Suchergebnisse

Information systems (IS) seem prevalent in modern societies and have resulted in the rapid digitalisation of different societal sectors. One application domain of IS is emergency response, which is responsible for delivering essential services to save lives and minimise environmental damage in both small , frequent and large-scale emergencies. Specific IS applications are in turn used in emergency response to support such aspects as decision-making, communication, information sharing and the dispatching of resources. Public-sector cut-backs and a lack of professional resources have affected emergency response at the same time as natural disasters (e.g. forest fires, tsunamis, storms, terror attacks, and wars in the Middle East leading to mass migration) have intensified in recent decades. At the same time, frequent, small-scale accidents continue to occur on a regular basis, both in urban and sparsely populated areas. As a result, emergency response actors, first responders, are often placed under severe pressure. An emerging trend in response to these challenges, both in Sweden and internationally, is to create cross-sector forms of collaboration, by combining alternative resources from various sectors. Such collaborations are relatively new and involve heterogeneous stakeholders. Therefore, the thesis objective is to explore IS-related opportunities, challenges and needs aimed at supporting heterogeneous actors in emerging cross-sector collaborations in emergency response in order to enable and facilitate future related IS development. To achieve this, a user-centred approach was applied. A baseline study was performed followed by three case studies on 'co-location of actors', 'co-operative use of resources' and 'semi-professionals as first responders' by performing interviews, focus groups, participant observation, Future Workshops, an exercise and an after-action review. The thesis is based on case study research and qualitative research methods. Sociotechnical systems theory, the sociotechnical ensemble view, and network governance were used as the analytical framework. As part of achieving the thesis objectives, experiences from applying user participation in the context of cross-sector collaboration are also presented as part of the results. A context-specific framework developed to systematise and explore various important aspects of cross-sector collaboration in emergency response is also described. The results of this thesis indicate that the needs for IS in cross-sector collaborations vary from simple smartphone applications to manage alarms, positioning and the dispatching of new resources, to more sophisticated tools for sharing and viewing incident data. The results also indicate that these collaborations have the potential (e.g. resource redundancy, pooled competencies to increase total capacity) to improve Swedish emergency response if supported by adequate IS/IT support. The major challenges are organisational, economic and juridical and the most prominent are ambiguities in actors' tasks and responsibilities, and how to prioritise between ordinary work and 'new' first-response tasks. They must be addressed to enable certain IS-functions, e.g. information sharing and positioning of resources The results also highlight several institutional factors (e.g. mutual interest between members, collective problem-solving, secrecy aspects) which are believed to play a key role in the success or failure of the collaborations and which must be adressed in the development of IS-support. The actors also have substantial basic needs for training (e.g. fire extinguishing, first aid) and emergency supplies (e.g. fire extinguishers, healthcare kits). Applying user participation also faced challenges, the major one being the development of a future cross-sector collaboration in a context that does not yet exist, and involving stakeholders from resource-strained organisations in doing so. The stakeholders, and sometimes also the primary end-users, are partly unknown and tasks are undefined. As a response to these challenges, a combination of activities based on multiple design groups, scenario-based Future Workshops, focus groups, the context-specific framework, a practical exercise and an after-action-review was provided. The framework, which was used to support data collection and user participation, includes 15 dimensions each intended to represent important aspects of cross-sector collaboration. The thesis major contributions are the identified opportunities, challenges and need as a 'sociotechnical ensemble' and generated and from several studies, thus being comparable. The thesis more theoretical contributions is the combined application of the sociotechnical ensemble view and network governance where the studied collaboration forms are characterised as a hybrid form of networks and more traditional government mechanisms and where it is pointed out that network governance lacks explicit IS/IT aspects. In a wider perspective, the research fields of IS and political science may cross-fertilise each other when studying emerging cross-sector collaboration in the public sector. Identified user participation challenges relevant to the cross-sector collaboration context, suggestions on how they can be handled and the context-specific framework are contributions that can be used in practical user-centred IS development in similar contexts. ; Informationssystem (IS) används idag i de flesta verksamheter inom respons och räddningsområdet t.ex. för beslutsstöd, kommunikation, informationsutbyte och resurspositionering. Fel i systemen kan bidra till misslyckad samverkan vid räddningsinsatser som i sin tur kan riskera människors liv och orsaka skador på miljö och infrastruktur vid såväl små, frekventa olyckor som storskaliga händelser, kriser och katastrofer. Budgetnedskärningar, brist på professionella resurser, naturkatastrofer (t.ex. skogsbränder, stormar) och terrorattacker är några exempel på utmaningar som har intensifierats under de senaste decennierna. Samtidigt fortsätter frekventa, småskaliga olyckor att inträffa, både i urbana och i glesbygdsområden. Därför är responsaktörerna ofta under hård press. Ett sätt att hantera utmaningarna, både i Sverige och internationellt, är tvärsektoriella samverkansformer som i sin tur involverar ofta heterogena samhällsresurser. Samarbetskontexten är förhållandevis ny och de involverade aktörerna och deras behov delvis okända. Avhandlingen syftar därför till att utforska IS-relaterade möjligheter, utmaningar och behov för att stödja heterogena aktörer inom nya tvärsektoriella framväxande samverkansformer i svensk respons och räddning. För att utforska detta användes en användarcentrerad ansats. Därför genomfördes en bakgrundsstudie och tre fallstudier på 'samlokalisering av aktörer', 'sambruk av resurser' och 'semi-professionella som förstainsatspersoner' genom att utföra intervjuer, fokusgrupper, deltagande observation, Future Workshops, och en övning med följande After-Action-Review. Avhandlingen bygger därmed på fallstudieforskning och kvalitativa forskningsmetoder. 'Socioteknisk systemteori', begreppet 'socioteknisk ensemble' och 'network governance' teori används som forskningens analytiska ramverk. Som ett led i att uppfylla syftet presenteras dessutom erfarenheter från användarmedverkan i kontexten tvärsektoriell samverkan som ett delresultat samt ett kontext-specifikt ramverk utvecklat för att systematisera och utforska olika viktiga aspekter av tvärsektoriell samverkan i respons- och räddningsverksamhet. Avhandlingens resultat visar att behoven av IS i tvärsektoriella samverkansformer varierar från enkla smartphoneapplikationer för larmhantering, positionering och utryckning av nya resurser, till mer sofistikerade verktyg för informationsdelning och gemensamma lägesbilder. Resultaten pekar också mot att med rätt IS stöd har samverkansformerna potential (t.ex. i form av resursredundans, gemensam pool för ökad kapacitet) för att förbättra svensk räddningsverksamhet. De stora utmaningarna är organisatoriska, ekonomiska och juridiska. De mest framträdande är otydligheter i aktörernas uppgifter, roll och ansvar, och hur man prioriterar mellan sitt befintliga arbete och "nya" förstainsatser. Utmaningarna måste lösas för att möjliggöra IS-funktioner, till exempel vid informationsdelning och resurspositionering. Resultaten belyser också explicit flera institutionella faktorer (t.ex. gemensamt intresse och mål, kollektiv problemlösning, sekretesshantering) som tros ha en nyckelroll i samverkansformernas realisering och som måste hanteras i utveckling av relaterat IS-stöd. Aktörerna har också grundläggande behov av träning (t.ex. brandsläckning, första hjälpen) och utrusning (t.ex. brandsläckare, sjukvårdskit). Tillämpningen av användarmedverkan visade också på utmaningar, varav den främsta var att utveckla framtida tvärsektoriell samverkan i ett sammanhang som ännu inte existerar och att involvera intressenter från organisationer med ansträngda resurser för att genomföra detta. Intressenterna, ibland även de primära slutanvändarna, är delvis okända och uppgifterna är odefinierade. Som ett sätt att hantera utmaningarna genomfördes en kombination av aktiviteter som baserades på multipla designgrupper, scenariobaserade Future Workshops, fokusgrupper, ett kontextspecifikt ramverk, en övning och en After-Action-Review samt det kontext-specifika ramverket. Ramverket som användes för att stödja datainsamling och användarmedverkan innehåller 15 dimensioner som är tänkta att representera viktiga aspekter av tvärsektoriella samverkansformer. Avhandlingens främsta bidrag är de identifierade möjligheterna, utmaningarna och behoven som en 'social ensemble' och som genererade och jämförbara ur flera studier. Avhandlingens mer teoretiska bidrag är den kombinerade tillämpningen av 'sociotechnical ensemble' och 'network governance' där de studerade samverkansformerna lyfts fram som en blandform av nätverk och mer traditionella styrmekanismer och där det påpekas att network governance saknar explicita IS/IT delar. I ett större sammanhang kan forskningsfälten IS och statsvetenskap kan komplettera varandra vid studier av framväxande tvärsektoriell samverkan i offentlig sektor. Relevanta utmaningar vid användarmedverkan i kontexten, förslag på hur de kan hanteras och det kontext-specifika ramverket är bidrag som kan används i praktisk användarcentrerad IS-utveckling i liknande sammanhang.

Southeast Asia mosaics of agriculture and tropical forest landscapes have been heavily shaped by the progression of industrial plantations, from colonial times to now. In Indonesia and in Malaysia, the history of corporations undertaking these activities is indissociably from the land cover change, when "clearing the forest and expanding the agricultural frontier" was a colonial policy. For example in most instances, forests where replaced by industrial gambier plantations, then rubber plantations, and finally oil palm plantations, but direct conversions of forests into industrial plantations continue to happen until today. Controversies about deforestation and oil palm sustainability emerged in this context. Most of the land use changes have been made by the biggest of these corporations, which became corporate giants and diversified their activities to almost all sectors of the economy, from automobile to banking and telecoms. In Indonesia like in Malaysia, most of the development of industrial palm oil plantations is under the control of a fistful of giant corporations.Most of today's proposed solutions to curb deforestation by oil palm are market tools such as palm oil trade bans or regulations and palm oil certifications, that are supposed to influence the economic decisions of private actors that are developing oil palm. However oil palm corporations are so diversified and embedded into the national economies, with many other stakes at play than deforestation, that many other factors could influence their corporate decision making, and outweigh the market tools that have been used up to day to try to influence their economic decisions. Works dating from Porter et all suggest that financial factors such as the shape of the network of ownership shares may play more on the corporate decisions than the market itself, while other works suggest that the nature of the financial ownership (government-owned versus privately-owned) is the essential driver of the corporate decision. This work is a pioneering attempt to understand the main structural drivers of corporate decision making of major oil palm plantation corporations. Using network analysis methods, it quantifyed and analysed the corporate structures of the main players among the oil palm plantation companies in Malaysia. The eight major Malaysian corporations were studied, consisting of 4,331 companies' shareholding data, covering ten levels of shareholding. The corporations are Sime Darby, Boustead, IJM Plantations, Kulim, IOI Corp, KLK, Genting Plantations, and Jaya Tiasa. Network metrics described the financial topologies of the corporations, and did confront their ownership nature such as government-linked companies (GLCs) and family-owned businesses (FOBs) with measurable patterns controlling decision making processes such as structural control and decisions load. Contrary to the expectation, we found that the measurable decision making was not influenced by the ownership nature (whether the corporations is government linked or is privately owned), but was extremely influenced by the financial structure of the corporations, that is their topology such as the number of the companies within the corporation, its more or less hierarchical structure, and the overall size of the financial "pyramid" of the corporation. We also found that the measurable decisions load and structural control seem to predict an intrinsic structural flexibility of the corporations.The implications of these findings could help to rethink the political governance of deforestation and also opens a brand-new field of research for the description and analysis of the deep financial structures that govern the behaviour of corporations. First, this tells us that maybe, understanding and addressing the financial forces that shape the actions of plantations corporations would be more efficient for oil palm and forest sustainability, than antagonising countries and regions through trade bans. Second, we have now a method that allows us to assess and to rank the companies according to their deep characteristics: we can identify the most resilient corporations and prioritize them in order to develop long term sustainable practices. ; Les mosaïques des paysages agricoles et forestiers tropicaux d'Asie du Sud-Est ont été fortement façonnées par l'essor des plantations industrielles, de l'époque coloniale à nos jours. En Indonésie et en Malaisie, l'histoire des grandes entreprises de plantation est indissociablement liée au changement de l'utilisation des sols, puisque «défricher la forêt et étendre la frontière agricole» était une politique coloniale. A l'origine et dans la plupart des cas, les forêts ont d'abord été remplacées par des plantations industrielles de gambier, puis se sont succédées des plantations d'hévéas et enfin des plantations de palmiers à huile, mais des conversions directes de forêts en plantations industrielles se poursuivent jusqu'à nos jours. Les controverses sur la déforestation et la durabilité du palmier à huile ont émergé dans ce contexte. La plupart des changements d'affectation des sols ont été effectués par les plus grandes de ces entreprises, qui sont très tôt devenues des conglomérats géants et ont diversifié leurs activités dans presque tous les secteurs de l'économie, de l'automobile à la finance et aux télécommunications, etc. En Indonésie comme en Malaisie, l'essentiel du développement des plantations industrielles d'huile de palme est sous le contrôle d'une poignée de ces conglomérats géants.La plupart des solutions proposées aujourd'hui pour freiner la déforestation par le palmier à huile sont des outils de marché tels que les interdictions et restrictions d'importation, ainsi que les certifications de l'huile de palme, qui sont censés influencer les décisions économiques des acteurs privés qui développent le palmier à huile. Cependant, les corporations de production d'huile de palme sont si diversifiées et si ancrées dans les économies nationales, avec de nombreux autres enjeux que la déforestation, que de nombreux autres facteurs pourraient influencer leurs décisions d'entreprise et l'emporter sur les outils du marché qui ont été utilisés jusqu'à présent pour tenter d'influencer leurs décisions économiques. Des travaux datant de Porter et al. suggèrent que des facteurs financiers tels que la forme du réseau des particippations financières peuvent jouer davantage sur les décisions de l'entreprise que le marché lui-même, tandis que d'autres travaux suggèrent que la nature de la propriété ultime des conglomérats (État / privé) - est le moteur essentiel de la décision d'entreprise.Ce travail est une tentative pionnière de comprendre les principaux moteurs structurels de la prise de décision des grandes sociétés de plantations de palmiers à huile. À l'aide de méthodes d'analyse de réseau, il a quantifié et analysé les structures d'entreprise des principaux acteurs parmi les conglomérats de plantations de palmiers à huile en Malaisie. Les huit principaux conglomérats malaisiens ont été étudiés, comprenant 4 331 sociétés listées, couvrant dix niveaux d'actionnariat. Les sociétés sont Sime Darby, Boustead, IJM Plantations, Kulim, IOI Corp, KLK, Genting Plantations et Jaya Tiasa. Les mesures du réseau décrivent les topologies financières des sociétés et confrontent leur nature de propriété, telles que les conglomérats liés au gouvernement (GLC) et les conglomérats familiaux (FOB), avec des formes mesurables du processus de prise de décision tels que le contrôle structurel et le poids structurel de la prise de decision.Contrairement à ce qui était attendu, nous avons constaté que la prise de décision mesurable n'était pas influencée par la nature de la propriété (que les conglomérats soient liés au gouvernement ou soient privés), mais était extrêmement influencée par la structure financière des conglomérats, c'est-à-dire des éléments topologiques, tels que le nombre d'entreprises au sein du conglomérat, sa structure plus ou moins hiérarchique et la taille globale de la «pyramide» financière du conglomérat. Nous avons également constaté que le poids structurel de la prise de décision et le contrôle structurel semblent prédire une flexibilité structurelle intrinsèque des sociétés.Les implications de ces résultats pourraient aider à repenser la gouvernance politique de la déforestation et ouvriront également un tout nouveau domaine de recherche pour la description et l'analyse des structures financières profondes qui régissent le comportement des entreprises. Premièrement, cela nous dit que, peut-être, comprendre et gérer les forces financières qui façonnent les actions des sociétés de plantations serait plus efficace pour la durabilité du palmier à huile et des forêts, que de se livrer à des bras de fer commerciaux avec les pays et les régions par le biais d'interdictions commerciales. Deuxièmement, nous avons maintenant une méthode qui nous permet d'évaluer et de classer les entreprises en fonction de leurs caractéristiques profondes: nous pouvons identifier les entreprises les plus résilientes et les hiérarchiser afin de développer des pratiques durables à long terme.

Commander in Chief is een deelbiografie van president Franklin Delano Roosevelt waarin Roosevelts rol als opperbevelhebber van de gewapende strijdkrachten van de Verenigde Staten in de Tweede Wereldoorlog het hoofdthema is. Het boek concentreert zich op het jaar 1943: een jaar waaraan biografen van president Roosevelt tot nu toe weinig aandacht schonken, en waarin Roosevelt een militaire taak vervulde die door historici ernstig is onderschat. Het proefschrift begint in januari 1943 met de vliegreis van Roosevelt van Miami naar Noord-Afrika – daarmee was Roosevelt de eerste president van de Verenigde Staten die in functie vloog. Een nieuwe datering van Roosevelts voorbereiding voor de reis stelt ons in staat het doel van de president met deze reis opnieuw te onderzoeken, niet alleen in het als Amerikaans opperbevelhebber inspecteren van zijn troepen in het strijdperk, maar ook in het uitrollen van een nieuw militair doel voor alle westelijke geallieerden op de Conferentie van Casablanca: de 'onvoorwaardelijke overgave' van de asmogendheden, zonder mogelijkheid tot onderhandeling. Roosevelts beslissing om zijn eigen gezamenlijke Amerikaanse legerbevelhebbers (George Marshall, Ernest King, Henry Arnold) te overrulen en een Mediterrane veldtocht in 1943 uit te voeren, in plaats van een verplaatsing in gang te zetten van Amerikaanse strijdkrachten naar Groot-Brittannië voor een invasie door een oversteek van het Kanaal, zoals zij aanbevalen, wordt ook nader bekeken. In tegenstelling tot contemporaine en ook latere beweringen dat Roosevelt in Casablanca 'toegaf' aan Churchills strategie, maakt Commander in Chief duidelijk dat Roosevelt een duidelijk en onwrikbaar Amerikaans doel voor ogen had: dat de Amerikaanse strijdkrachten eerst in een 'veilige' omgeving de mogelijkheid zouden krijgen om te leren hoe ze de Wehrmacht in een oorlog konden verslaan, voordat zoiets ambitieus als een invasie door een oversteek van het Kanaal dat jaar ondernomen kon worden. De nederlaag van het Amerikaaanse leger in de Slag om de Kasserinepas, drie weken na de Conferentie, toonde de wijsheid van Roosevelts militaire stap-voor-stap-strategie aan – de Amerikaanse strijdkrachten konden daarop in mei terugslaan en de onvoorwaardelijke overgave afdwingen van meer dan een kwart miljoen manschappen van de asmogendheden in Noord-Afrika. "Husky", de Landing op Sicilië, vond twee maanden later op 10 juli 1943plaats, in overeenstemming met het tijdschema van de president: een reusachtige amfibische operatie door de geallieerde legers waardoor Hitler gedwongen werd Operatie Citadel, Duitslands twee miljoen man sterke offensief tegen de Sovjets aan het oostelijk front, af te breken om het zuidelijk front te kunnen verdedigen. Op dat moment hadden de geallieerden echter al de Middellandse Zee in hun macht, en de strijd leverde bevelhebbers (Patton, Bradley, Montgomery) en door strijd geharde legers (luchtmacht, marine, grondtroepen) op die noodzakelijk waren om in de lente van 1944 een succesvolle invasie (Overlord) op Noord-Frankrijk uit te voeren: met landingen die, zoals Hitler zelf verklaarde, de uitkomst van de oorlog zouden bepalen. Door in te stemmen met de militaire strategie van de president verwees de Britse premier Winston Churchill publiekelijk naar zichzelf als president Roosevelts 'vurige luitenant'. Commander in Chief werpt echter nieuw licht op hoe Churchill achter de schermen – gesteund door een klein leger van adviseurs – het hele jaar door probeerde Roosevelts militair-strategische beslissingen tegen te werken: hij reisde in 1943 tweemaal over zee naar Noord-Amerika – in mei en in augustus – om Roosevelt ervan te overtuigen Overlord af te blazen, of de landingen uit te stellen tot 1945 of 1946, om zo de operatie in het Middellandse Zee-gebied voort te kunnen zetten. Dit fundamentele verschil in militaire strategie tussen de twee belangrijkste westelijke oorlogsleiders, Churchill en Roosevelt, verklaart de ondertitel van het proefschrift: FDR's Battle With Churchill, 1943 (FDR's strijd met Churchill, 1943). Wanneer president Roosevelt niet zijn jongere Britse collega had teruggefloten, dan zouden de geallieerden de oorlog in Europa heel goed verloren kunnen hebben – zoals de ongelukkige geallieerde invasie van Zuid-Italië en de Ionische Eilanden in de herfst van 1943 ook lieten zien. Door het gebruik van nieuwe bronnen, vooral dagboeken, persoonlijke aantekeningen en andere egodocumenten, biedt Commander in Chief een radicaal nieuw perspectief op de militaire prestaties van zowel Roosevelt als Churchill tijdens strategische momenten in de Tweede Wereldoorlog. Deze militaire reconstructie is ingebed in het grotere politieke kader van de door het Westen beoogde einddoelen van de oorlog, die Roosevelt, samen met Churchill, rechtstreeks met Stalin aan het einde van het jaar in Teheran wilde gaan bespreken. Het begrip 'turning point' als argument voor een deelbiografie (de bestudering van een moment of gebeurtenis in het leven van een persoon waardoor de daaropvolgende daden en handelingen van die persoon verregaand worden beïnvloed) fungeert hier als een belangrijk biografisch-methodologisch hulpmiddel. De introductie en epiloog (Biography As Corrective (Biografie als correctie) en Commander in Chief: Genesis, Process, Outcome (Commander in Chief: ontstaan, proces, resultaat)) analyseren en illustreren hoe dit begrip, gemunt door Hans Renders, een theoretische rechtvaardiging levert voor het belang van de deelbiografie. ; Command in Chief is a partial biography of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, examining his role as commander in chief of the armed forces of the United States in World War II. It focuses on the year 1943: a year that has hitherto largely been passed over by biographers of President Roosevelt, and a military role that has been seriously underestimated by historians. The thesis begins with Roosevelt's journey by air from Miami to North Africa in January 1943 – the first U.S. president ever to fly while in office. New dating of Roosevelt's preparation for the trip permits a re-examination of the President's purpose not only in inspecting his forces on the battlefield as American commander in chief, but in laying down the new military goal of all the western Allies at the Casablanca Conference: the "unconditional surrender" of the Axis powers, without possibility of negotiation. Roosevelt's decision to overrule his own joint U.S. chiefs of staff (George Marshall, Ernest King, Henry Arnold) and follow a Mediterranean campaign in 1943, instead of switching U.S. forces to Britain for a cross-Channel invasion as they recommended, is also reviewed. Counter to contemporary and later assertions that Roosevelt "gave way" to Churchill's strategy at Casablanca, Commander in Chief makes clear Roosevelt had a clear and unshakeable American aim: to ensure that U.S. forces could, in a "safe" area, learn how to defeat the Wehrmacht in battle before attempting anything such as ambitious as a cross-Channel landing that year. U.S. defeat in the Battle of Kasserine, three weeks after the conference, demonstrated the wisdom of Roosevelt's military step-by-step strategy – following which U.S. forces were able to spring back and take the unconditional surrender of more than a quarter million Axis troops in North Africa in May. "Husky," the invasion of Sicily, took place two months later, on July 10, 1943, in accordance with the President's timetable: a colossal amphibious operation by coalition forces that forced Hitler to abandon "Citadel," Germany's 2-million man offensive against the Soviets on the Eastern front, in order to defend his Southern front. By then the western Allies had won control of the Mediterranean seaway, however, and had gained in combat the commanders (Patton, Bradley, Montgomery) and battle-hardened forces (air, naval and ground) necessary to carry out a successful invasion ("Overlord") of northern France in the spring of 1944: landings that would, Hitler himself stated, decide the outcome of the war. In agreeing to the President's military strategy, the British prime minister, Winston Churchill, publicly referred to himself as President Roosevelt's "ardent lieutenant." Behind the scenes, however, Commander in Chief sheds new light on how Churchill - backed a small army of advisers - attempted all year to reverse Roosevelt's military decisions: traveling twice by sea to North America in 1943 - in May and yet again in August - to press Roosevelt to abandon Overlord, or delay the landings until 1945 or 1946, in order to pursue to a further Mediterranean strategy. This fundamental difference in military strategy between the two primary Western war leaders, Churchill and Roosevelt, explains the subtitle of the thesis: FDR's Battle With Churchill, 1943. Had President Roosevelt not overruled his junior British partner, the war in Europe might well have been lost by the Allies – as the unfortunate Allied invasion of southern Italy and the Ionian Islands was to show, in the fall of 1943. Through the use of new material, especially diaries, journals and other ego documents, Commander in Chief offers a radically new perspective on the military performances both of Roosevelt and Churchill, at the strategic crossroads of World War II. This military re-examination is framed within the larger political dimension of Western war aims, which Roosevelt, together with Churchill, intended to address directly with Stalin in Tehran at the year's end. The concept of a "turning point" as an argument for partial biography (the examination of a moment or event in a person's life that influences that person's subsequent deeds or actions) serves here as an important biographical-methodological aid. The introduction and epilogue (Biography As Corrective and Commander in Chief: Genesis, Process, Outcome) analyze and illustrate how this concept, coined by Hans Renders, is helping provide a theoretical justification for the importance of partial biography.

For many years, Sweden has had a reputation for having a comprehensive and women friendly welfare state. However, as in many other European countries during the past few decades, the organization and governing of welfare has undergone profound changes. Through interviews with social workers and the application of theories of governmentality, this thesis analyzes the expressions and consequences of such current organization and governing. One result is that the introduction of meticulous documentation practices of social workers contact with clients, regulate their interaction and constitute a control over both client and social worker. Another result is that the current organization fragments labor and awards more authority to managers, which functions to produce loyalty to the organization and management, rather than clients. This is expressed in demands not to voice protest, as it is said to create a bad mood. It is also expressed in demands to spend as little as possible on clients; short duration of treatment, preference for outpatient treatment and by making it difficult to receive financial support. This austerity is legitimized through the intermeshing of different ideals; budget awareness, evidence that supports short and outpatient treatment and that clients in order to change their course of life should to be allowed or coerced into taking individual responsibility. Another important finding is that the current governing and organization of social work produce distance and detachment, and thus discourage caring subjects. This is a complex process in which an assemblage of different techniques and rationalities undermines the cultivation of a relationship between social worker and client. 1) The ideal of evidence-based practice favors rigid methods over a flexible and holistic approach. 2) Ideals of rationality, closely connected to notions of masculinity and professionalism, value objectivity and devalue and deter the surfacing of emotions. 3) Meticulous practices of documentation reduce the amount of time available to meet clients. 4) Ideals and particular methods designed to promote individual responsibility in clients legitimize social workers distancing themselves from clients' dependency and needs. 5) A division of labor, in either assessment or treatment, reduces time spent with clients for those who work with assessment and ultimately engage in the rationing of resources. 6) Standardized digital templates, installed to aid in assessments, regulate and proceduralize interactions with the client. 7) Austerity, heavy workloads, individualized responsibility and stress further accentuate distance, as detachment becomes a means to cope with arduous working conditions. The transformation of social work described above produces alienation and a fragmentation of social workers' collective subjects. Simultaneously, an ethos of caring makes some social workers work extra hard to provide for clients, which ultimately covers for flaws in the system. Although such an ethos of caring allows for the further exploitation of social workers, it is also understood as a means of resistance, which in turn also forms the basis for organized resistance. ; Sverige har ett internationellt rykte för att ha en omfattande och kvinnovänlig välfärd. Även om riktigheten i en sådan uppfattning sedan länge ifrågasatts har på senare år, likt i många andra Europeiska länder, det svenska välfärdssystemet genomgått en omfattande förändring i avseende på dess räckvidd, men också dess organisering och styrning. Fokus för denna studie är just denna organisering och styrning, och mer specifikt, hur detta påverkar ett av välfärdens kanske mest centrala område: socialt arbete. Genom att intervjua socialarbetare undersöks i denna studie uttryck för och konsekvenser av en sådan förändring, bland annat genom att undersöka hur könsbundna föreställningar och förväntningar är sammanflätade med det sociala arbetets organisering och styrning. I studien konstateras att socialarbetare erfar att deras arbete genomgått omfattande förändringar, vilket kopplas ihop med både organiseringen och styrningen av det sociala arbetet. Detta uttrycks både i de ideal som kringgärdar arbetet men också i dominerande arbetssätt. En sådan förändring är införandet av omfattande dokumentationsprocedurer av socialarbetarens arbete och kontakt med klienter, vilket medför att kontakten med klienterna blir ytligare. Dokumentationsprocedurerna utgör också en sorts kontroll av både klienterna och socialarbetarna själva. En annan förändring som konstateras är att nya organisationsmodeller och en förändrad ledarskapskultur skapar förväntningar på socialarbetarna att vara lojala med organisationen och ledningen snarare än klienterna. Bland annat utrycks detta genom förväntningar att inte protestera och skapa dålig stämning på arbetsplatsen, men också genom uttalade krav att spendera så lite resurser som möjligt på klienterna; korta behandlingstider, öppenvårdsalternativ och orimligt hårda krav för att få ekonomiskt bistånd. Detta legitimeras genom sammanväxningen av flera olika ideal; budgetmedvetenhet, att klienter inte mår bra av långa institutionsvistelser, men också att klienterna ska tillåtas eller bör tvingas att klara att sig själva. Ett av studiens huvudresultat är att den nuvarande organiseringen och styrningen av socialt arbete skapar avstånd och likgiltighet. Genom flera sammankopplade ideal och arbetssätt styrs dagens socialarbetare till att bry sig mindre om de klienter de möter. På så sätt undermineras förutsättningarna för framväxten av en djup relation mellan socialarbetare och klient; 1) Idealet och kravet att socialarbetare ska arbeta utifrån evidens, det vill säga metoder och förhållningssätt som i speciellt utformade utvärderingsmodeller visat sig ha effekt, gör att väl strukturerade och rigida metoder ges företräde. Denna instrumentalisering underminerar ett flexibelt, relationsorienterat och helhetsfokuserat sätt att arbeta. Dessutom gör evidensidealets fokus på enskilda individer och avgränsade utvärderingstider att mer samhällsinriktat kritiskt och långsiktigt inriktat arbete undermineras. 2) Ett rationalitetsideal, tätt sammanbundet med föreställningar om professionalitet och maskulinitet, värderar objektivitet och förmågan att frikoppla socialarbetarens egna känslor från sitt arbete. Detta maskuliniserade professionsideal innebär att empati och solidaritet med klienten undergrävs. 3) Omfattande krav på olika former av dokumentation av det sociala arbetet gör att tiden som socialarbetaren har till sitt förfogande för att besöka och att ha möten med klienten blir knapp. 4) Ett allmänt samhällsideal kring individuellt ansvar och en särskild arbetsmetod (motiverande samtal) som många socialarbetare förväntas lära sig, framhäver klientens eget ansvar för och vilja till förändring. Detta legitimerar ett avståndstagande från klientens behov av hjälp och stöd enligt logiken "du måste klara detta själv". 5) En vanligt förekommande uppdelning av socialarbetarnas arbetsuppgifter i en så kallad beställar-utförarmodell gör att vissa socialsekreterare arbetar med hjälp och stöd, medan andra arbetar med bedömningar av klienters behov. De senare, som också har inflytande över resurstilldelning, blir med en sådan organisering av arbetet alltmer frikopplade från den stödjande och hjälpande verksamheten och kontakten med klienten. 6) Standardiserade digitala bedömningsinstrument, skapade för att på ett likvärdigt sätt bedöma klienters behov och dokumentera det sociala arbetet, reglerar och instrumentaliserar kontakten med klienter. 7) Tunga arbetsbördor, individualiserat ansvar och stress, bidrar ytterligare till att skapa avstånd och likgiltighet eftersom det för vissa utgör ett sätt att genomleva en ohållbar arbetssituation. En allmän åtstramning av socialtjänstens resurstilldelning förstås som en viktig orsak till behovet av att skapa ovan distansmekanismer. Men distansen hänger också ihop med en tendens till ett återupplivande av en tidigare dominerande förståelse av marginalisering och sociala problem; där människors nöd ses som ett utslag av dålig karaktär och ett resultat av dåliga individuella val. De förändringar av det sociala arbetets premisser som beskrivits ovan gör att socialarbetarna alltmer görs främmande inför sitt arbete – de alieneras. Detta främmandegörande uttrycks genom att inte kunna identifiera sig med arbetet självt, sina kollegor eller med sig själv. Ett sådant främmandegörande underminerar, eller fragmentiserar, både relationen till klienten, men också en känsla av gemenskap med andra socialarbetare. En gemenskap som kan utgöra ett "vi" och ligga till grund för att ställa krav, protestera och göra motstånd mot avhumaniserande ideal och reformer. På så vis är främmandegörandet inte bara en konsekvens av dagens organisering och styrning, utan också något som fyller en viktig funktion för en sådan styrning och organisering, och genomförandet av en allmän åtstramning i socialpolitiken. Samtidigt som dagens organisering och styrning av socialt arbete är främmandegörande, slår vissa socialarbetare knut på sig själva och arbetar extra hårt för att täcka upp för systemets brister och krympande resurser, för att trots det svåra läget ändå försöka ge det stöd som de upplever att klienten behöver. Ett sådant historiskt förankrat femininiserat omsorgsideal, dvs känslor av ansvar och empati inför behövande och en ilska inför oförrätter, utgör därmed på samma gång grund för en fördjupad exploatering av socialarbetarna, och ett vardagligt motstånd mot rådande system. I ett läge när flera upplever att kollegialiteten som grund för motstånd på arbetsplatserna underminerats, utgör ett sådant omsorgsideal samtidigt också grunden för organiserat motstånd utanför arbetsplatsen, bortom chefernas insyn, kontroll och härskartekniker. Medan nuvarande styrningssystem underminerar ett visst sorts motstånd, uppstår samtidigt grunden för nya.

For many years, Sweden has had a reputation for having a comprehensive and women friendly welfare state. However, as in many other European countries during the past few decades, the organization and governing of welfare has undergone profound changes. Through interviews with social workers and the application of theories of governmentality, this thesis analyzes the expressions and consequences of such current organization and governing. One result is that the introduction of meticulous documentation practices of social workers contact with clients, regulate their interaction and constitute a control over both client and social worker. Another result is that the current organization fragments labor and awards more authority to managers, which functions to produce loyalty to the organization and management, rather than clients. This is expressed in demands not to voice protest, as it is said to create a bad mood. It is also expressed in demands to spend as little as possible on clients; short duration of treatment, preference for outpatient treatment and by making it difficult to receive financial support. This austerity is legitimized through the intermeshing of different ideals; budget awareness, evidence that supports short and outpatient treatment and that clients in order to change their course of life should to be allowed or coerced into taking individual responsibility. Another important finding is that the current governing and organization of social work produce distance and detachment, and thus discourage caring subjects. This is a complex process in which an assemblage of different techniques and rationalities undermines the cultivation of a relationship between social worker and client. 1) The ideal of evidence-based practice favors rigid methods over a flexible and holistic approach. 2) Ideals of rationality, closely connected to notions of masculinity and professionalism, value objectivity and devalue and deter the surfacing of emotions. 3) Meticulous practices of documentation reduce the amount of time available to meet clients. 4) Ideals and particular methods designed to promote individual responsibility in clients legitimize social workers distancing themselves from clients' dependency and needs. 5) A division of labor, in either assessment or treatment, reduces time spent with clients for those who work with assessment and ultimately engage in the rationing of resources. 6) Standardized digital templates, installed to aid in assessments, regulate and proceduralize interactions with the client. 7) Austerity, heavy workloads, individualized responsibility and stress further accentuate distance, as detachment becomes a means to cope with arduous working conditions. The transformation of social work described above produces alienation and a fragmentation of social workers' collective subjects. Simultaneously, an ethos of caring makes some social workers work extra hard to provide for clients, which ultimately covers for flaws in the system. Although such an ethos of caring allows for the further exploitation of social workers, it is also understood as a means of resistance, which in turn also forms the basis for organized resistance. ; Sverige har ett internationellt rykte för att ha en omfattande och kvinnovänlig välfärd. Även om riktigheten i en sådan uppfattning sedan länge ifrågasatts har på senare år, likt i många andra Europeiska länder, det svenska välfärdssystemet genomgått en omfattande förändring i avseende på dess räckvidd, men också dess organisering och styrning. Fokus för denna studie är just denna organisering och styrning, och mer specifikt, hur detta påverkar ett av välfärdens kanske mest centrala område: socialt arbete. Genom att intervjua socialarbetare undersöks i denna studie uttryck för och konsekvenser av en sådan förändring, bland annat genom att undersöka hur könsbundna föreställningar och förväntningar är sammanflätade med det sociala arbetets organisering och styrning. I studien konstateras att socialarbetare erfar att deras arbete genomgått omfattande förändringar, vilket kopplas ihop med både organiseringen och styrningen av det sociala arbetet. Detta uttrycks både i de ideal som kringgärdar arbetet men också i dominerande arbetssätt. En sådan förändring är införandet av omfattande dokumentationsprocedurer av socialarbetarens arbete och kontakt med klienter, vilket medför att kontakten med klienterna blir ytligare. Dokumentationsprocedurerna utgör också en sorts kontroll av både klienterna och socialarbetarna själva. En annan förändring som konstateras är att nya organisationsmodeller och en förändrad ledarskapskultur skapar förväntningar på socialarbetarna att vara lojala med organisationen och ledningen snarare än klienterna. Bland annat utrycks detta genom förväntningar att inte protestera och skapa dålig stämning på arbetsplatsen, men också genom uttalade krav att spendera så lite resurser som möjligt på klienterna; korta behandlingstider, öppenvårdsalternativ och orimligt hårda krav för att få ekonomiskt bistånd. Detta legitimeras genom sammanväxningen av flera olika ideal; budgetmedvetenhet, att klienter inte mår bra av långa institutionsvistelser, men också att klienterna ska tillåtas eller bör tvingas att klara att sig själva. Ett av studiens huvudresultat är att den nuvarande organiseringen och styrningen av socialt arbete skapar avstånd och likgiltighet. Genom flera sammankopplade ideal och arbetssätt styrs dagens socialarbetare till att bry sig mindre om de klienter de möter. På så sätt undermineras förutsättningarna för framväxten av en djup relation mellan socialarbetare och klient; 1) Idealet och kravet att socialarbetare ska arbeta utifrån evidens, det vill säga metoder och förhållningssätt som i speciellt utformade utvärderingsmodeller visat sig ha effekt, gör att väl strukturerade och rigida metoder ges företräde. Denna instrumentalisering underminerar ett flexibelt, relationsorienterat och helhetsfokuserat sätt att arbeta. Dessutom gör evidensidealets fokus på enskilda individer och avgränsade utvärderingstider att mer samhällsinriktat kritiskt och långsiktigt inriktat arbete undermineras. 2) Ett rationalitetsideal, tätt sammanbundet med föreställningar om professionalitet och maskulinitet, värderar objektivitet och förmågan att frikoppla socialarbetarens egna känslor från sitt arbete. Detta maskuliniserade professionsideal innebär att empati och solidaritet med klienten undergrävs. 3) Omfattande krav på olika former av dokumentation av det sociala arbetet gör att tiden som socialarbetaren har till sitt förfogande för att besöka och att ha möten med klienten blir knapp. 4) Ett allmänt samhällsideal kring individuellt ansvar och en särskild arbetsmetod (motiverande samtal) som många socialarbetare förväntas lära sig, framhäver klientens eget ansvar för och vilja till förändring. Detta legitimerar ett avståndstagande från klientens behov av hjälp och stöd enligt logiken "du måste klara detta själv". 5) En vanligt förekommande uppdelning av socialarbetarnas arbetsuppgifter i en så kallad beställar-utförarmodell gör att vissa socialsekreterare arbetar med hjälp och stöd, medan andra arbetar med bedömningar av klienters behov. De senare, som också har inflytande över resurstilldelning, blir med en sådan organisering av arbetet alltmer frikopplade från den stödjande och hjälpande verksamheten och kontakten med klienten. 6) Standardiserade digitala bedömningsinstrument, skapade för att på ett likvärdigt sätt bedöma klienters behov och dokumentera det sociala arbetet, reglerar och instrumentaliserar kontakten med klienter. 7) Tunga arbetsbördor, individualiserat ansvar och stress, bidrar ytterligare till att skapa avstånd och likgiltighet eftersom det för vissa utgör ett sätt att genomleva en ohållbar arbetssituation. En allmän åtstramning av socialtjänstens resurstilldelning förstås som en viktig orsak till behovet av att skapa ovan distansmekanismer. Men distansen hänger också ihop med en tendens till ett återupplivande av en tidigare dominerande förståelse av marginalisering och sociala problem; där människors nöd ses som ett utslag av dålig karaktär och ett resultat av dåliga individuella val. De förändringar av det sociala arbetets premisser som beskrivits ovan gör att socialarbetarna alltmer görs främmande inför sitt arbete – de alieneras. Detta främmandegörande uttrycks genom att inte kunna identifiera sig med arbetet självt, sina kollegor eller med sig själv. Ett sådant främmandegörande underminerar, eller fragmentiserar, både relationen till klienten, men också en känsla av gemenskap med andra socialarbetare. En gemenskap som kan utgöra ett "vi" och ligga till grund för att ställa krav, protestera och göra motstånd mot avhumaniserande ideal och reformer. På så vis är främmandegörandet inte bara en konsekvens av dagens organisering och styrning, utan också något som fyller en viktig funktion för en sådan styrning och organisering, och genomförandet av en allmän åtstramning i socialpolitiken. Samtidigt som dagens organisering och styrning av socialt arbete är främmandegörande, slår vissa socialarbetare knut på sig själva och arbetar extra hårt för att täcka upp för systemets brister och krympande resurser, för att trots det svåra läget ändå försöka ge det stöd som de upplever att klienten behöver. Ett sådant historiskt förankrat femininiserat omsorgsideal, dvs känslor av ansvar och empati inför behövande och en ilska inför oförrätter, utgör därmed på samma gång grund för en fördjupad exploatering av socialarbetarna, och ett vardagligt motstånd mot rådande system. I ett läge när flera upplever att kollegialiteten som grund för motstånd på arbetsplatserna underminerats, utgör ett sådant omsorgsideal samtidigt också grunden för organiserat motstånd utanför arbetsplatsen, bortom chefernas insyn, kontroll och härskartekniker. Medan nuvarande styrningssystem underminerar ett visst sorts motstånd, uppstår samtidigt grunden för nya.

A epidemia tabágica é uma das principais causas de morbilidade e morte prematura e continua a expandir-se globalmente. O tabagismo é também a principal causa evitável de morte. No entanto, mudar o paradigma é possível. Segundo a Organização Mundial da Saúde, a principal estratégia para travar a epidemia passa por contrariar as táticas da indústria do tabaco através da implementação de políticas para regular as atividades desta indústria. Acresce que é também crucial sensibilizar e educar a opinião pública sobre os riscos para a saúde associados ao consumo do tabaco e envolver ativamente a sociedade civil no controlo do tabagismo. A perceção dos riscos do tabaco pela população e as normas sociais relativas ao tabagismo mudam lentamente ao longo do tempo. Por tal motivo, é necessário uma liderança firme e uma ação sustentada de saúde pública. Os profissionais de saúde, educadores, decisores políticos, governos, organizações não-governamentais (ONGs), os media e a sociedade em geral devem trabalhar conjuntamente, numa parceria concertada para promover as melhores práticas de controlo de tabagismo e diminuir a aceitação social do tabaco. Entre os vários atores sociais envolvidos no ativismo político de controlo de tabaco, os profissionais de saúde têm um papel crucial a desempenhar. Todos os profissionais de saúde, e muito especialmente os médicos, devem ser exemplos e líderes de saúde pública, comportando-se como modelos sendo "não fumadores"; educando a população sobre os riscos do tabaco e da exposição ao fumo ambiental de tabaco (FAT) e os benefícios da cessação tabágica; promovendo a cessação; identificando sistematicamente os fumadores na prática clínica, aconselhando-os a parar de fumar e apoiando a cessação; e, por último, intervindo no processo da negociação política da implementação das medidas de controlo do tabaco, influenciando a decisão. Em Portugal, a prevalência de tabagismo, avaliada nos inquéritos nacionais de saúde e outros inquéritos à população geral, mostra que o consumo de tabaco é elevado em muitos grupos etários, além de ter aumentado substancialmente nas mulheres dos 15 aos 70 anos ao longo das últimas três décadas. Acresce que o consumo aumentou recentemente nos jovens. Além disso, apenas uma minoria dos fumadores atuais expressa o desejo de cessar de fumar ou recorre ao tratamento de cessação tabágica. Estas tendências sublinham a necessidade de uma estratégia nacional de controlo de tabagismo efectiva e sustentada. Em 2012, foi aprovado um programa nacional de prevenção e controlo de tabaco, o que é certamente uma oportunidade para avançar o controlo do tabagismo em Portugal. No entanto, sem um financiamento adequado e a participação plena da sociedade civil e sua capacitação, o plano dificilmente conseguirá alcançar os objetivos. Entre os vários atores sociais, os médicos e os profissionais de saúde portugueses deverão ser modelos como não fumadores e líderes de saúde pública e de ativismo político na prevenção e controlo do tabagismo. No entanto, é escasso o conhecimento do comportamento tabágico dos médicos portugueses e do seu envolvimento no controlo de tabagismo. Neste contexto, o projeto de investigação conduzido nesta tese teve como objetivo explorar o envolvimento no controlo do tabagismo dos profissionais de saúde portugueses e, em particular dos médicos, e a associação deste envolvimento com a mudança da norma social em relação ao tabaco, descrevendo as tendências do comportamento tabágico entre os médicos e os profissionais de saúde, assim como as suas atitudes e crenças em relação ao FAT e às políticas de espaços livres de fumo, e por último investigar a sua participação em atividades de prevenção e controlo do tabaco. Foram também investigados os fatores associados com as atitudes de controlo de tabagismo e com a participação dos médicos e profissionais de saúde em atividades de controlo do tabagismo. As atitudes e crenças em relação à exposição ao FAT e às políticas de proteção ao FAT foram estudadas como medidas indiretas robustas das normas sociais respeitantes ao tabaco. Com efeito, de acordo com a literatura científica, estas medidas estão fortemente relacionadas com o apoio às políticas de prevenção e controlo de tabagismo e com a mudança da norma social a favor da diminuição da aceitação social do tabagismo. O consumo de tabaco e a formação em tabagismo foram sistematicamente explorados como as principais variáveis independentes, uma vez que o consumo do tabaco e a falta de formação são considerados as principais barreiras que travam o envolvimento dos profissionais de saúde no controlo do tabagismo. Foi investigado se os médicos portugueses se comportam como modelos não-fumadores, fumando menos do que a população em geral, relatando uma maior motivação para cessar de fumar, ou deixando de fumar mais cedo do que a população geral. Além disso, foi investigado se os médicos portugueses atuam como líderes de saúde pública, seja relatando atitudes mais positivas e maior apoio às políticas de proteção à exposição do FAT do que a população geral ou de que outros profissionais de saúde, seja participando ativamente em atividades de controlo de tabagismo. Finalmente, foi avaliada a associação entre o envolvimento dos profissionais de saúde e dos médicos no controlo do tabagismo e a mudança da norma social em relação à exposição ao FAT. ; The tobacco epidemic continues to expand globally and remains a leading cause of morbidity and premature death. Changing the paradigm is however possible: tobacco is also the single most preventable cause of death. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the key strategy to curb the epidemic is counteracting tobacco industry tactics by implementing tobacco control (TC) policies to regulate tobacco industry activities; raising public awareness regarding tobacco addiction and tobacco health hazards; and actively engaging civil society in tobacco control. Social norms regarding smoking and tobacco hazards change slowly over time: sustained action and leadership are needed. Healthcare professionals (HCPs), educators, policy-makers, governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), media and society at large should work on a strong partnership to promote TC best practices and denormalise tobacco use. Among those, HCPs have a critical role to play. All HCPs, and particularly physicians, should be TC exemplars and leaders by being role models as non-smokers; educating the general population about tobacco and second-hand tobacco smoke (SHS) hazards and the benefits of quitting; promoting cessation and systematically identifying smokers as part of their routine clinical practice; advising and supporting them to quit; and advocating for TC policies. In Portugal, smoking rates over time reported by the national health surveys and other population-wide surveys illustrate that tobacco use is high in many age groups; has recently risen among youths and is steadily rising among females in all group ages between 15 to 70 years. Moreover, few smokers express desire to quit or use cessation aids. These trends emphasize the need for a comprehensive and sustained national TC strategy. In 2012, a national TC programme was approved. This is certainly an opportunity to move tobacco control forward in Portugal. However, without appropriate funding and capacity building promoting civil society participation, the plan will not succeed. Among stakeholders, Portuguese physicians and HCPs should be non-smokers exemplars and lead TC advocacy. Nonetheless, little is known regarding smoking behaviour trends and TC engagement among Portuguese physicians. This thesis, therefore, aimed to explore Portuguese HCPs' and, in particular, physicians' awareness of and engagement with tobacco control and its association with social norm change regarding smoking by describing their smoking behavior trends, attitudes and beliefs regarding SHS and smoke-free policies (SFPs), and participation in TC activities. In addition, factors associated with attitudes to and engagement with TC were investigated. Attitudes and beliefs to SHS and to SFPs were studied as indirect measures of smoking social norms; since those measures are strongly related with support for TC policies and social norm change towards denormalisation of tobacco use. Tobacco use and TC training were systematically explored as the main independent variables, since tobacco use and lack of training are among the major barriers to overcome regarding HCPs' engagement in TC. It was investigated whether Portuguese physicians behave as role-models either by being non-smokers themselves and smoking less than the general population or by reporting greater motivation to quit, or quitting at an earlier age than the general population. Additionally, it was studied whether Portuguese physicians act as TC leaders, either by reporting more positive attitudes and stronger support to SFPs than the general population or other HCPs, or by actively participating in TC activities. Finally, it was assessed the association between HCPs'/physicians' engagement in TC and social norm change regarding SHS exposure.

The main object of the analysis presented in the text was to point to and confirm the existence of special "energy cultures" in the European Union. In order to achieve this aim the use was made of research present in the literature, inter alia, in the publications containing statistical analyses by: (1) A. Pach-Gurgul, (2) P. Tapio and his research team – Banister, J. Luukkanen, J. Vehma i R. Willamo, also in a review, (3) Z. Łucki and W. Misiak. Compared with the invoked research, the timeframe of the analysis in the text covered 2011, and the subjective scope embraced 28 countries (EU-28). As part of the research process the following research hypotheses were subjected to verification: (1) It must be assumed that the dissimilarities in energy structures of particular EU member states are an outstanding premise on which to base a recognition of the existence of specific "energy cultures" in the European Union, (2) It must be assumed that in the period of 2001-2011 there occurred changes in the area of "energy cultures" of the European Union, which had earlier been recognised in the literature. In this scope the following conclusions ought to be presented: I. CONCLUSIONS: The differences in energy structures result in the possibility of pointing to particular features characterising member states and clusters of countries, partially because of the predominance of specific energy carriers and/or a way of their conversion. On account of the use of selected indexes for the purpose of characterising the specificity of the European Union member states, six clusters have been distinguished, and they include the following countries: (1) Spain, France, Italy and Great Britain; (2) Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia and Poland; (3) Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Austria, Slovenia, Finland and Sweden; (4) Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Portugal, Romania and Slovakia; (5) Germany; (6) Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. An observable cluster that recurs in the research by A. Pach-Gurgul as well as in the analysis presented in the text covering 2011, embraces Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia and Poland (Cluster II). As for Ward's method the cluster is broader, but features an outstanding group of the above-mentioned countries (also including: Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Slovakia and Romania). Besides, in this model, in comparison with A. Pach-Gurgul's research, another cluster is by and large repeated, including Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Portugal, Romania and Slovakia – Cluster IV (for a variety of reasons Croatia and Portugal are not repeated). The characteristic feature of both clusters is a higher scale of the index of energy intensity (kgoe/€1000). This shows that it is legitimate to recognise the existence of the division of the European Union into the two "energy cultures": the Western European one and Eastern European one. The main factor behind this division is the energy intensity of the economies of individual member states. Unlike the analysis by P. Tapio and his research team, the axis of division has changed considerably, for within the so-called "old" European Union (EU-15) there was an observable general division into the Northern European and Southern European "energy cultures." Both the above-mentioned clusters (II and IV) can be associated with the "Eastern European culture" as part of the division presented by Z. Łucki and W. Misiak. The energy culture distinguished by the two researchers is to be characterised by: (1) a variety of energy policies, (2) a high energy intensity of the economy, (3) a low electric energy consumption, (4) limited awareness, (5) a negative attitude towards energy market liberalisation. In the case of Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Poland (Cluster II), the characteristic feature is a considerable share of solid fuels in the energy mix of the gross inland energy consumption. The countries included in Cluster IV are characterised by a smaller share of solid fuels and a higher diversity of energy structure. As part of the k-means clustering method, it is worth pointing out two clusters of countries: Cluster I (Spain, France, Italy, Great Britain) and Cluster V (Germany). The countries in both clusters belong to the so-called "old" European Union, and their main feature is a substantial level of energy production, Germany being the largest producer. In both cases, the characteristic features are a marked share of renewable energy sources, gas as well as petroleum and petroleum products in the gross inland energy consumption. Furthermore, both clusters are characterised by a low or relatively low index of energy intensity (kgoe/€1000). As part of the clustering based on the k-means method, in both periods, that is in 2001 and 2011 the cluster comprising Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands was repeated. This cluster is characterised by a high index of energy consumption per capita and a high index of GHG emission per capita. II. CONCLUSIONS: It must be emphasised that the period 2001-2010 is connected with the transition process of the electric energy and gas sectors in the European Union. The process is also associated with the introduction of the 1st Climate-Energy Package in the European Union. What is more, the changes will be continued on account of the efforts at building an Energy Union as well as the implementation of the so-called 2nd Climate-Energy Package. Of particular significance is also the increase in the import dependence of the European Union, given the declining reserves of energy resources. Moreover, the objectives of the "green energy policy" will be giving rise to the increasing energy efficiency and the growing share of renewable energy sources in energy production, which may constitute a factor limiting the import dependence. Thus, it should be posited that in the long term we will be witnessing a homogenisation of indexes, e.g. the index of energy intensity. These processes may result in the tendency for changes towards the model of the "energy culture," which Z. Łucki and W. Misiak have termed a "Scandinavian culture," that is one characterised by the following features: (1) a development of RES, (2) a low consumption of coal, (3) a low index of GHG emission, (4) a considerable energy consumption, (5) a low energy intensity, (6) a heightened environment- and energy-consciousness. By way of comparing the analyses for 2011 and for 2001, based on the k-means clustering method, it must be stressed that Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands hold steady in the cluster (Cluster VI), whereby they abide by the roles played by the features earlier ascribed to them. A measure of stability can also be observed in the case of Spain, France, Italy, Great Britain and Germany (Clusters I and V). Noteworthily, Sweden has been eliminated from the group (despite lowering the scale of the first three indexes). The distinctive feature of Eastern European countries is the high scale of the energy intensity index, as viewed against the backdrop of Clusters I and IV. Yet, some tendency towards stirring of the scale of energy intensity index is to be observed in this scope. A transformation of the energy structure will also prove quite a challenge here. Poland can serve as an example, whereby coal will continue to be the country's main electric energy carrier for the next 30 years. The comparative analysis featuring in the text is limited, and so it does not address all the issues concerned with the correlations between the presented "energy cultures." The work sets out to verify the results of the research into the existence of "energy cultures" in the European Union, as presented by A. Pach-Gurgul, Z. Łucki and W. Misiak as well as P. Tapio and his research team. Still, the greatest emphasis has been laid on the proposals made by A. Pach-Gurgul, for it was her publication as well as the selection of indexes and research tools included therein that proved to be an inspiration for the present text. It should also be noted that the object of analysis in the text does not embrace a discussion of the legitimacy of employing specific methods for clustering. ; The main objective of the text is to present an analysis that points to the existence of special "energy cultures" in the European Union. The comparative analysis encompassing the results of previous research into "energy cultures" employs statistical methods, i.e. a cluster analysis (Ward's clustering method and k-means clustering method). The main sections of the text address: (1) the concept and examples of "energy cultures," (2) a methodology of analysis, (3) a selection of indexes characterising "energy cultures," (4) an attempt at grouping the European Union member states with the aid of clustering, (5) conclusions. With a view to making the research problem more specific, the present text features the following questions: (1) Is the claim that the European Union manifests special "energy cultures" legitimate?, (2) Did the decade of 2001-2011 witness changes in the field of the European Union "energy cultures," as earlier recognised by the literature?

Tese de doutoramento em Economia, apresentada à Faculdade de Economia da Universidade de Coimbra ; Chapter 2 summary As the devices that used software became more available to the masses the problem of software piracy increases. Recent theoretical works have attempted to model the phenomenon of software piracy; others tried to describe empirically the determinants that may explain this phenomenon. The empirical literature in the latter case is still in its infancy. This chapter reviews the theoretical literature focusing on three major models: those dealing with diffusion models, with network externalities and with game theory. It also presents the empirical literature where we identify eight stylized results that reflect the main macroeconomic variables in five dimensions that explain software piracy: the Economic, Cultural, Educational, Technological and Legal and dimensions. Chapter 3 summary This chapter studies the determinants of software piracy losses along five major macroeconomic dimensions: Technological, Educational, Institutional, Access to Information and Labor force. The study was conducted based on a large dataset available from 1994 to 2010 and comprising 81 countries. As for the Technological dimension, more patents by residents increases piracy losses while the effect of R&D is opposite (decreases piracy losses). In terms of the Educational dimension the results obtained show that more spending on education increase the piracy losses but, at the same time, more schooling years have the opposite effect. In the Institutional dimension, more corrupt free nations have low piracy levels. Regarding the Access to Information, it seems that access to Internet diminishes the losses while the share of Internet broadband subscriptions has no effect. The results show that, regarding the Labor dimension, employment in services has a deterrent effect while labor force with higher education and youth unemployment increases piracy losses. Chapter 4 summary This chapter explores the relation between the levels of taxation among different types of households and the levels of software piracy from 1996 to 2010, in the European Union (EU). It extends previous work by introducing large sets of panel data for the EU and its various regions. We estimate our model using the fixed effect, comparing results from the Euro Area and the Countries that joined EU in 2004 and 2007. Results show that levels of taxation increase the levels of software piracy losses; moreover these results depend on marital status and number of children. The weight of taxation on GDP (e.g. the taxes on consumption) increases piracy losses while the impact of inflation is negative and marginal. Additional to this we also found that the relative importance of these taxes in relation to total taxation can affect this phenomenon. An increase in the weight of capital taxation would decrease software piracy while this effect was opposite when considering the relative importance of consumption taxes. Chapter 5 summary In this chapter we construct a panel data set from 2000 to 2011 for the EU 28, studying the impact of education on the levels of software piracy in a country. When an aggregated analysis is made, e.g. considering all ISCED (International Standard Classification of Education) levels, expenditure on public educational institutions as well as public spending on education have a deterrent effect on piracy, being significant. However, the effect of financial aid to students is positive. When the analysis is made taking into account the ISCED 1997 disaggregation, expenditure on ISCED 5-6 has a negative and significant effect. Taking into account the type of educational institutions, more expenditure on ISCED 1 to 4 will lower piracy. We also found that more financial help to students on higher levels of education, e.g. ISCED 5-6, have a positive and significant effect. Finally, more years of schooling of both primary and secondary education will have a deterrent effect on software piracy. Chapter 6 summary This chapter analyses the interactions between software piracy and economic growth using a simultaneous equation approach to a panel of countries for which information on software piracy is available for 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2010. This allows us to establish the interactions between these variables, but also to measure the direct and indirect effects of other variables that have shown relevancy for both economic growth and software piracy. Results indicate that there exist a concave nonlinear relationship between software piracy and economic growth. ; Resumo do Capítulo 2 Há medida que os computadores que usam software se disseminaram, o problema da pirataria informática surgiu. Estudos teóricos recentes modelaram o fenómeno da pirataria; outros tentaram explicar empiricamente os determinantes que podem explicar este fenómeno. A literatura empírica ainda está em sua infância. Este capítulo analisa a literatura teórica com foco em três grandes modelos: aqueles que lidam com modelos de difusão, as externalidades de rede e com a teoria dos jogos. Apresenta, também, a literatura empírica em que identificamos oito resultados estilizados que refletem as principais variáveis em cinco dimensões macroeconómicas que explicam a pirataria de software: económicas, culturais, educacionais, tecnológicas e dimensões legais. Resumo do Capítulo 3 Este capítulo estuda os determinantes das perdas resultantes da pirataria de software ao longo de cinco dimensões macroeconômicas principais: tecnológica, dimensões educacionais, aspectos institucionais, força de trabalho e acesso à informação utilizando um conjunto grande de dados disponíveis de 1994-2010, composto por 81 países. Quanto à dimensão tecnológica, mais patentes por residentes aumenta as perdas de pirataria enquanto o efeito do I&D é oposta (diminui as perdas de pirataria). Em termos da dimensão educacional, os resultados obtidos mostram que mais gastos em educação aumentam as perdas de pirataria, mas, ao mesmo tempo, mais anos de escolaridade têm o efeito oposto. Na dimensão institucional, as nações livres de corrupção, têm baixos níveis de pirataria. Em relação ao acesso à informação, parece que o acesso à Internet diminui as perdas, enquanto a quota de assinaturas de banda larga à Internet não tem efeito. Os resultados mostram que, em relação à Força de Trabalho, o emprego nos serviços tem um efeito dissuasor, enquanto força de trabalho com o ensino superior e o desemprego dos jovens aumenta as perdas de pirataria. Resumo do Capítulo 4 Este capítulo explora a relação entre níveis de tributação entre os diferentes tipos de famílias na União Europeia e os níveis de pirataria de software entre 1996-2010. Melhora estudos anteriores na medida em que introduz dados em painel, estudando a União Europeia e as diferentes regiões. Nós estimamos o nosso modelo utilizando o efeito fixo (FE), comparando os resultados a partir da zona do euro e os países que aderiram à UE em 2004 e 2007. Os resultados mostram que os níveis de tributação aumentam os níveis de pirataria de software. Além disso, estes resultados dependem do estado civil das famílias e do número de filhos. O peso da tributação sobre um PIB na Economia (Produto Interno Bruto), ou seja, os impostos sobre o consumo têm um efeito positivo sobre os prejuízos da pirataria, enquanto o impacto da inflação é negativa e marginal sobre a pirataria de software. Alem disto, a importância relativa desses impostos em relação ao peso total de impostos pode afetar este fenômeno. Um aumento no peso da tributação do capital diminuiria a pirataria de software, enquanto este efeito foi oposto ao considerar a importância relativa dos impostos sobre o consumo. Resumo do Capítulo 5 Neste capítulo vamos construir um painel de dados entre 2000-2011 para a UE 28, estudando o impacto da educação sobre os níveis de pirataria de software. Quando uma análise de agregados é feita, e.g. considerando todos os níveis de ISCED (Classificação Internacional Tipo da Educação), gastos com instituições educacionais públicas, bem como os gastos públicos com a educação tem um efeito dissuasor sobre a pirataria, sendo significativo. No entanto, o efeito de ajuda financeira aos estudantes é positivo. Quando a análise é feita tendo em conta a desagregação ISCED 1997, as despesas com ISCED 5-6 tem um efeito negativo e significativo. Tendo em conta o tipo de instituições de ensino, mais despesas com ISCED 1-4 irá reduzir a pirataria. Também encontramos que mais ajuda financeira aos estudantes nos níveis mais elevados do ensino, por exemplo, ISCED 5-6, tem um efeito positivo e significativo. Por fim, mais anos de escolaridade do ensino primário e secundário terá um efeito dissuasor sobre a pirataria de software. Resumo do Capítulo 6 Este capítulo analisa as interações entre a pirataria de software e o crescimento económico através de uma abordagem de equações simultâneas, utilizando um painel de países para os quais informações sobre a pirataria está disponível para 1995, 2000, 2005 e 2010. O que nos permite estabelecer as interações entre essas variáveis, mas também para medir os efeitos diretos e indiretos de outras variáveis que mostraram relevância para o crescimento económico e a pirataria de software. Os resultados indicam que existe uma relação não linear côncava entre a pirataria de software e crescimento económico.

Within recent years, plurality and difference have been embraced in higher education both by internationalization strategies originating in a neoliberal marked-driven process as well as by counter-ideologies of ethical globalization. The neoliberal transformation has resulted in new ontologies of the university, e.g. "the entrepreneurial university" (Barnett 2012) or "the global university" (Biesta 2011) in its external relation to society defined by its preoccupation with the economic and technical development of society and with matching the needs of the labor marked (e.g.Rhoads and Szelenyi 2011, Arambewela 2010) and internally on the education marked by universities becoming similar because they are playing the same game (Biesta 2011). Furthermore, it has enforced the power structures of the international field of HE defined by flows of people and capital towards the global North and flows of knowledge produced in the North towards the South (Marginson 2008, Calhoun 2006, Altbach 2004). The ontological and structural changes is accompanied by a new epistemological hegemony of "useful" (Peters and Olssen 2005) or "specific, problem-solving knowledge" (Barnett 2012) and by new knowledge authorities such as consultants, professionals and free-lance experts (Barnett 2012). However, critics of the neo-liberal university argue that the university as educator and knowledge producer should engage in a more ethical knowledge production. It is a call for an academic knowledge production that recognizes the challenges of globalization and of the interconnectedness of lives (Rhoads and Szelenyi 2011); that recognizes the world's epistemological diversity (Santos, Nunes, and Meneses 2007); that recognizes and challenges Eurocentric paradigms (Paraskeva 2010) and makes ethical choices "in the shape of academic inquiry" (Barnett 2012, 224). At Aarhus University, the general internationalization strategy is inscribed in a neoliberal ideology and describes the development of intercultural(IC) competence in students as both a means for success in the labor marked and to success for business. The faculty-level internationalization strategies, however, both draw upon neoliberal and more ethically oriented globalization discourses and describes the aim of internationalization in terms such as developing the "flexible knowledge" needed to operate in a globalized world or "global citizenship". However, the relationship between the ideological approaches to internationalization, implied understandings of IC competence and the impact upon inter-epistemological encounters, understood as encounters between people and institutions socialized in or enacting different epistemological frameworks, is not reflected upon. Seeing international higher education as a field structured by neoliberalism at one pole and counter-ideologies of ethical globalization on the other, the paper maps the interaction of these ideologies in the epistemologies at play at three international master programs at Aarhus University and in their visions of IC competence. Drawing upon educational sociology and ethical theory, it is compared to how the "different" knowledge of the other students' is encountered, negotiated, rejected or acknowledged and made use of. Methodology and data The paper draws upon data from three international master programs at Aarhus University. The programs were selected so that they all have diverse student bodies and so that they represent different approaches to internationalization and recruit different kinds of students. The first program is an international business program. It attracts students pursuing a career in an international company. The program started with a vision of creating an international study environment to give the students cultural insights but today, the international aspect relates to the academic content about international business. In the program, about 50 % of the students are international. However, a large number of the international students have a bachelor degree from Aarhus University or other Danish universities. The second program is an interdisciplinary program in Human Security. It attracts students who want to work in aid-oriented organizations or NGOs. It is a collaboration between ethnography, biology, social science and external consultants. About 65 % of the students are international and both international and interdisciplinary cooperation is stressed. The third program is an Erasmus Mundus program in Journalism and Globalization, which offers joint degrees in cooperation with other European universities. Approximately 95 % of the students are international and the international composition of the student body is stressed as an asset. It is emphasized that the teachers speak from a liberal and European perspective but the students are encouraged to challenge it. Data about was produced with several methods: • Classroom observations focusing on epistemologies drawn upon by the lecturers and on how students acknowledge and negotiate knowledge relating to theoretical, methodological, political, cultural and paradigmatic aspects of the program. • In-depth interviews with 20 students reflecting on how knowledge is negotiated between students' different epistemological systems and epistemologies drawn upon in the program. • Policy documents relating to internationalization strategies retrieved from the university's web-page. Theoretical framework The understanding of the field as structured around a neoliberal ideology of competition and marketization on the one hand and a counter-ideology of ethical globalization involving recognition of epistemological diversity on the other calls for a theoretical framework which both encompasses existing power-structures, processes assisting their reproduction and the ethical agency that insists on recognition of difference. In the paper, Bourdieu's educational sociology (e.g. Bourdieu and Passeron 1990, Bourdieu 1989, 1986, 1994, 1977, 1988), his concepts field, habitus, capital and symbolic violence, are therefor drawn upon together with Levinas' understanding of the ethical encounter as an encounter with the other as an other who is not reduced to the same and the experience of that encounter as a trace of the other (e.g. Levinas 1996, Levinas 1986). Findings and discussion Three main types of inter-epistemological encounters are identified: 1: Remaining other: the encounter as traces of the other's knowledge 2: Becoming the same: the encounter as reduction and merger of epistemological positions 3: Rejecting the other: the encounter as reproduction of hegemonic epistemologies Finally, the paper will discuss the relationship between the typologies and the ideological approaches and the embedding of IC competence in neoliberal frameworks as potential barrier to fruitful inter-epistemological encounters. Altbach, P.G. 2004. "Globalization and the University: Myths and realities in an unequal world." Tertiary Education and Management 2 (1):83-110. Arambewela, R. 2010. "Student experience in the globalized Higher Education market: Challenges and Research Imperatives." In Globalization and internationalization in Higher Education: Theoretical, strategic and management perspectives, edited by F. Maringe and N. Foskett, 155-173. London: Continuum Publishing. Barnett, Ronald. 2012. "Liquid Knowledge, Liquid Universities." In Universities in the Knowledge Economy: Higher Education Organization and Global Change, edited by P. Temple. London and NY: Routledge. Biesta, G. 2011. "How useful should the university be? On the rise of the global university and the crisis in Higher Education." Qui Parle 20 (1):35-47. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Polity Press. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. "The Forms of Capital." In Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by J. Richardson. New York: Greenwood. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1988. Homo Academicus. Cambridge: Polity Press. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1989. "Social Space and Symbolic Power." Sociological Theory 7 (1):14-25. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1994. "Rethinking the State: Genesis and Structure of the Bureaucratic Field." Sociological Theory 12 (1):18. Bourdieu, Pierre, and J.-C. Passeron. 1990. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. 2 ed. London etc: Sage. Calhoun, C. 2006. "The University and the public good." Thesis Eleven 84 (1). Levinas, E. 1996. "Is Ontology Fundamental?" In Emmanuel Levinas: Basic Philosophical Writings, edited by Bernasconi, Critchley and Peperzak, 1-10. Bloomington: Indiana U.P. Levinas, Emmanuel. 1986. "The Trace of the Other." In Deconstruction in Context, edited by Mark Taylor, 345-359. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Marginson, Simon. 2008. "Global field and global imagining: Bourdieu and worldwide higher education." British Journal of Sociology of Education 29 (3):303-15. Paraskeva, J.M. 2010. Unaccomplished utopia: Neoconservative dismantling of public education in the European Union. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Peters, Michael A., and Mark Olssen. 2005. "'Useful Knowledge': Redefining Research and Teaching in the Learning Economy." In Reshaping the University: New Relationships between Research, Scholarhip and Teaching, edited by Ronald Barnett. Open University Press. Rhoads, R.A., and K. Szelenyi. 2011. Global citizenship and the university: Advancing social life and relations in an interdependent world. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Santos, B.d.S., J.A. Nunes, and J.P. Meneses. 2007. "Opening up the Canon of Knowledge and Recognition of Difference." In Another Knowledge is Possible: Beyond Northers Epistemologies, edited by B.d.S. Santos. London: Verso.

Dottorato di ricerca in Storia d'Europa: società, politica, istituzioni (XIX-XX secolo) ; Questa ricerca è dedicata agli italiani sopravvissuti alla Shoah e s'interroga sulle altre prove, sulle altre fatiche e sulle altre paure1 che essi dovettero affrontare per ritornare a casa dopo l'esperienza estrema della deportazione. Una storia di viaggi? Anche. Ma soprattutto una storia corale che parla di ricostruzione, di incontri e di abbandono, di un sentire umano che riaffiora dopo l'offesa subita nei campi di sterminio; e che racconta un'umanità che dimostra poco interesse per i superstiti. Il rimpatrio è una storia di contrasti; per evidenziarli il lavoro procede dal generale al particolare e si articola in due sezioni distinte e speculari, necessarie l'una all'altra e che si richiamano di continuo. 1 L'espressione è di P. Levi, La tregua, Einaudi, Torino, 1989, p. 178. (Se non diversamente indicato, i riferimenti bibliografici si riferiscono alle edizioni consultate; per le prime edizioni cfr. Bibliografia). 2 La ricerca s'inizia partendo dalla considerazione che un'esperienza acquista senso in relazione alla sua collocazione nel tempo, e che la peculiarità di un avvenimento è data dalla comparazione. Da qui la necessità del primo capitolo, che ha l'obiettivo di definire lo spazio della ricerca (o meglio, lo spazio in cui si muovono gli uomini e le donne protagonisti di questa ricerca) secondo due principali punti d'osservazione. Nelle prime pagine (Storia di guerra) si tenta di rispondere congiuntamente alle esigenze di una contestualizzazione diacronica e di un approccio comparativo; quindi si esamina l'insieme delle prigionie degli italiani durante la seconda guerra mondiale, soffermandosi sulla specificità della deportazione razziale. Una lettura attraverso il tempo aiuterà a comprendere le ragioni che sottostanno alla continuità tra l'esperienza (e la percezione) del rimpatrio e l'offesa subita durante la persecuzione delle vite2. Come si cercherà di dimostrare, infatti, il ritorno a casa s'inscrive appieno nel dramma della Shoah, poiché la liberazione dai Lager determina la fine di una parte dell'esperienza concentrazionaria, ma non ne rappresenta l'epilogo, che si snoda proprio attraverso le vicende - a volte drammatiche, a volte epiche, a volte picaresche - del rientro. Ma la storia del ritorno è anche "una storia della Repubblica e del tempo di pace"3: quindi, nella seconda parte del capitolo, delineato il quadro dei rimpatri in Italia nel secondo dopoguerra, si riflette sulle responsabilità istituzionali nella gestione del fenomeno. Quale è stata la risposta del governo italiano all'emergenza del rimpatrio? E in particolare, come ci si è comportati con quegli uomini e quelle donne che, sopravvissuti alla Soluzione finale, hanno aspettato nei campi di smistamento della Polonia, della Germania e della Russia l'ordine per la partenza? Quell'Italia che di lì a poco avrebbe sancito che "Tutti i cittadini […] hanno pari dignità sociale e sono eguali davanti alla legge, senza distinzione di sesso, di razza, di lingua, di religione"4, che cosa ha fatto per aiutare quei cittadini perseguitati, rastrellati e deportati proprio a causa di una razza (e di una religione) di cui si era proclamata l'inferiorità? Prendendo le mosse dalla descrizione dell'apparato istituzionale che gestiva dall'alto le vite capovolte dei superstiti, si prosegue proponendo un mosaico delle esperienze di chi 2 L'espressione è di M. Sarfatti, che nel volume Gli ebrei nell'Italia fascista. Vicende, identità persecuzione, Einaudi, Torino, 2002, ha tripartito come segue la storia della Shoah in Italia: periodo della persecuzione dell'identità dell'ebraismo (1922-1936); periodo della persecuzione dei diritti degli ebrei (1936-1943) e periodo della persecuzione delle vite degli ebrei (1943-1945). 3 N. Labanca, Catabasi in N. Labanca (a cura di), La memoria del ritorno: il rimpatrio degli internati militari italiani (1945-1946), Giuntina, Firenze, 2000, p. XVI. 4 Costituzione della Repubblica Italiana, art. 3. 3 dipendeva da questi ordini impartiti da lontano. Nel secondo capitolo si adotta un approccio microstorico, e attraverso l'individuazione di paradigmi interpretativi e di parole chiave, si cerca di restituire la dimensione reale del rimpatrio (attenta ai riferimenti geografici, alla cronologia e ai rapporti tra i salvati e i liberatori) e quella simbolica, dominata dalla percezione dell'esperienza. Proprio in questo secondo livello di analisi si coglie il significato profondo, storico e morale, del viaggio verso casa. Partendo dalle considerazioni pionieristiche di Primo Levi e dalla contraddizione tra il tempo oggettivato della storia e quello unico della coscienza, si cerca di leggere l'esperienza del ritorno a casa alla luce delle aspettative di pace e di libertà maturate durante la prigionia e si riflette, anche secondo una prospettiva di genere, sulle difficoltà affrontate subito dopo l'arrivo dei liberatori. Nella seconda parte del lavoro, si restringe il campo dell'indagine al complesso concentrazionario di Auschwitz-Birkenau, di cui si seguono gli avvenimenti principali fin dal periodo immediatamente precedente alla liberazione. Fornite le coordinate essenziali per interpretare le strategie sottese alle marce della morte, lo studio prende in esame le evacuazioni dall'Alta Slesia: una fase fondamentale che aiuta a ricostruire le storie e gli itinerari percorsi dalla maggior parte degli italiani sopravvissuti alla Shoah. Nel quarto capitolo si osserva il Caos primigenio5 che scoppia nel Lager all'indomani del 27 gennaio 1945; si indaga sull'atteggiamento dei liberatori con particolare attenzione alla prima assistenza dispiegata nel campo base e all'interesse a sfruttare il lavoro dei sopravvissuti; attraverso l'esame di alcuni casi individuali, si ricostruiscono gli itinerari principali del viaggio verso casa. Lasciando dialogare le fonti dall'alto con le testimonianze dei superstiti - e tenendo in considerazione una pluralità di fattori (quali, ad esempio, l'appartenenza di genere, l'età e lo stato di salute), che implicano aspettative e comportamenti diversi - si cerca di fare luce su un periodo complesso e molto lontano dalla ricostruzione tramandata dai sovietici, che hanno rappresentato se stessi secondo le regole imposte dal regime. L'arco cronologico considerato copre il periodo compreso tra la liberazione dei Lager e la fine del 1945, anche se nei diversi capitoli è ampiamente esplorato il contesto precedente e sono accennate le problematiche principali che caratterizzano la fase immediatamente successiva. Per la periodizzazione si è cercato di risalire a una datazione precisa del ritorno 5 P. Levi, La tregua, cit., p. 175. 4 a casa di ciascun sopravvissuto italiano; i primi risultati dell'indagine sono schematicamente riportati nell'appendice al testo. ; This survey is focused on all those Italian people who survived to the Holocaust and try to investigate and narrate all the trials, efforts and fears6 that they had to face to come back home after having experienced the deportation. A history of travel? Maybe, but especially a voyage tracing a history made of reconstruction, meeting and desertion, after the extreme experience in the concentration camps; the narration of the denial of humanity neglecting the survivors. This research begins in considering that every event should be considered in his historical context and compared with this background. Thus, lead us to the first chapter that is focused on the definition of the 'space' surrounding the protagonists of the story itself. According to two main different points of view: on the one hand the diachronic one (Storia di guerra) which tries to retrace the story of all Italian people captured during the Second World War, and on the other one the synchronic point of view (Storia di pace) narrating the phase of repatriation in Italy and investigating the role and institutional responsibility of the Italian Government in managing this particular phenomenon. In analyzing the Italian institutional apparatus itself, this survey goes on portraying two dimensions: the real one, retracing the repatriation itself (itineraries, datas, historical events) and the symbolic one, in which we can find the deep historical and moral meaning of this voyage towards home. In the second part of this survey, the investigation is focused on Auschwitz-Birkenau during the last few months before the Liberation (Death Marches): an important phase through which retracing the stories and itineraries of Italian survivors. The last chapter investigate the history of the Lager after the liberation, in particularly the first aid and Red Army's interests to take advantage of survivors manpower; moreover several individual experiences are reconstructed.The period taken into consideration in this survey goes from the liberation of concentration camps to the end of 1945, even if in the chapters the research is also about the previous and the next historical context. 6 This expression is by Primo Levi, La tregua, Einaudi, Torino, 1989, p. 178.

Poverty is one of the greatest problems affecting developing countries. Socio-economic imbalances, created by both natural and artificial resource scarcity, restrict impoverished people's access to economic opportunities, limiting their purchasing power and empowerment. Environmental degradation is thus both a cause and effect of resource scarcity, as the poor are forced to seek increasingly environmentally and economically unsustainable methods of income generation, further marginalizing them. Microfinance is known to be one of the best tools to combat poverty, as it allows the poor to empower both themselves and their communities through the creation and sustainment of their own businesses. Moreover, green microfinance, which combines the core concepts of microfinance with environmental awareness and preservation, aims to allow empowerment to occur without compromising the environment. Microfinance institutions (MFIs) use simple administrative procedures and the general abolishment of collateral to allow inhabitants of remote areas to access microfinance, whilst maintaining relationships with them and assisting with their financial and personal problems, educating them, and providing aid in the event of environmental disasters. Hence, microfinance is believed to have a positive effect on both poverty alleviation and environmental awareness. In Indonesia, the country with the largest Muslim population in the world, Islamic finance, which was established in 1991 and saw rapid development during the politically volatile years of 1997 and 1998 (Seibel 2008), comprises commercial banks and banking units, Islamic rural banks, and Islamic financial cooperatives. Commercial Islamic banks focus on providing savings, financing, and insurance to medium and large businesses. People running small or micro businesses are thus restricted from receiving their services. Islamic microfinance, in the form of banking units, rural banks, and financial cooperatives, fills the void left by the commercial banks, enabling Indonesia's disadvantaged entrepreneurs to generate income on their own terms. Most people in Pasuruan Regency, East Java, earn their incomes in the processing industry, agriculture, and trading. In this region, these sectors contribute more than any other to the total Gross Regional Domestic Product (BPS Pasuruan). However, most of them generally negatively affect the environment, through pollutive and chemically harmful practices, as well as a lack of skill and knowledge required to mitigate the negative impacts of these practices. These effects could be influenced by the microfinance institutions that finance their business activities and have a say in how their businesses are run. This is particularly the case with the Islamic MFIs in the region, in whom clients put a great deal of trust, and whose growth has been stimulated by Islamic finance's own growth in Indonesia as a whole. Although MFIs have seen significant development since the 1970s, not enough is known about them. While they have been shown to contribute to poverty alleviation, little is known about their simultaneous roles as facilitators of poverty alleviation and environmental development. Understanding this dynamic was of particular concern in Pasuruan Regency, as the peoples of our research sites appeared to show little regard for their environment whilst relying on MFIs to support their businesses. With their institutions failing to intervene in their destructive behaviors, there is an opening for environmental degradation to be countered with the use of MFIs as promoters of environmentally-friendly business practices. This study aimed to investigate the effect of Islamic microfinance institutions on the welfare of their clients, and whether they positively contribute to their environmental awareness. We examined the role of Islamic microfinance institutions in poverty alleviation and environmental awareness in three different areas of Pasuruan Regency, namely lowland, coastal, and upland. We further compared the impact of Islamic MFIs with that of conventional MFIs, to understand whether Islamic microfinance is consistent with other microfinance types or is able to stand out in its influence on clients' welfare, awareness, and behavior Field work data was collected using qualitative and quantitative approaches. The qualitative approach comprised in-depth interviews, direct observations, and focus group discussions, while the quantitative approach comprised standardized and semi-structured questionnaires. Additionally, secondary data was obtained from banks and a number governmental organizations and officials and statistics offices. Triangulation and a logic model were used to evaluate and validate data before conducting both qualitative and quantitative data analyses. The qualitative analysis was used to describe the behavior of the people in our research area, particularly towards changes in their economic welfare and awareness of specific environmental issues after joining a microfinance institution. Quantitative data analyses consisted of frequency distributions and numerical summaries. Our results revealed that both Islamic and conventional MFIs' primary concerns were self-sustainability, as they attempted to maintain financial performances and increase client bases within a regional context. Pondok pesantren, through their prevalence and their teachers and students' social programs, contributed to the development of Islamic MFIs in the lowland area by improving the public's perceptions of Islamic microfinance. In the coastal area, Islamic MFIs managed to mitigate the challenges and poor perceptions created by their failed predecessors. Meanwhile, Islamic MFIs in the upland area employed specific strategies to overcome challenges to their sustainability during periods of mass withdrawals. Conventional MFIs largely tailored their services to the needs of their clients, helping farmers acquire seeds and fertilizer in the lowland area, for example, or assisting fisheries and small entrepreneurs in the coastal area and helping clients grow, harvest, and process agroforestry products in the upland area. The microfinance institutions in all three areas positively contributed to poverty alleviation, with a significant majority of MFI clients being able to develop their businesses after receiving financing or loans—more so those in the lowland and coastal areas than the upland area. In terms of business re-investment, the lowland area was found to have the lowest percentage of clients spending their surplus incomes on increasing business size or employee numbers; a factor that requires attention from the local government and MFIs if they are to contribute to self-empowerment. Contrasting their impacts on poverty alleviation, both conventional and Islamic MFIs had negligible impacts on increasing the environmental awareness of their clients. Our analyses revealed that the MFIs in all three areas had problems with providing environmental training to their clients, failing to combat the already existent lack in awareness, and consequent accumulative degradation that occurred as a result. In all three research sites, more respondents reported that they did not receive training from their MFI than those who did. MFIs found it costly to dedicate a part of their net profits to environmental matters, but we found one cost-effective way to contribute to environmental awareness was through informing them of the existence of the few training programs that were available. There are still a limited number of empirical studies on Islamic microfinance's contributions to the poverty reduction of both the poor and the poorest. Our comparisons of the roles of Islamic and conventional MFIs in alleviating poverty revealed that both Islamic and conventional MFIs had a positive effect on poverty alleviation—Islamic MFIs slightly more than conventional ones. The screening system used by the Islamic MFIs, in particular their targeting of clients who were less inclined to use their funds for unrelated purposes, had a significant impact on their ability to avoid the lending risks encountered by the conventional MFIs, as well as the development of their clients' businesses. This was supported by key informants' observations that Islamic microfinance reduces the poverty level of clients, with their interest-free financing options and more flexible repayment plans being major factors. Islamic MFIs' redistributions of public donations to the poorest in the form of qard al hasan (credit without interest) also fortified their roles as important contributors to poverty reduction. Nevertheless, considering how integral the environment is to their clients' livelihoods, their environmental initiatives were merely enablers in their clients' destructive behaviors, and will only contribute to increased resource scarcity and more arduous poverty alleviation efforts. Islamic MFIs should therefore look at targeting environmentally-friendly businesses, in spite of their unfairly negative associations with cost and risk, whether through the use social funds or collaboration with the government. Green microfinance, which was unsuccessful in our study, should continue to be studied as a viable method of providing financial services to poor communities. Green Islamic microfinance, further, may be considered the next step in Islamic finance's development, as institutions attempt to empower individuals and communities in increasingly vulnerable environments.

La importancia de la Universidad en el proceso de gestación de un determinado modelo de ciudad es un hecho relativo función de multitud de variables como son la población, dinámica económica, evolución histórica, aspectos socioculturales, patrimonio cultural, etc. En el caso de la Universidad de Granada y la ciudad en donde se ubica todas estas circunstancias son sinérgicas de manera que hoy en día sería inconcebible la ciudad de Granada y su urbanismo sin ella. Esta importancia fue compartida durante gran parte de la segunda mitad del siglo XX con la concentración de instalaciones militares vinculadas a la novena región militar del Estado Español. Acometida la reorganización y reagrupación de espacios destinados a acuartelamientos. la Universidad de Granada queda como el principal agente económico y social de la cui dad (en ausencia va no solo de otros secundarios sino en convivencia con otros dependientes de la propia actividad universitaria). A estas circunstancias se suma el tamaño de la Universidad de Granada. tanto en numero de alumnos 82.482 estudiantes (58.058 correspondientes a titulaciones de grado), profesores (3.781) e infraestructuras docentes. investigadoras y de extensión universitaria. Estas instalaciones, tal y como se presentara a lo largo de este documento, se concretan en siete campus (Aynadamar, Cartuja, Centro, Ceuta, Fuentenueva, Melilla y Ciencias de la Salud) localizados en una comunidad autónoma y en dos ciudades autónomas, así como otras instalaciones que completan la oferta de espacios y que se localizan en Sierra Nevada, Alpujarra Granadina, Club Náutico del Pantano de Cubillas. etc. La complejidad de la gestión de las infraestructuras se completa con la diversidad en cuanto a antigüedad y naturaleza de las mismas, existiendo patrimonio correspondiente al siglo I (alfares romanos) junto a campus universitarios de una concepción modernista propia del siglo XXI. Los atributos patrimoniales de la ciudad de Granada condicionan cualquier actuación que se plantee. Particularmente. las cautelas arqueológicas y de conservación cultural supone un elemento determinante a la hora de abordar mejoras substanciales. V mas si cabe cuando el resto de las administraciones actúan en la mayoría de los casos como meros agentes inspectores sin ninguna implicación en materia de promoción y financiación de actuaciones encaminadas a la puesta en valor del ingente patrimonio inmueble del que es titular la Universidad de Granada. Hecha esta introducción obvia insistir en la importancia de la Universidad de Granada como agente urbanizador y generador de relaciones e interrelaciones en la ciudad. siendo causa principal de la dinámica económica existente en la urbe. La Universidad de Granada tiene por tanto un cometido vertebrador y determinante del territorio en don de se localiza. circunstancia esta que. aunque asumida por el resto de las administraciones. no ha supuesto un tratamiento diferenciado al resto de los agentes económicos de las ciudades en donde su ubica. La gestión racional de todo el patrimonio de la Universidad de la Universidad de Granada obliga al pragmatismo y a la necesidad de plantear planes y programas basados en la funcionalidad y sostenibilidad de las acciones que se determinen. Todo ello ha de llevarse a cabo dentro del modelo de financiación de las universidades publicas españolas en donde no se consideran ni se tienen en cuenta hechos diferenciales esenciales como son la necesidad de conservación del patrimonio histórico. la capacidad de regeneración de tejido urbano y puesta en valor de espacios que de otra forma se perderían dentro del modelo de ciudad. así como la propia difusión cultural de los valores históricos que se poseen. En estos últimos años la Universidad de Granada esta haciendo un esfuerzo considerable encaminado a conseguir un marco especifico de trabajo que le permita abordar con suficientes garantías todas las acciones de mejoras planteadas dentro del modelo de Universidad-Ciudad. En este documento se presentan. de forma ordenada y por aproximaciones sucesivas la relación Universidad-Ciudad desde la ordenación del territorio hasta la presentación de los distintos modelos de campus así como sus relaciones dentro del esquema de ciudad. Se presta especial atención porque así permite conocer la realidad de las relaciones a la evolución del modelo de universidad a 10 largo de toda la historia (coránica, cristiana, literaria y moderna) a las dinámicas residenciales y sus relaciones con la universidad. (modelos de movilidad) así como a la propia configuración arquitectónica y de diseño de espacios públicos fruto de las relaciones anteriores. Por ultimo hay que agradecer el importante trabajo llevado a cabo por los autores del estudio David Cabrera, Carmen Torrecillas y Juan Manuel Santiago, que además de suponer la puesta en orden y valor de información de primera importancia para la Universidad de Granada facilita una herramienta de ayuda a la toma de decisiones en materia de urbanismo e infraestructuras universitarias. En Granada. marzo de 2011. ; The importance of the University in the design process for a particular city model is a relatively feature of many variables such as population, economic dynamics, historical, socio-cultural, cultural heritage, etc. In the case of the University of Granada and the city where you will find all these circumstances are synergistic so that would be inconceivable today the city of Granada and its urbanism without it. This importance was shared throughout much of the second half of the twentieth century with the concentration of military installations linked to the ninth military region of the Spanish State. Onslaught reorganization and regrouping of space for barracks. University of Granada remains the main economic agents and social care unit (in the absence will not only other secondary but dependent coexistence with other university activity itself). These circumstances are compounded by the size of the University of Granada. both in number of students 82,482 students (58,058 for undergraduate degrees), teachers (3781) and educational infrastructure. research and university extension. These facilities, as presented throughout this document are defined in seven campuses (Aynadamar, Charterhouse Center, Ceuta, Fuentenueva, Melilla and Health Sciences) located in an autonomous and two autonomous cities and other facilities that complete the venues and are located in Sierra Nevada, Granada Alpujarra, Club Nautico Cubillas Swamp. and so on. The complexity of infrastructure management is complemented by the diversity in age and nature of them, there for the-century heritage (Roman pottery) campuses with a modernist conception of the century itself. The heritage attributes of the city of Granada determine any action that may arise. Particularly. the caution archaeological and cultural preservation is a key element in addressing the substantial improvements. V more so when the other administrations acting in most cases as mere agents inspectors without any involvement in the promotion and financing of actions for the massive revaluation of immovable property which is owned by the University of Granada . With this introduction to emphasize the obvious importance of the University of Granada as an agent developer and builder relations and interrelations in the city. being a major cause of economic dynamics existing in the city. The University of Granada is as much a determinant of backbone and a gift of land is located. circumstance that. but assumed by other administrations. has not led to a different treatment to other operators in the cities where its located. The sound management of all assets of the University of Granada University requires pragmatism and the need to establish plans and programs based on the functionality and sustainability of the actions to be determined. This has to be carried out within the funding model of the Spanish public universities where there are neither facts are considered essential differentials such as the need for historic preservation. the regenerative capacity of the urban fabric and enhancement of spaces that would otherwise be lost in the city model. well as their own cultural dissemination of historical values you have. In recent years, the University of Granada is making significant efforts aimed at achieving a specific framework that allows you to work with sufficient safeguards to address all improvements proposed actions within the University-City model. This document is presented. orderly and by successive approximations the relationship between university and city from planning to presentation of the different models of campus as well as their relationships within the framework of town. Special attention is because it lets you know the reality of relationships to model the evolution of college to 10 throughout history (Qur'an, Christian, and modern literature) to residential dynamics and their relationships with the university. (Mobility patterns) as well as the configuration and architectural design of public spaces result of previous relationships. Finally we must thank the important work carried out by the study authors David Cabrera, Carmen and Juan Manuel Santiago Torrecillas, in addition to assuming the ordering and value information of prime importance to the University of Granada provides a tool aid to decision-making in urban planning and infrastructure university. In Granada. in March 2011. ; Universidad de Granada

The African agricultural sector has been neglected by development aid during the last fifty years. It has not undertaken a green revolution, as it happened in Asia. The continent has a great potential for agricultural production but yields and technology adoption are still very low. Moreover many recent threats to food security represent a challenge for future development in Africa. Demographic growth, increase in commodity prices and price volatility, land use pressure and climate change are probably the most latent threats.In such context, it is necessary to develop new patterns of development for African agriculture. Those patterns should draw the consequences from past policies, which either relied on large investments and in favouring a development of the same nature that the one observed in rich or emerging economies. It seems that improving institutions and the environment to foster the evolution of African agriculture would be more adapted than previous strategies that consist in applying the same methods employed in the past.Food security can be achieved by improving rural households' income. Those households is composed by a vast majority of smallholders, for which agricultural production is a major resource for living. The necessary transition for stimulating production in remote areas seem to rely on fostering technology adoption and improve incentives for investments that would increase the productivity or the value added to smallholder production.We study two major organisational changes that are the reforms of cotton sector market structure in sub-Saharan Africa and index-based insurances. In both cases the point is to look at the potential of every organisation choice, reduce vulnerability and its effect, in particular the poverty trap phenomenon. The final objective is improve long run yield by foster investments, in spite of the risks borne by farmers and the tied budget constraint, consequence of the absence of financial (especially credit) markets.The cotton sectors inherited from the institutions of the colonial era, characterised by the concentration in cotton purchasing activities, often made by a parastatal at the national level. Those institutions contributed to generalise cotton production and to the diffusion of new technologies and agricultural practices, especially thanks to the distribution of quality inputs on credit, with futurecotton production as collateral. Cotton production and technology adoption were also probably driven by the existence of a minimum guaranteed price set at the beginning of the cultivation season, the investments in infrastructures, research and extension services at the same national level. However, the concentration of the purchasing of cotton also poses some problems, reducing the bargaining power of producers and the proximity of the cotton We look at the productivity response to cotton sector reforms that took place since 1985 in sub-Saharan Africa using the data from 16 cotton producers on the 1961-2008 period. We compare the performance of those countries with regard to their institutional choices. We first put into perspective the role of pre-reform investments before showing that if reforms may increase yields it could be to the cost of a shrinking area cultivated with cotton. In a second part we study the potential use of meteorological indices to smooth consumption over time and space. Such insurance policies are able to allow quick indemnifications for farmers enduring meteorological shocks. The realisation of the index is independent from the action of the principal and the agent, limiting moral hazard issues and the need for costly damage assessment arising from information asymmetry in traditional insurance contracts. Those insurance however suffer from the limited correlation between the index and the observed yield.We will study the potential of meteorological indices to limit the risk growers face in millet cultivation in Niger and cotton cultivation in Cameroon. We study, in particular, the index choice, the calibration of insurance contract parameters, the necessity of observing the sowing date and the level of basis risk. The large spatial variability of rainfall over the sudano-sahelian zone is a good reason to viiuse such insurance, it however also explain the high level of basis risk of a given index that is observed using a network of rain gauges, itself installed at a cost. We discuss in both cases the relative importance of basis risk and the potential of such insurance to pool yield, and compare them to other risks, such as intra-village yield and price shocks. ; Le secteur agricole africain a été le parent pauvre des politiques de développement du siècle dernier, ne favorisant pas l'émergence d'une révolution verte comme en Asie du Sud ou, dans une moindre mesure, en Amérique Latine. Le continent détient pourtant une capacité de production importante mais les rendements observés restent très faibles. De nombreux défis menacent par ailleurs le développement du secteur agricole et la sécurité alimentaire en Afrique Subsaharienne : croissance démographique élevée, augmentation du prix des énergies fossiles nécessaire à l'intensification telle que l'ont connue les pays occidentaux, réchauffement climatique etc. Dans ce contexte, il est nécessaire de repenser certains choix organisationnels afin de permettre un développement du secteur agricole à même de faire face à ces défis. La sécurité alimentaire en Afrique est intrinsèquement liée aux revenus des ménages ruraux, pour lesquels la production agricole joue un rôle majeur. L'approvisionnement futur du continent semble dépendre de l'adoption d'innovations autorisant une intensification agricole qui permettrait une gestion durable des ressources rares.Nous étudions deux formes de changements organisationnels que sont la structure de marché des filières coton en Afrique Subsaharienne et les assurances fondées sur des indices météorologiques. Dans les deux cas il s'agit de limiter la vulnérabilité et ses effets de pièges à pauvreté afin d'augmenter l'investissement agricole et donc le rendement moyen de long terme, en dépit de contraintes latentes de crédit et des risques qui pèsent sur le processus productif et la commercialisation.Dans le premier cas, nous étudions l'impact des réformes du secteur du coton en Afrique Sub-saharienne qui ont eu lieu de 1985 à 2008. La particularité historique du secteur est la grande concentration de l'achat de coton, réalisé au niveau national, l'existence d'un prix minimum garanti en début de période de culture et la fourniture d'intrants à crédit, qui est garanti par la future produc-tion de coton. Ces particularités on favorisé la culture du coton et la diffusion de nouvelles technologies durant la seconde partie du XXe siècle. D'autre part des investissements importants eurent lieu dans les années 60 à 80, autant dans la recherche que la vulgarisation ou les infrastructures. L'adoption de techniques d'intensification, souvent coûteuses, s'est en effet généralisée chez les producteurs de coton grâce au crédit aux intrants remboursé en nature à la récolte, elle même payé à un prix fixé au semis. Toutefois le pouvoir de monopsone a aussi pu avoir des effets dévastateurs, du fait de la proximité de la fi-lière avec les pouvoirs politiques ou de l'asymétrie du pouvoir de négociation des producteurs face aux sociétés cotonnières. C'est ce que nous cherchons à comprendre dans une étude empirique économétrique, comparant les performances des pays ayant mis en œuvre différents types de réformes et ceux ayant conservé le modèle de monopole national, parmi 16 importants producteurs d'Afrique Sub-saharienne. Nous mettons d'abord en exergue le rôle des investissements en recherche et en infrastructures avant les réformes. Nous discutons ensuite l'intérêt relatif du processus de réforme qui semble exercer un effet de sélection sur les producteurs, augmentant les rendements au prix d'une réduction des surfaces cultivées.Dans le second cas nous étudions le potentiel d'assurances contre la sécheresse fondées sur des indices météo ou de végétation. De telles assurances permettent d'indemniser rapidement les producteurs en fonction de l'observation de la réalisation de l'indice. L'objectivité et l'indépendance de la réalisation de l'indice pour le principal et l'agent permettent de limiter l'anti-sélection et de supprimer l'aléamoral que fait naı̂tre l'asymétrie d'information quant à l'ampleur des dommages dans le cas d'une assurance classique. Toutefois, ces assurances souffrent d"un inconvénient : l'imparfaite corrélation entre la réalisation observée de l'indice et le bénéfice de l'activité agricole. Nous étudions le potentiel de ces assurances dans le cas du mil au Niger et du coton au Cameroun. Nous nous penchons principalement sur le choix des indices, la calibration du contrat ainsi que sur le risque de base, c'est à dire la corrélation imparfaite entre l'indice et les rendements. Ces questions n'ont en effet été que très peu traitées en dépit d'un grand nombre de projet pilotes mis en œuvre dans les pays en développement et plusparticulièrement en Afrique Sub-saharienne ces dernières années. Nous montrons l'importance du choix et du calcul des indices (source de données et simulation de la date de semis), de la calibration des paramètres de l'assurance ainsi que les limites intrinsèques à ce type de produit de mutualisation. Nous comptons parmi ces limites l'importance du risque de base spatial dans cette zone et celle des risques non-météorologiques (comme les variations de prix).

The African agricultural sector has been neglected by development aid during the last fifty years. It has not undertaken a green revolution, as it happened in Asia. The continent has a great potential for agricultural production but yields and technology adoption are still very low. Moreover many recent threats to food security represent a challenge for future development in Africa. Demographic growth, increase in commodity prices and price volatility, land use pressure and climate change are probably the most latent threats.In such context, it is necessary to develop new patterns of development for African agriculture. Those patterns should draw the consequences from past policies, which either relied on large investments and in favouring a development of the same nature that the one observed in rich or emerging economies. It seems that improving institutions and the environment to foster the evolution of African agriculture would be more adapted than previous strategies that consist in applying the same methods employed in the past.Food security can be achieved by improving rural households' income. Those households is composed by a vast majority of smallholders, for which agricultural production is a major resource for living. The necessary transition for stimulating production in remote areas seem to rely on fostering technology adoption and improve incentives for investments that would increase the productivity or the value added to smallholder production.We study two major organisational changes that are the reforms of cotton sector market structure in sub-Saharan Africa and index-based insurances. In both cases the point is to look at the potential of every organisation choice, reduce vulnerability and its effect, in particular the poverty trap phenomenon. The final objective is improve long run yield by foster investments, in spite of the risks borne by farmers and the tied budget constraint, consequence of the absence of financial (especially credit) markets.The cotton sectors inherited from the institutions of the colonial era, characterised by the concentration in cotton purchasing activities, often made by a parastatal at the national level. Those institutions contributed to generalise cotton production and to the diffusion of new technologies and agricultural practices, especially thanks to the distribution of quality inputs on credit, with futurecotton production as collateral. Cotton production and technology adoption were also probably driven by the existence of a minimum guaranteed price set at the beginning of the cultivation season, the investments in infrastructures, research and extension services at the same national level. However, the concentration of the purchasing of cotton also poses some problems, reducing the bargaining power of producers and the proximity of the cotton We look at the productivity response to cotton sector reforms that took place since 1985 in sub-Saharan Africa using the data from 16 cotton producers on the 1961-2008 period. We compare the performance of those countries with regard to their institutional choices. We first put into perspective the role of pre-reform investments before showing that if reforms may increase yields it could be to the cost of a shrinking area cultivated with cotton. In a second part we study the potential use of meteorological indices to smooth consumption over time and space. Such insurance policies are able to allow quick indemnifications for farmers enduring meteorological shocks. The realisation of the index is independent from the action of the principal and the agent, limiting moral hazard issues and the need for costly damage assessment arising from information asymmetry in traditional insurance contracts. Those insurance however suffer from the limited correlation between the index and the observed yield.We will study the potential of meteorological indices to limit the risk growers face in millet cultivation in Niger and cotton cultivation in Cameroon. We study, in particular, the index choice, the calibration of insurance contract parameters, the necessity of observing the sowing date and the level of basis risk. The large spatial variability of rainfall over the sudano-sahelian zone is a good reason to viiuse such insurance, it however also explain the high level of basis risk of a given index that is observed using a network of rain gauges, itself installed at a cost. We discuss in both cases the relative importance of basis risk and the potential of such insurance to pool yield, and compare them to other risks, such as intra-village yield and price shocks. ; Le secteur agricole africain a été le parent pauvre des politiques de développement du siècle dernier, ne favorisant pas l'émergence d'une révolution verte comme en Asie du Sud ou, dans une moindre mesure, en Amérique Latine. Le continent détient pourtant une capacité de production importante mais les rendements observés restent très faibles. De nombreux défis menacent par ailleurs le développement du secteur agricole et la sécurité alimentaire en Afrique Subsaharienne : croissance démographique élevée, augmentation du prix des énergies fossiles nécessaire à l'intensification telle que l'ont connue les pays occidentaux, réchauffement climatique etc. Dans ce contexte, il est nécessaire de repenser certains choix organisationnels afin de permettre un développement du secteur agricole à même de faire face à ces défis. La sécurité alimentaire en Afrique est intrinsèquement liée aux revenus des ménages ruraux, pour lesquels la production agricole joue un rôle majeur. L'approvisionnement futur du continent semble dépendre de l'adoption d'innovations autorisant une intensification agricole qui permettrait une gestion durable des ressources rares.Nous étudions deux formes de changements organisationnels que sont la structure de marché des filières coton en Afrique Subsaharienne et les assurances fondées sur des indices météorologiques. Dans les deux cas il s'agit de limiter la vulnérabilité et ses effets de pièges à pauvreté afin d'augmenter l'investissement agricole et donc le rendement moyen de long terme, en dépit de contraintes latentes de crédit et des risques qui pèsent sur le processus productif et la commercialisation.Dans le premier cas, nous étudions l'impact des réformes du secteur du coton en Afrique Sub-saharienne qui ont eu lieu de 1985 à 2008. La particularité historique du secteur est la grande concentration de l'achat de coton, réalisé au niveau national, l'existence d'un prix minimum garanti en début de période de culture et la fourniture d'intrants à crédit, qui est garanti par la future produc-tion de coton. Ces particularités on favorisé la culture du coton et la diffusion de nouvelles technologies durant la seconde partie du XXe siècle. D'autre part des investissements importants eurent lieu dans les années 60 à 80, autant dans la recherche que la vulgarisation ou les infrastructures. L'adoption de techniques d'intensification, souvent coûteuses, s'est en effet généralisée chez les producteurs de coton grâce au crédit aux intrants remboursé en nature à la récolte, elle même payé à un prix fixé au semis. Toutefois le pouvoir de monopsone a aussi pu avoir des effets dévastateurs, du fait de la proximité de la fi-lière avec les pouvoirs politiques ou de l'asymétrie du pouvoir de négociation des producteurs face aux sociétés cotonnières. C'est ce que nous cherchons à comprendre dans une étude empirique économétrique, comparant les performances des pays ayant mis en œuvre différents types de réformes et ceux ayant conservé le modèle de monopole national, parmi 16 importants producteurs d'Afrique Sub-saharienne. Nous mettons d'abord en exergue le rôle des investissements en recherche et en infrastructures avant les réformes. Nous discutons ensuite l'intérêt relatif du processus de réforme qui semble exercer un effet de sélection sur les producteurs, augmentant les rendements au prix d'une réduction des surfaces cultivées.Dans le second cas nous étudions le potentiel d'assurances contre la sécheresse fondées sur des indices météo ou de végétation. De telles assurances permettent d'indemniser rapidement les producteurs en fonction de l'observation de la réalisation de l'indice. L'objectivité et l'indépendance de la réalisation de l'indice pour le principal et l'agent permettent de limiter l'anti-sélection et de supprimer l'aléamoral que fait naı̂tre l'asymétrie d'information quant à l'ampleur des dommages dans le cas d'une assurance classique. Toutefois, ces assurances souffrent d"un inconvénient : l'imparfaite corrélation entre la réalisation observée de l'indice et le bénéfice de l'activité agricole. Nous étudions le potentiel de ces assurances dans le cas du mil au Niger et du coton au Cameroun. Nous nous penchons principalement sur le choix des indices, la calibration du contrat ainsi que sur le risque de base, c'est à dire la corrélation imparfaite entre l'indice et les rendements. Ces questions n'ont en effet été que très peu traitées en dépit d'un grand nombre de projet pilotes mis en œuvre dans les pays en développement et plusparticulièrement en Afrique Sub-saharienne ces dernières années. Nous montrons l'importance du choix et du calcul des indices (source de données et simulation de la date de semis), de la calibration des paramètres de l'assurance ainsi que les limites intrinsèques à ce type de produit de mutualisation. Nous comptons parmi ces limites l'importance du risque de base spatial dans cette zone et celle des risques non-météorologiques (comme les variations de prix).

The African agricultural sector has been neglected by development aid during the last fifty years. It has not undertaken a green revolution, as it happened in Asia. The continent has a great potential for agricultural production but yields and technology adoption are still very low. Moreover many recent threats to food security represent a challenge for future development in Africa. Demographic growth, increase in commodity prices and price volatility, land use pressure and climate change are probably the most latent threats.In such context, it is necessary to develop new patterns of development for African agriculture. Those patterns should draw the consequences from past policies, which either relied on large investments and in favouring a development of the same nature that the one observed in rich or emerging economies. It seems that improving institutions and the environment to foster the evolution of African agriculture would be more adapted than previous strategies that consist in applying the same methods employed in the past.Food security can be achieved by improving rural households' income. Those households is composed by a vast majority of smallholders, for which agricultural production is a major resource for living. The necessary transition for stimulating production in remote areas seem to rely on fostering technology adoption and improve incentives for investments that would increase the productivity or the value added to smallholder production.We study two major organisational changes that are the reforms of cotton sector market structure in sub-Saharan Africa and index-based insurances. In both cases the point is to look at the potential of every organisation choice, reduce vulnerability and its effect, in particular the poverty trap phenomenon. The final objective is improve long run yield by foster investments, in spite of the risks borne by farmers and the tied budget constraint, consequence of the absence of financial (especially credit) markets.The cotton sectors inherited from the institutions of the colonial era, characterised by the concentration in cotton purchasing activities, often made by a parastatal at the national level. Those institutions contributed to generalise cotton production and to the diffusion of new technologies and agricultural practices, especially thanks to the distribution of quality inputs on credit, with futurecotton production as collateral. Cotton production and technology adoption were also probably driven by the existence of a minimum guaranteed price set at the beginning of the cultivation season, the investments in infrastructures, research and extension services at the same national level. However, the concentration of the purchasing of cotton also poses some problems, reducing the bargaining power of producers and the proximity of the cotton We look at the productivity response to cotton sector reforms that took place since 1985 in sub-Saharan Africa using the data from 16 cotton producers on the 1961-2008 period. We compare the performance of those countries with regard to their institutional choices. We first put into perspective the role of pre-reform investments before showing that if reforms may increase yields it could be to the cost of a shrinking area cultivated with cotton. In a second part we study the potential use of meteorological indices to smooth consumption over time and space. Such insurance policies are able to allow quick indemnifications for farmers enduring meteorological shocks. The realisation of the index is independent from the action of the principal and the agent, limiting moral hazard issues and the need for costly damage assessment arising from information asymmetry in traditional insurance contracts. Those insurance however suffer from the limited correlation between the index and the observed yield.We will study the potential of meteorological indices to limit the risk growers face in millet cultivation in Niger and cotton cultivation in Cameroon. We study, in particular, the index choice, the calibration of insurance contract parameters, the necessity of observing the sowing date and the level of basis risk. The large spatial variability of rainfall over the sudano-sahelian zone is a good reason to viiuse such insurance, it however also explain the high level of basis risk of a given index that is observed using a network of rain gauges, itself installed at a cost. We discuss in both cases the relative importance of basis risk and the potential of such insurance to pool yield, and compare them to other risks, such as intra-village yield and price shocks. ; Le secteur agricole africain a été le parent pauvre des politiques de développement du siècle dernier, ne favorisant pas l'émergence d'une révolution verte comme en Asie du Sud ou, dans une moindre mesure, en Amérique Latine. Le continent détient pourtant une capacité de production importante mais les rendements observés restent très faibles. De nombreux défis menacent par ailleurs le développement du secteur agricole et la sécurité alimentaire en Afrique Subsaharienne : croissance démographique élevée, augmentation du prix des énergies fossiles nécessaire à l'intensification telle que l'ont connue les pays occidentaux, réchauffement climatique etc. Dans ce contexte, il est nécessaire de repenser certains choix organisationnels afin de permettre un développement du secteur agricole à même de faire face à ces défis. La sécurité alimentaire en Afrique est intrinsèquement liée aux revenus des ménages ruraux, pour lesquels la production agricole joue un rôle majeur. L'approvisionnement futur du continent semble dépendre de l'adoption d'innovations autorisant une intensification agricole qui permettrait une gestion durable des ressources rares.Nous étudions deux formes de changements organisationnels que sont la structure de marché des filières coton en Afrique Subsaharienne et les assurances fondées sur des indices météorologiques. Dans les deux cas il s'agit de limiter la vulnérabilité et ses effets de pièges à pauvreté afin d'augmenter l'investissement agricole et donc le rendement moyen de long terme, en dépit de contraintes latentes de crédit et des risques qui pèsent sur le processus productif et la commercialisation.Dans le premier cas, nous étudions l'impact des réformes du secteur du coton en Afrique Sub-saharienne qui ont eu lieu de 1985 à 2008. La particularité historique du secteur est la grande concentration de l'achat de coton, réalisé au niveau national, l'existence d'un prix minimum garanti en début de période de culture et la fourniture d'intrants à crédit, qui est garanti par la future produc-tion de coton. Ces particularités on favorisé la culture du coton et la diffusion de nouvelles technologies durant la seconde partie du XXe siècle. D'autre part des investissements importants eurent lieu dans les années 60 à 80, autant dans la recherche que la vulgarisation ou les infrastructures. L'adoption de techniques d'intensification, souvent coûteuses, s'est en effet généralisée chez les producteurs de coton grâce au crédit aux intrants remboursé en nature à la récolte, elle même payé à un prix fixé au semis. Toutefois le pouvoir de monopsone a aussi pu avoir des effets dévastateurs, du fait de la proximité de la fi-lière avec les pouvoirs politiques ou de l'asymétrie du pouvoir de négociation des producteurs face aux sociétés cotonnières. C'est ce que nous cherchons à comprendre dans une étude empirique économétrique, comparant les performances des pays ayant mis en œuvre différents types de réformes et ceux ayant conservé le modèle de monopole national, parmi 16 importants producteurs d'Afrique Sub-saharienne. Nous mettons d'abord en exergue le rôle des investissements en recherche et en infrastructures avant les réformes. Nous discutons ensuite l'intérêt relatif du processus de réforme qui semble exercer un effet de sélection sur les producteurs, augmentant les rendements au prix d'une réduction des surfaces cultivées.Dans le second cas nous étudions le potentiel d'assurances contre la sécheresse fondées sur des indices météo ou de végétation. De telles assurances permettent d'indemniser rapidement les producteurs en fonction de l'observation de la réalisation de l'indice. L'objectivité et l'indépendance de la réalisation de l'indice pour le principal et l'agent permettent de limiter l'anti-sélection et de supprimer l'aléamoral que fait naı̂tre l'asymétrie d'information quant à l'ampleur des dommages dans le cas d'une assurance classique. Toutefois, ces assurances souffrent d"un inconvénient : l'imparfaite corrélation entre la réalisation observée de l'indice et le bénéfice de l'activité agricole. Nous étudions le potentiel de ces assurances dans le cas du mil au Niger et du coton au Cameroun. Nous nous penchons principalement sur le choix des indices, la calibration du contrat ainsi que sur le risque de base, c'est à dire la corrélation imparfaite entre l'indice et les rendements. Ces questions n'ont en effet été que très peu traitées en dépit d'un grand nombre de projet pilotes mis en œuvre dans les pays en développement et plusparticulièrement en Afrique Sub-saharienne ces dernières années. Nous montrons l'importance du choix et du calcul des indices (source de données et simulation de la date de semis), de la calibration des paramètres de l'assurance ainsi que les limites intrinsèques à ce type de produit de mutualisation. Nous comptons parmi ces limites l'importance du risque de base spatial dans cette zone et celle des risques non-météorologiques (comme les variations de prix).