Die Apartheid in Südafrika war ein Unrechtssystem. Zu den Grausamkeiten des Regimes zählten Massaker, Folter, Mord, Freiheitsberaubung, Zwangsumsiedlung, ökonomische Benachteiligung und alltägliche Diskriminierung. Was nach dem Ende eines solchen Unrechtssystems bleibt, ist die Frage nach dem Umgang mit der Vergangenheit. Die drei grundlegenden Möglichkeiten der Vergangenheitsbewältigung sind die rein justiziare Aufarbeitung, eine Generalamnestie oder ein drittes Modell, das zum Ziel hat, die Vorteile der beiden anderen Strategien zu vereinen. In Südafrika versuchte man, auch als Kompromiss aller Beteiligter, diesen dritten Weg mit der Einrichtung der Wahrheits- und Versöhnungskommission, die mittlerweile weltweit zum Sinnbild dieser Form der Vergangenheitsbewältigung geworden ist. Das Ziel der Studie war dabei zu klären: War die Wahrheits- und Versöhnungskommission in Südafrika als Strategie der Vergangenheitsbewältigung erfolgreich? Im Einzelnen widmete sich die TRC in drei Hauptausschüssen (Menschenrechtsausschuss, Amnestieausschuss und Wiedergutmachungsausschuss) den folgenden Zielen: Aufklärung der Menschenrechtsverletzungen, Klärung des Verbleibs verschwundener Personen, Klärung dessen, was während der Apartheid und der Übergangsphase zerstört wurde um die Verbrechen zu verschleiern, Wiedergutmachung für die Opfer und Amnestierung der Täter bei politisch motivierten Taten. Dieser letzte Punkt war jedoch an die völlige Offenlegung der Tat und ein öffentliches Eingeständnis gebunden. Zum einen zeigt die Analyse die großen Erfolge der Wahrheits- und Versöhnungskommission in Südafrika. Sie hat mehr und vor allem genauere Informationen über die Apartheid zusammengetragen, als je eine andere Untersuchung es geschafft hat. Mit der starken Beteiligung der Bevölkerung am Prozess der Aufklärung konnte sie einen Prozess in Gang bringen, der zur Entstehung einer neuen Menschenrechtskultur beitrug und auch einen Anstoß zur Versöhnung gab. Durch die intensive Aufarbeitung der Vergangenheit in einem gesamtgesellschaftlichen Prozess schaffte es die TRC auch, eine politische Kultur anzuregen, die unentbehrlich ist, will man nach einem Unrechtssystem eine demokratische Zukunft aufbauen. Das Verständnis oder zumindest eine Ahnung von dem was Menschenrechtsverletzungen bedeuten, wurde in dieser Zeit tief im Bewusstsein der meisten Südafrikaner verankert. Es wurde eine "operative Wahrheit" geschaffen, die, wenn auch unter Protesten aller Parteien, letztlich anerkannt wurde und somit ein zukünftiges Leugnen der Apartheidsverbrechen unmöglich machte. Aber auch die Befreiungsbewegungen mussten brutale Verbrechen eingestehen. Zum anderen wird ebenso deutlich, dass die gestellten Anforderungen bei weitem zu hoch waren. Obwohl große Bereiche der alltäglichen Apartheid komplett unberücksichtigt blieben. Bei der Wahrheitsfindung wurde deutlich, dass die drei Ausschüsse weit von einer wirklichen Aufklärung der Untaten der Apartheid entfernt blieben. Auch in Bezug auf die Täter erreichte die Kommission nur zum Teil ihre Ziele. Verglichen mit den aufgeklärten Verbrechen, beantragte nur ein Bruchteil der Täter Amnestie. Die Logik, durch den Anreiz der Straffreiheit eine rege Beteiligung der Täter am Aufklärungsprozess zu erreichen, ging nicht auf. Bei der Wiedergutmachung zeigte sich, dass es einer der größten Konstruktionsfehler der TRC war, die Umsetzung der Entschädigungen dem Parlament und der Regierung zu überlassen. Der Wiedergutmachungsausschuss erarbeitete lediglich Vorschläge an den Präsidenten. Die wurden jedoch nie in dieser Form umgesetzt und stellten damit die TRC als Ganze bei Teilen der schwarzen und farbigen Bevölkerung in Frage. Einen direkten Zusammenhang zwischen der TRC und einer Befriedung der Bevölkerung herzustellen, wäre vermessen. Noch immer ist Südafrika ein gespaltenes Land. Ähnliches gilt bei der Legitimierung und Konsolidierung der neuen demokratischen Ordnung. Auch hier ist die Kommission ein Baustein, auf den nicht verzichtet werden konnte. Ihr diesen Erfolg, und es ist ein Erfolg im heutigen Südafrika, alleine zuzuschreiben, wäre eine extreme Überschätzung ihrer Möglichkeiten. Unterm Strich bleibt: Die TRC konnte nicht all ihre Ziele erreichen, aber sie hat sich gerade unter den Voraussetzungen des Übergangsprozesses als eine sinnvolle Form der Vergangenheitsbewältigung erwiesen, die grundlegend wichtige Ergebnisse erarbeiten konnte. Sie kann somit trotz der Berücksichtigung einer Vielzahl von Problemen als Erfolg gewertet werden. ; Apartheid in South Africa was a system of injustice. Atrocities committed by the regime were e.g. massacres, torture, murder, deprivation of personal liberty, forced relocation, economical and daily discrimination. After the existence of such an unjust system, the question of how to deal with the past remains. Basically there are three possibilities. Firstly the judicial approach, secondly a general pardon and finally a third model of coping with the past, which has the aim to combine the advantages of the first two strategies. In South Africa all parties involved tried to find such a third model as a compromise. The Truth- and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established and has become a symbol of this way of dealing with the past by now. The aim of the survey was to find out, weather the TRC in South Africa was successful as strategy of dealing with the past. In detail the TRC dealt in three main committees (Human Rights Violations Committee, Amnesty Committee, Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee) with the following goals: Clarification of the human rights violations, clarification of the fate of missing people, clarification of what has been destroyed during Apartheid and in the transitional period in order to camouflage the crimes, compensation for the victims and giving amnesty to perpetrators if their crimes have had a political motivation. This last point was tied to an entire disclosure of the crime and a public confession. On the one hand the survey shows the great successes of the TRC in South Africa. The commission brought up more, and - above all - more detailed information about the Apartheid, than any other investigation ever has before. Due to the strong participation of the population in the process of clarification, the TRC was able to stir up a process, which contributed to the emergence of a new culture and to an understanding of human rights and therefore gave an impetus to reconciliation. As a result of the intensive debate about the past in a process that involved the whole society, the TRC achieved to encourage a political culture, which is indispensable for the development of a democratic society after the experience of a system of injustice. Almost every South African gained an understanding, or at least an imagination, of what is meant by human rights violations. An "operational truth" was established, which was widely acknowledged, despite the protest of all parties. A denial of the crimes of Apartheid became impossible. But the liberation movement had to admit brutal crimes as well. On the other hand it becomes clear, that the contrived tasks were far too high, even though many parts of daily Apartheid were ignored completely. The commission did not succeed in clarifying all crimes of Apartheid. Also concerning the perpetrators, the commission did only partly achieve its goals. Compared to the clarified crimes, only a fractional amount of the perpetrators applied for amnesty. The idea, that many perpetrators would participate in the clarification-process with the perspective of being amnestied did not work out. Concerning the reparation, the TRC showed one of its most basic constructional defects. The Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee developed suggestions, which were then never implemented by the president in the way the committee had intended. This made many black and coloured people doubt the work of the commission as a whole. There is no direct relation between the TRC and a pacification of the population. South Africa still is a divided country. The same has to be said about the legitimation and consolidation of the new democratic order. The commission made a contribution that could not be set aside. But to refer this succes, and it is a succes in today's South Africa, only to the TRC, would be a total overestimation of its possibilities. What remains is: The TRC could not achieve all its goals. Nevertheless, it proved to be a sensible form of dealing with the past. Above all, under the preconditions of a transitional process, it came to important results. Despite many problems, the commission can be judged as a success.
Die Apartheid in Südafrika war ein Unrechtssystem. Zu den Grausamkeiten des Regimes zählten Massaker, Folter, Mord, Freiheitsberaubung, Zwangsumsiedlung, ökonomische Benachteiligung und alltägliche Diskriminierung. Was nach dem Ende eines solchen Unrechtssystems bleibt, ist die Frage nach dem Umgang mit der Vergangenheit. Die drei grundlegenden Möglichkeiten der Vergangenheitsbewältigung sind die rein justiziare Aufarbeitung, eine Generalamnestie oder ein drittes Modell, das zum Ziel hat, die Vorteile der beiden anderen Strategien zu vereinen. In Südafrika versuchte man, auch als Kompromiss aller Beteiligter, diesen dritten Weg mit der Einrichtung der Wahrheits- und Versöhnungskommission, die mittlerweile weltweit zum Sinnbild dieser Form der Vergangenheitsbewältigung geworden ist. Das Ziel der Studie war dabei zu klären: War die Wahrheits- und Versöhnungskommission in Südafrika als Strategie der Vergangenheitsbewältigung erfolgreich? Im Einzelnen widmete sich die TRC in drei Hauptausschüssen (Menschenrechtsausschuss, Amnestieausschuss und Wiedergutmachungsausschuss) den folgenden Zielen: Aufklärung der Menschenrechtsverletzungen, Klärung des Verbleibs verschwundener Personen, Klärung dessen, was während der Apartheid und der Übergangsphase zerstört wurde um die Verbrechen zu verschleiern, Wiedergutmachung für die Opfer und Amnestierung der Täter bei politisch motivierten Taten. Dieser letzte Punkt war jedoch an die völlige Offenlegung der Tat und ein öffentliches Eingeständnis gebunden. Zum einen zeigt die Analyse die großen Erfolge der Wahrheits- und Versöhnungskommission in Südafrika. Sie hat mehr und vor allem genauere Informationen über die Apartheid zusammengetragen, als je eine andere Untersuchung es geschafft hat. Mit der starken Beteiligung der Bevölkerung am Prozess der Aufklärung konnte sie einen Prozess in Gang bringen, der zur Entstehung einer neuen Menschenrechtskultur beitrug und auch einen Anstoß zur Versöhnung gab. Durch die intensive Aufarbeitung der Vergangenheit in einem gesamtgesellschaftlichen Prozess schaffte es die TRC auch, eine politische Kultur anzuregen, die unentbehrlich ist, will man nach einem Unrechtssystem eine demokratische Zukunft aufbauen. Das Verständnis oder zumindest eine Ahnung von dem was Menschenrechtsverletzungen bedeuten, wurde in dieser Zeit tief im Bewusstsein der meisten Südafrikaner verankert. Es wurde eine "operative Wahrheit" geschaffen, die, wenn auch unter Protesten aller Parteien, letztlich anerkannt wurde und somit ein zukünftiges Leugnen der Apartheidsverbrechen unmöglich machte. Aber auch die Befreiungsbewegungen mussten brutale Verbrechen eingestehen. Zum anderen wird ebenso deutlich, dass die gestellten Anforderungen bei weitem zu hoch waren. Obwohl große Bereiche der alltäglichen Apartheid komplett unberücksichtigt blieben. Bei der Wahrheitsfindung wurde deutlich, dass die drei Ausschüsse weit von einer wirklichen Aufklärung der Untaten der Apartheid entfernt blieben. Auch in Bezug auf die Täter erreichte die Kommission nur zum Teil ihre Ziele. Verglichen mit den aufgeklärten Verbrechen, beantragte nur ein Bruchteil der Täter Amnestie. Die Logik, durch den Anreiz der Straffreiheit eine rege Beteiligung der Täter am Aufklärungsprozess zu erreichen, ging nicht auf. Bei der Wiedergutmachung zeigte sich, dass es einer der größten Konstruktionsfehler der TRC war, die Umsetzung der Entschädigungen dem Parlament und der Regierung zu überlassen. Der Wiedergutmachungsausschuss erarbeitete lediglich Vorschläge an den Präsidenten. Die wurden jedoch nie in dieser Form umgesetzt und stellten damit die TRC als Ganze bei Teilen der schwarzen und farbigen Bevölkerung in Frage. Einen direkten Zusammenhang zwischen der TRC und einer Befriedung der Bevölkerung herzustellen, wäre vermessen. Noch immer ist Südafrika ein gespaltenes Land. Ähnliches gilt bei der Legitimierung und Konsolidierung der neuen demokratischen Ordnung. Auch hier ist die Kommission ein Baustein, auf den nicht verzichtet werden konnte. Ihr diesen Erfolg, und es ist ein Erfolg im heutigen Südafrika, alleine zuzuschreiben, wäre eine extreme Überschätzung ihrer Möglichkeiten. Unterm Strich bleibt: Die TRC konnte nicht all ihre Ziele erreichen, aber sie hat sich gerade unter den Voraussetzungen des Übergangsprozesses als eine sinnvolle Form der Vergangenheitsbewältigung erwiesen, die grundlegend wichtige Ergebnisse erarbeiten konnte. Sie kann somit trotz der Berücksichtigung einer Vielzahl von Problemen als Erfolg gewertet werden. ; Apartheid in South Africa was a system of injustice. Atrocities committed by the regime were e.g. massacres, torture, murder, deprivation of personal liberty, forced relocation, economical and daily discrimination. After the existence of such an unjust system, the question of how to deal with the past remains. Basically there are three possibilities. Firstly the judicial approach, secondly a general pardon and finally a third model of coping with the past, which has the aim to combine the advantages of the first two strategies. In South Africa all parties involved tried to find such a third model as a compromise. The Truth- and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established and has become a symbol of this way of dealing with the past by now. The aim of the survey was to find out, weather the TRC in South Africa was successful as strategy of dealing with the past. In detail the TRC dealt in three main committees (Human Rights Violations Committee, Amnesty Committee, Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee) with the following goals: Clarification of the human rights violations, clarification of the fate of missing people, clarification of what has been destroyed during Apartheid and in the transitional period in order to camouflage the crimes, compensation for the victims and giving amnesty to perpetrators if their crimes have had a political motivation. This last point was tied to an entire disclosure of the crime and a public confession. On the one hand the survey shows the great successes of the TRC in South Africa. The commission brought up more, and - above all - more detailed information about the Apartheid, than any other investigation ever has before. Due to the strong participation of the population in the process of clarification, the TRC was able to stir up a process, which contributed to the emergence of a new culture and to an understanding of human rights and therefore gave an impetus to reconciliation. As a result of the intensive debate about the past in a process that involved the whole society, the TRC achieved to encourage a political culture, which is indispensable for the development of a democratic society after the experience of a system of injustice. Almost every South African gained an understanding, or at least an imagination, of what is meant by human rights violations. An "operational truth" was established, which was widely acknowledged, despite the protest of all parties. A denial of the crimes of Apartheid became impossible. But the liberation movement had to admit brutal crimes as well. On the other hand it becomes clear, that the contrived tasks were far too high, even though many parts of daily Apartheid were ignored completely. The commission did not succeed in clarifying all crimes of Apartheid. Also concerning the perpetrators, the commission did only partly achieve its goals. Compared to the clarified crimes, only a fractional amount of the perpetrators applied for amnesty. The idea, that many perpetrators would participate in the clarification-process with the perspective of being amnestied did not work out. Concerning the reparation, the TRC showed one of its most basic constructional defects. The Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee developed suggestions, which were then never implemented by the president in the way the committee had intended. This made many black and coloured people doubt the work of the commission as a whole. There is no direct relation between the TRC and a pacification of the population. South Africa still is a divided country. The same has to be said about the legitimation and consolidation of the new democratic order. The commission made a contribution that could not be set aside. But to refer this succes, and it is a succes in today's South Africa, only to the TRC, would be a total overestimation of its possibilities. What remains is: The TRC could not achieve all its goals. Nevertheless, it proved to be a sensible form of dealing with the past. Above all, under the preconditions of a transitional process, it came to important results. Despite many problems, the commission can be judged as a success.
• After making substantial progress on tobacco control in the mid-1990s, the tobacco industry has stifled tobacco control activities in Washington through a mixture of campaign contributions and legal challenges. • Political campaign contributions have remained steadily high throughout the 1990s. Philip Morris, RJ Reynolds, the Tobacco Institute, Lorillard, Brown & Williamson, and the Smokeless Tobacco Council contributed $362,298 to campaigns in 1996 through 2000 election cycles: $114,123 in the 1996 election cycle, $109,975 in 1998, and $138,200 in 2000. • From 1996-2000, 92% of these campaign contributions by the tobacco industry were to Republican candidates, party contributions, and soft money. • The largest lifetime recipients of campaign contributions were Clyde Ballard ($16,830, R-East Wenatchee), William Grant ($7,400, D-Franklin), Dan McDonald ($7,246, R-King), and Pat Scott ($5,490, D-Snohomish). Ballard and Grant are both powerful in the House leadership; Ballard is the Co-Speaker of the House of Representatives, and Grant is the House Democratic Caucus Chair. McDonald was the Majority Leader of the Senate from 1996-1999, and prior to that, he chaired the powerful Ways and Means Committee. • The tobacco industry has also spent heavily on lobbying; from 1996-2000, the industry spent $1,864,086 to lobby members of the legislature and the state administrative offices. This includes lobbyists' salaries and perks given to legislators such as holiday gifts, entertainment and meals. • Washington and its Attorney General, Christine Gregoire, played an active role in the state tobacco trials and subsequent 46 state settlement (known as the Master Settlement Agreement) in 1998. The legislature reserved $100 million of the settlement money for a new Department of Health tobacco control program. • Department of Health officials and health advocates had requested $26 million to begin the tobacco control program, but, because of pressure from the Republican members, the legislature only allocated $15 million for the first year, about half of what the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends for Washington State. • Attempts to pass local smoking regulations, with provisions stricter than the 1985 Clean Indoor Air Act, have been hampered by an ambiguous legal question about whether the Clean Indoor Air Act preempts local legislation. Puyallup, the only city attempting to pass a smokefree restaurant ordinance, rescinded it after being challenged with an industry-funded lawsuit without seeking a court ruling on the issue of preemption. The fact that the Attorney General's office has not issued a formal decision on this issue has contributed to the reluctance from local governments. This circumstance has allowed the tobacco industry to stop local clean indoor air regulations. • Spokane has adopted a voluntary approach to controlling secondhand smoke in restaurants with their Big Air Program. Many restaurants in the City and County of Spokane have become voluntarily smokefree since the program was initiated in 1996. Although city officials initiated their program independently, it is very similar to the tobacco industry's voluntary smoking regulations through their "accommodation" and "red light/green light" programs. • The industry has also orchestrated legal pressure to attack the federally-funded ASSIST tobacco control project with allegations of "illegal lobbying" and filed a complaint to the Public Disclosure Commission. While the ASSIST project has ended, the tobacco industry successfully used this experience to discourage health departments and advocates from using the policy process to promote tobacco control. • Several counties, including King, Snohomish, Pierce and Spokane passed outdoor and color advertising restrictions between 1996 and 1999. These measures abolished all outdoor billboards and restricted advertising in stores to small, black and white posters. The industry supported challenges that overturned these restrictions on the grounds that they were preempted by federal law and a violation of the First Amendment. The industry prevailed in the federal Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals and the defendants agreed not to appeal in exchange for the industry not demanding that its legal fees be paid. This situation has stopped similar legislation in Washington. Similar laws were upheld elsewhere in the United States and as of early 2001 the issue was under review at the US Supreme Court. If the Supreme Court upholds such laws, Washington authorities may seek to reinstate them. • Health advocates, who could play a decisive role in anti-tobacco campaigns, have been hindered by the lack of a continuously functioning statewide coalition in Washington. The former group, Tobacco Free Washington Coalition, was funded in large part by a grant from ASSIST. Without ASSIST funding, the statewide coalition could not procure the resources to continue operations. Many advocates limited their efforts to smaller, local coalitions which dilutes their strength as a statewide lobbying force. A new group, Washington Alliance for Tobacco Control and Children's Health (WATCH), was created in 1998 to replace Tobacco Free Washington. They are a broad-based coalition funded by their member organizations. They lobbied in 1999 to ensure that money from the tobacco settlement went to fund health services and that the Department of Health's tobacco programs received adequate funding. • WATCH, together with the Washington Restaurant Association, sponsored Senate Bill 5993 which passed the Senate in March 2001. The bill would ensure more smokefree restaurants, but it has several flaws including exceptions for restaurants where minors are prohibited and the creation of a task force to study ventilation systems. The tobacco industry often advocates ventilation systems to dilute smokefree restaurant legislation and perpetuate controversy around the fact that no ventilation system can completely remove secondhand smoke from an enclosed environment. • In general, the tobacco industry has succeeded in stalling tobacco control efforts in Washington State. Although advocates, local public health officials, the Department of Health, the Attorney General, and some influential members of the legislature are all in favor of broad-based, fully funded, tobacco control education programs and increased Clean Indoor Air legislation, these advocates have not mobilized the resources necessary to overcome the legal and political impediments the industry has created.
In: The economic history review, Band 25, Heft 4, S. 697-772
ISSN: 1468-0289
Book Reviews in this Article:J. M. Winter and D. M. Joslin (Eds.).Dom David Knowles, C. N. L. Brooke, and Vera London (Eds.)Dorothy M. Owen. Church and Society in Medieval Lincolnshire. History of Lincolnshire.J. Z. Titow. Winchester Yields: A Study in Medieval Agricultural Productivity.Joyce Youings. The Dissolution of the Monasteries.A. L. Rowse. The Elizabethan Renaissance. The Life of the Society.B. Dietz (Ed.).J. de L. Mann.Arthur J. Willis and Margaret J. Hoad (Eds.).Joan Thirsk and J. P. Cooper (Eds.)L. M. Cullen. An Economic History of Ireland since 1660.Joan Wake and Deborah Champion Webster (Eds.).Mary Thale (Ed.).T. D. Campbell. Adam Smith's Science of Morals.R. D. Collison Black. Readings in the Development of Economic Analysis 1776–1848.Philip A. Stevens.H.J. M. Johnston. The Life of Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., Partly written by himself, edited and completed by William Pole.Howard Temperley. British Antislavery, 1833–1870.W. J. Reader. The Weir Group. A Centenary History.Asa Briggs and John Saville (Eds.)B. W. E. Alford. Depression and Recovery? British Economic Growth 1918–39.R. and E. Frow and Michael Katanka.Graham Humphrys. Industrial Britain: South Wales.Maurice F. Bond. Guide to the Records of Parliament.B. R. Mitchell and H. G. Jones.Robert Craig (Ed.). Maritime History.J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz. Antioch. City and Imperial Administration in the Later Roman Empire.Sir Joseph Hutchinson. Farming and Food Supply: The Interdependence of Countryside and Town.Marguerite Kuczynski and Ronald L. Meek (Eds.). Quesnay's Tableau Économique.Guy P. Palmade. French Capitalism in the Nineteenth Century (1961)Glyndwr Williams (Ed.). Peter Skew Ogden's Snake Country Journals 1827–28 and 1828–29.C. W. Newbury. British Policy towards West Africa. Select Documents 1875–1914. With Statistical Aptendices, 1800–1914.G. B. Kay. The Political Economy of Colonialism in Ghana. A collection of documents and statistics 1900–1960.A. K. Bagchi. Private Investment in India 1900–1939.John B. Rae. The Road and the Car in American Life.Thorstein Veblen. The Theory of the Leisure Class.Alan S. Milward. The Fascist Economy in Norway.Hassanein Rabie. London Oriental Series.N. W. Posthumus. De uitvoer van Amsterdam, 1543–1545.P. H. M. G. Offermans. Arbeid en Levensstandaard omstreeks de Reductie in Nijmegen, 1550–1600. With French Summary.C. Ch. Goslinga. The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580–1680.J. G. Van Dillen. Van Rijkdom en Regenten. Handboek tot de Economisch en Sociale Geschiedenis van Nederland tijdens de Republiek.P. H. Winkelman (Ed.). Bronnen voor de geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Oostzeehandel in de XVIIe eeuw.A. C. Carter. The Dutch Republic in Europe in the Seven Years War.R. Darquenne. La conscription dans le département de Jemappes (1798–1813). Bilan démographique et médio‐social.M. A. Arnould, G. Despy, D. Gheret, P. H. Moureaux, and others. Recherches sur l'histoire des finances publiques en Belgique, Tome II.D. Degreve. D'une analyse historique de la Révolution industrielle à un diagnostic du sousdéveloppement.E. Schiff. Industrialization without National Patents. The Netherlands, 1869–1912, Switzerland, 1850–1907. Ada Historiae Neerlandica, Vol. V. Geschiedenis van ver en nabij. Bundel versfreide geschriften van Dr Th. J. G. Locher.A. M. Bonenfant‐Feytmans. L'èvolution des hǒpitauxà Bruxelles.A. C. J. De Vrankrijker. Geschiedenis van de Belastingen.M. K. E. Gottschalk. Stormvloeden en rivieroverstrorningen in Nederland. I: de periode voor 1400.C. Dekker. Zuid‐Beveland. De historisch geografie en de instellingen van een Zeeuws eiland in de Middeleeuwen.Cnr. Pierard (Ed.). La plus anciens comptes de la ville de Mons, 1279–1356: Tome I.J. Mertens. De Laat‐Middleleeuwse landbouweconomie in enkele gemeenten van het Brugse platteland.Alphonse Gillard. L'industrie du fer dans les localitès du comte de Namur et de L'Entre‐Sambre‐et‐Meuse de 1345 à 1600.David M. Nicholas. Town and Countryside. Social, Economic and Political Tensions in Fourteenth Century Flanders.W. P. Blockmans e.a. Studién betreffende de sociale strukturen te Brugge, Kortrijk en Gent in de 14e enW. P. Blockmans (Ed.). Handelingen van de Leden en van de Staten van Vlaanderen (1467–1477)J. Grauwels. Dagboek van gebeurtenissen opgetekend door Christiaan Munters, 1529–1545.M. Baelde (Ed.). De domeingoederen van de vorst in de Nederlanden omstreeks het midden van de zestiende eeuw (1551–1559)H. Hasquin. Une mutation: le "Pegs de Charleroi" aux XVIIème et XVIIIème siècles. Aux origines de la Révolution industrielle en Belgique.Georges Hansotte. La clouterie liégeoise et la question ouvrière au XVIIIe siècle.J. R. Bruijn. De admiraliteit van Amsterdam in ruatige jaren 1713–1751. Regenten en financien, schepen en zeevarenden.W. Ph. Coolhaas. Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs‐Generaal en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindisch Compagnie,J. L. F. Engelhard. Het Generaal‐Plakkaat van 31 juli 1725 op de Convooien en Licenten en het Lastgeld op de schepen. Een studie over de heffing der in‐ en uitvoerrechten van de Republiek der Vereenigde Nederlanden, hoofdzakelijk tijdens de achttiende eeuw.Ph. Moureaux. Les préoccupations statistiques du gouvernement des Pays‐Bas Autrichiens.Annette André‐Felix. Les débuts de l'industrie chimique dans les Pays‐Bas autrichiem.P. Dekker. De laatste bloeiperiode van de Nederlandse Arctische walvis‐ en robbevangst 1761–1775.Irene Hasenberg Butter. Academic Economics in Holland, 1800–1870.R. Rentenaar (Ed.). Van Swindens Vergelijkingstafels van Lengtematen en Landmaten.K. Caulier Mathy. La modernisation des charbonnages liégeois pendant la première moitié du XIXe siècle. Techniques d'exploitation.I. J. Brugmans. Stapvoets voorwaarts. Sociale geschiedenis van Nederland in de negentiende eeuw.J. M. Dirkzwager. Dr B. J. Tideman, 1834–1883. Grondlegger van de moderne scheepsbouw in Nederland.C. Van Der Berg. H. B. J. Van Rijn, burgemeester van Venlo, pionier de milieuhygiëne.H. Wouters. Documenten betreffende de geschiedenis der arbeidersbeweging ten tijde van de Ie Internationale (1866–1880). Vol. I. Honderd jaar Brand. De historie van een Limburgse brouwerij 1871–1971.H. Claude. Histoire, réalité et destin d'un monopole. La Banque de Paris et des Pays‐Bas et son groupe (1872–1968)J. F. R. Philips. Vijftig jaar Hornerhide. Historisch beschouwingen over medische zorg in Limburg. Zeventig jaren statistiek in tijdreeksen 1899–1969.J. ‐M. Faverge, A. Houyoux, M. Olivier and A. Querton, J. Laporta, A. Poncin and P. Salengros. L'organisation viuante. Comportements d'ajustements et d'èvolution au sein des organisations.I;. Baudhuin. Histoire éonomique de la Belgique, 1957–1968.
Contiene: 1. A new and correct map of the world, laid down according to the newest discoveries, and from the most exact observations (1709) -- 2. A New & correct map of the whole world Shewing ye situation of its principal parts. viz the Ooeans, kingdoms, rivers, capes, ports, mountains, woods, trade-winds, monsoons, variation of ye compass, climats, &c. with the most remarkable tracks of the bold attempts which have been made to find out the North East and North West passages (1719) -- 3. To her most sacred Majesty Carolina Queen of Great Britain France & Ireland this map of Europe according to the newest exact observations is most humbly (1708) -- 4. To the Right Honourable William Lord Cowper, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, This map of Asia According to the Newest and most Exact Observations is most Humbly dedicated by your Lordship's most Obedient Servant Herman Moll Geographer -- 5. A Map of the East-Indies and the Adjacent Countries; with the Settlements, Factories and Territories, explaining what Belongs to England, Spain, France, Holland, Denmark, Portugal &c . -- 6. To the Right Honourable Charles, Earl of Peterborow, and Monmouth, &c. This Map of Africa according to ye newest and most exact observations -- 7. To the Right Honourable John Lord Sommers Baron of Evesham in ye county of Worcester President of Her Majesty's most Honourable Privy Council etc. This Map of North America According to ye Newest and most Exact Observations . -- 8. A new and exact map of the dominions of the King of Great Britain on ye continent of North America, containing Newfoundland, New Scotland, New England, New York, New Jersey, Pensilvania, Maryland, Virginia and Carolina --9. A new map of the north parts of America claimed by France under ye names of Louisiana, Mississipi [sic], Canada, and New France with ye adjoyning territories of England and Spain (1720) -- 10. A map of the West-Indies or the islands of America in the North Sea with ye adjacent countries explaning [sic] what belongs to Spain, England, France, Holland &c. also ye trade winds, and ye several tracts made by ye galeons and flota from place to place -- 11. To the Right Honourable, Charles Earl of Sunderland, and Baron Spencer of Wormleighton, one of Her Majesty's principal secretaries of state, &c., this map of South America according to the newest and most exact observations is most humbly dedicated by your Lordship's most humble servant -- 12. A new & exact map of the coast, countries and islands within ye limits of ye South Sea Company, from ye river Aranoca to Terra del Fuego, and from thence through ye South Sea, to ye north part of California &c. with a view of the general and coasting trade-winds and perticular draughts of the most important bays, ports &c -- 13. To His Most Serene and August Majesty Peter Alexovitz absolute lord of Russia &c this map of Moscovy, Poland, Little Tartary, and ye Black Sea &c is most humbly dedicated -- 14. A new map of Denmark and Sweden according to ye newest and most exact observations . to his excellence John Bishop of Bristol . -- 15. A new map of Great Britain according to the newest and most exact observations -- 16. The Southern Part of Great Britain called England and Wales (1710) -- 17. The North part of Great Britain called Scotland (1714) -- 18. A new map of Ireland, divided into its provinces, counties and baronies, wherein are distinguished the bishopricks, borroughs, barracks, bogs, passes, bridges &c. with the principal roads, and the common reputed miles (1714) -- 19. A new map of Germany, Hungary, Transilvania & the Suisse cantons . (1712) -- 20. A new & exact map of the electorate of Brunswick-Lunenburg and ye rest of ye Kings dominions in Germany very much improved by ye kind assistance of severall curious gentlemen, natives of those countries -- 21 A New and Exact Map of the United Provinces, or Netherlands, &c -- 22. Les provinces des Pays-Bas Catholiques ou A most exact map of Flanders or ye Austrian Netherlands &c : it comprehends all the towns, villages, abbeys, monasteries throughout all these provinces &c -- 23. A new and exact map of France divided into all its provinces and acquisitions according to the newest observations and that accurate survey made by the King's command by Mr. Picar and de la Hire, with the post roads and the computed leagues from town to town the passes of the Pirenean Mountaines, and many other remarcks &c -- 24. New and Exact Map of Spain & Portugal, divided into its Kingdoms and Principalities &c with ye. Principal Roads and considerable Improvements, the whole rectifyd according to ye. Newest Observations By H. Moll Geographer (1711) -- 25. A new map of Italy, distinguishing all the sovereignties in it whether states, kingdoms, dutchies, principalities, republicks &c. with the post roads, & many remarks not extant in any map, according to the newest and most exact observations (1714) -- 26. A new map of the upper part of Italy containing ye principality of Piemont ye Dutchies of Savoy, Milan, Parma, Mantua, Modena, Tuscany, the dominions of ye Pope &c. the republiques of Venice, Genoe, Lucca &c., to His Most Sacred Majesty George II King of Great Britain France and Ireland, Elector of Brunswick-Luneburg &c. this Map is most humbly dedicated -- 27. The Turkish Empire in Europe, Asia and Africa, Dividid into all its Governments, together with the other Territories that are Tributary to it, as also the Domnions of the Emperor of Marocco . -- 28. Theatrum historicum ad annum Christi quadringentesimum in quo tum Imperii Romani tum Barbarorum ; Márgenes graduados. - Orientados con rosas con lis. - Meridiando de origen: Londres. - Montes de perfil. - Red hidrográfica. - Costas sombreadas.- Rumbos. - Abundante toponimia. ; Los mapas están fechados entre 1708 y 1720. ; Mapas a doble plana con verso de las hojas en blanco ; Títulos en cartelas decoradas, rodeadas de personajes alusivos a las zonas representadas
Marching to the beat of punk rock and reggae, Rock Against Racism was a mass movement built in opposition to racism and fascism in 1970s Britain. At a time of severe economic and social crises, RAR, alongside the Anti-Nazi League, organised one of the biggest and most effective political and cultural mobilisations of the post-war period. Expressing itself through spectacular carnivals, concerts, marches and innovative forms of design and communication, RAR combined hard-headed political organisation with the optimism and energy of radical youth culture. Drawing on interviews with activists, supp
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This is a follow up to last month's post on the attack on education, but rather than use images of people protesting CRT I decided to post the video of the talk referred to below. As I think I have mentioned elsewhere on this blog in the spring I taught a seminar on Race, Class, and Gender. This involved an engagement with both some familiar material, Balibar's writing on race and class, and some material that I have not taught before, Stuart Hall, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Sylvia Wynter, etc. (I should say that in light of the title of this piece that I did not teach CRT specifically, but rather critical writing on race). At the same time that I was expanding my teaching and research the country, or at least parts of it were moving in the other direction, passing laws that outlawed discussions of critical race theory, intersectionality, and gender theory. This was in some sense a teachable moment, or at least should be: I kept coming back to the question of the politics of knowledge and ignorance around race.In Stuart Hall's famous lecture, "Race, The Floating Signifier" he outlines the basic point against the concept of race as a biological concept, "As we know human genetically variability between different populations, normally assigned a racial category, is not significantly greater than it is within those populations." However, as he goes onto to detail in the next section this scientific fact has never been accepted. As Hall writes, "First, [this general position] represents the by now common and conventional wisdom among leading scientists in the field. Second, that fact has never prevented intense scholarly activity being devoted by a minority of committed academics to attempting to prove a correlation between racially defined genetic characteristics and cultural performance. In other words, we are not dealing with a field in which, as it were, the scientifically and rationally established fact prevents scientists from continuing to prove the opposite."Here are my two points about Hall's two points. First, as a matter of historicization, a lot has changed since nineteen ninety seven. Race is no longer the outlier as it once was. The science of global warming, vaccines, even such basic astronomical matters as the size and shape of the Earth, all now have their doubters and alternative facts. A survey of the world of conspiracy theories and people with various crank beliefs demanding to be debated on social media only serves to illustrate Spinoza's fundamental axiom that "Nothing positive which a false idea has is removed by the presence of the true insofar as it is true." Ideas, even adequate or true ideas, have no intrinsic force or power, but must be actualized, materialized by other forces. Which brings me to my second point, if an idea or the criticism of an idea, in this case the criticism of race as a biological reality, does not take hold then the problem may have less to do with the idea itself, its own intrinsic value, than with the forces, social, political, economic, psychic, etc., that are allied against it. Sylvia WynterWhich brings me to my second point of reference, and that is Sylvia Wynter's essay (that reads like a book)"Unsettling the Coloniality of Being/Power/Truth/Freedom: Towards the Human, After Man Its Overrepresentation—An Argument/." In that essay which develops its own meta-intellectual history, Wynter engages with a question that seems as far as possible from the question of race, and that is why, given their mathematical sophistication were the ancient greeks incapable of developing a corresponding sophistication of physics. As Wynter writes, "In a 1987 interview, the theoretical physicist David Böhm explained why the rise of the physical sciences would have been impossible in ancient Greece, given the role that the physical cosmos had been made to play in stabilizing and legitimating the structures/hierarchies and role allocations of its social order. If each society, Böhm pointed out, bases itself on a general notion of the world that always contains within it "a specific idea of order," for the ancient Greeks, this idea of order had been projected as that of an "increasing perfection from the earth to the heavens." In consequence, in order for modern physics (which is based on the "idea of successive positions of bodies of matter and the constraints of forces that act on these bodies") to be developed, the "order of perfection investigated by the ancient Greeks" had to become irrelevant. In other words, for such an astronomy and physics to be developed, the society that made it possible would have to be one that no longer had the need to map its ordering principle onto the physical cosmos, as the Greeks and all other human societies had done. The same goes for the need to retain the Greek premise of an ontological difference of substance between the celestial realm of perfection (the realm of and the imperfect realm of the terrestrial (the realm of doxa, of mere opinion). This was not a mutation that could be easily effected. In his recent book The Enigma of the Gift (1999), Maurice Godelier reveals an added and even more powerful dimension as to why the mutation by which humans would cease to map the "idea of order" onto the lawlike regularities of physical nature would not be easily come by."In other words, progress in the physical sciences became possible only once the world, or the cosmos, ceased to play a role in the order and organizing of human social and political life, is no longer part of our sociogenesis, to cite the term that Wynter borrows from Fanon. The social order determines and limits what can be thought or asked. On this point Wynter's argument is similar to the point Marx makes regarding value in Capital. As Marx writes,"There was, however, an important fact which prevented Aristotle from seeing that, to attribute value to commodities, is merely a mode of expressing all labour as equal human labour, and consequently as labour of equal quality. Greek society was founded upon slavery, and had, therefore, for its natural basis, the inequality of men and of their labour powers. The secret of the expression of value, namely, that all kinds of labour are equal and equivalent, because, and so far as they are human labour in general, cannot be deciphered, until the notion of human equality has already acquired the fixity of a popular prejudice. This, however, is possible only in a society in which the great mass of the produce of labour takes the form of commodities, in which, consequently, the dominant relation between man and man, is that of owners of commodities. The brilliancy of Aristotle's genius is shown by this alone, that he discovered, in the expression of the value of commodities, a relation of equality. The peculiar conditions of the society in which he lived, alone prevented him from discovering what, "in truth," was at the bottom of this equality."While the focus is different Marx, Wynter, (and I would argue) Spinoza, are all in some sense focusing on the social and political conditions of knowledge, in order for the natural sciences to become possible or in order for Value to be discovered something had to happen in society first. In the case of the former it is the general secularization of the cosmos. We could add that this process of secularization is always fragmentary and incomplete, the continued existence of flat Earthers, who, when pressed to explain why NASA and the globe industry would lie to them about the earth, they often phrase it in terms that hark back to that old theocratic order, that a round earth spinning about in a solar system of other similar planets makes them feel small and insignificant, and not, the center of God's creation. More to the point, to Wynter's point, the end of an order predicated on the cosmos is the beginning of a new order, one predicate on humanity. To quote Wynter again,"A new notion of the world and "idea of order" was being mapped now, no longer upon the physical cosmos - which beginning with the fifteenth- century voyages of the Portuguese and Columbus, as well as with the new astronomy of Copernicus, was eventually to be freed from having to serve as a projected "space of Otherness," and as such having to be known in the adaptive terms needed by human orders to represent their social structures as extrahumanly determined ones. Instead, the projected "space of Otherness" was now to be mapped on phenotypical and religio-cultural differences between human variations and/or population groups, while the new idea of order was now to be defined in terms of degrees of rational perfection/imperfection, as degrees ostensibly ordained by the Greco-Christian cultural construct deployed by Sepúlveda as that of the "law of nature, " natural law": as a "law" that allegedly functioned to order human societies in the same way as the newly discovered laws of nature served to regulate the processes of functioning of physical and organic levels of reality."Wynter's argument is that in the modern age it is humanity, the anthropos, rather than the universe, the cosmos, that is the basis of our social order. Hierarchies are no longer between the Earth and the other celestial beings, but between different aspects of humanity, or more to the point between humanity and its own internal division, between "Man" understood as the embodiment of rationality and its others. As Wynter writes,"It is this new master code, one that would now come to function at all levels of the social order - including that of class, gender, sexual orientation, superior/inferior ethnicities, and that of the Investor/Breadwinners versus the criminalized jobless Poor (Nas's "black and latino faces") and Welfare Moms antithesis, and most totally between the represented-to-be superior and inferior races and cultures - that would come to function as the dually status-organizing and integrating principle of U.S. society. So that if, before the sixties, the enforced segregation of the Black population in the South as the liminally deviant category of Otherness through whose systemic negation the former Civil War enemies of North and South, together with the vast wave of incoming immigrants from Europe, would be enabled to experience themselves as a We (that is, by means of the shared similarity of their now- canonized "whiteness"), in addition, their segregated status had served another central function. This had been that of enabling a U.S. bourgeoisie, rapidly growing more affluent, to dampen class conflict by inducing their own working class to see themselves, even where not selected by Evolution in class terms, as being compensatorily, altruistically bonded with their dominant middle classes by the fact of their having all been selected by Evolution in terms of race." I will say as something of a parenthetical aside, one that I hope to include in my actual writing this summer, and not just my blogging, that on this point Wynter is close to André Tosel's understanding of neoliberalism. As Tosel argues the more capital justifies itself in terms of an anthropology, as an expression of mankind's rationality, productivity, and individuality, the more its hierarchies are anthropologized as well, which is to say racialized. Poor countries, and the racialized poor within the country's border, are understood to be produced not by history, including the history of discrimination, but human nature. All of which may be a long, a very long way of answering the question posed by Hall, a question which has come to light in the opposition to teaching on race from the 1619 project to Critical Race Theory. The short version of this response is that a society that still needs racism in order to justify and explain itself cannot dispense with the concept of race, with the idea of racial hierarchy, no matter how many scientific studies are published disproving it. Race, and racism, are necessary parts of our social common sense, and thus any attempt to discredit and disprove them threatens that, and, as in the way CRT is represented, can only be understood as a political assault on the existing order and not additions or transformations of knowledge. Moreover, and this is something that I discuss in the podcast below, outlawing any theoretical and historical understanding of race and racism, is tantamount to legislating racism, or, at the very least to making sure that there are no official accounts that contest the dominant common sense around race. It is the modern version of putting Galileo under house arrest, to connect the dots of Wynter's essay.
Aerosol particles are a complex component of the atmospheric system which influence climate directly by interacting with solar radiation, and indirectly by contributing to cloud formation. The variety of their sources, as well as the multiple transformations they may undergo during their transport (including wet and dry deposition), result in significant spatial and temporal variability of their properties. Documenting this variability is essential to provide a proper representation of aerosols and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) in climate models. Using measurements conducted in 2016 or 2017 at 62 ground-based stations around the world, this study provides the most up-to-date picture of the spatial distribution of particle number concentration (Ntot) and number size distribution (PNSD, from 39 sites). A sensitivity study was first performed to assess the impact of data availability on Ntot's annual and seasonal statistics, as well as on the analysis of its diel cycle. Thresholds of 50g% and 60g% were set at the seasonal and annual scale, respectively, for the study of the corresponding statistics, and a slightly higher coverage (75g%) was required to document the diel cycle. Although some observations are common to a majority of sites, the variety of environments characterizing these stations made it possible to highlight contrasting findings, which, among other factors, seem to be significantly related to the level of anthropogenic influence. The concentrations measured at polar sites are the lowest (g1/4g102gcm-3) and show a clear seasonality, which is also visible in the shape of the PNSD, while diel cycles are in general less evident, due notably to the absence of a regular day-night cycle in some seasons. In contrast, the concentrations characteristic of urban environments are the highest (g1/4g103-104gcm-3) and do not show pronounced seasonal variations, whereas diel cycles tend to be very regular over the year at these stations. The remaining sites, including mountain and non-urban continental and coastal stations, do not exhibit as obvious common behaviour as polar and urban sites and display, on average, intermediate Ntot (g1/4g102-103gcm-3). Particle concentrations measured at mountain sites, however, are generally lower compared to nearby lowland sites, and tend to exhibit somewhat more pronounced seasonal variations as a likely result of the strong impact of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) influence in connection with the topography of the sites. ABL dynamics also likely contribute to the diel cycle of Ntot observed at these stations. Based on available PNSD measurements, CCN-sized particles (considered here as either >50gnm or >100gnm) can represent from a few percent to almost all of Ntot, corresponding to seasonal medians on the order of g1/4g10 to 1000gcm-3, with seasonal patterns and a hierarchy of the site types broadly similar to those observed for Ntot. Overall, this work illustrates the importance of in situ measurements, in particular for the study of aerosol physical properties, and thus strongly supports the development of a broad global network of near surface observatories to increase and homogenize the spatial coverage of the measurements, and guarantee as well data availability and quality. The results of this study also provide a valuable, freely available and easy to use support for model comparison and validation, with the ultimate goal of contributing to improvement of the representation of aerosol-cloud interactions in models, and, therefore, of the evaluation of the impact of aerosol particles on climate. ; NOAA base funding supports the observatories BRW, BND, MLO, SMO, SPO and THD, where efforts of the dedicated observatory staff and of programmer Derek Hageman are appreciated. BRW observations are also supported in part by the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) user facility, a US Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science user facility managed by the Biological and Environmental Research programme. Measurements at Welgegund are supported by North-West University, the University of Helsinki and the Finnish Meteorological Institute. This publication also forms part of the output of the Biogeochemistry Research Infrastructure Platform (BIOGRIP) of the Department of Science and Innovation of South Africa. Pallas and SMEAR II are grateful for the support of the Academy of Finland Centre of Excellence programme (project no. 272041), the Academy of Finland project Greenhouse gas, aerosol and albedo variations in the changing Arctic (project no. 269095), and the Novel Assessment of Black Carbon in the Eurasian Arctic: From Historical Concentrations and Sources to Future Climate Impacts (NABCEA, project no. 296302). Aerosol measurements at Anmyeon-do were supported by the Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program "Development of Monitoring and Analysis Techniques for Atmospheric Composition in Korea" under grant KMA2018-00522. Measurements at Gosan were supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (2017R1D1A1B06032548) and the Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program under grant KMI2018-01111. The Lulin station is operated under the grants funded by the Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration. WLG is supported by the China Meteorological Administration, where efforts of the dedicated observatory staff are appreciated. Sites PDM, PUY, GIF, CHC and RUN are partially operated with the support of CNRS-INSU under the long-term observation programme and the French Ministry for Research under the ACTRIS-FR national research infrastructure. PDM and GIF received specific support from the French Ministry of the Environment. ATMO Occitanie is mentioned for sampling operations at PDM. Measurements at SIRTA are hosted by CNRS and by the alternative energies and atomic energy commission (CEA) with additional contributions from the French Ministry of the Environment through its funding to the reference laboratory for air quality monitoring (LCSQA). PUY is grateful for support from ATMO Auvergne Rhône Alpes for sampling operations and the support from the personnel of the Observatoire de Physique du Globe de Clermont-Ferrand (OPGC). The specific support of the Institut de Recherche et Développement (IRD) in France and the Universidad Mayor de San Andrés in Bolivia support operations at CHC operations. The Steamboat Ski Resort provided logistical support and in-kind donations for SPL. The Desert Research Institute is a permittee of the Medicine Bow–Routt National Forests and an equal opportunity service provider and employer. SPL appreciates the extensive assistance of the NOAA/ESRL Federated Aerosol Network, of Ian McCubbin, site manager of SPL, and of Ty Atkins, Joe Messina, Dan Gilchrist and Maria Garcia, who provided technical assistance with the maintenance and data quality control for the aerosol instruments. SGP measurements/mentorship were supported by DOE-7F-30118 and staff on site. The Cape Grim Baseline Air Pollution Monitoring Station is grateful to the Australian Bureau of Meteorology for their long-term and continued support and all the staff from the Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO, who have contributed to the generation of records reported here. The aerosol measurements at the Jungfraujoch were conducted with financial support from MeteoSwiss (GAW-CH aerosol monitoring programme) and from the European Union as well as the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI) for the European Research Infrastructure for the observation of Aerosol, Clouds and Trace Gases (ACTRIS). The International Foundation High Altitude Research Station Jungfraujoch and Gornergrat (HFSJG) is mentioned for providing the research platform at the Jungfraujoch. The aerosol measurements at Kosetice received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement no. 654109 and from the project for support of the national research infrastructure ACTRIS – participation of the Czech Republic (ACTRIS-CZ – LM2015037) supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of CR within National Sustainability Program I (NPU I), grant agreement no. LO1415. The measurements were also supported by ERDF "ACTRIS-CZ RI" (no. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001315). Measurements at the Madrid site were funded by the following projects: CRISOL (CGL2017–85344-R MINECO/AEI/FEDER, UE), TIGAS-CM (Madrid Regional Government Y2018/EMT5177), AIRTEC-CM (Madrid Regional Government P2018/EMT4329), REDMAAS2020 (RED2018-102594-T CIENCIA) and Red de Excelencia ACTRIS-ESPAÑA (CGL2017-90884-REDT). Measurements at Montsec and Montseny were supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness and FEDER funds under project HOUSE (CGL2016-78594-R) and by the Generalitat de Catalunya (AGAUR 2017 SGR41 and the DGQA). Aerosol measurements at El Arenosillo Observatory are supported by the National Institute for Aerospace Technology and by different R&D projects of the Ministerio Español de Economía, Industria y Competitividad (MINECO). Aerosol measurements at UGR are supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through projects no. CGL2016-81092-R, CGL2017-90884-REDT, RTI2018-097864-B-I00 and PGC2018-098770-B-I00 and by the Andalusia Regional Government through project no. P18-RT-3820. FKL, HAC and DEM are grateful for funding by project PANhellenic infrastructure for Atmospheric Composition and climate change (MIS 5021516), which is implemented under action Reinforcement of the Research and Innovation Infrastructure, funded by operational programme Competitiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation (NSRF 2014-2020) and co-financed by Greece and the European Union (European Regional Development Fund). CPC measurements at Sonnblick are supported by the Climate and Air Quality Commission of the Austrian Academy of Sciences and the office of the provincial government Salzburg, Unit 5/02. At CMN, aerosol measurements were partially supported by the Italian Ministry of Research and Education. Measurements at Birkenes II are financed by the Norwegian Environment Agency. VAV is grateful for various Swedish FORMAS, Swedish Research Council (VR) grants and the Magnus Bergvall and Märta och Erik Holmberg foundations and the Swedish EPA for making the research possible at the VAV site. NMY wishes to thank the many technicians and scientists of the Neumayer overwintering crews, whose outstanding commitment enabled continuous, high-quality aerosol records over many years. Gunter Löschau is acknowledged for his contribution to the data acquisition at ANB, DTC and DRN. Financial support This research was supported by the European Commission's Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (ACTRIS2 (grant agreement no. 654109)), the University of Helsinki, the Finnish Meteorological Institute, the Department of Science and Innovation of South Africa, the Academy of Finland Centre of Excellence programme (project no. 272041), the Academy of Finland project Greenhouse gas, aerosol and albedo variations in the changing Arctic (project no. 269095), the Novel Assessment of Black Carbon in the Eurasian Arctic: From Historical Concentrations and Sources to Future Climate Impacts (NABCEA, project no. 296302), the Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program "Development of Monitoring and Analysis Techniques for Atmospheric Composition in Korea" (grant no. KMA2018-00522), the National Research Foundation of Korea (grant no. 2017R1D1A1B06032548), the Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program (grant no. KMI2018-01111), the Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration, the China Meteorological Administration, the National Scientific Foundation of China (41675129, 41875147), the National Key R&D Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China (grant no. 2016YFC0203305 and 2018YFC0213204), the Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences (2020KJ001), the Innovation Team for Haze-fog Observation and Forecasts of MOST and CMA, CNRS-INSU, the French Ministry for Research under the ACTRIS-FR national research infrastructure, the French Ministry of the Environment, MeteoSwiss (GAW-CH aerosol monitoring programme), the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI), the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of CR within National Sustainability Program I (NPU I, grant no. LO1415), ERDF "ACTRISCZ RI" (grant no. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001315), CRISOL (CGL2017-85344-R MINECO/AEI/FEDER, UE), TIGAS-CM (Madrid Regional Government Y2018/EMT-5177), AIRTEC-CM (Madrid Regional Government P2018/EMT4329), REDMAAS2020 (RED2018-102594-T CIENCIA), Red de Excelencia ACTRIS-ESPAÑA (CGL2017-90884-REDT), the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness, FEDER funds (project HOUSE, grant no. CGL2016-78594-R), the Generalitat de Catalunya (AGAUR 2017 SGR41 and the DGQA), the National Institute for Aerospace Technology, the Ministerio Español de Economía, Industria y Competitividad (MINECO), the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (projects no. CGL2016-81092-R, CGL2017-90884-REDT, RTI2018-097864-B-I00 and PGC2018-098770-B-I00), the Andalusia Regional Government (project no. P18-RT-3820), the PANhellenic infrastructure for Atmospheric Composition and climate change (MIS 5021516), Research and Innovation Infrastructure, Competitiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation (grant no. NSRF 2014-2020), the Italian Ministry of Research and Education, the Norwegian Environment Agency, Swedish FORMAS, the Swedish Research Council (VR), the Magnus Bergvall foundation, the Märta och Erik Holmberg foundation, and the Swedish EPA. ; Peer reviewed
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanekal-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 483 ha in Kanekal-2 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 94 per cent is covered by soils, 6 per cent by habitation and water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 10 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 6 Land Management Units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 38 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 6 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm) and about 51 per cent soils are deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils. About 49 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 42 per cent loamy soils and 3 per cent sandy soils at the surface. An area of about 88 per cent has non-gravelly and 7 per cent are gravelly. About 47 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent low (51-100mm/m) and about 15 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon. An area of 3 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 5 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 49 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 4 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm). Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc. The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Kanekal-2 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 27 (6) 337 (70) Sapota - 46 (9) Maize 27 (6) 110 (23) Guava - 46 (9) Red gram - 273(56) Pomegranate - 273 (56) Bajra 27(6) 356 (74) Jackfruit - 27 (6) Ground nut - 144 (30) Jamun - 246(51) Sunflower - 254 (53) Musambi - 273 (56) Cotton 75 (16) 289 (60) Lime - 273 (56) Bengalgram 75 (16) 289 (60) Cashew - 27 (6) Chilli - 357(74) Custard apple 27 (6) 337 (70) Tomato 27 (6) 129 (27) Amla 27 (6) 337 (70) Drumstick - 273 (56) Tamarind - 246 (51) Mulberry - 27 (6) Marigold - 383 (79) Mango - 47(10) Chrysanthemum - 383 (79) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible, ecological and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the micro watershed. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Kanikal-2 Microwatershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16036' – 16038' North latitudes and 770 17' – 76019' East longitudes, covering an area of about 482.51 ha, bounded by Kanikal, Neelahalli & Gudalagunta villages. Agro Ecological Sub Region (AESR) 6.2: Central and Western Maharashtra Plateau and North Karnataka Plateau and North Western Telangana Plateau, hot moist semi-arid ESR with shallow and medium loamy to clayey Black soil (medium and deep clayey Black soil as inclusion), medium to high AWC and LGP 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kanikal-2 Microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 56.7 to 43.3 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 58.0 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 33.6 per cent. Social groups belong to SC/ST is around 15.4 per cent. Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 100 per cent. About 53.8 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (23.8 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 84.6 per cent Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 23.0 per cent of sample households. Women participation is decisions making are around 53.8 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 3.1 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and semi-medium farmers. The dry land account 60.8 % and irrigated land is 23 % of total cultivated land among the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 17.3 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 65.4 per cent. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12632 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media. The average farm assets a value is around Rs.10594 per household, about 69.2 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average livestock value is around Rs.24722 per livestock; about 69 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 1018.8 grams (2232.1 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 15.3 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.30999 per household. The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs.3097 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1328.92 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.786723 per year for the total area of 482.5 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 12599/ ha/year (Table 21 and Figure 11). Per hectare food production services is maximum in redgram (Rs.9415) followed by wheat (Rs.4139), groundnut (Rs.4070) and cotton (Rs.1842) The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.1662/ ha/year (Table 23). Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in paddy (Rs.1482) followed by groundnut (Rs.1142). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum (Table 22 and Figure 12) in wheat (Rs.53720) followed by redgram (Rs.51938), groundnut (Rs.32067) and cotton (Rs.31513). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is red gram (37.4 %) followed by cotton (28.0 %), groundnut (23.5 %), wheat (5.5 %), maize (2.8 %) and paddy (2.8%). In Kanikal-2 micro-watershed, major soils are soils of alluvial landscape of Sambara (SBR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 15.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram (100 %). Soil of 3 Yalleri (YLR) is also having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 7.5 % of area; the crops are paddy (14.3 %) and redgram was 85.7 % each. Nagalapur (NGP) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 5.4 % of areas, crops are redgram (100%). Mundargi (MDG) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 9.7% of area; crops are groundnut (25.0%) and red gram (75.0%). Bhimanahalli (BMN) soil series are having Very deep soil depth cover around 0.5 % of area, respectively. The major crops grown are cotton (22.2 %) and redgram (77.8%). Duppali (DPL) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth covers around 12.31 % of area, the major crop grown is cotton (46.2%), groundnut (38.5%) and wheat (15.4). Madhwara (MDR) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 31.6 % of areas respectively; crops are cotton. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs.44678/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.22) and Rs.16439/ha in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.35). In cotton the cost of cultivation range between Rs 39247/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.06) and Rs.28259/ha in BMN soil (with BCR of 1.09). In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 63430/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.07) and Rs. 45749/ha in MDG soil (with BCR of 1.1). In wheat cost of cultivation in DPL soil is Rs.49805/ha in (with BCR of 1.08). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. Fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (3 to 66.3 %), cotton (0 to 63.6 %), groundnut (0 to 52.8 %), wheat is negative return. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Aus der Einleitung: 1.1, Problemstellung: Während seit den 1990er Jahren der Begriff 'Nachhaltigkeit' zunächst nur im Zusammenhang mit globalen Umweltproblemen, wie beispielsweise dem Abbau der Ozonschicht oder dem Treibhauseffekt, genannt wurde, hat er mittlerweile seinen festen Platz in der Wirtschaft und am Finanzmarkt. Zudem haben die weltweit zunehmende Staatsverschuldung, Umweltkatastrophen wie die Explosion der Ölbohrinsel 'Deepwater Horizon' im Golf von Mexiko im April 2010 und die japanische Atomkatastrophe in Fukushima im März 2011 sowie die Rolle der Banken in der Finanzkrise bei den betroffenen Ländern, Unternehmen und privaten Anlegern u. a. zu massiven wirtschaftlichen Schäden geführt. Aktuell sorgen die Staatsanleihenkrise und die Bonitätsherabstufung der USA und zahlreicher europäischer Staaten für enorme Schwankungen an den Börsen weltweit. Durch diese negativen Ereignisse hat speziell im Investmentbereich die Anlageform des nachhaltigen Investments einen spürbaren Auftrieb erhalten. In den USA liegt der Anteil nachhaltiger Geldanlagen, gemessen am gesamten Anlagevolumen, bei 11 Prozent. Diese Entwicklung widerspricht jedoch der Theorie, dass die Erwirtschaftung von Rendite und nachhaltiges Wirtschaften sich ausschließen. Auch vor dem Hintergrund der kapitalmarkttheoretischen Modelle müssten nachhaltig orientierte Geldanlagen aufgrund der eingeschränkten Anlagemöglichkeiten weniger Rendite erwirtschaften als konventionelle Produkte. In den Wirtschaftswissenschaften werden somit die Möglichkeiten nachhaltiger Investments größtenteils als sehr gering angesehen, wenn die kapitalmarkttheoretischen Modelle bei dieser Anlageklasse ihre Gültigkeit behalten würden. In der Praxis wird die Frage nach der Vereinbarkeit von Nachhaltigkeit bzw. Ethik und Gewinn kontrovers diskutiert und zahlreiche Studien, die versucht haben, die Frage des Renditenachteils zu beantworten, kamen zu divergenten Ergebnissen. In Deutschland liegt der Anteil nachhaltiger Geldanlagen bis jetzt bei knapp 1 Prozent, bei jedoch stetig steigenden Anlagevolumina und Anlagemöglichkeiten.Somit stellt sich die Frage, ob nachhaltige Investments, wenn überhaupt, auch in Deutschland das Potential lukrativer Kapitalallokationen bergen oder ob sich Performance und Nachhaltigkeit (hier) widersprechen. 1.2, Zielsetzung der Arbeit: In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird der Frage nachgegangen, ob nachhaltig strukturierte Portfolios in Deutschland einen über- oder unterdurchschnittlichen Wertzuwachs gegenüber Portfolios ohne vergleichbare Screenings aufweisen. Es wird überprüft, ob nachhaltige Investments nicht nur aus ethisch-moralischen Gründen, sondern auch aus finanziellen Gesichtspunkten mittlerweile eine reale Anlagealternative darstellen. Dabei wird überprüft, inwieweit sich die Beachtung nachhaltiger Komponenten von Unternehmen auf ihren Aktienkurs auswirkt. Des Weiteren wird untersucht, inwieweit sich die Effizienz nachhaltiger Geldanlagen durch kapitalmarkttheoretische Modelle nachweisen lässt, da sie a priori ineffiziente Geldanlagen darstellen müssten. 1.3, Aufbau der Arbeit: Die Arbeit ist in einen theoretischen und praktischen Teil gegliedert und beginnt im zweiten Kapitel mit der Erläuterung der theoretischen Grundlagen. Der praktische Teil beinhaltet einen Vergleich nachhaltig orientierter und konventioneller Unternehmen in Bezug auf die Aktienkursentwicklung, um die Auswirkung nachhaltigen Wirtschaftens auf die Rendite zu untersuchen. Zudem werden ausgewählte nachhaltige Aktienfonds mit einer Benchmark für konventionelle Aktienfonds verglichen, wodurch Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Rendite herausgestellt werden sollen. Als Grundlagen für den praktischen Teil werden zunächst die Begriffe Wirtschafts-Ethik, Nachhaltigkeit sowie das medienpräsente Konzept der Corporate Social Responsibility dargestellt. Anschließend werden in Kapitel 3 die Grundlagen von Kapitalanlagen mit dem Fokus auf Investmentfonds erörtert. Des Weiteren werden mit der Portfolio Selection Theory und dem Capital Asset Pricing Model zwei kapitalmarkttheoretische Modelle vorgestellt, deren Gültigkeit hinsichtlich nachhaltiger Investments in den Kapiteln 8, 9 und 10 der Arbeit nachgeprüft wird. Die Anwendbarkeit der Modelle in der Anlageklasse der nachhaltigen Investments wird kritisch überprüft, da sich in der Wissenschaft die Stimmen häufen, dass durch die Einschränkung der Anlagemöglichkeiten keine effiziente Lösung erreicht werden könnte. Ebenso werden hier die klassischen Risikomaße vorgestellt. Gegenstand des vierten Kapitels sind die Grundlagen nachhaltiger Investments, um im fünften Kapitel deren unterschiedlichen Strategien zu diskutieren. Im Mittelpunkt des sechsten Kapitels stehen nachhaltige Anlagemöglichkeiten, die in den letzten Jahren in Deutschland hohe Zuwachsraten erfahren haben. Im siebten Kapitel werden nachhaltige Ratings, die für die Selektion der zu vergleichenden Unternehmen herangezogen werden, erläutert und kritisch diskutiert, insbesondere da nachhaltige Unternehmen sich häufig dem Kritikpunkt der mangelnden Transparenz stellen müssen. Als weitere theoretische Grundlage für die Untersuchung dient die Methode der Performancemessung im achten Kapitel. Nach dem Vergleich in Kapitel 9 werden die Ergebnisse vorgestellt und kritisch gewürdigt. Die Arbeit schließt mit einem Fazit, in dem die wesentlichen Erkenntnisse zusammengefasst werden, und einem Ausblick, der Handlungsempfehlungen und Strategieansätze aufzeigt.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: AbbildungsverzeichnisVIII TabellenverzeichnisIX Abkürzungen und AkronymeX 1.Einleitung11 1.1Problemstellung11 1.2Zielsetzung der Arbeit12 1.3Aufbau der Arbeit12 2.Grundlegende Begriffe14 2.1Wirtschafts-Ethik14 2.2Begriff der Nachhaltigkeit15 2.3Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)18 3.Theoretische Grundlagen von Kapitalanlagen21 3.1Klassisches Dreieck einer Kapitalanlage21 3.2Investmentfonds23 3.3Portfolio Selection Model24 3.4Capital Asset Pricing Model25 3.5qKlassische Risikomaße26 4.Grundlagen nachhaltiger Investments29 4.1Der Begriff nachhaltiger Investments29 4.2Darmstädter Definition nachhaltiger Geldanlagen31 4.3Historische Entwicklung des nachhaltigen Investments33 4.4Gegenwärtige Marktsituation36 4.5Bedeutung nachhaltiger Investments39 5.Strategien des nachhaltigen Investments41 5.1Einordnung im Rahmen der verschiedenen Investmentstile41 5.2Konzepte des nachhaltigen Investments42 5.3Verschiedene Vorgehensweisen nachhaltiger Investoren44 5.4Strategische Probleme für den Privatanleger48 5.5Nachhaltige Indizes als Benchmark für nachhaltige Investmentfonds49 5.5.1Benchmark49 5.5.2Indizes49 5.5.3Natur-Aktien-Index50 5.5.4Dow Jones Sustainability World Index (DJSI- World)51 6.Nachhaltige Anlageformen53 6.1Bankeinlagen bei Alternativbanken53 6.2Beteiligungen54 6.3Investmentfonds54 6.4Lebensversicherungen55 6.5Scharia Investments55 7.Nachhaltigkeitsratings57 7.1Der Begriff Rating57 7.2Frankfurt-Hohenheimer Leitfaden (FHL)60 7.3Corporate Responsibility Rating (CRR)62 7.4Kritische Betrachtung der nachhaltigen Ratingansätze65 8.Performance, Rendite und die Möglichkeiten ihrer Messung66 8.1Begriffserläuterungen von Performance und Performanceanalyse66 8.2Performancemaße68 8.2.1Sharpe-Ratio68 8.2.2Treynor-Ratio69 8.2.3Jensen-Alpha70 8.2.4Treynor/Black-Ratio71 8.3Grundprobleme der Performancemessung und Beurteilung der Performancemaße71 8.4Effizienz von Portfolios durch nachhaltiges Screening72 9.Performancevergleich von ausgewählten Unternehmen und Aktienfonds75 9.1Überblicke über bereits durchgeführte Performancestudien75 9.2Vorgehensweise78 9.3Vergleich der Unternehmen79 9.4Vergleich der Aktienfonds83 9.4.1Quellen zur Selektion der nachhaltigen Investmentfonds83 9.4.2Markteingrenzung83 9.4.3Wahl der geeigneten Benchmark84 9.5Vorstellung der zu untersuchenden nachhaltigen Aktienfonds84 9.6Performancevergleich anhand ausgewählter Performancemaße86 9.6.1Nachhaltigkeitsfonds 1 vs. Euro Stoxx 5086 9.6.2Nachhaltigkeitsfonds 2 vs. Euro Stoxx 5087 9.6.3Nachhaltigkeitsfonds 3 vs. Euro Stoxx 5088 9.6.4Nachhaltigkeitsfonds 4 vs. Euro Stoxx 5089 9.6.5Nachhaltigkeitsfonds 5 vs. Euro Stoxx 5090 9.7Ergebnis91 9.8Kritische Würdigung des Vergleichs93 10Fazit und Ausblick94 Literaturverzeichnis99 Anhang110Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 8.3, Grundprobleme der Performancemessung und Beurteilung der Performancemaße: Das Grundproblem der Performancemessung ist die Vergangenheitsbezogenheit der Daten, die nicht gewährleisten können, dass die vergangene Performance auch für die Zukunft gilt. Auch darf bei langfristigen Performanceanalysen nicht übersehen werden, dass schlechte Portfolios, die aus dem Markt ausgeschieden sind, aus den Performanceranglisten eliminiert und nicht weiter berücksichtigt werden. Dies führt bei den verbliebenen Portfolios zu einer Performanceverzerrung ins Positive. Bei der Messung der Performance von Portfolios muss beachtet werden, dass die erzielte Rendite eines Portfolios nicht allein auf den Fähigkeiten des Fondsmanagements basiert, sondern auch Zufallseinflüsse und die Entwicklung der Kapitalmärkte relevant für die Entwicklung eines Portfolios sind. Für eine genaue Qualitätsmessung sind daher die oben erläuterten Performancemaße notwendig. Mit ihnen ist es möglich, eine Verdichtung von Rendite und Risiko zu einer aussagefähigen Maßzahl herbeizuführen. Daher sind sie zur theoretischen Performancemessung geeignet, jedoch müssen zur praktischen Anwendbarkeit einschränkende Bemerkungen gemacht werden. Die Wahl des Risikomaßes bildet den Hauptunterschied zwischen den Performancemaßen. Die Sharpe-Ratio ermittelt das Gesamtrisiko anhand der Standardabweichung, während die Treynor-Ratio das systematische Risiko benutzt. Dies kann insbesondere dann zu unterschiedlichen Performancebeurteilungen führen, wenn die zu vergleichenden Portfolios unterschiedlich hohe unsystematische Risiken aufweisen. Das größte Problem der traditionellen Performancemaße besteht jedoch darin, dass sie im Grunde genommen keine Auskunft über das Zustandekommen der Performance von Portfolios geben können. Sie machen nicht deutlich ob die Renditen auf Zufall, Timing oder Selektionsfähigkeit zurückzuführen sind. Gemäß ihrer Konzeption stellen die Performancemaße sämtlich auf die Selektionsfähigkeit des Portfoliomanagements ab. 8.4, Effizienz von Portfolios durch nachhaltiges Screening: Zurückgehend auf die Portfolio-Selection-Theorie von Markowitz lassen sich durch Diversifikation bei den Anlagetiteln unternehmensspezifische oder unsystematische Risiken reduzieren. Die erwartete Rendite µ und ihr Risiko s, gemessen durch die Standardabweichung, lassen sich in einem µ-s Diagramm lokalisieren. Effiziente Kombinationen ergeben sich unter den folgenden drei Bedingungen. Es gibt kein anderes Portfolio, das: 1. bei gleichem Renditeerwartungswert ein geringeres Risiko. 2. bei gleichem Risiko einen höheren Renditeerwartungswert. 3. sowohl einen höheren Renditeerwartungswert als auch gleichzeitig ein geringeres Risiko besitzt. Das Ergebnis aus allen möglichen Kombinationen ist die Markowitz-Effizienzkurve, dargestellt in Abbildung 17 auf der Seite 74. Eines der am weitesten verbreiteten Vorurteile gegenüber dem nachhaltigen Investment ist, dass die Einschränkung des nachhaltigen Anlageuniversums zu einem Verlust der Diversifikationsmöglichkeiten und damit zu einer Verschlechterung des Rendite-/Risiko-Verhältnisses führe. Das Rendite/-Risiko-Verhältnis bedeutet für den Anleger, bei gleicher Rendite ein geringeres Risiko einzugehen oder bei gleichem Risiko eine höhere Rendite zu erwirtschaften. Nachhaltige Portfolios unterscheiden sich von konventionellen Anlageformen hinsichtlich der eingeschränkten Anlagemöglichkeiten und stellen gemäß der Kapitalmarkttheorie ineffiziente Portfolios dar, die mit Diversifikationskosten und unvollständiger Kompensation für das unsystematische Risiko verbunden sind. Nach der Portfolio-Theorie von Markowitz werden durch die Implementierung von nachhaltigen Anlagestrategien systematisch risikoadjustierte Renditen erwirtschaftet, was bedeutet, dass stets suboptimale Portfolios generiert werden. Es ist durchaus möglich, dass aufgrund einer Selektionsstrategie ganze Wirtschaftsbranchen ausgeschlossen werden. Damit verschlechtert sich das Verhältnis zwischen erwarteter Rendite und Risiko zu Ungunsten des Investors. In der Literatur wird diese Folge als 'Moskowitzeffekt' bezeichnet. Graphisch bedeutet es, dass sich die Linie effizienter Portfolios, dargestellt in Abbildung 17, durch die Markowitz-Effizienzlinie, nach rechts unten, auf die Moskowitz-Effizienzlinie verschiebt. Milton Moskowitz stützt sich bei seiner Argumentation auf den Hauptaspekt, dass ein beschränktes Spektrum von Investitionsmöglichkeiten bei Unterstellung von bestimmten Annahmen, wie z. B. Rationalität oder Informationseffizienz, hinsichtlich der Rendite zu keinem Besseren, sondern höchstens zu einem gleichen oder sogar schlechteren Ergebnis führen kann. Wie stark sich die Effizienzlinie nach rechts unten verschiebt, hängt von der Einschränkung der Anlagemöglichkeiten durch die Wahl der Anlagestrategie, ab. Die größten Einschränkungen bringt die Strategie des Negative-Screenings mit sich. Jedoch muss darauf verwiesen werden, dass es sich hierbei um eine rein mathematische Konsequenz handelt, die nicht die Verwendung von nachhaltigen Ausschlusskriterien betrifft. Des Weiteren wird das Argument, dass durch die Filterung des Anlageuniversums sich das Rendite-/Risiko-Verhältnis verschlechtere, durch die Annahme von informationseffizienten Kapitalmärkten entkräftet. Zusammenfassend lässt sich feststellen, dass sich diese mathematischen Gesetzmäßigkeiten für jedes Portfolio ergeben und sich nicht nur speziell auf die nachhaltigen Anlageformen beschränken. Die Frage, inwieweit sich die Einschränkung nachhaltig ausgerichteter Portfolios negativ auf die Rendite eines Anlegers auswirkt, wird ausführlich im anschließenden Kapitel neun diskutiert.
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The international community has before it two official proposals — Ukrainian and Russian — for a peace settlement to end the war in Ukraine. Both as they stand, and in present circumstances, are absurd. Diplomats and analysts should however give thought to whether they could nonetheless in the future provide the starting point for negotiations leading to an eventual compromise.The Ukrainian government's Ten-Point "peace plan" demands complete withdrawal of Russian forces from all the Ukrainian territory that Russia has occupied since 2014 as a precondition for holding talks at all. Presumably those talks would then deal with other Ukrainian points, including war crimes trials for the Russian leadership, and Russian compensation for the damage caused by the Russian invasion. In addition, President Zelensky and other Ukrainian officials have declared that Ukrainian neutrality is also a priori unacceptable — though it should be noted that an invitation to join NATO is a matter not for Ukraine but for existing NATO members, and can be blocked by one national veto.As revealed this week by The New York Times, these Ukrainian demands are radically different from Ukraine's positions in peace talks with Russia that took place in Istanbul in the first weeks of Russia's February, 2022 invasion. The paper quotes one of the Ukrainian negotiators, Oleksandr Chalyi: "We managed to find a very real compromise. … We were very close in the middle of April, in the end of April, to finalize our war with some peaceful settlement."At that point, the Ukrainian government was prepared to agree to a permanent treaty of neutrality (allowing for membership of the European Union but not for NATO) in return for security guarantees from all members of the U.N. Security Council. The Ukrainians refused to recognize the Russian annexation of Crimea or the independence of the Russian-occupied areas of the Donbas, but were prepared to leave these under de facto Russian control pending future negotiations at an indeterminate date.There were however some serious sticking points. Russia demanded that actions by the U.N. Security Council in defense of Ukraine would have to be agreed unanimously — which would have given Russia the right of veto. Russia also demanded that Ukrainian missiles be limited to a 25-mile range, while no such limits were to be placed on Russian weapons. These conditions were obviously unacceptable to the Ukrainians. It is impossible to say whether these disagreements could have been overcome or nuanced in some way, because the Ukrainian side broke off the talks, for reasons that are hotly contested.If Ukrainian conditions have hardened enormously in the subsequent two years of war, so too have those of Russia. In a statement in response to the "Peace Summit" convened by the West in Switzerland, President Putin demanded that Ukraine withdraw its troops from the whole of the four Ukrainian provinces that Russia claims to have annexed since the start of the war (in addition to Crimea, annexed in 2014) — although Russia does not occupy the whole of any of them, and did not manage even to capture or hold the provincial capitals of Kherson and Zaporizhia. Putin said that as soon as Ukraine begins to withdraw its troops, Russia would cease its military operations. However, he added that as part of a final peace settlement, Ukraine would have to recognize Russian sovereignty over these four provinces and Crimea, sign a treaty of neutrality, guarantee the rights of Russian speakers in Ukraine, and engage in "demilitarization" and "denazification," though he did not say what these last terms would involve. These Russian terms were naturally at once rejected out of hand by the Ukrainian government and the West. In the end however, the terms of an end to the fighting, whether in the form of a formal peace agreement or a ceasefire pending future talks, will be determined by the military situation on the ground. From this point of view, Ukraine's demand for complete Russian withdrawal as a precondition of talks is completely impossible. It would require the total defeat of the Russian military, which is far beyond Ukraine's capacity at present or in any rationally foreseeable future. Putin's conditions for peace by contrast, while they require that Russia inflicts significant further defeats on Ukraine, do not require that these defeats be total. To achieve this position on the ground, Russia only has to capture the remainder of these four provinces, or conquer other areas and then offer to exchange them. As sensible Russian analysts recognize, Ukraine and the West will never agree formally to recognize Russian sovereignty; but if Moscow were prepared to settle for Ukrainian and Western acceptance of de facto Russian rule, then — as in the case of the unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus — this would not necessarily be a fatal bar to peace. Neutrality has already in effect been accepted by Western governments, since they have repeatedly stated and demonstrated that while they will support Ukraine, they will not go to war to defend it. This rules out admitting a Ukraine that remains in a state of war with Russia, even after a ceasefire.Even de facto acceptance of Russian rule over five Ukrainian provinces would be a most bitter pill for Ukraine and the West to swallow. However, this would still be far less than the maximalist goals of Russian hardliners, whether in terms of the subjugation of the whole of Ukraine, or annexation of all the Russian-speaking areas of the country, including Ukraine's second city, Kharkiv, and the whole of the Black Sea coast. If in the months and years to come, the Ukrainian army can manage to hold roughly its existing lines, then the eventual line of division between Ukraine and Russia (whether drawn in a formal peace settlement or accepted as part of an armistice) will also run along these lines. If however Ukraine is defeated and suffers much greater loss of territory, then future generations of Ukrainians may regret that Kyiv did not treat Putin's proposal at least as a starting point for negotiation and bargaining. For it should be remembered that while the Russian terms of March 2022 would also have been a bitter pill for Ukraine to swallow at the time, their acceptance would have saved Ukraine much territory that it now seems certain permanently to lose, much damage that may never be restored, and many human beings who can never be brought back to life.
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With the resurrection of Louisiana's 2022 congressional map or something extremely close to it looming, it's time for the desperation heaves from special interests vying to bolster Democrats' chances in the U.S. House of Representatives.
Over the past week or so backers of a two majority/minority lineup, out of six total districts, in the state have a pair of defeats, beginning with the declaration by the three-judge panel for Callais v. Landry trying the map created earlier this year that contains two M/M districts that this violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Then these supporters were told the Legislature will get first crack at drawing a new map while a parallel track would operate with parties submitting maps from which the panel could choose if the Legislature didn't act by adjournment Jun. 3.
The latter setback added insult to injury. As legislative rules don't permit the chambers to take up a bill this late – the deadline for introduction was over two months ago and substitution rules demand a related bill already introduced present but with the withdrawal of the only one filed dealing with congressional reapportionment none now exist – the Legislature really can't act, guaranteeing a court-drawn map. And the way the decision was made, it all but guarantees a single M/M map would be chosen by the panel that dramatically reduces chances of Democrats to win another seat among the state's delegation.
The Callais plaintiffs almost certainly will forward such a map, and the defendants as certainly will present a two M/M map. That there will be three versions of the latter: the state's, the Robinson v. Landry plaintiffs' whose case preliminarily enjoined the two M/M 2022 map, and the Galmon v. Landry plaintiffs' whose case was consolidated with Robinson, as the plaintiffs in the 2022 case succeeded in being named intervenors. There actually is another map up for grabs, filed amici by New Orleans-area academicians that create a two opportunity-district map (that is, two districts that have a black plurality but not majority) that claims it favors neither party but which would give Democrats an advantage and one of its authors is a regular contributor to organizations that campaign on behalf of Democrats.
Yet the panel, whether unanimously, is extremely likely to favor a single M/M district that will be the 2022 map enjoined in Robinson, or something almost identical, for three reasons, beginning with the fact that the panel had a trial to invalidate a two M/M map on constitutional grounds while the negating of the single M/M map did not feature a trial on the merits and concerned statute. In that latter instance, all the court did was prohibit use of the 2022 map on the suspicion the plaintiffs would suffer harm otherwise. In other words, the preliminary injunction against the 2022 map was a much weaker condemnation, if not part of an incomplete process, than that against the 2024 map.
In part, and this leads to the second reason, this was so because the 2022 case tried to do something no court had yet ventured: order drawing a two M/M map where no existing jurisprudence backed that approach. The operative language does not mandate that in a situation like Louisiana's that the assumed failure of a single M/M map requires the drawing of a two M/M map, even though the judge in that 2022 case not only demanded that as a solution but also was on the verge of doing it herself until stopped by higher courts.
Indeed, even as a Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals panel on review allowed her preliminary injunction, which to prevent requires that the defense show a strong possibility it would win on the merits so as not to cause serious harm to the plaintiffs, to stand it did so only because of time constraints – to get new lines drawn in time for smooth administration of elections – while judging the plaintiffs had much to prove if they were to prevail. In other words, the 2022 decision was rushed, untested, and really requires a full trial if not further review to invalidate the 2022 map, whereas the 2024 map had the benefit of that trial and stands on established jurisprudential ground – the 1994 case which invalidated for the same constitutional reasons a map not at all dissimilar to the 2024 map.
Finally, the timeline dictates an off-the-shelf map be used. At the trial and in filed documents, elections officials argued May 15 was the deadline for a new map to circumvent administrative hurdles. But in 2022, they argued for a later time, the end of May, and even the Fifth Circuit panel then as late as Jun. 9 believed the state could implement an entirely new map without significant disruption to elections procedures. So, Jun. 4 (with an election day three days sooner than in 2022) the Callais panel didn't consider this too burdensome – especially if it's not a new map involved, but an old one, the 2022 map or something nearly identical to it. The plaintiffs extremely likely will present just such a map for consideration.
The Robinson and Galmon intervenors can see this coming, and thus some of them rushed an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court to stop it, alleging defects in the decision. Likely the Court in some form will call this premature if not wanting, at the very most freezing things where they are pending future review. Logic would dictate the Court also give leeway to the Legislature, and if so then the panel-drawn map becomes that map that would be locked in if the Court decides to halt everything – a map that both doesn't make the mistake of the invalidated map and is readily available, pointing to the 2022 map or extremely close to that the data for which elections officials already have and without much trouble can reconfigure things utilizing it.
Anything can happen when the courts get involved, but the dynamics of the decision, the scheduling of the remedial phase, and the record of the Robinson case suggest the scenario above is by far the most likely to play out – so Louisiana congressional elections in 2024 will look very much like those in 2022.
