da arte; as várias formas de entender e pôr em prática a relação entre arte e política; o lugar das artes feministas entendidas como práticas políticas com os seus próprios repertórios; e o lugar dos feminismos no trabalho artístico. As categorias de análise que atravessam esta investigação são: arte e política, acção política, activismo feminista a partir/através da arte, acção política artística, políticas feministas, renovação da política, renovação da arte e potencial político da arte. As perguntas que motivam esta investigação não se resolvem apenas em âmbito teórico, mas são os próprios modos de fazer, as práticas e as diferentes vivências que podem dar respostas, ampliar os ângulos de visão e formular outras perguntas. Por isso foi importante integrar nesta investigação quem rompe precisamente com as formas tradicionais das políticas feministas na Colômbia. Duas colectivas feministas: La Tremenda Revoltosa Batucada Feminista e Féminas Festivas; dois grupos artísticos feministas: o grupo de teatro La Máscara e a banda punk Polikarpa y sus Viciosas; e duas artistas feministas: Ana María Villate e Diana Molina são as sujeitas desta investigação; coprodutoras do conhecimento de aqui se deriva a partir dos seus activismos potenciadores do que há de político na arte e transformadores das expressões artísticas em práticas políticas feministas. Esta proposta é um exercício de Investigação Activista Feminista, um trabalho de construção colectiva de conhecimento situado desde e para a acção política, com recurso à metodologia das Produções Narrativas. A construção das narrativas realizou-se a partir de sessões de trabalho colectivas e individuais, entrevistas e observação participante nas actividades que me foi possível acompanhar durante o trabalho de campo. As narrativas construídas dispõem-se e são usadas na tese de forma a construírem o eixo articulador das análises aqui desenvolvidas. Quanto à estrutura da investigação, apresentam-se os principais debates do movimento feminista na Colômbia, em relação ao mesmo movimento na América do Sul e Caraíbas para compreender as políticas feministas que o caracterizam. Parte-se dos estudos sociais da arte e seus diferentes olhares sobre a relação arte-política, considerando a política na arte, a esteticização da política, a arte política e a arte activista. Para abrir as fronteiras da política aproxima-se às propostas encontradas sobre a política e a sua redefinição nos feminismos, as práticas políticas das sujeitas da investigação e o reconhecimento de outras práticas para pensar como se renovam e se fazem outras políticas; da mesma forma faz-se uma aproximação aos movimentos sociais e à sua aposta para redimensionar a política, pensando a cultura como um facto político, e a articulação dos feminismos com os movimentos sociais na participação concreta das sujeitas desta investigação na vida política do país. Para ampliar o nosso olhar sobre a arte, retomamos as contribuições da sociologia nos territórios da arte e a cultura e incluímos a análise descolonial, as leituras da crítica institucional e as experiências das artistas e activistas sujeitas da investigação no mundo da arte. Da mesma forma abordamos o potencial político da arte relacionado-o com a importância política do simbólico. Apresenta-se a noção de acção política artística e feminista em relação com as artes feministas nos activismos analisados, além dos modos de fazer de cada colectiva, grupo artístico e artista que leva a compreender como fazer da arte uma prática política feminista. Finalmente, apresentam-se reflexões metodológicas relacionadas com as potencialidades e dificuldades das Produções Narrativas e problematiza-se a relação activismo-academia, apresentando assim os límites, aprendizagens, desafios e propostas suscitadas nesta experiência de investigação. ; The present research analyses how political action is shaped in activist practices engaging in art as a political practice. It discusses to which extent feminist political action reinvents itself through art, and exposes different understandings and practices regarding the link between art and politics, feminist arts as political practices with their own specific languages, and the position of feminisms in artistic work. The categories of analysis in this study include: art and politics, political action, feminist activism through art, artistic political action, feminist politics, renovation of politics, renovation of art, political renovation of art. The questions triggering this research may not be solved only on a theoretical level. Rather, a range of modus operandi, practices, and experiences need to be taken into account so as to produce possible interpretations, amplify perspectives and generate further questions. Therefore, it was considered essential to involve in this investigation precisely those subjects who do not conform to the traditional forms of Colombia's feminist politics. The subjects of this investigation include feminist collectives: La Tremenda Revoltosa Batucada Feminista and Féminas Festivas; feminist artistic groups: theatre group La Máscara and punk band Polikarpa y sus Viciosas; and feminist artists: Ana María Villate and Diana Molina. These subjects are co-producers of the knowledge systematized in this study, which derives directly from their activisms, and the ways in which they strengthen political intervention with art by contributing to feminist politics through their artistic expressions. The proposed analysis is an exercise of Feminist Activist Research, based on a collective construction of knowledge situated in - and for- political action, using the methodology of Narrative Productions. The construction of narratives was based on individual and collective work sessions, interviews, and participant observation in the activities which were accessible during the field work; the constructed narratives are weaved in the thesis in such a way that they constitute the main pillars of the analysis developed here. Regarding the structure of the investigation, the principal debates of the feminist movement in Colombia are described and linked to similar movements in Latin America and the Caribbean, in order to appreciate their particular configurations within feminist politics. The research is based on social studies on art, in particular the range of perspectives on the relationship between political art and activist art. In order to transcend the borders of politics, this study builds on the theories regarding politics and its redefinition within feminist moments, and in the political practices of the research subjects, in order to reflect how other politics are renewed and created. This study approaches social movements and their struggles to redefine politics by understanding culture as a political issue, and by capturing the articulation between feminisms and social movements observing the active participation of the research subjects in the country's political life. A range of sources, including sociological inputs in the fields of arts and culture, as well as a decolonial analysis, the contributions of critical institutional studies and the experience of artists and activists involved in the research, have been used in order to widen the perspective on art. Additionally, the study explores the political power of art in connection with the political importance of symbols. The proposed analysis articulates the notion of political, artistic, and feminist action with feminist arts in the analysed activisms. Additionally, it observes the practices of each collective, artistic or activist group, which help us to understand how art may be transformed into a feminist political practice. Finally, the study presents some methodological reflexions regarding the potentialities and difficulties of Narrative Productions, problematizing the relationship between activism and academia, and presenting the limits, lessons, challenges and propositions which arose during the investigation experience.

INTRODUZIONE: Il presente lavoro ha come obiettivo quello di analizzare, da una prospettiva di tipo economico-manageriale, i processi di formulazione delle strategie di offerta turistica del territorio basandosi sull'esperienza di promozione attuata dalle Associazioni Turistiche Pro Loco diffuse su tutto il territorio nazionale e facendo riferimento, in particolare, al caso della Pro Loco di Seravezza, in provincia di Lucca. Il lavoro si compone di tre capitoli e si snoda, con un approccio di tipo storico e legislativo, a partire da un'analisi attuata dapprima a livello internazionale, poi nazionale e infine locale, giungendo, appunto, al modello applicato in ambito della Pro Loco di Seravezza. Nel primo capitolo, Gestione manageriale del turismo, forniamo una visione generale del "fenomeno turismo" e della sua evoluzione dal punto di vista manageriale partendo dalla definizione stessa di "turismo" e seguendone il processo di evoluzione e trasformazione nel corso del tempo. Attraverso un breve excursus vengono qui analizzati i più significativi modelli di 'fare turismo', dal turismo elitario del Grand tour a un turismo di massa fino ad arrivare al mondo contemporaneo in cui si registra una mobilità territoriale straordinariamente intensa, diffusa, crescente, nonché il sistema di interdipendenze ed interferenze che essa attiva sul territorio. Si procede dunque analizzando l'attuale "composizione a sistema" nell'ambito del territorio di riferimento dimostrando che, in linea con quanto accade a livello internazionale e nazionale, per poter valorizzare al meglio le risorse culturali di un territorio, anche ai fini dello sviluppo locale, è necessario innovare politiche e strategie di intervento, nelle quali la parola d'ordine sembra essere sempre più "fare sistema", cooperare per riuscire ad ottenere un vantaggio competitivo. Per essere capaci di affrontare la concorrenza bisogna dunque puntare sempre di più sul coordinamento e le sinergie tra i diversi attori coinvolti non solo operatori turistici, alberghi, strutture ricettive, ristoranti, ecc., ma anche Enti, Amministrazioni e Associazioni. In particolare analizzando succesivamente il ruolo fondamentale delle amministrazioni pubbliche attraverso funzioni, quali regolamentazione del territorio, supporto, promozione e partecipazione alla creazione dell'offerta turistica, rilevanti ai fini del fenomeno turismo e della realizzazione del prodotto turistico. Approfondiamo in seguito, le diverse forme di istituzione quali i Sistemi Turistici Locali, gli OTD (Osservatorio Turistico di Destinazione), reti e distretti che hanno obiettivi comuni di stabilire sinergie fra operatori, ospiti, turisti, clienti e produttori del territorio e difendere, promuovere e far crescere il territorio di riferimento. Andando nello specifico vediamo che per Sistemi Turistici Locali, definiti dalla legge 135 del marzo 2001, si intendono "forme di aggregazione di soggetti pubblici e privati attorno ad un progetto comune", per OTD si intendono strumenti per studiare e definire le politiche di sviluppo turistico di un territorio, mentre le reti e distretti turistici culturali si sono sviluppati sul modello industriale. Facendo un esempio, quello che appare molto complicato per il singolo albergo può essere alla portata di una coalizione di piccoli imprenditori turistici, localizzati nella stessa zona, capaci di aiutarsi nel raggiungere insieme obiettivi complessi. La cooperazione, soprattutto tra soggetti che competono nello stesso mercato, potrebbe essere molto fragile e instabile. Se per coordinarsi i singoli devono sostenere dei costi, vi possono essere incentivi a comportarsi da free rider ovvero diminuire unilateralmente i propri contributi individuali ed appropriarsi in ogni modo dei vantaggi derivanti dall'appartenenza alla collettività come quello di godere di pubblicità o accordi particolari sviluppati dal consorzio. I Sistemi Turistici Locali, OTD e reti e distretti rappresentano una particolare forma di organizzazione delle attività economiche attraverso la quale agenti pubblici o privati, che insistono sullo stesso territorio, riescono a raggiungere in aggregato performance economiche superiori. Unire e coordinare le molteplici realtà presenti in un sistema turistico è sicuramente un impresa complessa che necessita di strumenti di governance che permettono di gestire l'andamento del settore, ma a livello legislativo ci vengono incontro diverse norme per condurre uno sviluppo del turismo nel miglior modo possibile. Un peso rilevante per la legislazione italiana l'ha avuto l'UNESCO con le sue numerose delibere in materia di patrimonio culturale, che hanno implicato la predisposizione, anche a livello nazionale italiano di un piano di ampliamento del ventaglio di beni da aggiungere a quelli meritevoli di tutela. In particolare andiamo a tracciare il percorso di cambiamento nel tempo della collocazione delle Associazioni Pro Loco nella legislazione turistica. Nel secondo capitolo, Associazione Pro Loco, spieghiamo cosa sono le Pro Loco, dalla nascita alla loro evoluzione nel tempo sottolineando il ruolo da esse svolto nel settore turistico. Viene preso in esame l'UNPLI (Unione Nazionale delle Pro Loco Italiane) unico ente di riferimento a livello nazionale per queste associazioni, che rappresenta il supporto e l'intermediario tra Pro Loco e attori istituzionali e permette di accedere a progetti nazionali come il Servizio Civile e partecipare ad iniziative volte al recupero e alla tutela del patrimonio sia materiale che immateriale. Grazie ai progetti e ai risultati ottenuti sul campo, grazie alle numerose iniziative attuate per la salvaguardia e la tutela del patrimonio culturale immateriale italiano, l'UNPLI ha ottenuto un importante riconoscimento da parte dell'UNESCO: nel giugno 2012 è stata infatti accreditata come consulente del Comitato Intergovernativo previsto dalla Convenzione per la Salvaguardia del Patrimonio Culturale Immateriale del 2003. Si tratta di un riconoscimento importante dato che in tutto il mondo sono soltanto 178 le organizzazioni accreditate e un altro significativo traguardo per l'UNPLI, visto l'impegno che è stato profuso in questi ultimi anni proprio nella sensibilizzazione delle Pro Loco e delle comunità locali sui temi legati alle potenzialità dei beni immateriali ma anche alla loro fragilità. (fonte UNPLI). Procediamo con lo studio dell'organigramma di Unpli e Pro Loco registrando, a livello nazionale, ben 6080 Pro Loco tesserate UNPLI, quindi siamo certi che disseminate sul territorio se ne trovino molte di più, costatando la presenza di un organizzazione UNPLI per ogni regione e dei Comitati UNPLI per ogni provincia. Al momento il censimento è stato possibile solamente a livello regionale toscano, mentre più ardua e complessa è apparsa la raccolta dei dati e la seguente mappatura a livello nazionale. Per quanto riguarda il contesto toscano sono stati rilevati 90 Uffici di Informazione e Accoglienza Turistica su 348 Associazioni Pro Loco presenti sul territorio regionale. Abbiamo, poi, preso a modello l'Associazione Turistica Pro Loco Seravezza che, con la gestione del proprio Ufficio Informazione Turistiche, ci offre un esempio concreto di sinergia tra Enti operanti su un territorio coordinati da un'Associazione capofila. Esso, infatti, grazie al lavoro dei volontari e la professionalità degli impiegati, svolge, oltre alle attività proprie dell'Associazione, anche attività di informazione e accoglienza visitatori offrendo numerosi servizi di front office e servizi di back office, basandosi sulle direttive indicate nelle Linee Guida della Regione "Toscana Turistica Sostenibile & Competitiva" che prevede lo sviluppo del sistema turistico regionale in armonia con la conservazione delle risorse naturali, del patrimonio storico, dell'identità culturale e in funzione del miglioramento della qualità della vita dei residenti. Si tratta di un progetto regionale che, a sua volta, segue le indicazioni europee per la gestione delle attività turistiche secondo un approccio sostenibile e competitivo, basato sul dialogo sociale e la misurazione dei fenomeni, frutto di un'attenta ed approfondita analisi delle nuove tendenze della domanda turistica nazionale ed internazionale dalla quali emergono due aspetti fondamentali: da un lato la necessità il potenziamento dell'impiego di quelli che sono i più moderni ed oramai irrinunciabili strumenti di comunicazione tecnologici che permettono l'interazione con l'utente, ovvero le risorse del web (il nuovo sito web, i social network, newsletter) in un'ottica di adeguamento al nuovo modo di fare turismo; dall'altro la promozione e la valorizzazione in loco con interventi legati alle tematiche dello sviluppo turistico sostenibile del territorio in modo da essere in grado di erogare una offerta turistica distintiva e non standardizzata. Infine, a chiudere questo Secondo Capitolo , affrontiamo il tema del Servizio Civile come risorsa per la promozione turistica: esso nasce gradualmente prima come alternativa alla leva militare obbligatoria poi con la sospensione di quest'ultima è diventata una scelta volontaria ed è stata introdotta la possibilità di eseguirlo anche per le ragazze; istituito con la legge 6 marzo 2001 n64 da la possibilità, messa a disposizione dei giovani di dedicare un anno della propria vita a favore di un impegno solidaristico inteso come impegno per il bene di tutti e di ciascuno e quindi come valore della ricerca di pace. Il servizio civile può essere svolto a livello internazionale, nazionale o regionale, ognuno di questi livelli ha una sua regolamentazione. Per la Regione Toscana può essere svolto il servizio civile dai giovani in età compresa tra i 18 e i 29 anni compiuti, mentre per il nazionale e l'internazionale ci sono termini più ristretti. La Regione Toscana approva periodicamente i bandi finanziati con il POR FSE 2014/2020. I progetti sono presentati dai soggetti iscritti all'albo degli enti di Servizio Civile Regionale e ai giovani viene erogato un contributo mensile. (fonte: sito Giovanisì-Regione toscana) Le Pro Loco partecipano a bandi di servizio civile sia nazionale che regionale e i progetti sono improntati sulla conoscenza e la promozione del territorio dando la possibilità a giovani di imparare a operare a fianco delle pubbliche amministrazioni in termini di attenzione alle problematiche territoriali; catalogare e realizzare prodotti multimediali di beni presenti sul territorio; progettare, programmare eventi con il coinvolgimento delle strutture pubbliche e private presenti sul territorio;effettuare una ricerca, in una logica sistemica, di abitudini, folclore, tradizioni etc. legate al passato ed in prospettiva futura; imparare la gestione di un ufficio informazioni turistiche e gestire le comunicazioni formali in entrata e in uscita e la comunicazione di promozione del territorio attraverso metodi tradizionali o innovativi. Nel terzo capitolo , Attività concrete di promozione del territorio, approfondiamo l'aspetto della promozione turistica attraverso le nuove forme di comunicazione turistica ma anche quelle tradizionali: da un lato assistiamo alla diffusione esponenziale di blog, app, social network e l'impiego di nuove tecnologie come l'installazione di touch screen, dall'altro la necessità di non abbandonare le forme di comunicazione tradizionali come brochure, depliant, volantini, mappe, calendari degli eventi e cartellonistica posta sul territorio. Abbiamo, infatti, potuto constatare che la comunicazione relativa alla promozione turistica è notevolmente cambiata nel corso degli anni e con l'avvento di nuove tecnologie oggi è una comunicazione veloce che passa attraverso i social network, grazie a nuovi smartphone è possibile scaricare app di ogni tipo che aiutano il turista in tutto dalla ricerca di un albergo a quella di una strada, da dove mangiare ai luoghi principali di interesse fino anche ad avere una guida in città o in siti di interesse storico culturale. Il turista può avvalersi di touch screen diffusi su territorio che permettono di visualizzare in pochi istanti la descrizione del luogo dove sono ubicati i principali monumenti o le eccellenze eno-gastronomiche e gli eventi locali e dei paesi circostanti. Allo stesso tempo, però, ci siamo resi conto che questo nuovo modo di 'fare turismo' non ha del tutto soppiantato il modo tradizionale di 'essere turista' e che non si possono totalmente dimenticare le forme di comunicazione turistica tradizionale. L'accoglienza di un ufficio informazioni dove poter trovare un contatto umano, che porta dentro il territorio e che fa conoscere i prodotti, gli usi e i costumi locali, è un'esperienza a cui il turista non vuole rinunciare e tutto ciò rappresenta il valore aggiunto che può offrire l' Associazione Pro Loco che da sempre opera attraverso il binomio fondamentale e irrinunciabile della promozione del turistica legato alla salvaguardia e all'amore del territorio.