Suchergebnisse

Cooperation between Ukraine and the EU in the field of security constitutes an important part of bilateral relations since declaration of Ukraine's independence. Interaction in the field of crises resolution and creating conditions for the peaceful settlement of conflict is one of the dimensions of the cooperation development. According to the documents it's stated that there was the mutual interest of the parties to develop this aspect of cooperation, which, however, was based on different motives. Ukraine sought to use this tool to strengthen its international position. Meanwhile the EU was guided by the idea that cooperation might become a mechanism for spreading the principles of democracy and good governance in order to achieve stability and guarantee security in the region. At the same time, the article argues that dualism of interaction between Ukraine and the EU in this area takes place. On the one hand, the EU plays a role of crisis manager to settle the critical situations that have appeared on the territory of the Ukrainian state. On the other hand, representatives of Ukraine successfully participate in missions and operations of the European Union aimed to resolve crises and conflicts. In the first case, the approach of Brussels and the EU's contribution to resolving such crisis like the process of nuclear disarmament of Ukraine, the events of Maidan in 2004, the political crisis in late 2013, and the Russian-Ukrainian conflict are analyzed. The other side of cooperation is viewed in the context of Ukraine's participation in the EU special missions, for example, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Moldova, Georgia. In addition, an attention is paid to an intensification of defense cooperation, which is recognized an important aspect of stabilizing the situation in Ukraine as well as a significant part of interaction in the context of the Global Strategy for the European Union's Foreign and Security Policy implementation. The factors that influence the prospects for further cooperation are studied as well. It is noted that the main obstacles to rise up the effectiveness of cooperation are certain limitations of the capabilities of both Ukraine and the EU. However, it is emphasized that it is impossible to ensure the safety of EU citizens, a key priority of the current strategy of the Union, without restoring the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Ukraine. ; Сотрудничество между Украиной и ЕС в сфере безопасности занимает важное место в двусторонних отношениях с момента провозглашения независимости Украины. Одним из направлений сотрудничества является взаимодействие в урегулировании кризисов и создание условий для мирного разрешения конфликтов. Анализ документов дает основание констатировать взаимный интерес сторон в развитии данного аспекта сотрудничества, который, однако, базируется на разных мотивах. Украина стремилась использовать данный инструмент для укрепления своих международных позиций. ЕС руководствовался идеей сотрудничества как механизма распространения принципов демократии и должного управления с целью достижения стабильности и гарантирования безопасности в регионе. При этом отмечается дуализм взаимодействия Украины и ЕС в этой сфере. С одной стороны, ЕС принимает участие в урегулировании кризисных ситуаций, возникших на территории Украинского государства. А с другой, представители Украины успешно принимают участие в миссиях и операциях Европейского Союза по урегулированию кризисов и конфликтов. В первом случае анализируются подходы Брюсселя и вклад ЕС в урегулирование таких кризисных ситуаций, как процесс ядерного разоружения Украины, события Майдана в 2004 г., политический кризис в конце 2013 года, а также российско-украинский конфликт. Другая сторона сотрудничества рассматривается в контексте участия Украины в работе миссий ЕС по урегулированию кризисов и конфликтов, например, в Боснии и Герцеговине, Македонии, Молдове, Грузии. Кроме того, имеет место активизация оборонного взаимодействия, что является важным аспектом стабилизации ситуации в Украине и взаимодействия в контексте реализации Глобальной стратегии ЕС в сфере внешней политики и политики безопасности. Также рассмотрены факторы, которые влияют на перспективы дальнейшего сотрудничества. Отмечается, что главными препятствиями являются определенная ограниченность возможностей и Украины и ЕС в вопросе углубления сотрудничества. Однако подчеркивается, что без восстановления территориальной целостности и суверенитета Украины невозможно обеспечить безопасность граждан ЕС — ключевого приоритета действующей стратегии Союза. ; Співробітництво між Україною та ЄС в сфері безпеки займає важливе місце в двосторонніх відносинах. Одним з напрямків співробітництва є врегулювання криз та сприяння мирному врегулюванню конфліктам. У статті досліджуються приклади участі представників України в місіях та операціях ЄС з врегулювання криз, а також ситуації, коли Україна сама потребувала допомоги ЄС у врегулюванні кризових ситуацій. Розкриваються підходи та вклад ЄС у такі кризові моменти, як процес ядерного роззброєння України, події Майдану у 2004 р., а також політична криза наприкінці 2013 р. та українсько-російський конфлікт. У висновках розглянуто можливості ЄС сприяти відновленню територіальної цілісності та суверенітету України, наголошується на важливості подальшого співробітництва Києва та Брюсселя в цьому напрямку.

In 2013, the National University of Costa Rica and the University of Costa Rica launched the research project titled Games as a Cultural Heritage: Perception of People of Different Generations in the Cantons of Desamparados and Barva. Its objective was to analyze games as a cultural heritage, from the perception people have of different generational groups in both cantons. This paper presents the results obtained from the intergenerational analysis when contrasting differences and similarities related to the following characteristics of games: conceptualization, importance, values promoted, places where games happen, people involved, and types of games. The research approach was a mix of descriptive and explanatory designs because it provides a sense of understanding the game as a heritage. From Desamparados, 170 people took part in the research; and 158 from Barva. They were primary and secondary students, teachers, adult and senior citizens, and municipal agents. The participants were selected following criteria of age and the role they play. Data were collected using questionnaires that contained common items, and that were based on the generational group. The main results show that all age groups consider games as a pleasurable activity, which promotes fun, entertainment, enjoyment, joy, coexistence and socialization. Games are considered as activities almost exclusively for, and practiced by, boys and girls; a few exceptions mentioned adults and older people as participants in games. Almost the whole population considered games as of extreme importance for integral development, and for the learning of concepts and, essentially, of values. It is striking that games are not considered as a right as set out in the Costa Rican legislation. ; En el 2013 la Universidad Nacional y la Universidad de Costa Rica iniciaron la investigación "El juego como patrimonio cultural: percepción de las personas de diferentes generaciones en los cantones de Desamparados y Barva", cuyo objetivo fue analizar el juego como patrimonio cultural, desde la percepción que tienen las personas de diferentes grupos generacionales de ambos cantones. Este escrito presenta los resultados del análisis intergeneracional, al contrastar las diferencias y similitudes relacionadas con las siguientes características del juego: conceptualización, importancia, valores que promueve, lugares donde sucede el juego, personas que lo acompañan y tipos de juegos. El enfoque de investigación fue mixto y el tipo fue descriptivo-explicativo ya que proporciona un sentido de entendimiento al juego como patrimonio. La población participante constó de 170 personas de Desamparados y 158 de Barva, conformada por estudiantes de primaria y secundaria, docentes, personas adultas y adultas mayores y representantes municipales, seleccionados según criterios de edad y rol que desempeñaban. Los datos fueron recolectados con cuestionarios que contenían ítes comunes y que estaban dirigidos con base en el grupo generacional. Los principales resultados refieren que el juego es considerado por todos los grupos generacionales como una actividad placentera, que promueve diversión, entretenimiento, disfrute, alegría, convivencia y socialización. El juego se visualiza como una actividad casi exclusivamente de y para los niños y las niñas, en pocas excepciones mencionan a las personas adultas o adultas mayores como sujetos participantes. Casi para la totalidad de la población, el juego es de suma importancia para el desarrollo integral, para el aprendizaje de conceptos y esencialmente de valores. Llama la atención que el juego no es visualizado como un derecho según lo establece la legislación. ; Em 2013, a Universidade Nacional e a Universidade da Costa Rica iniciaram a investigação "A brincadeira como património cultural: percepções das pessoas de diferentes gerações nas comunidades de Desamparados e Barva", cujo objetivo era analisar a brincadeira como património cultural, a partir da percepção das pessoas de diferentes gerações de ambos comunidades. Este artigo apresenta os resultados da análise intergeracional, depois de contrastar as diferenças e semelhanças relacionadas com as seguintes características das brincadeiras: conceituação, importância, valores promovidos, lugares aonde acontece a brincadeira, pessoas que acompanham e tipos de brincadeiras. A abordagem da pesquisa foi mista, do tipo explicativo descritivo, pois proporciona um sentido de compreensão da brincadeira como algo próprio. A população participante foi de 170 pessoas de Desamparados e 158 de Barva, composta por estudantes do ensino fundamental e médio, professores, adultos e idosos, representantes municipais, selecionados de acordo com critérios de idade e função que desempenham. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de questionários contendo itens comuns e direcionados com base no grupo etário. Os principais resultados indicam que as brincadeiras são consideradas por todos os grupos intergeracionais como uma atividade prazerosa, promotora de diversão, entretenimento, gozo, alegria, convívio e socialização. A brincadeira é vista como uma atividade quase exclusivamente de e para as crianças, onde a participação das pessoas adultas são exceções. Para grande parte da população, brincar é muito importante para o desenvolvimento integral, para a aprendizagem de conceitos e essencialmente, de valores. Vale ressaltar que brincar não é visto como um direito estabelecido por lei.

Including the environmental dimension of land management is a key goal in sustainable policies assumed by the Uruguayan government. The General Land Use Fitness project (AGUT) is one of the strategies to optimize sustainable production systems. The 10:20:40:30 guides propose land use intensities (natural, low, moderate, intensive) to optimize objectives of productivity and conservation, to maintain landscape connectivity, and diminish fragmentation. This work evaluated whether AGUT fits the 10:20:40:30 model, and if it contributes to a land planning compatible with nature and ecosystem services conservation in Canelones. A GIS (Geographical Information Systems) with productive land uses proposed by AGUT was reclassified into low, moderate, intensive, and natural land classes as in the guidelines model on three landscape scales defined by political management boundaries. Both models strongly contrasted. AGUT would not preserve the required minimal natural land promoting biodiversity conservation and associated ecosystem services. Pressure would increase over water resources and biological corridors, native forest and wetlands, leading to a landscape homogenization through intensive and moderate land uses, with no possibility of buffering and restoring performance of natural systems, given that low land uses are not considered, and natural land is reduced to a minimal. A balance between productive and sustainable systems will have to include a more accurate balance between land planning, biodiversity, and water resources conservation in Canelones to achieve international and regional agreements to contribute to sustainable development goals. ; La incorporación de la dimensión ambiental en la planificación territorial es un objetivo clave en las políticas sostenibles que ha asumido el Estado Uruguayo. El proyecto Aptitud General de Uso de la Tierra (AGUT) es una de las estrategias para optimizar la producción sustentable. Las guías 10:20:40:30 proponen intensidades de usos del suelo (natural, leve, moderada, intensiva) para optimizar objetivos productivos y de conservación, mantener la conectividad y reducir la fragmentación. Este trabajo evaluó si AGUT se ajusta al modelo 10:20:40:30 y si contribuye a una planificación territorial compatible con la conservación de la biodiversidad, al igual que con los servicios ambientales en Canelones. Se desarrolló un Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG) de los usos productivos de la tierra mapeados en AGUT, reclasificados según su intensidad: leve, moderado, intensivo, y suelo natural de conservación, en 3 escalas de paisaje definidas por límites políticos de gestión. Ambos modelos contrastan fuertemente. AGUT no conservaría los mínimos necesarios de suelo natural que promueva la conservación de la biodiversidad y los servicios ambientales asociados. Aumentaría la presión sobre los recursos hídricos y los corredores biológicos de bosque fluvial y humedales adyacentes, llevando a una homogeneización del paisaje productivo a través de usos del suelo intensivo y moderado, sin posibilidades de amortiguación y restauración ambiental, ya que no propone usos del suelo leve y reduce al mínimo el natural. El equilibrio entre sistemas productivos y sustentables, la conservación de la diversidad biológica y los recursos hídricos de Canelones deberán incluir más precisamente en las políticas territoriales un equilibrio entre estas. ; A incorporação da dimensão ambiental na planificação territorial é um objetivo fundamental nas políticas sustentáveis assumido pelo Estado Uruguaio. O projeto Aptidão Geral de Uso da Terra (AGUT) é uma das estratégias para otimizar a produção sustentável. Os guias 10:20:40:30 propõem intensidades de usos do solo (natural, leve, moderada, intensiva) para otimizar objetivos produtivos e de conservação, manter a conectividade e reduzir a fragmentação. Este trabalho avaliou se a AGUT se ajusta ao modelo 10:20:40:30 e se contribui para uma planificação territorial compatível com a conservação da biodiversidade, o mesmo que com os serviços ambientais em Canelones. Foi desenvolvido um Sistema de Informação Geográfica (SIG) dos usos produtivos da terra mapeados na AGUT, reclassificados segundo sua intensidade: leve, moderado, intensivo, e solo natural de conservação, em 3 escalas de paisagem definidas por limites políticos de gestão. Ambos os modelos contrastam fortemente. A AGUT não conservaria os mínimos necessários de solo natural que promova a conservação da biodiversidade e os serviços ambientais associados, aumentaria a pressão sobre os recursos hídricos e os corredores biológicos da floresta fluvial e úmidas adjacentes, levando a uma homogeneização da paisagem produtiva através de usos do solo intensivo e moderado, sem possibilidades de amortecimento e restauração ambiental, pois não propõe usos do solo leve e reduz o natural ao nível mínimo. O equilíbrio entre sistemas produtivos e sustentáveis, a conservação da diversidade biológica e os recursos hídricos de Canelones deverão incluir mais precisamente nas políticas territoriais um equilíbrio entre estas.

The present research seeks to analyze and understand the following paradox: the strong - or rather intense - presence of young people in the public scene, especially the political one; a presence, however, that is strangely coupled with a low involvement of these young people in the traditional political structures. This is despite the fact that the post-revolutionary Tunisian society has set many challenges, especially those pertaining to the way of apprehending the aspirations and demands of young people. The latter represented one of the main actors of the revolution, who had paved the way for a political change and a reconfiguration of the Tunisian public space. Paradoxically, since the first test of the democratic transition, which was none other than the 2011 elections, things were marked by the absence of young people who all the more reason would have constituted an important electoral reservoir of supporters of freedom of expression. However, it turns out that the youth abstention is far from expressing a lack of civic commitment. This bias is by no means arbitrary; it is in fact a mode of political expression peculiar to them. It is in a way a response to the uncertainty that continues to plague the lives of these young people and to maintain them into a precarious state. This is not unrelated to a persistent unemployment, mainly in the absence of a "new" model of development likely to rekindle hope among them and allow them to integrate - and enjoy - the era of consumerism and hedonism propagated by the "world culture" and new communication technologies.In the meantime, these young people show they are concerned, indeed, but otherwise; they take part of a new political range, rather. The reconfiguration of the Tunisian public space is a manifestation of the emergence of such new forms of political commitment among young people and the remodeling that they operate in their relations to politics. So this research refers to these newly-invented forms of expression that convey distinctive values, imprinting young people's political action by specific ways and means of doing things. These means are multiple, characterized by a plurality of expressive channels and forms of involvement. Thus, the art of the street, body language, lifestyle, etc., all perfectly illustrate that, behind their disinterest in the traditional political circuits, other methods and mechanisms of mobilization are taking shape and unfolding; they are certainly still ambiguous and undefined, but yet innovative, autonomous, plural, heterogeneous and, above all, unconventional and individual. ; Notre recherche a pour objectif d'analyser et de comprendre le paradoxe suivant : la forte - ou plutôt intense - présence des jeunes sur la scène publique, notamment politique. Présence, toutefois, étrangement assortie d'un faible engagement de ces mêmes jeunes dans les structures classiques d'engagement politique. Et ce bien que la société tunisienne postrévolutionnaire ait fixé de nombreux défis, dont en premier chef celui du politique et de la manière d'appréhender les aspirations et les revendications des jeunes. Ces derniers ont représenté l'un des principaux acteurs de la révolution, lesquels avaient ouvert la voie à un changement politique et à une reconfiguration de l'espace public tunisien. Paradoxalement, dès la première épreuve de la transition démocratique qu'ont été les élections de 2011, celles-ci furent marquées par l'absence des jeunes qui auraient d'autant plus constitué une importante réserve électorale de partisans de la liberté d'expression. Or, il s'avère que l'abstentionnisme de ces derniers est loin d'exprimer un manque d'engagement citoyen. Ce parti pris n'est nullement arbitraire ; il est en fait une modalité d'expression politique propre à eux. Il est en quelque sorte une réponse à l'incertitude qui continue à ronger l'existence de ces jeunes et à les plonger dans un état de précarité. Celui-ci n'est pas sans rapport avec un chômage perdurant, faute d'un « nouveau » modèle de développement à même de raviver l'espoir chez eux et de leur permettre de s'intégrer à – et profiter de – l'ère du consumérisme et l'hédonisme propagés par la « culture monde » et les nouvelles technologies de la communication.Ce faisant, les jeunes s'engagent mais autrement ; ils s'inscrivent dans un nouveau répertoire politique. La reconfiguration de l'espace public tunisien est une manifestation de l'émergence de nouvelles formes d'engagement politique chez les jeunes et les reconstitutions qu'ils opèrent sur leurs rapports au politique. Par cela, nous renvoyons à leurs nouvelles formes d'expression inventées qui véhiculent d'autres valeurs, imprimant ainsi leur action politique par des manières et modalités de faire spécifiques. Ces modalités sont multiples caractérisées par une pluralité de canaux d'expression et de formes d'engagement. Ainsi, l'art de la rue, l'expression corporelle, le mode de vie, etc., illustrent bel et bien que, derrière leur désengagement des circuits politiques traditionnels, se trament et se déploient des modalités et des dispositifs de mobilisation distincts. Modalités d'expression certes encore ambiguës et inachevées, mais innovantes, autonomes, plurielles et hétérogènes, voire surtout non conventionnelles et individuelles.

In 1996, the government of Guatemala put an end to 36 years of civil war by signing the peace accords. This war specifically affected the country's indigenous populations. The two Truth commissions concluded that the army and paramilitaries carried out acts of genocide against the Mayan populations, in part because of the widespread use of sexual violence against women. Over the next two decades, many development projects led by the State as well as various foundations and NGOs sought to alleviate the extreme poverty affecting rural indigenous populations. One of these projects is the dissemination of family planning programs. It is Indigenous women who are the main targets of the medical and educational devices that are implemented in this context. Their objective is to drastically reduce these women's fertility, through sustainable and permanent methods such as female sterilization. This objective is accompanied by the establishment of a set of standards of good maternal and reproductive practices. The medico-social staff that is mobilized towards the integration of these standards sometimes goes so far as to use violence in order to ensure that the indigenous women comply with them. In the exercise of their mission, the medical staff believes to be working for the common good not only of the nation but of those women as well. However, the constraints faced by women in managing family planning make it difficult for them to fully access reproductive rights. In addition, many women liken the violence and discrimination they experience in these programs to the violence of war and the violence that they experience in other social spaces. The poverty the live in and the oppression and multiple forms of violence they face are particularly related to neoliberal policies.The aim of this thesis is to decipher certain issues around the promotion of targeted sterilization of indigenous women, in a post-conflict context where renewed violence against these women is developing. The research work conducted with institutions and medical staff in family planning programs, as well as with women from several indigenous communities, reveals the complex relationships that exist between indigenous women and different actors: institutional, professional, community and family. These relationships, which reveal the hierarchical positions of gender, ethnicity and class at local, national and international levels, have impacts on reproductive trajectories, and by extension on life trajectories. At the intersection of these many issues of power, the thesis will show how indigenous women find themselves at the heart of a tense reproductive issue, with which they must deal in order to negotiate their status as citizens. ; En 1996 au Guatemala, la signature des accords de paix met fin à 36 ans de guerre civile. Ayant touché spécifiquement les populations indigènes, les deux commissions de vérité estiment que l'armée et les paramilitaires ont mené des actes de génocide contre les populations mayas, entre autres en raison des violences sexuelles exercées contre les femmes. Au cours des deux décennies suivantes, de nombreux projets de développement menés par l'État, ainsi que diverses fondations et ONGs, visent à pallier l'extrême pauvreté qui touche les populations rurales indigènes. L'un de ces projets consiste en la diffusion de programmes de planification familiale. Les femmes indigènes sont principalement ciblées par les dispositifs médicaux et éducatifs qui sont mis en place dans ce cadre. L'objectif est alors de faire baisser drastiquement leur fécondité, par des méthodes durables et définitives, telle que la stérilisation féminine. Cet objectif s'accompagne de la diffusion d'un ensemble de normes de bonnes pratiques maternelles et reproductives. Les personnels médico-sociaux mobilisés pour faire intégrer ces normes vont parfois jusqu'à user de violences pour que les femmes indigènes s'y conforment. Dans l'exercice de leur mission, ces personnels estiment œuvrer pour le bien commun, celui de la nation mais aussi celui des femmes. Pourtant, les contraintes rencontrées par les femmes dans la gestion de la planification familiale leur permettent difficilement d'accéder pleinement à des droits reproductifs. L'ambition de cette thèse est de décrypter certains enjeux autour de la promotion de la stérilisation ciblée des femmes indigènes, dans un contexte de post-conflit où se développent des violences renouvelées contre ces femmes. Le travail de recherche, mené auprès d'institutions et de personnels médicaux en charge des programmes de planification familiale, ainsi qu'auprès de femmes issues de plusieurs communautés indigènes, permet de faire apparaître les rapports complexes qui se jouent entre les femmes indigènes et différents acteurs institutionnels, professionnels, communautaires et familiaux. Ces rapports, révélateurs des positions hiérarchiques de genre, d'ethnicité et de classe à un niveau local, national et international, produisent des impacts sur les trajectoires reproductives, et par extension sur les trajectoires de vie. À l'intersection de ces nombreux enjeux de pouvoir, la thèse montrera comment les femmes indigènes se retrouvent au cœur d'une question reproductive en tension avec laquelle elles doivent composer, pour négocier leur statut de citoyennes.

Based on an audio-visual geographical research conducted in the Fogo Caldera, in Cape Verde, this thesis analyses the power games between and within the groups of stakeholders around the territory of Chã das Caldeiras before, during and after the disaster linked with the 2014-2015 volcanic eruption. Within an international institutional context advocating "resilience" as a Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) strategy for local populations, yet controversial in the scientific sphere, the aim is to rethink the individual and collective resistances of the populations. These are often interpreted as unfounded or impulsive reactions, enhancing their exposure to hazards. Rather, these coping strategies facing governmental measures of territorial exclusion and restriction of access to resources appear as a frequent essential condition for reducing vulnerability (multifactorial and differential within the population) but also for rehabilitating social economic and material livelihoods.The challenge is, through the case study of the Fogo caldera in Cape Verde, to understand the genesis of rivalries, influences and oppositions around the control of the territory. These invalidate the classic opposition of "the" population to "the" government. These two entities, far from being monolithic, prove to be crossed by internal contradictions, alliances of convenience, expressing the collective difficulties encountered in trying to reconcile disaster risk reduction, preservation of a common "natural" and cultural heritage, and ethical issues related to socio-economic development, themselves complex when they comes to respect local populations in their diversity.This diversity is part of a territorialized construction of vulnerability and capacity inequalities in a long-term (trajectories) and daily pattern, and is showed at rupture times, during crisis and post-crisis periods. It is woven after the pioneer settlement of the caldera, until the 2014-2015 eruption. The understanding of this social, spatial and temporal complexity would allow to avoid conflicts of interest between the populations and the State, which should legitimately support the local dynamics, instead of yielding to the pressures of resistance, in a large and collective process of resilience, accepting the duality "resources vs threats" of the territories.The PHD is articulated around several films, made as full-fledged scientific productions. Three documentary films and two participative films appear as devices, material supports and privileged places to explore the different types of relations, power games and inequalities around the management of this territory. ; À partir d'une enquête géographique audiovisuelle réalisée dans la caldera de Fogo, au Cap-Vert, cette thèse analyse les jeux de pouvoir entre et au sein des groupes d'acteurs autour du territoire de Chã das Caldeiras avant, pendant et après la catastrophe d'origine volcanique de 2014-2015. Dans un contexte institutionnel international prônant la « résilience » comme stratégie de réduction des risques pour les populations locales, pourtant controversée dans la sphère scientifique, il s'agit de repenser les résistances individuelles et collectives des populations, fréquemment interprétées comme des réactions infondées ou impulsives, aggravant leur exposition face aux aléas. Au contraire, ces stratégies d'adaptation face aux mesures gouvernementales d'exclusion territoriale et de restriction d'accès aux ressources apparaissent comme une condition souvent incontournable de réduction de la vulnérabilité (multifactorielle et différentielle au sein de la population) et de reconstruction sociale, économique et matérielle des moyens d'existence. L'enjeu est de comprendre, à travers le cas d'étude de la caldera de Fogo au Cap-Vert, la genèse des rivalités, influences et oppositions autour du contrôle du territoire. Celles-ci rendent caduque la classique opposition de « la » population face « au » gouvernement. Ces deux entités, loin d'être monolithiques, s'avèrent être traversées de contradictions internes, d'alliances de circonstance, traduisant les difficultés collectives à concilier réduction des risques de catastrophe, préservation d'un patrimoine « naturel » et culturel commun, et enjeux éthiques de développement socio-économique, eux-mêmes complexes s'ils doivent respecter « les » populations locales dans leur diversité. Cette diversité s'inscrit dans une construction territorialisée des inégalités de vulnérabilité et des capacités dans le temps long des trajectoires et du quotidien, et se révèle dans les moments de rupture, que constituent les temps de la crise et de l'après-crise. Elle se tisse donc depuis le peuplement pionnier de la caldera, jusqu'à l'éruption de 2014-2015. La compréhension de cette complexité sociale, spatiale et temporelle, permettrait d'éviter les conflits d'intérêts entre populations et État, celui-ci devant, en toute légitimité, accompagner les dynamiques locales au lieu de céder aux pressions des résistances, dans un processus de résilience collective acceptant la dualité « ressources/menaces » des territoires. La thèse s'articule autour de plusieurs films, réalisés comme productions scientifiques à part entière (DVD joint). Trois films documentaires et deux films participatifs constituent des dispositifs, supports matériels et lieux privilégiés pour explorer les différents types de relations, jeux de pouvoir et inégalités autour de la gestion de ce territoire.

Multi-core processors are gaining increasing importance in safety-relevant embedded realtime systems, where temporal guarantees must be ensured despite the sharing of on-chip resources such as processor cores and networks-on-chip (NoC). At the same time, many applications comprise workloads with different timing models including time triggered and event-triggered communication. The first contribution is a scheduling model based on Mixed Integer Linear Programming(MILP) supporting the allocation of computational jobs to processing cores as well as the scheduling of messages and the selection of paths on NoC. The model supports dependencies between computational jobs and it combines both time-triggered and event-triggered messages. Phase alignment of time-triggered messages is performed while avoiding collisions between time-triggered messages and satisfying bandwidth constraints for event-triggered messages. Example scenarios are solved optimally using the IBM CPLEX optimizer yielding minimal computational and communication latencies. Real-time communication and reliability are two important requirements in the development of safety-critical embedded systems, which benefit from the inherent fault isolation and temporal predictability of time-triggered networks. These systems depend on redundant communication schedules that contain global time-based information of message transmissions with conflict-free paths through the switches. In these systems, the use of redundancy to handle communication errors requires the preallocation of communication resources. The second contribution introduces a novel scheduler for redundant time-triggered networks that assigns messages to redundant paths. The scheduler considers the link reliability along with physical and logical models and produces a schedule where each message is assigned to two different paths along the switches. We also discuss and validate the approach with results from a prototype implementation. SoS consist of complex interconnections of large numbers of networked embedded systems that are characterized by operational and managerial independence of constituent systems, geographical separation, and emergent behavior in a constantly changing environment. The support for real-time communication is crucial for many SoS application areas such as medical, business, and military systems. The third contribution is a conceptual model and a scheduling algorithm for supporting real-time requirements in SoS. The search for a feasible schedule is computed incrementally upon the introduction of new applications in the SoS. The distributed computation of the schedule using the different constituent systems considers the lack of global knowledge and control in the SoS, while also reducing the overall scheduling time. Concurrent scheduling activities are supported to deal with the uncoordinated and possibly simultaneous introduction of multiple applications. The dissertation introduces also a simulation framework with real-time support of SoS that supports high-level scheduling as well as low-level scheduling for each constituent system. A time-triggered Ethernet (TTEthernet) simulation framework was extended by adding a scheduler layer to perform incremental scheduling among Constituent System Managers (CSMs). The simulation framework enabled the evaluation of the proposed algorithms in terms of schedulability, run-time, and worst-case latency for time-triggered and rate-constrained messages. ; Mehrkernprozessoren gewinnen zunehmend an Bedeutung in sicherheitsrelevanten eingebetteten Echtzeitsystemen, bei denen trotz der gemeinsamen Nutzung von On-Chip-Ressourcen wie Prozessorkernen und On-Chip-Netzwerken zeitliche Garantien gewährleistet sein müssen. Gleichzeitig umfassen viele Anwendungen Arbeitsbelastungen mit unterschiedlichen Timing- Modellen, einschließlich zeitgesteuerter und ereignisgesteuerter Kommunikation. Der erste Beitrag der Dissertation ist ein Planungsmodell, das auf der gemischt-ganzzahligen linearen Programmierung basiert und die Zuweisung von Rechenaufträgen an Prozessorkerne sowie die Planung von Nachrichten und die Auswahl von Wegen auf NoCs unterstützt. Das Modell unterstützt Abhängigkeiten zwischen Rechenjobs und kombiniert sowohl zeitgesteuerte als auch ereignisgesteuerte Nachrichten. Die Phasenausrichtung zeitgesteuerter Nachrichten wird durchgeführt, während Kollisionen zwischen zeitgesteuerten Nachrichten und die Verletzung von Bandbreitenbeschränkungen für ereignisgesteuerte Nachrichten vermieden werden. Beispielszenarien werden optimal mit dem IBM CPLEX-Optimierer gelöst, wobei minimale Rechen- und Kommunikationslatenzen garantiert werden. Echtzeitkommunikation und Zuverlässigkeit sind zwei wichtige Anforderungen bei der Entwicklung sicherheitskritischer eingebetteter Systeme, die von der inhärenten Fehlerisolierung und zeitlichen Vorhersagbarkeit zeitgesteuerter Netzwerke profitieren. Als Grundlage für Fehlertoleranz benötigen diese Systeme außerdem redundante Kommunikationspläne, die globale zeitbasierte Informationen von mehrfachen Nachrichtenübertragungen mit konfliktfreien Pfaden durch die Switches enthalten. In diesen Systemen erfordert die Verwendung von Redundanz zur Behandlung von Kommunikationsfehlern die Vorbelegung von Kommunikationsressourcen. Der zweite Beitrag der Dissertation stellt einen neuartigen Scheduler für redundante zeitgesteuerte Netzwerke vor, der Nachrichten redundanten Pfaden zuweist. Der Scheduler berücksichtigt die Verbindungszuverlässigkeit zusammen mit physischen und logischen Modellen und erstellt einen Zeitplan, bei dem jede Nachricht zwei verschiedenen Pfaden entlang der Switches zugewiesen wird. Wir diskutieren und validieren den Ansatz mit den Ergebnissen einer Prototypimplementierung. Systeme von Systemen (SoS) bestehen aus komplexen Zusammenschaltungen einer großen Anzahl von vernetzten eingebetteten Systemen, die durch betriebliche Unabhängigkeit von Teilsystemen, geografische Trennung und emergentes Verhalten in einer sich ständig verändernden Umgebung gekennzeichnet sind. Die Unterstützung für Echtzeitkommunikation ist für viele Anwendungsbereiche wie medizinische, geschäftliche und militärische Systeme von entscheidender Bedeutung. Der dritte Beitrag der Dissertation ist ein konzeptionelles Modell und ein Planungsalgorithmus zur Unterstützung von Echtzeitanforderungen in SoS. Die Suche nach einem realisierbaren Zeitplan wird schrittweise nach der Einführung neuer Anwendungen im SoS berechnet. Die verteilte Berechnung des Zeitplans unter Verwendung der verschiedenen Teilsysteme berücksichtigt den Mangel an globalem Wissen und Kontrolle im SoS, während gleichzeitig die Gesamtplanungszeit verringert wird. Gleichzeitige Terminierungsaktivitäten werden unterstützt, um die unkoordinierte und möglicherweise gleichzeitige Einführung mehrerer Anwendungen zu bewältigen. Die Dissertation stellt auch ein Simulationsframework mit Echtzeit-Unterstützung von SoS vor, das sowohl die High-Level-Planung als auch die Low-Level-Planung für jedes Teilsystem unterstützt. Ein Simulationsframework für zeitgesteuertes Ethernet (TTEthernet) wurde um eine Scheduler-Schicht erweitert, um eine inkrementelle Planung unter Constituent System Managern (CSMs) durchzuführen. Das Simulationsframework ermöglichte die Evaluierung der vorgeschlagenen Algorithmen hinsichtlich der Planbarkeit, der Laufzeit und der Worst-Case-Latenz für zeitgesteuerte und ratenbeschränkte Nachrichten.

Introducción: Algunos análisis han estimado la productividad científica global y regional en cáncer, por ser esta una prioridad epidemiológica de alto impacto en la salud poblacional; esto concierne también a países en desarrollo como Colombia. La relación entre dichas variables aún no ha sido explorada en nuestro contexto. Objetivo: Estimar y caracterizar la productividad científica y su relación con la mortalidad por cáncer en general y según las 6 localizaciones específicas con mayor mortalidad para población adulta en Colombia entre los años 2000 a 2015. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio ecológico de tendencia temporal en el marco de un análisis bibliométrico de registros de publicaciones con afiliaciones a instituciones colombianas, utilizando técnicas de búsqueda sistemática en la base de datos SCOPUS. Se determinó la calidad del proceso de selección de la literatura mediante el grado de concordancia interobservador. Se estimó y comparó la productividad con la mortalidad anual general mediante modelamiento econométrico. Para las localizaciones específicas, se analizaron sus tendencias temporales gráficamente. Resultados: Se identificaron 2645 registros de publicaciones, de los cuales 1464 (55,3%) fueron seleccionados y caracterizados como producción científica colombiana (concordancia interobservador 92,96%; K=0,859 IC95% 0,800-0,918). El 79,6% correspondieron a artículos originales o en prensa y el 49,7% correspondieron a diseños descriptivos. La mediana de autores, instituciones y citaciones por registro fue de 5, 3 y 2, respectivamente. Las 3 localizaciones específicas más estudiadas fueron cérvix, mama y estómago, pero los registros sin localización específica tuvieron la mayor participación (23,4%). Para el periodo estudiado, se observó una tendencia de crecimiento en la producción científica frente una disminución de la mortalidad por cáncer en general, constituyendo una relación proporcional inversa en el modelo de regresión lineal (coeficiente r=-0,958 P=0,000; R2=0,911). Para las localizaciones específicas, se presentaron reducciones progresivas en la mortalidad para ambos sexos, excepto en las localizaciones de cáncer colorrectal y de próstata; en contraste, la productividad científica absoluta para cada localización evaluada mostró tendencia al aumento, en su mayoría, a expensas de las publicaciones para cáncer de mama y de cérvix. Conclusiones: La productividad científica colombiana en cáncer ha venido en aumento, en contraste con una disminución progresiva de la mortalidad. Sin embargo, esta producción tiene un componente predominantemente descriptivo, con relativamente baja participación interinstitucional y bajo impacto en la comunidad científica; este fenómeno está dado por diversos factores políticos, económicos y sociales. Hubo correspondencia entre las tendencias de mortalidad y la productividad científica absoluta para las 6 principales localizaciones de cáncer de mayor importancia en el país. ; Introduction: Some studies have estimated global and regional scientific productivity in cancer, as it represents an increasing morbidity to public health; this applies to in-development countries such as Colombia. The relationship between these two variables has not been explored in our country. Objective: To estimate and characterize cancer scientific productivity in Colombia and its relation to overall disease mortality and by the 6 specific sites with highest mortality rate for adult population in Colombia between the years 2000 to 2015. Methods: We carried out a temporal-trend ecological study by means of a bibliometric analysis using exhaustive literature search techniques in order to retrieve publication registries with Colombian institutional affiliations from SCOPUS database. We determined literature selection quality by evaluating interobserver agreement. Productivity and overall mortality were estimated and compared using econometric modelling. For specific cancer sites, variable trends were analyzed graphically. Results: 2645 publication records were retrieved, of which 1464 (55,3%) were selected and characterized as Colombian scientific productivity (interobserver agreement 92,96%; K=0,859 CI 95% 0,800-0,918). 79,6% of the records belonged to original or in-press articles while 49,7% embodied descriptive study designs. Median authors, institutions and citations per registry were 5, 3 and 2, respectively. The 3 mostly studied cancer specific locations were cervix, breast and stomach, but non-specific locations had the largest individual participation (23,4%). During the time period, we detected an increasing trend in scientific productivity, as opposed to decreasing overall cancer mortality trend, representing an inverse proportional relationship by means of linear regression model (correlation coefficient r=-0,958 P=0,000; R2=0,911). Considering specific cancer sites, we detected progressive mortality reductions for both sexes, except for colorectal and prostate cancer sites; in contrast, absolute scientific productivity had increased for each site, but most publications were attributed to breast and cervical cancer sites. Conclusions: Colombian cancer scientific productivity has been increasing as opposed to progressive mortality decreasing trend. However, it still has a 12 predominant descriptive approach, relatively low interinstitutional partnership and low impact to the scientific community, influenced by various political, economic and social factors. There was a correspondence between scientific productivity topics and mortality trends for the 6 most deadly main cancer sites in the country.

A literatura sobre o governo municipal brasileiro, desde o processo de descentralização políticoadministrativa de 1988, tem questionado as condições institucionais da administração pública e do serviço municipal perante as novas atribuições e responsabilidades, sendo um tema que emerge na corrente conjuntura de crise econômica dos municípios. Dado a ênfase dominante das reformas gerenciais como modo evocado de modernizar a gestão pública e superar as mazelas associadas a burocracia, esta pesquisa definiu como objetivo investigar as influências gerenciais em um governo local que têm incorporado este ideário, sendo realizado pelo exame do relacionamento entre Política e Administração que compõe o núcleo do governo e da administração no Poder Executivo. Assim, foi utilizado como fundamento o entendimento da interface políticoadministrativa como acordos ou barganhas implícitas e explícitas entre as partes, e tendo como base o governo municipal brasileiro marcado pelo forte comando diretivo do Prefeito, em uma tradição de troca de cargos por apoio político; envolvendo a fortes incertezas do sistema político sobre as recompensas dos servidores; a baixa formação e profissionalização dos servidores como entrega de competência; e, a lealdade com o Prefeito pactuada como relação de confiança e confidência. A mudança para o gerencialismo implicaria em um novo pacto, com maior autonomia administrativa, a recompensa baseada no desempenho, o aumento da ênfase de entrega de resultados, e a lealdade executiva, sendo este tipo ideal utilizado para compreender as influências gerenciais em um Governo Municipal de médio porte da Região Sudeste, investigada na interface entre o Prefeito, político eleito, e os Secretários e Subsecretários, administradores públicos. A pesquisa empírica ocorreu por meio de 15 entrevistas semiestruturadas, as quais abrangeram Secretários, Subsecretários e Assessores Execuitivos e dados secundários. Foi concluído que as influências gerenciais implicaram na reconstrução do caráter diretivo do Prefeito, sendo um modo de demandar resultados e eficiência dos servidores, a grande demanda por perfis técnicos a fim de alcançar maior desempenho, a vinculação da lealdade de confidente ao feedback informal quanto às entregas realizadas e o início do desenvolvimento de um compromisso de responsabilidade gerencial. Como consideração para estudos futuros, além da ampliação comparada com outros Governos Municipais, coloca-se como interrogação a natureza da relação tripla com os Assessores e seus impactos, a dinâmica dos networks políticos como modo de acesso a cargos, e o uso de questionários a fim de aumentar a representatividade e a comparatividade dos dados. ; The literature on brazilian municipal government, since the process of political and administrative decentralization of 1988, has questioned the institutional conditions of the public administration and the municipal service in the face of new responsibilities and responsibilities, a theme that emerges in the current economic crisis. counties. Given the dominant emphasis of management reforms as a way to modernize public management and overcome the problems associated with bureaucracy, this research aimed to investigate the managerial influences in a local government that have incorporated this ideology, being carried out by examining the relationship between Politics and Administration that composes the nucleus of the government and the administration in the Executive Power. Thus, the understanding of the political-administrative interface was understood as implicit and explicit agreements or bargains between the parties, and based on the Brazilian municipal government marked by the strong command of the Mayor, in a tradition of exchange of positions for political support ; involving the strong uncertainties of the political system over the rewards of servants; the low training and professionalism of the servers as delivery of competence; and, loyalty to the Mayor agreed as a relationship of trust and confidence. The shift to managerialism would imply a new pact, with greater administrative autonomy, performance-based reward, increased emphasis on delivery of results, and executive loyalty. being this ideal type used to understand the managerial influences in a medium-sized City Hall of the South-East Region, investigated in the interface between the Mayor, elected politician, and the Secretaries and Undersecretaries, public administrators. Empirical research was carried out through 15 semi-structured interviews, which included Secretaries, Under-Secretaries and Executive Advisors and secondary data. It was concluded that managerial influences implied the reconstruction of the Mayor's leadership, being a way to demand results and efficiency of the servers, the great demand for technical profiles in order to achieve greater performance, the linking of loyalty of confidant to informal feedback on deliveries made and the beginning of the development of a management responsibility commitment. As a consideration for future studies, in addition to the expansion compared to other municipal governments, the question of the nature of the triple relationship with the Assessors and their impacts, the dynamics of political networks as a way of access to positions, and the use of questionnaires to increase representativeness and comparability of data. ; CAPES

Em um contexto de ampliação dos lugares públicos participativos no Brasil há de se considerar expectativas de despertar valores sociopolíticos nos estudantes universitários em seu processo de qualificação cidadã e profissional, diante das críticas à formação dos administradores. Portanto, este trabalho visa compreender a dinâmica da consciência política dos estudantes da graduação em administração de uma universidade pública federal no sudeste do Brasil em sua relação com a participação cidadã nos lugares públicos participativos no estado e municípios. Adota-se o modelo analítico de consciência política para a compreensão da participação em ações coletivas de Sandoval (2001) como marco teórico, associado à literatura sobre participação cidadã. Trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa, cujos dados foram coletados através de documentos, aplicação de 30 questionários e 17 entrevistas semiestruturadas, com 30 estudantes universitários da graduação em administração matriculados em 2014/1. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de conteúdo (BARDIN, 2004). Os resultados revelam 12 estudantes que não participam nos lugares públicos participativos e 18 estudantes que participam em pelo menos um destes lugares. O interesse em exercer a cidadania, melhorar as políticas públicas, gostar de implicar-se com os assuntos públicos e defender seus interesses em circunstâncias de conflito são as justificativas citadas pelos que participam. Evidenciam-se nos estudantes com participação mais ativa, crenças, valores e expectativas societais, articuladas à eficácia política, identidade coletiva, interesses antagônicos, sentimentos de justiça e injustiça, favorecendo a vontade de agir coletivamente, devido à percepção de conexão de seus interesses com as metas e ações coletivas dos movimentos que se envolvem. Os estudantes que não participam desconfiam dos lugares públicos participativos e demonstram desinteresse pelos assuntos públicos, embora apontem um desconforto em não participar. Suas crenças, valores e expectativas societais, associadas aos sentimentos de ineficácia política dificultam o desenvolvimento da consciência política. Conclui-se que estes estudantes possuem uma consciência política de senso comum, demonstrando valores sociais e políticos inerentes aos modismos presentes na vida cotidiana das pessoas. Já os estudantes com participação mais ativa apresentam uma consciência política de conflito, motivando-os à participação nos lugares avaliados como eficazes às suas proposições. Entretanto, o Centro 6 Acadêmico Livre de Administração Honestino Guimarães (CALAD), principal lugar de representação e participação dos interesses dos estudantes no curso, encontra-se sem direção e participação nas instâncias institucionalizadas na universidade. ; In a setting where public participatory spaces are broadened in Brazil, one has to consider the expectations about raising socio-political values among university students in their process of professional and citizen qualification, in face of criticism to business administrator's formation. Therefore, this study aims at understanding the dynamics of business undergraduate students' political awareness at a public federal university in the southeast of Brazil, and their relationship with citizen participation in participatory public spaces in the state and municipalities. It adopts Sandoval's (2001) analytical model of political awareness, combined with the literature on citizen participation, so as to understand participation in collective actions. It is a qualitative study in which data were gathered through documents, 30 questionnaires and 17 semistructured interviews with 30 business undergraduate students in 2014/1. Then the data underwent content analysis approach (BARDIN, 2004). The results show that 12 students do not participate in these public participatory spaces and that 18 of them participate in at least one of these spaces. Interest in exercising citizenship, improving public policies, getting involving in political issues and defending their interest in conflict circumstances are justifications listed by those who participate. Students with more active participation show beliefs, social values and expectations connected to political efficacy, collective identity, antagonistic interests, feelings of justice and injustice, which favor the will of acting collectively because they see their interests match the goals of collective actions in the movements they are involved. The students who do not participate suspect these participatory public spaces and show to be uninterested in public issues, even though they seem to be uncomfortable with not participating. Their beliefs, social values and expectations, associated to feelings of political inefficacy hinder their development of political awareness. We concluded that these students have common sense political awareness. They show social and political values that are inherent to current fads of people's everyday life. On the other hand, students with more active participation display conflict political awareness, which motivates them to participate in places deemed as effective to their propositions. However, Centro Acadêmico Livre de Administração Honestino Guimarães – CALAD (Honestino Guimarães Free Business Administration Academic Center) — main space for 8 representing students' interests and participation shows to have no direction and participation in institutionalized bodies of the university.

La question de la valorisation des vestiges du protectorat allemand à Douala s'inscrit dans le champ du patrimoine, plus précisément et si l'on emprunte le terme à la littérature anglo-saxon, du patrimoine dissonant. Il s'agit d'une catégorie d'héritage de l'histoire dont la signification fait l'objet de débat et d'interprétations diverses, voire antagonistes. Malgré l'existence de plusieurs éléments servant de trace de la présence allemande dans la ville de Douala, l'intégration dudit héritage à signification équivoque semble pâtir d'une politique culturelle emprunte d'authenticité et d'objectifs d'unité et d'identité nationales. Héritant d'un modèle culturel plus adapté à l'Occident, le Cameroun postcolonial a d'abord voulu mettre au second plan, certains vestiges de son histoire, au profit de la recherche d'éléments patrimoniaux propre au terroir, dans une logique de dualité entre le local et l'externe. Aussi, dans un contexte de pluralité ethnoculturelle, cette politique de l'authenticité a consumé les énergies qui devraient servir à la mise en valeur du patrimoine culturel dans son ensemble. Néanmoins, l'absence d'une mise en patrimoine d'une bonne partie du legs colonial s'explique par les rapports à la mémoire coloniale. En effet, si l'Allemagne, après avoir perdu son protectorat Camerounais dans le contexte de la Première Guerre Mondiale, a manifesté une volonté de préserver son héritage extérieur à travers notamment les mouvements germanophiles, il n'en demeure pas moins que le poids de la responsabilité de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale a conduit à une amnésie vis-à-vis du passé colonial, que certain ont voulu idéalisé, afin d'atténuer ses conséquences éventuelles. Dans ce contexte, il faut attendre l'année 2003, pour que se déclenche une rétrospection allemande sur la question coloniale. D'un autre côté, portée par une ambition de francisation du Cameroun, la France a oeuvré à l'effacement des traces de la présence allemande dans la ville de Douala. S'agissant des Camerounais, les vestiges du colonialisme allemand symbolisent tantôt les douloureuses expériences des travaux forcés, des coups de fouet et des assassinats, parfois des progrès économiques relatifs que le Cameroun aurait réalisés au cours de la période du protectorat allemand. Dès lors, il y a nécessité de convaincre les plus sceptiques, sur la nécessité de préserver les vestiges historiques, au moyen d'approches diversifiées. Ces approches pourraient inclure une didactique du patrimoine, une protection juridique par l'inscription des vestiges historiques au titre officiel de monuments, ainsi que via des projets portés vers des objectifs de développement local; Abstract: The issue of the conservation and the enhancement of the German protectorate's remains in Douala fits in the field of heritage, specifically the dissonant heritage. This is a category of heritage concerning the legacy of history the significance of which is different depending on the groups of interest. Despite the existence of several elements serving as traces of the German colonial presence in the city of Douala, the integration of such heritage with ambiguous meaning seems to suffer from a cultural policy that focus on authenticity and objectives of building national unity and national identity. Inheriting a cultural model most suitable to the Western countries, post-colonial Cameroon first wanted to put in the background of its cultural heritage, some remnants of its history, in a logic of duality between the local and the external. Also, in a context of ethno cultural diversity, this authenticity policy consumed the energies that should be used for the enhancement of the cultural heritage as a whole. However, the absence of a cultural enhancement of much of the colonial legacies could also be explained by relations to the colonial memory. Indeed, if Germany, after losing its Cameroonian protectorate in the context of the First World War, has expressed a desire to preserve his legacy abroad, especially through the germanophile movements, it is not less that the weight of the responsibility of the Second World War led to an amnesia towards the colonial past, that some wanted to idealized in order to mitigate its potential consequences. In this context, it has taken until the year 2003, for Germany to assume a retrospection on its colonial past. On the other hand, driven by an ambition of francization of Cameroon, France worked in erasing the traces of the German presence in the city of Douala. Regarding the colonial memories for Cameroonians, the remains of German colonialism sometimes symbolize the painful experiences of forced work, lashes and assassinations, as well as occasionally these remains are perceived as the symbol of some economic progress that Cameroon would have made during the period of the German protectorate. Therefore, there is a need to convince the most skeptical about the necessity to preserve the historical remains, through diverse approaches. These approaches could include a heritage didactics, legal protection by registration of the historical relics to the official title of monuments, as well as through local development oriented projects.

Growing municipal borrowing is not surprising today because not only municipalities but also the state itself borrows actively. We live in a period when the funds of EU are actively being absorbed, and according to regulations, in order to use these funds, it is necessary, albeit a small part, to add own funds. The borrowing requirement which exists at all levels of government is aggregated, and borrowed funds represent the total public debt. When the need arises, municipalities, like the state, can borrow financial resources, but their borrowing is more regulated than the state. The research problem. The annual public resources generated by municipalities represent only a small fraction of public finance flows circulating in state jurisdiction. The financial situation of municipalities is complicated due to the fact that insufficient funds are allocated from the state budget to ensure the performance of state-delegated functions. This article looks at the answers to questions of what are the reasons for municipal borrowing and what are the opportunities of growing borrowing to continue borrowing? The object of the researchis municipal debt. The purpose of the researchis to analyze municipal debt and borrowing as a phenomenon and to reveal the borrowing situation of Lithuanian municipalities. The statistical data of theDepartment of Statisticsto the Government of the Republic ofLithuania, the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Lithuania and the Association of Lithuanian Municipalities were used for the analysis. For the analysis of the municipal debt situation the budget income and expenditures of all sixty municipalities and municipal net annual borrowing were analyzed. Research period is 2005–2014.This choice of the research period allows to partially eliminate the influence of economic cyclicality, because this period covered rapid economic growth after Lithuania's accession to the European Union, a period of economic recession since 2008, and the last economic recovery period. Based on the analysis, municipal borrowing in Lithuania and other countries is strictly regulated with established borrowing limits and borrowing objectives, usually borrowing is in the domestic banking market for a long or short period. The reasons for borrowing are varied, but usually they are aimed at attracting additional investment by contributing to the borrowed funds of the municipality.In most cases, municipalities pay off in the implementation of EU structural funds projects, to which they themselves have to contribute. In 2013–2014, the debt for these projects amounted to about 50% of all municipal debts. Due to EU projects, debt grows in all municipalities. Another reason for borrowing is related to the increasing trend of municipal functions in Lithuania, although self-generated municipal income is decreasing. All this also becomes the reason for borrowing. The total debt of all municipalities in Lithuania, per capita, is increasing every year. During the analyzed period, this debt increased by 4.68 times. However, the municipal debt of Lithuania compared with the debt of municipalities of other EU countries shows that this debt is not high and has a potential for future growth. However, since 2014, the debt of Lithuanian municipalities, albeit insignificant, has been decreasing. Very similar debt is also in Estonia, slightly more in Latvia. The most indebted are the municipalities of France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The growing responsibilities of municipalities in Lithuania reflect the development of active regions, which invest heavily in infrastructure, community projects and economics, and therefore EU funds provide funding to municipalities in implementing targeted projects. On the basis of rules in Lithuania, in order to receive EU funds, the municipality must itself contribute with its own funds to the ongoing project. In such cases, the state gives the municipalities the right to increase their obligations. During the analyzed period, in comparison with the Lithuanian metropolitan municipalities, Vilnius city, Klaipeda City, and Kaunas City municipalities borrowed the most. It is considered that the high level of indebtedness of major cities of Lithuania is determined by both the desire to create an attractive and balanced environment for a large flow of people and business entities to live and work as well as implementation of a large and strategic state infrastructure projects. Borrowing is an inevitable macroeconomic process that can spur economic growth. If borrowed funds are diverted to productive investments and the level of debt does not endanger economic stability, municipalities could increase their debts, of course guaranteeing the repayment of debt in a timely manner. The problem arises when borrowed funds are used only for consumption or short-term projects, thus these funds do not generate the necessary income in order to timely repay the debt, therefore the situation becomes difficult without the additional state financial support. This scientific article is funded by the Research Council of Lithuania according to the project "The evaluation of municipalities' fiscal competitiveness in the context of economic growth" (2015–2018), registration No. MIP-013/2015.

Lithuania, like other European countries, has committed to develop and implement inclusive education systems. The ideology of inclusive education must be closely linked with proper and appropriately agreed terminology and concepts. Based on the paradigm of social constructivism, discussions and debates among representatives of various related structures, systems and areas both in the international and national context enable to construct social constructs with reconciled and comparable content. Otherwise, new concepts simply replace the old ones but do not change either policy or practice. In various social cultural contexts, such concepts as integration, integrated education, inclusion, inclusive education, school for all, quality education for all can be interpreted differently. This article aims to reveal the concept of inclusive education and how the content of this concept is reflected in the latest national legal documents. The article is based on the study of theoretical sources, the review of international documents related to entrenchment of human rights and inclusive education approaches, and the analysis of national education and training documents. Six documents – The National School. The Concept of Secondary General Education School of Lithuania (1989); Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania (1991; 2011); Law on Special Education of the Republic of Lithuania (1998); The National Strategy on Education for the years 2013- 2022; The Concept of the Good School (2015) – were analysed in the following aspects: essential approaches of the education system, aims of education and regulation of educational assistance. Analysing the above-mentioned aspects, their coherence with inclusive education approaches was sought. Besides, analysing selected documents, the concepts "integrated education/integration", "inclusive education/inclusion", "engaging (absorbing) education" and their explanations were sought. Educational change towards inclusive education highlighted the need to change established traditions, values and concepts of education and training. Change in education and training traditions began with the approach of implementation of integrated education, emphasizing regulation of integration (engagement, absorbing) of children with special needs in mainstream schoolsand of concepts "partial integration", "full integration" cohering with this approach. International systemic change in the education policy, culture and practice towards inclusive education, emphasizing quality education for all, acknowledging and appreciating the diversity of (self-)educational process participants and their needs, highlighted the importance of not only engaging (absorbing) learners in the mainstream education system but also of ensuring their participation and recognition of their achievements. The document analysis has demonstrated that the essential approaches of inclusive education are directly or latently emphasized in the strategic documents of education of Lithuania. However, in the most recent documents on education, the concept of inclusive education is not mentioned; its content is not defined. In recent years, it is attempted to find a Lithuanian equivalent for the complex social construct "inclusive education" and to replace it with the concept "engaging education", the content of which is also not revealed. Undefined content of complex concepts-constructs promotes various interpretations, leads to confusion of concepts (such as "integrated"/"engaged", "inclusive" education), and impedes communication. The analysis of the most important documents regulating the country's education has shown that most of them emphasize such educational principles as fostering of humanistic national and world cultural values, development of democratic relations, fostering of the country's cultural traditions, preservation of national identity, etc. However, the mentioned above principlesarelargelydeclarativethoughinclusiveeducationideascanbemoreor less recognized in them. In this context, the systemic approach, methodological consistency of approaches, their clear links to the paradigm, concepts of education and training and their content are also important. Thus, "engaging" or "inclusive" education? To answer this question, to decide and agree what is what, we should rethink the content of concepts and links with the model of education and training, which we intend to implement – of integrated (engaging / absorbing) or inclusive education, clearly define them in national education documents, not confusing between the two of them. ; Straipsnyje analizuojama inkliuzinio ugdymo samprata ir inkliuzinio ugdymo konstrukto interpretacijos švietimo kaitos kontekste. Taikant aprašomojo tyrimo metodologinę prieigą teoriškai analizuojama inkliuzinio ugdymo sampratos raida ir esminių idėjų raiška Lietuvos strateginiuose švietimo dokumentuose tarptautinės politikos, susijusios su žmogaus teisių bei inkliuzinio ugdymo nuostatų įtvirtinimu, kontekste. Svarbiausių šalies švietimą reglamentuojančių dokumentų analizė parodė, jog kokybiško ugdymo visiems, pripažįstant ir vertinant ugdymo ir ugdymosi proceso dalyvių ir jų poreikių įvairovę, nuostatos tiesiogiai arba latentiškai yra įtvirtintos švietimo politikoje. Tačiau naujausiuose švietimo dokumentuose inkliuzinio ugdymo sąvokos nėra, jos turinys neapibrėžtas. Sudėtingą socialinį konstruktą "inkliuzinis ugdymas" bandoma sulietuvinti ir keisti jį į sąvoką "įtraukusis ugdymas", kurios turinys taip pat neatskleistas. Neapibrėžtas sudėtingų sąvokų - konstruktų turinys skatina įvairias interpretacijas, lemia sąvokų painiojimą. Straipsnyje išryškinama būtinybė permąstyti šių sąvokų turinį bei sąsajas su švietimo ir ugdymo modeliu, kurį ketinama įgyvendinti – integruoto (įtraukiojo) ar inkliuzinio ugdymo ir aiškiai apibrėžti nacionaliniuose švietimo dokumentuose.

Within the list of new colombian historical novels, the novel Bolivar's carriage by Evelio Rosero Diago, writer of Nariño ancestry, is published at the beginning of the year, a work that reveals in the south the complex reality of Colombian society in permanent crisis due to Its founding at once, built on an enormous lie, that of the great military Bolivar concerned with public morality, and whose nefarious example given by the "so-called Liberator" founded what would eventually be the Colombian political culture, according to the statement that Dr. Justo Pastor Proceso López, famous gynecologist of the city of Pasto, where the events take place in the middle of the carnival party of Whites and Blacks between December 28, 1966 and until January 6, 67, a character that Seeks to develop in his life, on the one hand, a political project denouncing, in the manner of Sañudo with his Studies on the life of Bolivar, the lies said about Bolivar, and for which he will sponsor a chariot with his figure to remind people Of the south its past history, in addition to his other project to obtain the love of his wife and the affection of his daughters, projects that will develop parallel in the history of the novel, and that will end with the murder of the doctor on the part of a A cell of the national liberation army that, through its contradictory actions, seeks to clean Bolivar's honor, allegedly defamed by the protagonist. The carnivalized vision of the world offered by the text and thanks to which certain freedoms are allowed, which will enable the development of the doctor's life projects, will reveal the condition of a generalized anomic society, that is the existence of an anomic State as it is The Colombian and, of course, the society of the south of the country, governed by a discredited normative that contributes to its deinstitutionalization, and whose causes go back to the very origins of foundation of the homeland and before which, remembering the past of the region And the idyllic chronotope in which its inhabitants lived, seeks to recover the lost, that is, a harmonious and just way of life free from vexations and lies. Rosero adopts a supra-party ideological position in his evaluation of the Colombian reality which allows him to carry out his proposal through the truth of revelation proper to the aesthetic work. ; Dentro del listado de nuevas novelas históricas colombianas, se publica a comienzos del año 2012 la novela La carroza de Bolívar de Evelio Rosero Diago, escritor de ascendencia nariñense, obra que revela en el sur la compleja realidad de la sociedad colombiana en permanente crisis debido a su fundación a deshora, construida sobre una enorme mentira, la del Bolívar gran militar preocupado por la moralidad pública, y cuyo nefasto ejemplo dado por el "mal llamado Libertador" fundó lo que sería con el tiempo la cultura política colombiana, según la afirmación que hace el doctor Justo Pastor Proceso López, afamado ginecólogo de la ciudad de Pasto, lugar donde se desarrollan los acontecimientos en plena fiesta de carnaval de Blancos y Negros entre el 28 de diciembre de 1966 y hasta el 6 de enero del 67, personaje éste que pretende desarrollar en su vida, por una parte, un proyecto político denunciando, a la manera de Sañudo con sus Estudios sobre la vida de Bolívar, las mentiras dichas sobre Bolívar, y para lo cual patrocinará una carroza con su figura para recordar a la gente del sur su historia pasada, además de su otro proyecto consistente en conseguir el amor de su mujer y el cariño de sus hijas, proyectos que se desarrollarán paralelamente en la historia de la novela, y que terminarán con el asesinato del médico por parte de una célula del ejército de liberación nacional que, a través de su accionar contradictorio, busca limpiar la honra de Bolívar, supuestamente difamada por el protagonista. La visión carnavalizada del mundo que ofrece el texto y gracias a la cual se permiten algunas libertades que posibilitarán el desarrollo de los proyectos de vida del médico, revelarán la condición de una sociedad anómica generalizada, esto es la existencia de un Estado anómico como lo es el colombiano y, por supuesto, la sociedad del sur del país, regida por una normatividad desprestigiada que contribuye a su desinstitucionalización, y cuyas causas se remontan a los orígenes mismos de fundación de la patria y ante lo cual, recordando el pasado de la región y el cronotopo idílico en el que moraban sus habitantes, se busca recobrar lo perdido, esto es, una forma de vida armoniosa y justa libre de vejámenes y mentiras. Rosero adopta una posición ideológica suprapartidista en su evaluación de la realidad colombiana lo que le permite llevar a cabo su propuesta a través de la verdad de revelación propia del trabajo estético.

French micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME) are traditionally dependent on debt, especially on bank credit. This financial situation is uncomfortable in case of credit crunch, as we observed it in Europe after the 2008 financial crisis. From a strict legal point of view, such an addiction to debt could be explained by the lack of opportunities given to the main French private limited company – the "société à responsabilité limitée" (SARL), which is statistically the most common legal form of incorporation – to issue diversified financing instruments. The rise of an innovative legal form since the mid-1990s – known as the "société par actions simplifiée" (SAS) – has certainly brought to small and medium-sized businesses numerous new financing tools. But this kind of company is still unauthorised to offer shares to public… Given that numerous legal hurdles impede the development of financing instruments in MSME, an alternative legal approach could be to promote micro, small and medium financing markets for MSME. This is precisely the path upon which French law has decided to embark.First, a suitable legal framework has been shaped in the field of crowdfunding. In spite of its traditional reputation to be quite frivolous, this financial sector has enjoyed strong growth for several years; for example, more than 75% of fundraising in France have been allocated to MSME in 2017, representing 259 million euros. One of the reasons why this market took off is a set of legal reforms led by French government as of 2014. These reforms can be summarised in three main points: crowdfunding online platforms were both liberalised and regulated, the access to crowdfunding equity and loan markets was simplified, and the funding caps were increased both for equity and loan markets. Moreover, an ad hoc financing instrument was designed in 2016, dedicated to the sole crowdfunding: the "minibon" (i.e. "minibond"). From a legal point of view, this bond is not a new kind of security, for that reason that it is not negotiable and for example couldn't be traded on a financial market… But such a bond can be bought or sold by mutual agreements; moreover, the French Financial and Monetary Code expressly states that a blockchain device can be used to this end! Last but not least, the SARL, which is the legal form mostly used by MSME, is allowed to issue such bonds…Another aspect of the efforts undertaken by French law in order to foster the sustainability of financing markets for MSME lies in the enforcement of investment contracts. Indeed, the French civil supreme court, namely the "Cour de cassation", surprisingly seemed to challenge, from 2007 to 2014, the selling price of shares as it was agreed (or rendered determinable) in the articles of corporation or in a shareholders' agreement. In doing so, the French judges were organising a judicial breach of investment contract: a fair price (i.e. an economic value) was being preferred over a negotiated price (i.e. contractual value)! This precedent would have been crippling for private equity funds and investors, but fortunately, the French Parliament allowed the government to undermine it. Today, in accordance with new article 1843-4 of the French Civil Code, no expert appointed by a judge could be entitled to depart from the parties' agreement concerning share price. Such a clarification has helped to preserve confidence in private equity markets, which have become a significant source of funding for MSME: in 2016, more than 12 billion of euros were allocated by French funds and investors to more than 1900 companies. This French legal "saga" is a relevant example of the need to secure existing financing markets before creating new technical financing instruments. ; L'analyse des structures de bilan des PME et micro-entreprises (MIC) françaises témoigne d'une forte dépendance à l'égard de la dette, et spécifiquement du crédit bancaire. Cette situation peut juridiquement s'expliquer par les faibles leviers de diversification des instruments de financement offerts à la SARL, forme sociétaire choisie très majoritairement par les PME et MIC. La montée en puissance de la SAS pourrait permettre à ces dernières de bénéficier d'une palette d'outils financiers plus variés, même si l'interdiction qui lui est faite de recourir à des offres au public demeure un handicap important. Il apparaît alors nécessaire pour le droit d'encourager le développement des marchés de financement alternatifs. C'est précisément cette voie qu'a empruntée récemment la loi française en promouvant le crowdfunding ; de même, elle a su redonner toute sa force au contrat de financement en droit des sociétés, ce qui ne peut amener qu'à renforcer la sécurité juridique et la confiance dans les opérations de private equity bénéficiant aux PME françaises.