Suchergebnisse

Background: The Atlantic Forest is one, if not the most, diverse ecosystem in the planet. The Atlantic Forest contains an estimated 250 species of mammals (55 endemic), 340 amphibians (90 endemic), 1,023 birds (188 endemic), and approximately 20,000 trees, half of them endemic. Unfortunately, several of these species are currently threatened to become extinct. Amongst those, a tree species from the Araucariaceae family called Araucaria angustifolia can be found. Known as Brazilian Pine or just araucaria, this tree occupies the higher forest stratum, characterizing the landscape of the Atlantic Forest highlands, thus being considered a symbol of the Brazilian southern region. Araucaria trees are profitable regarding non-wood utilisation. The species produces a highly nutritious seed (pinhão in Portuguese), appreciated by humans and animals. There is a culturally established market around the seed, which, unfortunately, is not developed enough to allow sufficient economical return. Araucaria trees are also attractive due to its high quality and aesthetically pleasing wood, which led to its intense exploration in the 1960s and 1970s. Nowadays, the species is classified as critically endangered and is protected by law against illegal logging. However, such restrictive laws have resulted in further threat to the species. Knowing the legal difficulties to remove a grown araucaria tree from their property, landowners remove new natural saplings. Practices have been proposed to promote other sustainable uses for the species. Still, lawmakers in consort with researchers and specialists can only legislate upon detailed data regarding the species. In order to collect such paramount information throughout the species occurrence areas (approx. 200,000 km2 ), specialists face an extremely very fragmented environment, which poses operational and financial difficulties to acquire the data. Aims: The aim of this thesis was to introduce a methodology to automatically detect and measure Araucaria angustifolia in complex native forest formations in southern Brazil. The proposed methodology leverages on light detection and ranging (LiDAR) as well as high resolution aerial imagery. Normally, species mapping and measurement is conducted by combining LiDAR and spectral information (e.g. aerial, satellite or drone imagery). In this study, an analysis was performed to determine if there is, in fact, the necessity to add spectral information to map araucaria trees. Lastly, an alternative method was proposed, where no LiDAR data is required. A novel methodology was developed to detect araucarias from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), as an alternative to LiDAR-based methodologies. Research questions: 1. Is spectral information imperative to map A. angustifolia or LiDAR data alone is enough? 2. Can A. angustifolia trees be detected and measured in dense forest formation using Remote Sensing data? 3. If araucaria trees are detectable, can tree parameters (e.g. total height, diameter at breast height (DBH) and crown area) be acquired with reasonable accuracy? 4. Can A. angustifolia trees be detected based on their morphology, i.e. branches distribution? Study site and data: The data analysed in this thesis come from a municipality called Lages, located in the state of Santa Catarina in the Brazilian southern region. The two study sites contain fragments of the Atlantic Forest, where the target species A. angustifolia can be found with 38 and 34 ha for study site A and B, respectively. Both study sites are covered with LiDAR data with an average point density of 14 points/m2 and aerial imagery with 0.1 m spatial resolution. The datasets were collected in the same flight performed in June 2019. In addition, field data from March 2016 was available from 10 plots, each with 0.2 ha (total sampled area of 2 ha), located in site A, where all araucaria trees within the plots were measured and georeferenced. Lastly, UAV imagery with ground sample distance of 5 cm was also available for study site A, also collected in March 2016. Methodological approach: The methodology implemented in this thesis consisted mainly of two parts: (1) araucaria tree mapping and forest parameter estimation using LiDAR and aerial imagery; (2) detection of araucarias based on branch recognition from UAV imagery. 1. In order to map araucaria trees employing LiDAR and aerial imagery, a Random Forest classification was conducted. An analysis was performed to determine the efficiency of the classification when using only LiDAR data and when adding spectral information to it. Moreover, the random forest classifier was trained in site A and tested in site B. With the result of the mapping, a clipping mask was generated and used to clip the LiDAR point cloud. The clipped point cloud was assessed in terms of individual tree detection (ITD) as a means to determine the number of stems per hectare, total tree height and crown area, as well as estimate DBH. 2. A new methodology was developed as an alternative for LiDAR-based approaches. The approach consists of recognizing araucaria branches and use their orientation to determine A. angustifolia tree locations. The approach was implemented using a computer vision method called Probabilistic Hough Transform associated with other image processing techniques such as morphological filtering and image segmentation. By employing such techniques, the branches were detected as lines, which then could be used to calculate branch orientation, culminating on tree location. Results and discussion: LiDAR data is commonly used for commercial conifer tree species mapping and have been used for inventory purposes operationally in many countries such as Finland, Sweden, Canada, the United States and others. However, fewer have explored the applications of LiDAR data in complex environments such as the Atlantic Forest. The reason is mainly due to the multi layer structure in native forests and the high occurrence of tree occlusion, which affects the stems count, an important forest parameter for inventory purposes. In this study, such reasons were also noticed, even considering araucarias' crown size and the fact that the adult individuals of the species usually are located in the upper layer of the forest canopy. Nonetheless, it was possible to determine that the majority of A. angustifolia trees were successfully mapped employing LiDAR data. Moreover, there was enough statistical evidence to state that no difference was found when mapping A. angustifolia employing only LiDAR data and combined spectral information and LiDAR data. When comparing both maps derived from the Random Forest classification, it was possible to observe similar performance from both datasets. Overall accuracies of 90.8% and 89.8% were observed for sites A and B, respectively. Even though adult trees of araucaria are usually visible in the upper forest canopy, a more basic operation such as a height threshold would not be able to separate araucarias from the rest of the species. This happens since there are many other species that occupy the same height level, which could result in commission errors. Hence, a supervised classification such as RF was efficient in removing the remainder of the tree species. When addressing the stems count, after running a ITD approach using local maxima detection an overall accuracy of 73.34% was reached. That resulted in a density of 43 stems/ha, which is below the 61 stems/ha calculated from the field data. This difference in mainly due to tree occlusion, which is often observed in multi layer structure of complex natural environments such as araucaria forests. If a comparison is performed against the actual visible trees, the accuracy would be increased to 87.9%. There is still 12.1% error considering the upper visible forest canopy, which is caused by smaller trees close to dominant ones, resulting in further omissions. One of the challenges of working with LiDAR and araucarias is the species morphology. Araucarias possess a unique crown shape, commonly described in the literature as being similar to a wine glass or an inverted chandelier. However, a combination of uneven terrain and oddly shaped crowns results in a distorted normalized point cloud, which in turn, affects the total tree height generated from it. As a solution, the ITD was performed using the digital surface model (DSM) to detect the local maxima. Once the coordinate of the highest point of a tree was determined, these coordinates were used to retrieve the tree height from the CHM. As a result, the total height and crown diameter measurements reached errors of 1.44 m and 1.72 m, respectively. However, point cloud normalization was not the only probable source of variation. The field measurements were performed in March 2016, while the LiDAR data was acquired in June 2019. This represents a difference of 39 months between measurements. Evidently, adult trees are not expected to grow too much, specially when a slow-growth native species such as araucaria is concerned. Yet, this discrepancy needs to be considered when assessing the results. Hence, it was not possible to determine if the height and crown measurements were affected by the field measurements procedure (field measurement errors), the time difference between LiDAR and field data acquisitions or the methodology proposed in this study. Lastly, considering that the DBH was estimated from the total height and crown diameter, these inconsistencies are carried over to the estimates, yielding a DBH error of 9.89 cm. Araucaria trees are easy to distinguish from other tree species when observed from nadir. Due to the unique format of the species crown, a novel approach based on the branch distribution from an orthogonal view was proposed to automatically detect araucaria trees.After implementing and testing this approach, an overall accuracy of 93% was achieved. During the analysis, a difficulty index was introduced, in which trees easily distinguishable were assigned difficulty level 1 (easy), partially occluded ones received index 2 (medium) and severely occluded but still partially visible ones were assigned index 3 (hard). The highest accuracy was achieved with difficulty index 1 with overall accuracy of 98%, followed by 92% and 89% for difficulty index 2 and 3, respectively. If the difficulty index is ignored and the tree detection is assessed as a whole, an overall accuracy of 93% was reached. The methodology demonstrated to be robust, considering it relies solely on branches to determine the tree location. Nonetheless, limitations were observed with this approach. Considering that branches are the main element of this methodology, if they are not visible, trees are simply not detected. Adult araucaria trees present visible branches, which are commonly very thick (reaching up to 30 cm in diameter based on field observations). However, a high density of secondary and tertiary branches may interfere in the visibility of primary branches. Lastly, adjacent trees with branches similarly oriented also result in omissions, since they seem merged in the image, resulting in only one branch being detected. Conclusions: In this thesis, evidences demonstrated that LiDAR data can be used for A. angustifolia mapping and forest parameter estimation. Moreover, when considering the test sites addressed in this study, the addition of spectral information didn't significantly improve the mapping, leading to the conclusion that LiDAR data alone is enough for A. angustifolia mapping. Lastly, when working with native species, conventional methods might not be the best practice and approaching issues with different perspectives can yield new solutions. The new proposed method is a clear example of that. By using the species unique morphology as basis, the approach has showed promising results, which could be further improved in future research. This thesis constitutes the first study to provide an in-depth analysis on the use of LiDAR data to automatically map Araucaria angustifolia in natural dense forest formations. Moreover, considering the current situation of the species, this work contributes to a better understanding of the challenges when working with araucaria trees as well as working with complex forest structures. In addition, further work can be developed based on this study, which could provide even more accurate large-scale information to lawmakers, researchers and specialists when developing new strategies to sustainably manage the species. ; Hintergrund: Der Atlantische Wald ist eines, wenn nicht das vielfältigste ökosystem der Erde. Der Atlantische Wald beherbergt ungefähr 250 Arten von Säugetieren (55 endemisch), 340 von Amphibien (90 endemisch), 1.023 von Vögeln (188 endemisch) und etwa 20.000 von Bäume, von denen die Hälfte endemisch sind. Leider sind mehrere dieser Arten derzeit vom Aussterben bedroht. Darunter befindet sich auch eine Baumart aus der Familie der Araukariengewächse (Araucariaceae), die Araucaria angustifolia genannt wird. Dieser Baum, der als Brasilianische Kiefer oder einfach Araukaria bekannt ist, nimmt die höhere Waldschicht ein und prägt die Landschaft des Hochlandes des Atlantischen Waldes und gilt daher als Symbol der südlichen Region Brasiliens. Araukarienbäume sind hinsichtlich der Nicht-Holznutzung rentabel. Diese Baumart produziert einen sehr nahrhaften Samen (pinhão auf Portugiesisch), der von Mensch und Tier geschätzt wird. Um das Saatgut herum gibt es einen kulturell etablierten Markt, der leider nicht genügend entwickelt ist, um einen ausreichenden wirtschaftlichen Ertrag zu ermöglichen. Araukarienbäume sind auch wegen ihrer hohen Qualität und ihres ästhetisch ansprechenden Holzes attraktiv, was in den 1960er und 1970er Jahren zu ihrer intensiven Erforschung führte. Heute gilt die Baumart als kritisch gefährdet und ist gesetzlich gegen illegalen Holzeinschlag geschützt. Solche restriktiven Gesetze haben jedoch zu einer weiteren Bedrohung der Baumart geführt. Im Wissen um die rechtlichen Schwierigkeiten, einen gewachsenen Araukarienbaum von ihrem Grundstück zu schlagen, entfernen Landbesitzer neue natürliche Sämling. Es wurden Praktiken zur Förderung anderer nachhaltiger Nutzungen der Art vorgeschlagen. Dennoch kann der Gesetzgeber in Zusammenarbeit mit Forschern und Spezialisten nur auf der Grundlage detaillierter Daten über die Art Gesetze erlassen. Um solch überragende Informationen in den gesamten Vorkommensgebiete der Baumarten (ca. 200.000 km 2 ) zu sammeln, sehen sich Spezialisten mit einer extrem stark fragmentierten Umwelt konfrontiert, was operative und finanzielle Schwierigkeiten bei der Beschaffung der Daten verursacht. Ziele: Das Ziel dieser Doktorarbeit war die Einführung einer Methodik zur automatischen Erkennung und Messung von Araucaria angustifolia in komplexen einheimischen Waldformationen im Süden Brasiliens. Die vorgeschlagene Methodik stützt sich auf light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sowie auf hochauflösende Luftbilder. Normalerweise wird die Kartierung und Messung von Baumarten durch die Kombination von LiDAR und spektralen Informationen (z.B. Luft-, Satelliten- oder Drohnenbildern) durchgeführt. In dieser Studie wurde jedoch eine Analyse durchgeführt, um festzustellen, ob tatsächlich die Notwendigkeit besteht, spektrale Informationen zur Kartierung von Araukarienbäumen hinzuzufügen. Schließlich wurde eine alternative Methode vorgeschlagen, bei der keine LiDAR-Daten erforderlich sind. Als Alternative zu den LiDAR-basierten Methoden wurde eine neue Methode zur Erkennung von Araukarien aus unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) entwickelt. Forschungsfragen: 1. Ist spektrale Information für die Kartierung von A. angustifolia zwingend erforderlich oder reichen LiDAR-Daten allein aus? 2. Können A. angustifolia-Bäume in dichter Waldbildung mit Hilfe von Fernerkundungsdaten erkannt und gemessen werden? 3. Wenn Araukarienbäume erkennbar sind, können Baumparameter (z.B. Gesamthöhe, Brusthöhendurchmesser (BHD) und Kronenfläche) mit ausreichender Genauigkeit erfasst werden? 4. Können A. angustifolia-Bäume anhand ihrer Morphologie, d.h. der Verteilung der Äste, erkannt werden? Versuchsflächen und Daten: Die in dieser Arbeit analysierten Daten stammen aus einer Gemeinde namens Lages, im Bundesstaat Santa Catarina in der südlichen Region Brasiliens gelegen. Die beiden Versuchsflächen umfassen Fragmente des Atlantischen Waldes, wo die Zielart A. angustifolia zu finden ist, mit 38 bzw. 34 ha für das Versuchsfläche A bzw. B.Beide Versuchsflächen werden mit LiDAR-Daten mit einer durchschnittlichen Punktdichte von 14 Punkten/m2 und Luftbildern mit einer räumlichen Auflösung von 0,1 m abgedeckt. Die Datensätze wurden im selben Flug gesammelt, der im Juni 2019 durchgeführt wurde. Darüber hinaus standen Felddaten vom März 2016 von 10 Parzellen mit jeweils 0,2 ha (gesamte beprobte Fläche von 2 ha) zur Verfügung, die sich an Standort A befanden, wo alle Araukarienbäume innerhalb der Parzellen gemessen und georeferenziert wurden. Schließlich waren auch UAV-Bilder mit einem Bodenprobenabstand von 5 cm für Versuchsfläche A verfügbar, die ebenfalls im März 2016 gesammelt wurden. Methodischer Ansatz: Die in dieser Arbeit implementierte Methodik bestand hauptsächlich aus zwei Teilen: (1) Kartierung von Araukarienbäumen und Schätzung von Wald-parametern mit Hilfe von LiDAR und Luftbildern; (2) Erkennung von Araukarienbäumen basierend auf der Asterkennung aus UAV-Bildern. 1. Zur Kartierung von Araukarienbäumen unter Verwendung von LiDAR und Luftbildern wurde eine Random Forest Klassifikation durchgeführt. Es wurde eine Untersuchung vorgenommen, um die Effizienz der Klassifikation bei ausschließlicher Verwendung von LiDAR-Daten und beim Hinzufügen spektraler Informationen festzustellen. Darüber hinaus wurde der Random Forest Klassifikator in Standort A trainiert und in Standort B getestet. Mit dem Ergebnis der Kartierung wurde eine Ausschnittsmaske generiert und zum Ausschnitt der LiDAR-Punktwolke verwendet. Die abgeschnittene Punktwolke wurde im Rahmen des Einzelbaumnachweises (ITD) als Mittel zur Bestimmung der Anzahl der Stämme pro Hektar, der Gesamtbaumhöhe und der Kronenfläche sowie zur Schätzung des DBH bewertet. 2. Eine neue Methodik wurde als Alternative für LiDAR-basierte Ansätze entwickelt. Der Ansatz besteht darin, Araukarienäste zu erkennen und ihre Ausrichtung zur Bestimmung der Baumposition von A. angustifolia-Bäumen zu verwenden. Der Ansatz wurde mit Hilfe einer Computer Vision Methode namens Probabilistic Hough Transformation in Verbindung mit anderen Bildverarbeitungsverfahren wie morphologischer Filterung und Bildsegmentierung umgesetzt. Durch den Einsatz solcher Techniken wurden die äste als Linien erkannt, die dann zur Berechnung der Astausrichtung bis hin zur Baumposition verwendet werden konnten. Ergebnisse und Diskussion: LiDAR-Daten werden häufig für die Baumkartierung von kommerziellen Nadelbäumen verwendet und wurden in vielen Ländern operationell für Inventurzwecke eingesetzt wie zum Beispiel Finnland, Schweden, Kanada, Vereinigte Staaten und andere. Weniger haben jedoch erkundet die Anwendungen von LiDAR-Daten in komplexen Umgebungen wie dem Atlantischen Wald. Der Grund dafür ist vor allem die mehrschichtige Struktur in einheimischen Wäldern und das hohe Vorkommen von Baumokklusion, die sich auf die Anzahl der Stämme auswirkt, ein wichtiger Waldparameter für die Inventurzwecke. In dieser Studie wurden auch solche Gründe festgestellt, sogar unter Berücksichtigung der Kronengröße der Araukarien und der Tatsache, dass sich die erwachsenen Individuen der Art normalerweise in der oberen Schicht des Walddaches befinden. Dennoch konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Mehrzahl der Bäume von A. angustifolia erfolgreich mit LiDAR-Daten kartiert wurde. Darüber hinaus bestand genügend statistischer Nachweis, um festzustellen, dass bei der Kartierung von A. angustifolia, bei der nur LiDAR-Daten und kombinierte Spektralinformationen und LiDAR-Daten verwendet wurden, kein Unterschied festgestellt wurde. Beim Vergleich beider Karten, die aus der Random Forest Klassifikation abgeleitet wurden, konnte eine ähnliche Leistung beider Datensätze beobachtet werden. Für die Standorte A und B wurden Gesamtgenauigkeiten von 90,8% bzw. 89,8% beobachtet. Obwohl ausgewachsene Araukarienbäume normalerweise im oberen Kronendach des Waldes zu sehen sind, wäre eine einfachere Operation wie eine Höhengrenze nicht in der Lage, Araukarienbäume von den übrigen Arten zu trennen. Dies geschieht, da es viele andere Baumarten gibt, die das gleiche Höhenniveau besetzen, was zu Kommissionsfehlern führen könnte. Daher war eine überwachte Klassifikation wie RF effizient, um den übrigen Baumarten zu entfernen. Bezüglich der Anzahl der Stämme, nach Durchführung eines ITD-Ansatzes mit lokaler Maxima-Erkennung wurde eine Gesamtgenauigkeit von 73,34% erreicht. Daraus ergab sich eine Dichte von 43 Stämmen/ha, die unter dem aus den Felddaten berechneten 61 Stämmen/ha liegt. Dieser Unterschied ist in hauptsächlich auf die Baumokklusion zurückzuführen, die oft in einer mehrschichtigen Struktur von komplexen natürlichen Umweltumgebungen wie Araukarienwäldern beobachtet wird. Wenn ein Vergleich mit den tatsächlich sichtbaren Bäumen durchgeführt wird, würde sich die Genauigkeit auf 87,9% erhöhen. Bei Betrachtung des oberen sichtbaren Kronendaches des Waldes, der durch leinere Bäume in der Nähe der dominanten Bäume verursacht wird, ergibt sich immer noch ein Fehler von 12,1%, der zu weiteren Auslassungen führt. Eine der Herausforderungen bei der Forschung mit LiDAR und Araukarien ist die Morphologie der Baumarten. Araukarien besitzen eine einzigartige Kronenform, die in der Literatur häufig als einem Weinglas oder einem umgekehrten Kronleuchter ähnlich beschrieben. Allerdings ist eine Kombination aus unebenem Gelände und unregelmäßig geformten Kronen führt zu einer verzerrten normalisierten Punktwolke, die sich folglich auf die daraus generierte Gesamthöhe des Baumes auswirkt. Als Lösung wurde das ITD mittels des digitalen Oberflächenmodells (DSM) durchgeführt, um die local maxima zu ermitteln. Nach der Bestimmung der Koordinaten des höchsten Punktes eines Baumes wurden diese Koordinaten verwendet, um die Baumhöhe aus dem CHM abzurufen. Infolgedessen ergaben die Messungen der Gesamthöhe und des Kronendurchmessers Fehler von 1,44 m bzw. 1,72 m. Die Normalisierung der Punktwolken war jedoch nicht die einzige wahrscheinliche Quelle von Abweichungen. Die Feldmessungen wurden im März 2016 durchgeführt, während die LiDAR-Daten im Juni 2019 erfasst wurden. Dies entspricht ein Unterschied von 39 Monate zwischen den Messungen. Offensichtlich wird von erwachsenen Bäumen nicht erwartet, dass sie zu viel wachsen, besonders wenn es sich um eine langsam wachsende einheimische Baumart wie die Araukarien handelt. Diese Abweichung muss jedoch bei der Bewertung der Ergebnisse berücksichtigt werden. Daher war es nicht möglich festzustellen, ob die Höhen- und Kronenmessungen durch das Feldmessverfahren (Feldmessfehler), die Zeitdifferenz zwischen LiDAR und Felddatenerfassung oder die in dieser Studie vorgeschlagene Methodik beeinflusst wurden. Letztendlich da die BHD aus der Gesamthöhe und dem Kronendurchmesser geschätzt wurde, werden diese Abweichungen auf die Schätzungen übertragen, was einen BHD-Fehler von 9,89 cm ergibt. Araukarienbäume sind einfach von anderen Baumarten zu unterscheiden, wenn sie von Nadir aus beobachtet werden. Aufgrund des einzigartigen Kronenformats der Baumart wurde ein neuartiger Ansatz vorgeschlagen, der auf der Astverteilung aus orthogonaler Sicht basiert, um Araukarienbäume automatisch zu erkennen. Nach der Implementierung und dem Testen dieses Ansatzes wurde eine Gesamtgenauigkeit von 93% erreicht. Beider Analyse wurde ein Schwierigkeitsindex eingeführt, bei dem leicht unterscheidbare Bäume der Schwierigkeitsstufe 1 (leicht) zugeordnet wurden, teilweise okkludierte erhielten den Index 2 (mittel) und stark okkludierte, aber noch teilweise sichtbare Bäume den Index 3 (hart). Die höchste Genauigkeit von 98% wurde beim Schwierigkeitsindex 1 erreicht, gefolgt von 92% und 89% beim Schwierigkeitsindex 2 und 3. Wenn man den Schwierigkeitsindex ignoriert und die Baumerkennung als Ganzes bewertet, wurde eine Gesamtgenauigkeit von 93% erreicht. Die Methode erwies sich als robust, da sie sich zur Bestimmung des Baumstandortes ausschließlich auf äste stützt. Trotzdem wurden bei diesem Ansatz Einschränkungen beobachtet. Da die äste das Hauptelement dieser Methodik sind, wenn sie nicht sichtbar sind, werden Bäume einfach nicht erkannt. Ausgewachsene Araukarienbäume weisen sichtbare Äste auf, die in der Regel sehr dick sind (bis zu 30 cm Durchmesser, basierend auf Feldbeobachtungen). Eine hohe Dichte von sekundären und tertiären ästen kann jedoch die Sichtbarkeit der primären äste behindern. Schließlich führen auch benachbarte Bäume mit ähnlich orientierten ästen zu Auslassungen, da sie im Bild verschmolzen erscheinen, so dass nur ein Ast erkannt wird. Schlussfolgerungen: In dieser Arbeit wurde nachgewiesen, dass LiDAR-Daten für die Kartierung von A. angustifolia und die Schätzung von Waldparametern verwendet werden können. Darüber hinaus hat die Hinzufügung von Spektralinformationen bei der Betrachtung der in dieser Studie behandelten Versuchsflächen die Kartierung nicht signifikant verbessert, was zu der Schlussfolgerung führt, dass LiDAR-Daten allein für die Kartierung von A. angustifolia ausreichen. Letztlich, wenn es um die Arbeit mit einheimischen Baumarten geht, sind konventionelle Methoden möglicherweise nicht die beste Praxis, und die Herangehensweise an Probleme mit unterschiedlichen Perspektiven kann zu neuen Lösungen führen. Die neue vorgeschlagene Methode ist ein klares Beispiel dafür. Durch die Verwendung der einzigartigen Morphologie der Baumart als Grundlage hat der Ansatz vielversprechende Ergebnisse gezeigt, die in der zukünftigen Forschung weiter verbessert werden könnten. Diese Doktorarbeit stellt die erste Studie dar, die eine vertiefte Analyse über den Einsatz von LiDAR-Daten zur automatischen Kartierung von Araucaria angustifolia in natürlichen dichten Waldformationen liefert. Außerdem trägt diese Arbeit, unter Berücksichtigung der aktuellen Situation der Baumart, zu einem besseren Verständnis der Herausforderungen bei der Arbeit mit Araukarienbäumen sowie bei der Arbeit mit komplexen Waldstrukturen bei. Darüber hinaus können auf der Grundlage dieser Studie weitere Arbeiten entwickelt werden, die Gesetzgebern, Forschern und Spezialisten bei der Entwicklung neuer Strategien zur nachhaltigen Bewirtschaftung der Baumart noch genauere Informationen in großem Maßstab liefern könnten. ; dados LiDAR são suficientes para o mapeamento de A. angustifolia. Finalmente, quando se trabalha com espécies nativas, os métodos convencionais podem não ser a melhor prática e abordar problemas com perspectivas diferentes pode gerar novas soluções. O novo método proposto é um exemplo claro disso. Utilizando a morfologia única da espécie como base, a abordagem mostrou resultados promissores, que poderiam ser melhorados ainda mais em pesquisas futuras. Esta tese constitui o primeiro estudo a fornecer uma análise aprofundada sobre o uso de dados LiDAR para mapear automaticamente Araucaria angustifolia em formações florestais naturais densas. Além disso, considerando a situação atual da espécie, este trabalho contribui para uma melhor compreensão dos desafios ao trabalhar com araucárias, bem como ao trabalhar com estruturas florestais complexas. Além disso, mais pesquisas podem ser desenvolvidas com base neste estudo, as quais poderiam fornecer informações ainda mais precisas em larga escala a legisladores, pesquisadores e especialistas, auxiliando no desenvolvimento de novas estratégias para administrar a espécie de forma sustentável.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tumkur-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 643 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 605 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 38 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 25 per cent area are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm), 69 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm).  About 12 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 15 per cent area is loamy soils and 68per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 91 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 14 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 14 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 12 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 1 per cent area.  4 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 90 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha).  About 55 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 39 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 25 per cent.  About 4.5 ppm) in an area of about 80 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 24 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 436(68) 92(14) Guava - 75(12) Maize 67(10) 452(70) Sapota - 75(12) Bajra 75(12) 453(70) Pomegranate - 444(69) Groundnut - 75(12) Musambi 335(52) 109(17) Sunflower 149(23) 295(46) Lime 335(52) 109(17) Redgram - 444(69) Amla 340(53) 188(29) Bengal gram 436(68) 84(13) Cashew - - Cotton 335(52) 184(29) Jackfruit - 75(12) Chilli - 528(82) Jamun - 369(57) Tomato 67(10) 133(20) Custard apple 436(68) 91(14) Brinjal 142(22) 386(60) Tamarind - 369(57) Onion 142(22) 92(14) Mulberry - 75(12) Bhendi 142(22) 386(60) Marigold - 528(82) Drumstick - 444(69) Chrysanthemum - 528(82) Mango - 41(6)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 36 farmers were sampled in Tumkur-1 micro watershed among them 8 (22.22%) were marginal farmers, 10 (27.78%) were small farmers, 12 (33.33%) were semi medium farmers, 3 (8.33%) were medium farmers, 1 (2.78%) and 2 (5.56%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 161 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 100 (62.11%) men and 61 (37.89%) were women. The average family size of landless, marginal and small farmers was 5. Semi medium and large farmers were 4 and medium farmer was 3. On an average the family size was 4.  The data indicated that 22 (13.66%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (45.96%) were in 16-35 years of age, 52 (32.30%) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (8.07%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Tumkur-1 had 37.89 per cent illiterates, 18.63 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.94 per cent of them had both middle school, 14.29 per cent them had high school education, 9.94 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.24 per cent them had ITI education, 4.97 per cent of them had degree education, 1.24 per cent of them had masters education and 1.86 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 86.11 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 2.78 per cent of the household heads were general labour and in government service. 5.56 per cent of the household heads were in private service.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 68.32 per cent of the household members, 0.62 per cent were agricultural labourers, 4.97 per cent were general labours, 0.62 percent were in household industry and in government service, 1.86 per cent of them were in private sector, 11.80 per cent of them were students, 3.11 per cent of them were children and 6.83 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 80 per cent were general labourers and 20 per cent were doing other jobs. In case of marginal farmers 72.97 per cent were agriculturist and 10.81 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 86.96 per cent of them were agriculturist and 10.87 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 59.26 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 1.85 per cent of them were agricultural labour and in government service, 5.56 per cent of them were in private service, 16.67 per cent of them were students, 12.96 per cent of them were housewives and 1.85 per cent of them were children. In case of medium farmers 82 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 10 per cent of them were students and housewives respectively. In medium farmers, 75 per cent of them were doing agriculture and 25 per cent of them were children. 2  100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 47.22 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 41.67 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 11.11 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 80.56 per cent of the households possess TV, 61.11 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 8.33 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 86.11 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.78 per cent of the households possess landline and 91.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6,655, mixer grinder was Rs.1650, bicycle was Rs.3666, motor cycle was Rs.59375, landline phone was Rs. 500 and mobile phone was Rs.1475.  Data showed that 16.67 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.22 per cent of them possess plough, 36.11 per cent of the households possess tractor, 13.89 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 5.56 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 22.22 per cent of the households possess weeder and 11.11 per cent of the households possess harvester.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.14875; the average value of plough was Rs. 1772, the average value of tractor was Rs. 234615, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 2812, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 2333, the average value of weeder was Rs. 169 and the average value of harvester was Rs. 220.  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 52.78 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, sheep and goat respectively and 27.78 per cent of the households possess buffalo. In land less farmers 50 per cent of the households possess buffalo and goat respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 50 per cent of the households possess bullock, 62.50 per cent of the households possess local cow, 25 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 12.50 per cent of the households possess sheep and poultry birds respectively. In case of small farmers, 30 per cent of households possess bullock and buffalo and 40 per cent of the households possess local cow respectively. In case of semi medium farmers 41.67 per cent of the households possess bullock, 75 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.33 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 16.67 per cent of the households possess buffalo. In medium farmers 33.33 per cent of the households possess buffalo and in large farmers 100 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.00, average own labour (women) available was 1.26, average 3 hired labour (men) available was 9.62 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.97.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was also 1.38, average hired labour (men) was 6.38 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.88. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2.20, average own labour (women) was 1.30, average hired labour (men) was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.20. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.00, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 10.67 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.50. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 1.67, average own labour (women) was 1.00, average hired labour (men) was 13 and average hired labour (women) available was 13. In large farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.00, average hired labour (men) was 15 and average hired labour (women) available was 15.  The results indicated that, 94.44 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Tumkur-1 micro watershed possess 28.96 ha (53.67%) of dry land and 24.99 ha (46.33%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.46 ha (91.69%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (8.31%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 11.12 ha (86.25%) of dry land and 1.77 ha (13.75%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 13.38 ha (57.26%) of dry land and 9.98 ha (42.74%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.72 ha (100%) of irrigated land and large farmers possess 5.12 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 448,777.08 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 448,727.33. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 761,378.07 for dry land and Rs. 1482000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 557,480.90 for dry land Rs. 507,534.26 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 254,099.85 for dry land and Rs. 532,646.94 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 310,854.74 for irrigated land and in large famers; the average land value was Rs. 390,822.77.  The results indicated that, there were 1 functioning and 1 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 2.78 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 2.12 meters. 4  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0. 40 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown cotton (20.57 ha), paddy (17.34 ha) and redgram (10.88 ha). Marginal and small farmers had grown cotton and redgram respectively. Semi medium farmers had grown cotton, paddy and redgram. Medium and large farmers had grown paddy.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Tumkur-1 micro watershed was found to be 95.09 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 96.27, in semi medium farmers it was 98.18, in medium farmers it was 79.02 per cent and in large farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 61.11 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of marginal, 60 per cent of small, 25 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 37349.61. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70103.06. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 32753.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.88.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 31366.95. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 96591.22. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 65224.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.08.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 44880.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 114607.74. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 69727.12, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.55.  The results indicated that, 63.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated, in landless farmers, that the average income from wage was Rs. 105000, in marginal farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 36250, agriculture was Rs.51000, dairy farm was Rs.6250 and goat farming was RS.2500. In small farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 10000, wage was Rs.39000, agriculture was Rs.68350 and dairy farm was Rs.6000. In semi medium farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 31666.67, agriculture was Rs.156875 and dairy farm was Rs.1250. In medium farmers, the average income from agriculture was Rs.222000 and dairy farm was Rs.5000.  The results indicated that in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.40000. In marginal farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.12142.86, agriculture was Rs.23750, dairy farm was Rs.4250 and goat farming 5 was Rs.10000. In small farmers, the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.30000, wage was Rs.13750, agriculture was Rs.25000 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 19,375, agriculture was Rs. 54,833.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In medium farmers, the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.108333.33 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In large farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs. 70,000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 1 mango tree in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 52 neem trees and 1 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, cotton, paddy and red gram crops were sold to the extent of 95.25 per cent, 86.67 per cent and 100 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 94.44 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant.  The results indicated that 72.22 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transport and 22.22 per cent of them have used truck.  The results indicated that, 25 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 12.50 percent of marginal farmers, 30 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 75 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 25 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 100 per cent and 2.78 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, semi medium and large farmers, 12.50 per cent of marginal, 10 per cent of small and 33.33 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility respectively.  The results indicated that, 91.67 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 11.11 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 69.44 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. 6  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 94.44 per cent, 100 per cent, 61.11 per cent, 44.44 per cent, 8.33 per cent, 75 per cent, 30.56 per cent and 8.33 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were inadequate for 2.78 per cent of the households, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 38.89 per cent, 55.56 per cent, 91.67 per cent, 22.22 per cent, 69.44 per cent and 91.67 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 91.67 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.89%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (86.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (27.78%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.56%), high rate of interest on credit (27.78%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (58.33%), inadequate extension services (25%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.89%) and less rainfall (13.89%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

The Cuban Missile Crisis, referred to as the Caribbean Crisis in the Soviet Union (Карибский Кризис) and the October Crisis in Cuba, is one of the most famous events of the Cold War. A large number of primary source documents are available for study. The U.S. government has released internal material and much of the official communications between the parties, and the Soviet Union has also released a significant number of documents (mostly during Gorbachev's "Glasnost" ("гласность") program in the 1980's). However, much of the historical analysis that has emerged from this material focuses on: the amount of "blame" that should be assigned to each side, technical discussions regarding the level of risk that there could have been a nuclear war, who "won" and who "lost," and the extent to which President Kennedy's actions may have been mythologized after his assassination. While these themes are important, the event also represents a clear example of the major powers in the Cold War using smaller countries to bear the biggest risks of their global strategies. This paper argues that messages that were sent between the Soviet and Cuban governments at the time show that the Soviets engaged with the Cuban leaders only to the extent that they could control their actions, and that they excluded them from critical decisions. The paper also demonstrates that messages sent between the key Soviet figures in the crisis, later interviews, memoirs and biographies provide insight into the Soviet leadership's justifications for their colonial practices.The United States and the Soviet Union had come to a situation where one believed the other might actually launch a pre-emptive strike if it could gain an advantage. The U.S. and Soviet Union were engaged in constant conflicts throughout the 1940's and 1950's. 1960 was an election year in the United States, so its hostile actions against Cuba escalated throughout the year, with plots to assassinate Fidel Castro and a trade embargo. Late in the year, Cuba and the Soviet Union issued a statement of solidarity and the Soviets began to supply conventional weapons to Cuba. However, there was no move to put Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1961. Khrushchev's reason for this was a belief that the U.S. would invade Cuba immediately if he took such an action. The plan to deploy the missiles could have been publicly announced, as it was legal under international law. The decision to deploy the weapons secretly is more evidence that the Soviets thought it was likely that news of such a plan would trigger an invasion. Castro and his inner circle were agreeable. In an interview he gave to PBS in 1985, Fidel Castro claimed that the Cubans' acceptance of the Soviets' missile plan was based on their belief that American invasion was likely unavoidable. However, he also claimed that he was motivated by a desire to help the Soviet Union achieve balance with the U.S. in the global nuclear competition. This agreement did not guarantee Castro equal partnership with the Soviets. The final deal involved stationing the missiles in Cuba, under full Soviet control. The mistrust between the allies began at this early stage. During a meeting to finalize their agreement, Che Guevara had suggested that the plan be made public and Khrushchev had refused. He even refused to sign his name to the treaty, to preserve the option to deny everything if the Cubans proceeded with a unilateral announcement.Soviet ships with nuclear missiles began to arrive in Cuba. A U.S. plane captured proof of the nuclear missiles in Cuba on October 14 th , and Kennedy announced the crisis to the public on October 22 nd . Tensions rose rapidly, so that four days later Castro wrote a letter to Khrushchev, assuring him that Cuban people will confront the aggressor "heroically". On the same day, Khrushchev sent a secret message to Kennedy offering a resolution to the crisis. By October 27 th the Soviet Union had finalized an agreement with the U.S. for the withdrawal of its missiles from Cuba, including an agreement to allow on-site inspections in Cuba. Most importantly, Castro first became aware of this agreement from the public announcements that were made by Khrushchev and Kennedy on October 28 th . Khrushchev also sent a letter to Castro on the 28 th , and its tone makes it clear that he considered Castro's position to be that of a "little brother" whose emotions and feelings should be soothed, but one who should not expect a decision-making role. Khrushchev's letter goes on to warn Castro against any action that might lead to a reanimation of the crisis. Referring to the shooting down of a U.S. U2 spy plane on the 27 th , Khrushchev states that this episode was the result of "senseless" provocation by militarists in the Pentagon who still hoped for an excuse to invade. In addition to the firm "advice" that Castro should allow U.S. military planes to violate his airspace, it is possible to infer a threat in the letter's subtext. Khrushchev implied that the Soviet Union would not risk a global nuclear war to defend Cuba from invasion if it had the excuse that the invasion had been sparked by unstable elements in the U.S. or in Cuba. The warning in Khrushchev's letter concerning shooting down the U.S. spy plane may have been particularly offensive to Castro. Although, Cuban anti-aircraft personnel had been instructed to fire on American planes to protect the Soviet missile sites, the weapon that had hit the U2 plane was a Soviet-controlled surface-to-air missile. In Castro's response letter to Khrushchev he expresses his rationale. He also refers to the public statement he had issued earlier in that day, in which he had criticized the U.S. promise not to invade Cuba as inadequate. Castro signs off with a notice that he is opposed to inspections. Further messages from October 30 th and 31 st are remarkable because the first captures Khrushchev's early attempts to frame the entire crisis for history and for his communist audiences, and the second presents Castro's view that the entire enterprise had been futile if the Soviet Union was unwilling to stand its ground. Khrushchev's letter is full of paternalism, he writes that he understands the bitterness that "some" Cubans might feel. Khrushchev refers to a conflict between superpowers in "the Caribbean zone," this emphasizes that Cuba's interests were subordinate to the Soviet Union's regional strategy. Castro rebuts several of Khrushchev's excuses by arguing that backing down was not the appropriate reaction to the possibility of an imminent U.S. attack, by clarifying that he was not consulted at all about the decision to withdraw the missiles, and by stating that many (not "some") Cubans were feeling "unspeakable bitterness and sadness" about the sudden Soviet decision. Castro demonstrated that he understood that the only strategic value of putting missiles in Cuba was as a deterrent against a strike against the U.S.S.R. A message from the Soviet Foreign minister Gromyko to Mikoyan on November 1 st detailed how the Cubans should be pressured to soften their "no inspections" position despite the loss of face this would cause them.Even while the Soviet-Cuban negotiations on the inspections were proceeding, the Soviet leaders were keeping new secrets from their allies. Later decision to remove weapons were made before discussing the issue with the Cubans. The frustrations that this created were evident during Mikoyan's conversation with Castro and the rest of the Cuban leadership on November 22 nd. Castro repeated his argument that the Soviets should have kept the strategic missiles in Cuba. The Mikoyan-Castro dialogue serves as evidence of the highly skewed nature of Soviet-Cuban relations and the Soviets' sense that they did not need justification for their colonial practices. Castro had to listen to public statements by Kennedy to acquire up-to-date information about the weapons that remained in his country. After confirming that the tactical missiles were still in Cuba, that they were not technically part of the Soviet's agreement with the U.S. and that the U.S. was not aware of them Mikoyan delivered the news that the Soviets had decided to remove these as well. He explained that there was a law that prevented the transfer control of any nuclear weapons to another country (this was a lie), and that the Soviets intended to withdraw all of their troops from Cuba once the Cuban military had been trained to use the conventional weapons they were leaving behind.Returning to the question of Soviet justifications, the ambassador's interpretation of the situation gives insight into the Soviet colonial discourse. The Cubans were portrayed as wild children, but well- meaning and smart, and the Soviets were portrayed as patient parents. Ambassador Beck reports that Mikoyan had characterized the Cuban leaders as young, honest people who were true to the revolution and who were deserving of respect, trust, and appreciation. However, a large part of the Ambassador's message is dedicated to a description of the Cubans' unorthodox path to Marxism, and criticism of the slow pace of development of the Cuban Communist party apparatus and the Cubans' belief that their revolution was one of "three great revolutions" (China's for Asia, the Soviets' for Europe, and Cuba for Latin America).In conclusion, for fifty-eight years since the Cuban missile crisis, the world did not experience nuclear wars. This outcome has allowed a self-congratulatory narrative to grow regarding the courageous and pragmatic actions of both the U.S. and Soviet leaders. The implication of this narrative is that only the highly tested, and "serious" leaders of superpowers, can be trusted to be stewards of nuclear weapons. In contrast, this way of thinking concludes that the leaders of smaller countries (who have less to lose – in total, but not in proportion) are more likely to choose "honorable destruction" as long as they might inflict asymmetrical damage on their enemies. The dialogues between the protagonists of the Cuban missile crisis demonstrate that there were two big truths. The first truth is that the Cubans could not be trusted with nuclear weapons, and that efforts to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons have been important. The second truth is that the leaders of the superpowers were just lucky. Like the great powers before WWI, The U.S. and Soviet leadership in the Cold War believed that global domination was their right. This imperialistic attitude was disguised as a defense of God-given human freedom (by the U.S.) or as the result of an inevitable process of social evolution (by the Soviet Union). The U.S. put nuclear missiles in Turkey to protect democracy, and the Soviets said that they put nuclear missiles in Cuba to: a) counter the U.S. missiles in Turkey; b) protect Cuba; c) advance the global socialist project; or d) "put a hedgehog in the Americans' pants". ; Кубинська ракетна криза, яку називають Карибською кризою в Радянському Союзі (Карибский кризис) та Жовтневою кризою на Кубі, – одна з найвідоміших подій холодної війни. Велика кількість первинних джерел доступна для вивчення цієї події. Уряд США оприлюднив внутрішні матеріали та значну частину офіційних перемов між сторонами, Радянський Союз також відкрив доступ до значної кількості документів (переважно під час програми М. Горбачова «Гласність» («гласность») у 1980-х рр.). Однак значна частина історичного аналізу, що постає із цього матеріалу, зосереджується на кількості «провини», яку має нести кожна сторона конфлікту, на технічних дискусіях щодо ризиків ядерної війни, на намаганнях з'ясувати, хто «переміг», а хто «втратив», і на тому, наскільки дії президента Дж. Кеннеді були міфологізовані після його вбивства. Незважаючи на важливість усіх цих тем, подія також є наочним прикладом того, як основні держави холодної війни перекладали найбільші ризики своїх глобальних стратегій на менш потужні країни. У статті наводяться уривки з листування між радянським та кубинським урядами під час кризи. Ці листи свідчать про те, що лідери Радянського Союзу контактували з кубинськими лідерами лише тією мірою, якою вони могли контролювати дії кубинців, не залучаючи тих до прийняття важливих рішень. Стаття також демонструє, що повідомлення, надіслані ключовими радянськими діячами періоду кризи, а також пізніші інтерв'ю, спогади й біографії показують, як радянське керівництво виправдовувало свою колоніальну практику.Сполучені Штати Америки та Радянський Союз потрапили в таку ситуацію, коли одна сторона вважала, що інша зможе насправді завдати ядерного удару, якщо це дасть цій стороні військову перевагу. Обидві держави постійно конфліктували впродовж 1940-х та 1950-х рр. 1960 р. був роком президентських виборів у США, на їх тлі відбувалася ескалація конфлікту з Кубою протягом усього року, у тому числі плани щодо вбивства Фіделя Кастро та встановлення торговельного ембарго. Наприкінці того ж року Куба та Радянський Союз виступили із заявою про солідарність, СРСР почав поставляти на Кубу конвенційну зброю. Важливо, що в 1961 р. не було жодних намагань встановити на Кубі радянські ядерні ракети. М. Хрущов вважав, що в такому разі США негайно вторгнуться на Кубу. Про плани на розміщення ракет можна було публічно оголосити, оскільки міжнародне право не забороняло таке розміщення. Рішення розгортати зброю таємно, скоріш за все, є свідченням того, що радянська влада вважала ймовірним провокування вторгнення. Ф. Кастро та його оточення погоджувалися. В інтерв'ю каналу PBS в 1985 р. Фідель Кастро пояснював, що прийняття кубинцями радянського ракетного плану базувалося на тому переконанні, що американське вторгнення неминуче. Однак він також стверджував, що його мотивувало бажання допомогти Радянському Союзу досягти паритету із США у світовій ядерній гонці. Ця угода не гарантувала Ф. Кастро рівноправне партнерство з радянськими лідерами. Заключна угода передбачала розміщення ракет на Кубі під повним радянським контролем. Недовіра між союзниками почалася на цій ранній стадії. Під час зустрічі щодо доопрацювання домовленостей Че Гевара запропонував оприлюднити план, однак М. Хрущов відмовився. Він навіть відмовився вказувати своє ім'я в договорі, щоб зберегти можливість відступу, якщо кубинці вдадуться до одностороннього розголошення.На Кубу почали прибувати радянські кораблі з ядерними ракетами. Американський літак отримав докази пересування ядерних ракет на Кубі 14 жовтня, а Дж. Кеннеді оголосив про кризу публічно 22 жовтня. Напруга швидко зростала до того рівня, що через чотири дні Ф. Кастро написав листа до М. Хрущова, запевнивши його, що кубинський народ буде протистояти агресору «героїчно». Того ж дня М. Хрущов відправив таємне повідомлення до Дж. Кеннеді, пропонуючи залагодити ситуацію. До 27 жовтня Радянський Союз уже уклав угоду із США про виведення своїх ракет із Куби та дав згоду на допуск на Кубу інспекцій на місцях. Найголовніше при цьому те, що сам Ф. Кастро вперше дізнався про цю угоду з публічних оголошень, які зробили М. Хрущов та Дж. Кеннеді 28 жовтня. Того ж дня М. Хрущов надіслав листа до Ф. Кастро. З огляду на тон листа зрозуміло, що він вважав позицію Ф. Кастро позицією «маленького брата», емоції й почуття якого потрібно враховувати, однак брати участь у рішеннях він не може. У листі М. Хрущов застерігає Ф. Кастро проти будь-яких дій, які можуть призвести до реанімації кризи. Посилаючись на збиття американського шпигунського літака U2 27 жовтня, М. Хрущов заявляє, що цей епізод став результатом «безглуздих» провокацій мілітаристів у Пентагоні, які все ще сподівалися на привід для вторгнення. Окрім твердої «поради» Ф. Кастро дозволити американським військовим літакам порушувати його повітряний простір, у підтексті листа можна побачити загрозу. М. Хрущов, можливо, мав на увазі те, що Радянський Союз не ризикуватиме глобальною ядерною війною, щоб захистити Кубу від вторгнення, особливо якщо в М. Хрущова буде виправдання, що вторгнення викликали нестабільні елементи в США або на Кубі. Попередження в листі М. Хрущова щодо збиття американського шпигунського літака, можливо, було особливо образливим для Ф. Кастро. Хоча кубинським повітряним силам доручили вести вогонь по американським літакам, щоб захистити радянські ракетні об'єкти, зброя, яка влучила в літак U2, була радянською ракетою системи «земля-повітря». У відповіді до М. Хрущова Ф. Кастро пропонує своє обґрунтування. Він також посилається на публічну заяву, опубліковану напередодні, у якій вважає обіцянку США не вторгатися на Кубу неадекватною. Ф. Кастро завершує повідомлення твердженням, що він проти інспекцій. Подальші повідомлення від 30 та 31 жовтня визначаються тим, що вони, по-перше, демонструють ранні спроби М. Хрущова сформулювати кризу для історії та для своєї комуністичної аудиторії, а по-друге, висвітлюють думку Ф. Кастро, який вважав, що вся операція була марною, якщо Радянський Союз буде поступатися американцям. Лист М. Хрущова сповнений патерналізму, він пише, що розуміє ту гіркоту, яку відчувають «деякі» кубинці. М. Хрущов посилається на конфлікт між наддержавами в «Карибській зоні», це формулювання підкреслює той факт, що інтереси Куби були підпорядковані регіональній стратегії Радянського Союзу. Ф. Кастро спростовує декілька виправдань від М. Хрущова, стверджуючи, що відступ не є відповідною реакцією на реальну можливість нападу США. Ф. Кастро уточнює, що з ним взагалі не консультувалися щодо рішення про виведення ракет, що більшість кубинців (а не «деякі») відчули «невимовну гіркоту й смуток» із приводу раптового радянського рішення. Ф. Кастро продемонстрував розуміння того, що єдиною стратегічною цінністю в розміщенні ракет на Кубі було стримування США проти удару по СРСР. Повідомлення радянського міністра закордонних справ А. Громико до А. Мікояна 1 листопада детально пояснювало, як на кубинців необхідно чинити тиск, щоб пом'якшити їх позицію «ні інспекціям», незважаючи на вірогідність втрати кубинською владою обличчя.Навіть під час переговорів із кубинцями про інспекції радянські лідери зберігали нові таємниці від своїх союзників. Пізніше рішення про відвід зброї було прийняте ще до обговорення цього питання з кубинцями. Розчарування, яке це викликало, було очевидним під час розмови А. Мікояна з Ф. Кастро та рештою кубинського керівництва 22 листопада. Ф. Кастро повторив свій аргумент про те, що СРСР мав зберігати стратегічні ракети на Кубі. Діалог А. Мікояна з Ф. Кастро свідчить про сильно викривлений характер радянсько-кубинських відносин. Розмова демонструє позицію радянської сторони, яка не вважала за потрібне виправдовувати свою колоніальну практику. Ф. Кастро доводилося слухати публічні заяви Дж. Кеннеді, щоб отримати актуальну інформацію про зброю, яка залишилася в його країні. Підтвердивши, що тактичні ракети все ще перебувають на Кубі, що вони не є частиною Радянсько- Американської угоди, що США не знали про них, А. Мікоян повідомив, що СРСР також вирішили їх забрати. Він пояснив, що є закон, який перешкоджає переданню іншій країні контролю над будь-якою ядерною зброєю (це була брехня), і що СРСР мав намір вивести всі свої війська з Куби після того, як кубинські військові навчаться використовувати конвенційну зброю, яку СРСР залишав після себе.Якщо повернутися до питання про радянські виправдання, то інтерпретація кризи послом Угорщини на Кубі Я. Беком дає розуміння радянського колоніального дискурсу. Кубинці сприймалися як дикі, проте доброзичливі й кмітливі діти, а радянські лідери зображувалися як терплячі батьки. Посол Я. Бек повідомляє, що А. Мікоян характеризував кубинських лідерів як молодих, чесних людей, вірних революції, які заслуговують на повагу, довіру та вдячність. Однак значна частина повідомлення посла присвячена опису неортодоксального шляху кубинців до марксизму, критиці повільних темпів розвитку партійного апарату Куби та переконань кубинців у тому, що їхня революція була однією з «трьох» великих революцій (китайська для Азії, радянська для Європи та кубинська для Латинської Америки).Наостанок варто зазначити, що 58 років після Кубинської кризи світ не зазнавав ядерних воєн. Цей результат привів до розквіту наративу самозахоплення в розповідях про сміливі й прагматичні дії як американських, так і радянських лідерів. Наслідком цього самозахоплення є віра в те, що володіння ядерною зброєю можна довіряти лише висококваліфікованим і «серйозним» лідерам наддержав. Таке мислення призводить до висновку, що лідери менших країн, яким втрачати менше (кількісно, проте не пропорційно), мають більше шансів обрати «почесне знищення», якщо вони зможуть завдати ворогам асиметричного збитку. Діалоги між основними персонами кубинської ракетної кризи демонструють, що існували дві великі правди. Перша правда полягає в тому, що кубинцям не можна було довіряти ядерну зброю і що зусилля щодо обмеження поширення ядерної зброї були дуже важливими. Друга правда полягає в тому, що лідерам наддержав просто пощастило. Як і великі держави до Першої світової війни, США та радянське керівництво періоду холодної війні вважали глобальне панування своїм правом. Це імперіалістичне ставлення маскувалося як захист даної богом людської свободи (у США) або як результат неминучого процесу соціальної еволюції (у Радянському Союзі). США встановили ядерні ракети в Туреччині для захисту демократії, а СРСР пояснювали розміщення ядерних ракет на Кубі такими причинами: а) протидією американським ракетам у Туреччині; б) захистом Куби; в) просуванням глобального соціалістичного проєкту; г) «підсунути їжака в штани американцям».

The Cuban Missile Crisis, referred to as the Caribbean Crisis in the Soviet Union (Карибский Кризис) and the October Crisis in Cuba, is one of the most famous events of the Cold War. A large number of primary source documents are available for study. The U.S. government has released internal material and much of the official communications between the parties, and the Soviet Union has also released a significant number of documents (mostly during Gorbachev's "Glasnost" ("гласность") program in the 1980's). However, much of the historical analysis that has emerged from this material focuses on: the amount of "blame" that should be assigned to each side, technical discussions regarding the level of risk that there could have been a nuclear war, who "won" and who "lost," and the extent to which President Kennedy's actions may have been mythologized after his assassination. While these themes are important, the event also represents a clear example of the major powers in the Cold War using smaller countries to bear the biggest risks of their global strategies. This paper argues that messages that were sent between the Soviet and Cuban governments at the time show that the Soviets engaged with the Cuban leaders only to the extent that they could control their actions, and that they excluded them from critical decisions. The paper also demonstrates that messages sent between the key Soviet figures in the crisis, later interviews, memoirs and biographies provide insight into the Soviet leadership's justifications for their colonial practices.The United States and the Soviet Union had come to a situation where one believed the other might actually launch a pre-emptive strike if it could gain an advantage. The U.S. and Soviet Union were engaged in constant conflicts throughout the 1940's and 1950's. 1960 was an election year in the United States, so its hostile actions against Cuba escalated throughout the year, with plots to assassinate Fidel Castro and a trade embargo. Late in the year, Cuba and the Soviet Union issued a statement of solidarity and the Soviets began to supply conventional weapons to Cuba. However, there was no move to put Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1961. Khrushchev's reason for this was a belief that the U.S. would invade Cuba immediately if he took such an action. The plan to deploy the missiles could have been publicly announced, as it was legal under international law. The decision to deploy the weapons secretly is more evidence that the Soviets thought it was likely that news of such a plan would trigger an invasion. Castro and his inner circle were agreeable. In an interview he gave to PBS in 1985, Fidel Castro claimed that the Cubans' acceptance of the Soviets' missile plan was based on their belief that American invasion was likely unavoidable. However, he also claimed that he was motivated by a desire to help the Soviet Union achieve balance with the U.S. in the global nuclear competition. This agreement did not guarantee Castro equal partnership with the Soviets. The final deal involved stationing the missiles in Cuba, under full Soviet control. The mistrust between the allies began at this early stage. During a meeting to finalize their agreement, Che Guevara had suggested that the plan be made public and Khrushchev had refused. He even refused to sign his name to the treaty, to preserve the option to deny everything if the Cubans proceeded with a unilateral announcement.Soviet ships with nuclear missiles began to arrive in Cuba. A U.S. plane captured proof of the nuclear missiles in Cuba on October 14 th , and Kennedy announced the crisis to the public on October 22 nd . Tensions rose rapidly, so that four days later Castro wrote a letter to Khrushchev, assuring him that Cuban people will confront the aggressor "heroically". On the same day, Khrushchev sent a secret message to Kennedy offering a resolution to the crisis. By October 27 th the Soviet Union had finalized an agreement with the U.S. for the withdrawal of its missiles from Cuba, including an agreement to allow on-site inspections in Cuba. Most importantly, Castro first became aware of this agreement from the public announcements that were made by Khrushchev and Kennedy on October 28 th . Khrushchev also sent a letter to Castro on the 28 th , and its tone makes it clear that he considered Castro's position to be that of a "little brother" whose emotions and feelings should be soothed, but one who should not expect a decision-making role. Khrushchev's letter goes on to warn Castro against any action that might lead to a reanimation of the crisis. Referring to the shooting down of a U.S. U2 spy plane on the 27 th , Khrushchev states that this episode was the result of "senseless" provocation by militarists in the Pentagon who still hoped for an excuse to invade. In addition to the firm "advice" that Castro should allow U.S. military planes to violate his airspace, it is possible to infer a threat in the letter's subtext. Khrushchev implied that the Soviet Union would not risk a global nuclear war to defend Cuba from invasion if it had the excuse that the invasion had been sparked by unstable elements in the U.S. or in Cuba. The warning in Khrushchev's letter concerning shooting down the U.S. spy plane may have been particularly offensive to Castro. Although, Cuban anti-aircraft personnel had been instructed to fire on American planes to protect the Soviet missile sites, the weapon that had hit the U2 plane was a Soviet-controlled surface-to-air missile. In Castro's response letter to Khrushchev he expresses his rationale. He also refers to the public statement he had issued earlier in that day, in which he had criticized the U.S. promise not to invade Cuba as inadequate. Castro signs off with a notice that he is opposed to inspections. Further messages from October 30 th and 31 st are remarkable because the first captures Khrushchev's early attempts to frame the entire crisis for history and for his communist audiences, and the second presents Castro's view that the entire enterprise had been futile if the Soviet Union was unwilling to stand its ground. Khrushchev's letter is full of paternalism, he writes that he understands the bitterness that "some" Cubans might feel. Khrushchev refers to a conflict between superpowers in "the Caribbean zone," this emphasizes that Cuba's interests were subordinate to the Soviet Union's regional strategy. Castro rebuts several of Khrushchev's excuses by arguing that backing down was not the appropriate reaction to the possibility of an imminent U.S. attack, by clarifying that he was not consulted at all about the decision to withdraw the missiles, and by stating that many (not "some") Cubans were feeling "unspeakable bitterness and sadness" about the sudden Soviet decision. Castro demonstrated that he understood that the only strategic value of putting missiles in Cuba was as a deterrent against a strike against the U.S.S.R. A message from the Soviet Foreign minister Gromyko to Mikoyan on November 1 st detailed how the Cubans should be pressured to soften their "no inspections" position despite the loss of face this would cause them.Even while the Soviet-Cuban negotiations on the inspections were proceeding, the Soviet leaders were keeping new secrets from their allies. Later decision to remove weapons were made before discussing the issue with the Cubans. The frustrations that this created were evident during Mikoyan's conversation with Castro and the rest of the Cuban leadership on November 22 nd. Castro repeated his argument that the Soviets should have kept the strategic missiles in Cuba. The Mikoyan-Castro dialogue serves as evidence of the highly skewed nature of Soviet-Cuban relations and the Soviets' sense that they did not need justification for their colonial practices. Castro had to listen to public statements by Kennedy to acquire up-to-date information about the weapons that remained in his country. After confirming that the tactical missiles were still in Cuba, that they were not technically part of the Soviet's agreement with the U.S. and that the U.S. was not aware of them Mikoyan delivered the news that the Soviets had decided to remove these as well. He explained that there was a law that prevented the transfer control of any nuclear weapons to another country (this was a lie), and that the Soviets intended to withdraw all of their troops from Cuba once the Cuban military had been trained to use the conventional weapons they were leaving behind.Returning to the question of Soviet justifications, the ambassador's interpretation of the situation gives insight into the Soviet colonial discourse. The Cubans were portrayed as wild children, but well- meaning and smart, and the Soviets were portrayed as patient parents. Ambassador Beck reports that Mikoyan had characterized the Cuban leaders as young, honest people who were true to the revolution and who were deserving of respect, trust, and appreciation. However, a large part of the Ambassador's message is dedicated to a description of the Cubans' unorthodox path to Marxism, and criticism of the slow pace of development of the Cuban Communist party apparatus and the Cubans' belief that their revolution was one of "three great revolutions" (China's for Asia, the Soviets' for Europe, and Cuba for Latin America).In conclusion, for fifty-eight years since the Cuban missile crisis, the world did not experience nuclear wars. This outcome has allowed a self-congratulatory narrative to grow regarding the courageous and pragmatic actions of both the U.S. and Soviet leaders. The implication of this narrative is that only the highly tested, and "serious" leaders of superpowers, can be trusted to be stewards of nuclear weapons. In contrast, this way of thinking concludes that the leaders of smaller countries (who have less to lose – in total, but not in proportion) are more likely to choose "honorable destruction" as long as they might inflict asymmetrical damage on their enemies. The dialogues between the protagonists of the Cuban missile crisis demonstrate that there were two big truths. The first truth is that the Cubans could not be trusted with nuclear weapons, and that efforts to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons have been important. The second truth is that the leaders of the superpowers were just lucky. Like the great powers before WWI, The U.S. and Soviet leadership in the Cold War believed that global domination was their right. This imperialistic attitude was disguised as a defense of God-given human freedom (by the U.S.) or as the result of an inevitable process of social evolution (by the Soviet Union). The U.S. put nuclear missiles in Turkey to protect democracy, and the Soviets said that they put nuclear missiles in Cuba to: a) counter the U.S. missiles in Turkey; b) protect Cuba; c) advance the global socialist project; or d) "put a hedgehog in the Americans' pants". ; Кубинська ракетна криза, яку називають Карибською кризою в Радянському Союзі (Карибский кризис) та Жовтневою кризою на Кубі, – одна з найвідоміших подій холодної війни. Велика кількість первинних джерел доступна для вивчення цієї події. Уряд США оприлюднив внутрішні матеріали та значну частину офіційних перемов між сторонами, Радянський Союз також відкрив доступ до значної кількості документів (переважно під час програми М. Горбачова «Гласність» («гласность») у 1980-х рр.). Однак значна частина історичного аналізу, що постає із цього матеріалу, зосереджується на кількості «провини», яку має нести кожна сторона конфлікту, на технічних дискусіях щодо ризиків ядерної війни, на намаганнях з'ясувати, хто «переміг», а хто «втратив», і на тому, наскільки дії президента Дж. Кеннеді були міфологізовані після його вбивства. Незважаючи на важливість усіх цих тем, подія також є наочним прикладом того, як основні держави холодної війни перекладали найбільші ризики своїх глобальних стратегій на менш потужні країни. У статті наводяться уривки з листування між радянським та кубинським урядами під час кризи. Ці листи свідчать про те, що лідери Радянського Союзу контактували з кубинськими лідерами лише тією мірою, якою вони могли контролювати дії кубинців, не залучаючи тих до прийняття важливих рішень. Стаття також демонструє, що повідомлення, надіслані ключовими радянськими діячами періоду кризи, а також пізніші інтерв'ю, спогади й біографії показують, як радянське керівництво виправдовувало свою колоніальну практику.Сполучені Штати Америки та Радянський Союз потрапили в таку ситуацію, коли одна сторона вважала, що інша зможе насправді завдати ядерного удару, якщо це дасть цій стороні військову перевагу. Обидві держави постійно конфліктували впродовж 1940-х та 1950-х рр. 1960 р. був роком президентських виборів у США, на їх тлі відбувалася ескалація конфлікту з Кубою протягом усього року, у тому числі плани щодо вбивства Фіделя Кастро та встановлення торговельного ембарго. Наприкінці того ж року Куба та Радянський Союз виступили із заявою про солідарність, СРСР почав поставляти на Кубу конвенційну зброю. Важливо, що в 1961 р. не було жодних намагань встановити на Кубі радянські ядерні ракети. М. Хрущов вважав, що в такому разі США негайно вторгнуться на Кубу. Про плани на розміщення ракет можна було публічно оголосити, оскільки міжнародне право не забороняло таке розміщення. Рішення розгортати зброю таємно, скоріш за все, є свідченням того, що радянська влада вважала ймовірним провокування вторгнення. Ф. Кастро та його оточення погоджувалися. В інтерв'ю каналу PBS в 1985 р. Фідель Кастро пояснював, що прийняття кубинцями радянського ракетного плану базувалося на тому переконанні, що американське вторгнення неминуче. Однак він також стверджував, що його мотивувало бажання допомогти Радянському Союзу досягти паритету із США у світовій ядерній гонці. Ця угода не гарантувала Ф. Кастро рівноправне партнерство з радянськими лідерами. Заключна угода передбачала розміщення ракет на Кубі під повним радянським контролем. Недовіра між союзниками почалася на цій ранній стадії. Під час зустрічі щодо доопрацювання домовленостей Че Гевара запропонував оприлюднити план, однак М. Хрущов відмовився. Він навіть відмовився вказувати своє ім'я в договорі, щоб зберегти можливість відступу, якщо кубинці вдадуться до одностороннього розголошення.На Кубу почали прибувати радянські кораблі з ядерними ракетами. Американський літак отримав докази пересування ядерних ракет на Кубі 14 жовтня, а Дж. Кеннеді оголосив про кризу публічно 22 жовтня. Напруга швидко зростала до того рівня, що через чотири дні Ф. Кастро написав листа до М. Хрущова, запевнивши його, що кубинський народ буде протистояти агресору «героїчно». Того ж дня М. Хрущов відправив таємне повідомлення до Дж. Кеннеді, пропонуючи залагодити ситуацію. До 27 жовтня Радянський Союз уже уклав угоду із США про виведення своїх ракет із Куби та дав згоду на допуск на Кубу інспекцій на місцях. Найголовніше при цьому те, що сам Ф. Кастро вперше дізнався про цю угоду з публічних оголошень, які зробили М. Хрущов та Дж. Кеннеді 28 жовтня. Того ж дня М. Хрущов надіслав листа до Ф. Кастро. З огляду на тон листа зрозуміло, що він вважав позицію Ф. Кастро позицією «маленького брата», емоції й почуття якого потрібно враховувати, однак брати участь у рішеннях він не може. У листі М. Хрущов застерігає Ф. Кастро проти будь-яких дій, які можуть призвести до реанімації кризи. Посилаючись на збиття американського шпигунського літака U2 27 жовтня, М. Хрущов заявляє, що цей епізод став результатом «безглуздих» провокацій мілітаристів у Пентагоні, які все ще сподівалися на привід для вторгнення. Окрім твердої «поради» Ф. Кастро дозволити американським військовим літакам порушувати його повітряний простір, у підтексті листа можна побачити загрозу. М. Хрущов, можливо, мав на увазі те, що Радянський Союз не ризикуватиме глобальною ядерною війною, щоб захистити Кубу від вторгнення, особливо якщо в М. Хрущова буде виправдання, що вторгнення викликали нестабільні елементи в США або на Кубі. Попередження в листі М. Хрущова щодо збиття американського шпигунського літака, можливо, було особливо образливим для Ф. Кастро. Хоча кубинським повітряним силам доручили вести вогонь по американським літакам, щоб захистити радянські ракетні об'єкти, зброя, яка влучила в літак U2, була радянською ракетою системи «земля-повітря». У відповіді до М. Хрущова Ф. Кастро пропонує своє обґрунтування. Він також посилається на публічну заяву, опубліковану напередодні, у якій вважає обіцянку США не вторгатися на Кубу неадекватною. Ф. Кастро завершує повідомлення твердженням, що він проти інспекцій. Подальші повідомлення від 30 та 31 жовтня визначаються тим, що вони, по-перше, демонструють ранні спроби М. Хрущова сформулювати кризу для історії та для своєї комуністичної аудиторії, а по-друге, висвітлюють думку Ф. Кастро, який вважав, що вся операція була марною, якщо Радянський Союз буде поступатися американцям. Лист М. Хрущова сповнений патерналізму, він пише, що розуміє ту гіркоту, яку відчувають «деякі» кубинці. М. Хрущов посилається на конфлікт між наддержавами в «Карибській зоні», це формулювання підкреслює той факт, що інтереси Куби були підпорядковані регіональній стратегії Радянського Союзу. Ф. Кастро спростовує декілька виправдань від М. Хрущова, стверджуючи, що відступ не є відповідною реакцією на реальну можливість нападу США. Ф. Кастро уточнює, що з ним взагалі не консультувалися щодо рішення про виведення ракет, що більшість кубинців (а не «деякі») відчули «невимовну гіркоту й смуток» із приводу раптового радянського рішення. Ф. Кастро продемонстрував розуміння того, що єдиною стратегічною цінністю в розміщенні ракет на Кубі було стримування США проти удару по СРСР. Повідомлення радянського міністра закордонних справ А. Громико до А. Мікояна 1 листопада детально пояснювало, як на кубинців необхідно чинити тиск, щоб пом'якшити їх позицію «ні інспекціям», незважаючи на вірогідність втрати кубинською владою обличчя.Навіть під час переговорів із кубинцями про інспекції радянські лідери зберігали нові таємниці від своїх союзників. Пізніше рішення про відвід зброї було прийняте ще до обговорення цього питання з кубинцями. Розчарування, яке це викликало, було очевидним під час розмови А. Мікояна з Ф. Кастро та рештою кубинського керівництва 22 листопада. Ф. Кастро повторив свій аргумент про те, що СРСР мав зберігати стратегічні ракети на Кубі. Діалог А. Мікояна з Ф. Кастро свідчить про сильно викривлений характер радянсько-кубинських відносин. Розмова демонструє позицію радянської сторони, яка не вважала за потрібне виправдовувати свою колоніальну практику. Ф. Кастро доводилося слухати публічні заяви Дж. Кеннеді, щоб отримати актуальну інформацію про зброю, яка залишилася в його країні. Підтвердивши, що тактичні ракети все ще перебувають на Кубі, що вони не є частиною Радянсько- Американської угоди, що США не знали про них, А. Мікоян повідомив, що СРСР також вирішили їх забрати. Він пояснив, що є закон, який перешкоджає переданню іншій країні контролю над будь-якою ядерною зброєю (це була брехня), і що СРСР мав намір вивести всі свої війська з Куби після того, як кубинські військові навчаться використовувати конвенційну зброю, яку СРСР залишав після себе.Якщо повернутися до питання про радянські виправдання, то інтерпретація кризи послом Угорщини на Кубі Я. Беком дає розуміння радянського колоніального дискурсу. Кубинці сприймалися як дикі, проте доброзичливі й кмітливі діти, а радянські лідери зображувалися як терплячі батьки. Посол Я. Бек повідомляє, що А. Мікоян характеризував кубинських лідерів як молодих, чесних людей, вірних революції, які заслуговують на повагу, довіру та вдячність. Однак значна частина повідомлення посла присвячена опису неортодоксального шляху кубинців до марксизму, критиці повільних темпів розвитку партійного апарату Куби та переконань кубинців у тому, що їхня революція була однією з «трьох» великих революцій (китайська для Азії, радянська для Європи та кубинська для Латинської Америки).Наостанок варто зазначити, що 58 років після Кубинської кризи світ не зазнавав ядерних воєн. Цей результат привів до розквіту наративу самозахоплення в розповідях про сміливі й прагматичні дії як американських, так і радянських лідерів. Наслідком цього самозахоплення є віра в те, що володіння ядерною зброєю можна довіряти лише висококваліфікованим і «серйозним» лідерам наддержав. Таке мислення призводить до висновку, що лідери менших країн, яким втрачати менше (кількісно, проте не пропорційно), мають більше шансів обрати «почесне знищення», якщо вони зможуть завдати ворогам асиметричного збитку. Діалоги між основними персонами кубинської ракетної кризи демонструють, що існували дві великі правди. Перша правда полягає в тому, що кубинцям не можна було довіряти ядерну зброю і що зусилля щодо обмеження поширення ядерної зброї були дуже важливими. Друга правда полягає в тому, що лідерам наддержав просто пощастило. Як і великі держави до Першої світової війни, США та радянське керівництво періоду холодної війні вважали глобальне панування своїм правом. Це імперіалістичне ставлення маскувалося як захист даної богом людської свободи (у США) або як результат неминучого процесу соціальної еволюції (у Радянському Союзі). США встановили ядерні ракети в Туреччині для захисту демократії, а СРСР пояснювали розміщення ядерних ракет на Кубі такими причинами: а) протидією американським ракетам у Туреччині; б) захистом Куби; в) просуванням глобального соціалістичного проєкту; г) «підсунути їжака в штани американцям».

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bikkanahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 548 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soil and 4 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 17 soil series and 26 soil phases (management units) and 8 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 13 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 83 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 37 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 83 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 41 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 55 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 2 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 44 per cent moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 22 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 28 per cent very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 337 kg/ha) in 93 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 71per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 25 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 174(32) 182(33) Sapota 54(10) 135(24) Maize 42(8) 313(58) Pomegranate 96(18) 220(40) Bajra 119(22) 250(45) Musambi 168(31) 149(28) Groundnut 12(2) 271(49) Lime 168(31) 149(28) Sunflower 168(31) 132(24) Amla 148(27) 289(53) Redgram 54(10) 237(43) Cashew 96(18) 94(17) Bengal gram 119(22) 236(43) Jackfruit 54(10) 135(24) Cotton 131(24) 224(41) Jamun 12(2) 290(52) Chilli 77(14) 150(27) Custard apple 267(49) 170(31) Tomato 77(14) 150(27) Tamarind 12(2) 221(41) Brinjal 159(29) 209(39) Mulberry 96(18) 281(51) Onion 108(20) 132(24) Marigold 54(10) 301(55) Bhendi 108(20) 260(48) Chrysanthemum 54(10) 301(55) Drumstick 96(18) 265(48) Jasmine 54(10) 173(31) Mango 12(2) 107(20) Crossandra 54(10) 195(36) Guava 54(10) 133(24) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 131 (59.01%) men and 91 (40.99%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.8, marginal farmers' was 4.3, small farmers' was 5.27, semi medium farmers' was 5, medium farmers' was 7.33 and large farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (18.92%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 95 (42.79%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (28.83%) were in 36-60 years of age and 21 (9.46%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Bikkanahalli had 23.87 per cent illiterates, 25.68 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.76 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.67 per cent of them had high school education, 9.91 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.90 per cent had diploma, 4.50 per cent of them did ITI, 9.46 per cent of them had degree education and 0.45 per cent did masters.  The results indicate that, 82.22 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 17.78 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 42.34 per cent of the household members, 22.97 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.90 per cent of the households general labourers, 0.90 per cent of the households were in government service, 1.35 per cent were in private service, 27.48 per cent were students and 1.80 per cent were children.  The results show that 98.65 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions, 0.45 per cent of the population participated in sthree shakthi sangha and 0.90 per cent participated in self help group.  The results indicate that 4.44 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 84.44 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 11.11 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 4.44 per cent of the households possess radio, 75.56 per cent of the households possess TV, 24.44 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 6.67 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 28.89 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.22 per cent of the households possess landline phone and 95.56 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of radio was Rs.750, television was Rs.5426, mixer grinder was Rs.1290, bicycle was Rs. 866, motor cycle was Rs.31307, landline phone was Rs.1250 and mobile phone was Rs.2281.  About 22.22 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 8.89 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.22 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, 2.22 per cent of them possess tractor, 2.22 per cent of them possess sprayer and 20 per cent of them possess weeder. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.22400, the average value of plough was Rs.2250, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs.3000, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.50.  The results indicate that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.11 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.67 per cent of them possess buffalo and 2.22 per cent of the households possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.93, average own labour (women) available was 1.23, average hired labour (men) available was 7.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.38.  The results indicate that, 62.22 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 24.44 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Bikkanahalli micro-watershed possess 73.47 ha (89.81%) of dry land and 8.34 ha (10.19%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 12.10 ha (96.76%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (3.24%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 17.42 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.48 ha (65.04%) of dry land and 3.48 per cent (34.96%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 9.15 ha (67.26%) of dry land and 4.45 ha (32.74%) of irrigated land; large farmers possess 28.33 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 151,492.43 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 389,684.47. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 417,034.44 for dry land and Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 225,823.66 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 192,968.75 for dry land and Rs. 545,697.68 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 65,575.22 for dry land and Rs. 190,863.64 for irrigated land and in case of large farmers it was Rs. 10,585.71 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning and 5 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 17.78 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 14.09 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 1.21 ha, 3.08 ha and 4.45 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (21.98 ha), bajra (6.30 ha), sunflower (6.73 ha), Bengal gram (1.42 ha), sorghum (8.42 ha), redgram (1.82 ha), navane (1.01), blackgram (0.40), Greengram (0.81), horsegram (0.81), onion (0.40) and chilly (0.65 ha). 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Bikkanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 66.07 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 86.40 per cent, small farmers it was 76.21 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 81.46, medium farmers it was 45.35 per cent and in case of large farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 75.56 per cent of the households have bank account and 24.44 per cent have savings.  The results indicate that, 44.44 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46549.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33923.77. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -12625.90, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 36636.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 4763.57. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -31872.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.13.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 31736.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18149.41. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 13586.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.57.  The total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 20029.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 7410. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. -12619.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.37.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 30931.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27787.50. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. - 3143.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 37640.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22297.69. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -15342.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.59.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 49117.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25214.58. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -23902.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.51.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25990.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 17599.03. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -8391.01. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.68.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 22542.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 8892. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. - 13650.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.39.  The total cost of cultivation for blackgram was Rs. 29957.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25935. The net income from blackgram cultivation was Rs. -4022.73. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87. 4  The total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 34435.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 6669. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. -27766.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.19.  The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 89144.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. - 59504.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.33.  The results indicate that, 28.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.22 per cent opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 27,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 43,955.79, for small farmers it was Rs. 40,545.45, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 135,300, for medium farmers it was Rs. 170,333.33 and for large farmers it was Rs. 25,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,601.85. For landless households it was Rs. 1,500, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 1,820.18, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,727.27, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,111.11, for medium farmers it was Rs. 30,111.11 and for large farmers it was Rs. 35,000.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 2933.33, for improved crop production Rs.1822.22 and for improved livestock management Rs. 1066.67.  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 7.5 per cent for irrigation facility and 2.5 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 22.22 per cent for land development, for another 22.22 per cent for improved crop production and 13.33 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds were the source of additional investment for 13.33 per cent for land development and 8.89 per cent for improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment capacity for 2.22 per cent for land development, for 6.67 per cent for improved crop production and for 6.67 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except blackgram (66.67), sorghum (96.94%) and sunflower (98.41%).  The results indicated that, about 46.67 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 77.78 per cent of the farmers have sold to local/village merchants and 2.22 per cent have sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 122.22 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 2.22 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport for their agricultural produce. 5  The results indicated that, 86.67 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 89.47 per cent of the marginal farmers, 100 per cent of the small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium, 100 per cent of medium and large farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent have shown interest in soil test i.e 94.74 per cent of marginal, 90.91 per cent of small, 66.67 per cent of semi medium, 100 per cent of medium and large farmers.  The results indicated that, 84.44 per cent of the households used firewood and 17.78 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 28.89 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 60 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 4.44 per cent of the households and canal/nala was the source of drinking water for 2.22 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.22 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 21.05 per cent of the marginal farmers, 36.36 per cent of the small farmers, 33.33 per cent of the semi medium farmers, 100 per cent of the landless, medium and large farmers.  The results indicated that, 95.56 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 4.44 per cent of the households possessed APL card and 2.22 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 42.22 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.11 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 51.11 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 11.11 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 46.67 per cent, fruits were adequate for 6.67 per cent, milk was adequate for 57.78 per cent, eggs were adequate for 31.11 per cent and meat was adequate for 20 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 8.89 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 48.89 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 84.44 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 44.44 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 77.78 per cent, milk was inadequate for 31.11 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 62.22 per cent and meat was inadequate for 51.11 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 2.22 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 11.11 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.22 per cent of the households. 6  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 84.44 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (71.11%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (46.67%), inadequacy of irrigation water (13.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (35.56%), high rate of interest on credit (40%), low price for the agricultural commodities (51.11%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (57.78%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80%), inadequate extension services (24.44%), less rainfall (22.22%) and source of agri-technology information (17.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mainahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 510 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 7land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 8 per cent area has loamy soils and 92 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 66 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 87 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 13 per cent area has nearly sloping (0-1%) lands.  An area of about 28 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 72 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 7 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4), 32 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 35 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 26 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 57 per cent and 42 per cent soils are high (>20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 32 per cent area and 67 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm).  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 1 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 119(23) 315(62) Sapota 38 (8) 45 (9) Maize - 434 (85) Pomegranate 63 (12) 247 (49) Bajra 63 (12) 416 (82) Musambi 119 (23) 192 (38) Groundnut 38 (8) 89 (17) Lime 119 (23) 181 (35) Sunflower 119 (23) 178 (35) Amla 63 (12) 416 (82) Red gram 38 (8) 254 (50) Cashew 63 (12) 14 (3) Bengalgram 80 (16) 384 (76) Jackfruit 38 (8) 45 (9) Cotton 119 (23) 315 (62) Jamun 38 (8) 261 (51) Chilli 38 (8) 75 (15) Custard apple 143 (28) 336 (66) Tomato 38 (8) 75 (15) Tamarind 38 (8) 247 (49) Brinjal 24 (5) 366 (72) Mulberry 63 (12) 104 (21) Onion 24 (5) 45 (9) Marigold 38 (8) 249 (49) Bhendi 24 (5) 366 (72) Chrysanthemum 38 (8) 395 (78) Drumstick 63 (12) 234 (46) Jasmine 38 (8) 214 (42) Mango 38 (8) 24 (5) Crossandra 38 (8) 79 (15) Guava 38 (8) 45 (9) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 37 farmers were sampled in Mainahalli micro watershed among them 15 (40.54%) were marginal farmers, 12 (32.43%) were small farmers, 5 (13.51 %) were semi medium farmers, 1 (2.70%) were medium farmers and 4 (10.81%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 168 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 94 (55.95%) men and 74 (44.05%) were women. The average family size of landless and small farmer was 4, marginal farmers and semi medium farmers were 5 and medium farmers were 7. On an average the family size was 6.  The data indicated that 36 (21.43%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 65 (38.69%) were in 16-35 years of age, 52 (30.95%) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (8.93 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Mainahalli had 29.76 per cent illiterates, 30.36 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.52 per cent of them had both middle school, 13.10 per cent them had high school education, 8.93 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.60 per cent of them had diploma and ITI education, 6.55 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 86.49 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 10.81 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 2.70 per cent of the household heads were doing trade and business.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 20.24 per cent of the household members, 48.81 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.60 per cent were general labours, private sector, trade and business and children respectively. 28.57 per cent of them were students. In case of landless households 6.67 per cent were agriculturist, 86.67 per cent were agricultural labors and 6.67 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 19.18 per cent were agriculturist, 54.79 per cent were agricultural labour and 24.66 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 27.66 per cent of them were agriculturist, 36.17 per cent of them were agriculture labour, 2.13 per cent were trade and business and 34.04 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 19.23 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 34.62 per cent were agriculture labour and 42.31 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 14.29 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 42.86 per cent of them were agriculture labors and 28.57 per cent were students and 14.29 per cent of them were children.  The results showed 100 per cent of the farmers have not participated in any local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 94.59 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 5.41 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 2.70 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 70.27 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.70 per cent of them possess DVD/VCD Player, 10.81 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.41 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 24.32 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 75.68 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6076, DVD/VCD Player was Rs.3000, mixer grinder was Rs.1250, bicycle was Rs.400, motor cycle was Rs.37666 and mobile phone was Rs.4336.  About 8.11 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 2.70 per cent of them possess plough 21.62 per cent of the households possess weeder.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.21666; the average value of plough was Rs. 2000 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 24.  The results indicated that, 10.81 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 5.41 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.70 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 8.11 per cent of the household possess buffalo and 5.41 per cent of the households possess sheep.  In case of marginal farmers, 6.67 per cent of the households possess bullock, local cow, crossbred cow and buffalo respectively. In case of small farmers, 8.33 per cent of households possess bullock, local cow, buffalo and sheep respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 40 per cent of the households possess bullock and 20 per cent possess buffalo and sheep respectively.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.78, average own labour (women) available was 1.36, average hired labour (men) available was 8.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.69.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2.00, average own labour (women) was also 1.47, average hired labour (men) was 6.47 and average hired labour (women) available was also 6.73. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.58, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 6.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.58. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.80, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 9.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.60. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 30 and average hired labour (women) available was 30.  The results indicated that, 8.11 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 89.19 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate. 3  The results indicated that, households of the Mainahalli micro watershed possess 38.26 ha (90.61%) of dry land and 3.97 ha (9.39%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 10.44 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 15.95 ha (92.27 %) of dry land and 1.34 ha (7.73 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.43 ha (73.84%) of dry land and 2.63 ha (26.16%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.45 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 233,807.51 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 441,071.43. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 426,027.13 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 206,878.17 for dry land Rs. 486,515.16 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 121,144.41 for dry land and Rs. 418,000 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 67,363.64 for dry land and.  The results indicated that, there were 1 functioning and 1 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 2.70 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 3.77 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of small farmers there was 0.81 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (7.81 ha), maize (19.33 ha), sorghum (5.26 ha), red gram (0.20 ha) and sunflower (8.15 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers had grown bajra, sorghum and maize. Small farmers had grown bajra, sorghum, maize and sunflower. Semi medium farmers had grown bajra, sorghum, maize, red gram and sunflower. Medium farmers had grown sunflower.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Mainahalli micro watershed was found to be 78.16 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 83.93 per cent, in case of small farmers it was 75.66 per cent, in case semi medium it was 70.24 per cent and medium farmers it was 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 81.08 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings. 100 percent of the marginal and medium farmers possess bank account and savings respectively. 83.33 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings. Semi medium farmers possess 80 per cent of both bank account and savings.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of marginal, 83.33 per cent of small, 80 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 33170.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26696.83. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -6473.21, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.8. 4  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 38478.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31675.95. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -6802.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.82.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 61336.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49804.52. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. -11532.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.81.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 41245.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27371.03. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -13874.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.66.  The results indicated that, 5.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.51 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that, in case of landless, the average income from wage was Rs. 52000. In case marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs.666.67, agriculture was Rs.40666.6 and dairy farm was Rs.1333.33. In small farmers, the average income from service/salary was Rs.3333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 46,666.67. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 2400, agriculture was Rs.137000, dairy farm was Rs. 1200 and goat farming was Rs.8000. In medium farmers the average income from agriculture was Rs.100000.  The results indicated that, in case of land less, the average expenditure from wage Rs. 17500. In marginal farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs.5000, agriculture was Rs.20200 and dairy farm was Rs.3500. In small farmers, the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.10000 and agriculture was Rs.24833.33. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.8000, agriculture was Rs.39000, dairy farm was Rs.2000 and goat farming was Rs.15000. In medium farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.70000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 2 teak trees, 21 neem trees, 1tamarind tress, 4 banyan and 1 peeple trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4108.11 for land development and Rs.270.27 for improved crop production.  Marginal farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5333.33 for land development and Rs.266.67 for improved crop production. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4250 for land development. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3800 for land development and Rs. 600 5 in irrigation facility. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2000 for land development and Rs. 3000 in irrigation facility.  The results indicated that for land development, 2.63 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank and own funds respectively and 50 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan. 7.89 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, bajra, sorghum, maize, redgram and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, 48.65 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 59.46 percent of the households sold their produce to regulated market.  The results indicated that 2.70 per cent of the households have used head load and truck as a mode of transport, 13.51 per cent of the households used cart as a mode of transport and 89.19 per cent of them have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 27.03 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 46.67 percent of marginal farmers and 25 per cent of small farmers.  The results indicated that, 75.68 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing includes 93.33 per cent of the marginal, 75 per cent of the small, 80 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.70 percent of them used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 35.14 per cent households and 67.57 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 59.46 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 8.33 per cent of the small, 20 per cent of the semi medium and 100 medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 37.84 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 26.67 percent of the marginal, 25 per cent of the small, 40 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk and egg were adequate for 97.30 per cent, 86.49 per cent, 43.24 per cent, 43.24 per cent, 62.16 per cent, 29.73 per cent and 51.35 per cent respectively. 6  The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 10.81 per cent, 51.35 per cent, 54.05 per cent, 24.32 per cent, 24.32 per cent, 35.14 per cent and 5.41 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 89.19 per cent of the households experienced by lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint, wild animal menace on farm field (67.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (51.35%), inadequacy of irrigation water (24.32%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (32.43%), high rate of interest on credit (10.81%), low price for the agricultural commodities (16.22%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (8.11%), inadequate extension services (10.81%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (27.03%), less rainfall (64.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (13.51%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Abbagiri Tanda-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 877 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 96 per cent is covered by soils and 4 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 52 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 57 per cent soils are loamy and 16 per cent clayey soils at the surface  About 32 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 4 per cent in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 69 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 6 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5% slope)  An area of about 59 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 19 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 21 per cent soils are strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), an area of about 21 per cent soils are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), an area of about 13 per cent soils are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) in soil reaction, an area of 10 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5- 7.3), 5 per cent soils are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 7 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 2 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in 61 per cent area.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in an area 25 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in an area of 54 per cent.  About 43 per cent is low (145 kg/ha) in available potassium, 27 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 67 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 38 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 40 (5) 177 (20) Pomegranate - 180 (20) Maize 15 (2) 202 (23) Guava - 158 (18) Bajra 19 (2) 316 (36) Jackfruit - 158 (18) Groundnut - 471 (54) Jamun - 160 (18) Sunflower 22 (3) 58 (7) Musambi 22 (3) 158 (18) Cotton 22 (3) 194 (22) Lime 22 (3) 158 (18) Red gram - 80 (9) Cashew 15 (2) 233 (27) Bengalgram 22 (3) 205 (23) Custard apple 79 (9) 531 (60) Chilli 18 (2) 199 (23) Amla 46 (5) 557 (64) Tomato 18 (2) 199 (23) Tamarind - 24 (3) Drumstick 2 (<1) 253 (29) Marigold 15 (2) 202 (23) Mulberry 2 (<1) 426 (48) Chrysanthemum 15 (2) 202 (23) Mango - 2 (<1) Jasmine 15 (2) 180 (20) Sapota - 158 (18) Crossandra 15 (2) 180 (20)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 124 (53.45%) men and 108 (46.55%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of land less farmers was 4, marginal farmers were 4, small farmer was 5, semi medium farmer was 5 and medium farmers were 3.  There were 55 (23.71%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 101 (43.53%) were in 16-35 years of age, 57 (24.57 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (8.19%) were above 61 years of age.  The micro watershed had 34.48 per cent illiterates, 0.43 per cent functional literates, 34.48 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.59 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.36 per cent of them had high school education, 7.33 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.66 per cent of them diploma, 0.86 per cent of them had ITI, 3.45 per cent of them had degree education and 1.29 per cent of them had other education.  The results indicate that, 81.63 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 4.08 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 53.88 per cent of the household members, 7.33 per cent were agricultural laborers, 4.31 per cent were general labours, 0.43 percent were in government service, 0.86 per cent of them were in private sector, 0.43 per cent of them were in trade and business, 21.98 per cent of them were students and 1.72 per cent were housewives.  The results shows that 1.72 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 0.86 per cent of them participated in gram panchayat, 0.43 per cent of them participated in Raitha Sangha and 96.98 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions.  The results indicate that 87.76 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 10.20 per cent of them possess Pucca house and 2.04 per cent them possess semi Pucca house. 100 percent of the landless, marginal and small farmers possess Katcha house.  The results shows that 57.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 34.69 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 42.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 83.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The average value of television was Rs.3178, mixer grinder was Rs.1876, DVD player was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.33857, bicycle was Rs.1250, Auto Rs.200000 and mobile phone was Rs.1736.  About 34.69 per cent of the households possess plough, 30.61 per cent of them possess bullock cart and 26.53 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 12.24 2 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 46.94 per cent of the households possess weeder. The average value of plough was Rs.748, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 18750 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.2117.  The results indicate that, 36.73 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 18.37 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.12 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.04 per cent of the households possess equally for sheep and goat respectively.  Average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.91, average own labour (women) available was 1.45, average hired labour (men) available was 11.36 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.41.  The results indicate that, 89.80 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, 1 person was migrated from micro watershed that belonged to semi medium farmer category. People have migrated on an average of 450 Kms and average duration was 10 months. Job/work was important reason for migration for all the migrants.  Households of the Abbagiri Tanda-1 micro watershed possess 40.54 ha (68.45%) of dry land and 18.69 ha (31.55%) of irrigated land. The average value of dry land was Rs.260116.79 and average value of irrigated was Rs.316639.24. There were 14 functioning and 7 defunct bore wells in the micro watershed. Bore well was the major irrigation source for 28.57 per cent of the farmers. There were 10.76 ha of irrigated area in total in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (29.38 ha), Navane (0.81 ha), Bajra (7.32 ha), Paddy (1.22 ha), Sorghum (3.04 ha), and Red gram (2.49ha) in kharif season and Bengal gram (4.08 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha), Red gram (1.21 ha) and sorghum (0.81 ha) in Rabi season.  Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, Ground nut, Bengal gram and Redgram. Small farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, Bengal gram and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, bajra, Bengal gram and Paddy. Medium farmers have grown Maize and Bengal gram. Medium farmers have grown Maize and Bengal gram.  The cropping intensity in Abbagiri Tanda-1 micro watershed was found to be 90.91 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers it was 96.40 per cent, for small farmers it was 87.36 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 89.84 per cent and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 55.10 per cent and 53.06 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 63.64 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 65 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 60 per cent of savings. Semi medium farmers possess 54.55 per cent of both bank account and savings and medium category of farmers possess 50 per cent of bank account and also savings. 3  The results indicate that, 65.22 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 43.48 per cent have availed loan in money lender and 4.35 per cent have availed loan from cooperative bank. Marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.16142.86, Rs. 114444.44, Rs.50000, and Rs. 250000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 73608.70.  The results indicate that, 18.75 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially which includes 22.22 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers.  The data also showed that 56.25 per cent of households have unpaid their loans and only 25 per cent of households have fully repaid their loans. The results also indicated that 20 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially and 80 percent of the households have unpaid their loan.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23153.0. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22838.19. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -314.89, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 20389.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47012.31. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 26622.35, and the income generated from red gram was Rs. 10618.55, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.31.  Total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 12067.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25935. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 13867.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.15.  Total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 35259.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41003.63. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 5744.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 14260.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27694.88. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 13715.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96.  The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 41141.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80509.57. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 39367.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96.  Total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 48921.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80878.78. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 31957.66. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.65.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13963.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25468.44. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 11505.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.82. 4  The results indicate that, 59.18 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 4.08 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate also the data revealed that 24.49 per cent of the farmers opined that green fodder is adequate.  The table indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 3571.43, business Rs.3632.65, wage Rs.27367.35, agriculture Rs. 52992.86, farm income Rs.1632.65, Non farm income Rs.3061.22, dairy farm Rs.2215.31 and goat farming was Rs.3061.22.  The results indicated that, 44.90 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 45.45 per cent marginal farmers, 55 per cent small farmers, 45.45 per cent semi medium farmers and 50 per cent medium farmers.  The results indicated that for 12 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development. Similarly for the dependency was for irrigation facility 48 percent and only 2 percent for improved crop production. The results indicated that, only Navane was sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The data regarding marketing channels used for sale of agricultural produce was showing that 57.14 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 42.86 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and only 4.08 per cent of the households sold their produce to agents/traders.  The data about mode of transport of agricultural produce indicated that 75.51 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 28.57 per cent have used tractor. The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 63.64 per cent of marginal farmers, 70 per cent of small farmers, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers have shown interest in soil testing.  The data pertaining to soil and water conservation practices and structures adopted in micro watershed was indicating that, 10.20 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 18.18 per cent of marginal, 10 per cent of small farmers, and 50 per cent of medium farmers. Summer ploughing was adopted by 57.14 per cent of the households i.e.63.64 per cent of the marginal farmers, 70 per cent of the small farmers, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent medium farmers.  Form pond was adopted by the farmers was 2.04 per cent. The data regarding agencies involved in soil conservation structures in was showing that 2.04 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 8.16 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 2.04 per cent is constructed by farmer's organization. 5  The results indicated that, 83.67 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, and 14.29 percent of the households used LPG. Also results indicated that, piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 53.06 per cent which includes 100 per cent of landless, 45.45 per cent of marginal, 40 per cent of small farmers, 63.64 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers and 10.20 per cent of the households were using bore well as a source of drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 93.88 per cent. The results indicated that, 34.69 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of landless, 45.45 per cent of marginal, 3 per cent of small, 9.09 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 91.84 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.04 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 36.73 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 45.45 percent of the marginal, 4 per cent of the small, 36.36 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The result of data regarding adequacy of food items was showing that that, 97.97 per cent of cereals, 79.59 per cent of pulses, 63.27 per cent of oilseeds and 67.35 percent of both milk and egg were adequate for the households. Vegetables and fruits were adequate only for 10.20 per cent and meat was 4.08 per cent for the households respectively.  Also, the results indicated that, both vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 85.71 per cent of the households. Milk and egg were inadequate for 30.61 per cent respectively; meat was inadequate for 89.90 per cent. Cereals, pulses and oilseeds were inadequate for 2.04 per cent, 18.37 per cent and 8.16 per cent respectively.  The results of the farming constraints experienced by households in studied micro watershed was indicating that Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 32.65 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (59.18%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.10%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.10%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (65.31%), high rate of interest on credit (63.27%), low price for the agricultural commodities (65.31%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (67.35%), inadequate extension services (63.27%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (79.59%), less rainfall (30.61%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (12.24). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Katrahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 444 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 90 per cent is covered by soil and 10 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 3 per cent is sandy (loamy sand) at the surface, 15 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 72 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 56 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) available water capacity.  An area of about 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 77 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 50 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 40 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 86 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 4 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in 31 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 5 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 85 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 64 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 42 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in <1 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 127 (29) 157 (35) Pomegranate 48(11) 267(60) Maize 69 (16) 217 (49) Guava 14(3) 140(31) Bajra 82(18) 269(60) Jackfruit 48(11) 105(24) Redgram 34(8) 145 (32) Jamun 34(8) 168(22) Bengal gram 58(13) 234(53) Musambi 106(24) 209(47) Groundnut 14(3) 179 (40) Lime 106(24) 209 (47) Sunflower 93 (21) 165 (37) Cashew 48(11) 105(24) Cotton 93(21) 193(43) Custard apple 154(35) 227(51) Chilli 82(18) 14(3) Amla 95(22) 285 (64) Tomato 82(18) 14(3) Tamarind 95(22) 285(64) Drumstick 48(11) 240(54) Marigold 69(16) 215(49) Mulberry 48(11) 263(59) Chrysanthemum 69(16) 215(49) Mango 34(8) 39(9) Jasmine 69(16) 53(12) Sapota 48(11) 105(24) Crossandra 69(16) 141(32)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey in Katarahalli microwatershed indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Katarahalli microwatershed among them 5 (14.71 %) were landless farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were marginal farmers, 10 (29.41 %) were small farmers, 5 (14.71 %) were semi medium farmer, 6 (17.65 %) were medium farmers and 1(2.94 %) were large farmers.  The data indicated that there were 95 (56.21 %) men and 74 (43.79 %) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of large farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.4, small farmers' was 5.8, semi medium farmers' was 6, medium farmers' was 4.5 and large farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 28 (16.57 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (42.60 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (30.18 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.65 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Katarahalli had 27.22 per cent illiterates, 19.53 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.06 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.02 per cent of them had high school education, 15.98 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.18 per cent of them had Diploma, 1.78 per cent of them had ITI, 7.10 per cent of them had degree education and 0.59 per cent of them did Masters.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 47.06 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 per cent of the household heads were in Trade & Business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 26.04 per cent of the household members, 33.14 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.78 per cent were in government service, 5.33 per cent were in private service, 2.37 per cent were in trade and business, 22.49 per cent were students, 2.96 per cent were housewives and 3.55 per cent were children.  The results show that, 0.59 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in Gram Panchayat, Dairy Cooperative and Raitha Sangha.  The results indicate that 64.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 14.71 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 20.59 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 76.47 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.94 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD Player, 58.82 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Refrigerator, 26.47 per cent of them possess bicycle, 52.94 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94per cent of the households possess Computer/Laptop and 91.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2  The results show that the average value of television was Rs 5,807, DVD/VCD Player mixer was Rs 2,000, grinder was Rs 2,350, Refrigerator was Rs 12,000, bicycle was Rs 5,425, motor cycle was Rs.38,250 mobile phone was Rs. 1,998 and Computer/Laptop was Rs. 45,000.  About 5.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 26.47 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent of them possess Irrigation Pump, 5.88 per cent possess tractor, 17.65 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler, 76.47 per cent of them possess weeder, 23.53 per cent of them possess Thresher, 2.94 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 2.94 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,500, plough was Rs. 1,820, Irrigation Pump was Rs.7,000, tractor was Rs 350,000, sprayer was Rs.3,828, Sprinkler was Rs. 8,000, average value of weeder was Rs. 159, Harvester was Rs. 84,000, Thresher was Rs. 277, average value of chaff cutter was 3,000 and the average value of earth mover/duster was Rs. 15,000.  The data regarding the Livestock possession by the households in Katarahalli micro-watershed is presented in Table 13. The results indicate that, 8.82 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 17.65 per cent of the households possess local cow, 23.53 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 5.88 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 5.88 per cent of the households possess Goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.41, average own labour (women) available was 1.19, average hired labour (men) available was 13.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.23.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 5.88 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Katarahalli micro-watershed possess 17.74 ha (36.01 %) of dry land and 31.51 ha (63.99 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.30 ha (85.80 %) of dry land and 0.55 ha (14.20 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 5.65 ha (52.11 %) of dry land and 5.19 ha (47.89 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.90 ha (58.47 %) of dry land and 4.19 ha (41.53 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.89 ha (16.56 %) of dry land and 14.56 ha (83.44 %) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 7.03 ha (100 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 431,108.83 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 382,220.36. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 726,470.58 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.67. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 398,101.72 3 for dry land and Rs. 731,566.65 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 237,336.99 for dry land and Rs. 441,497.59 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 553,501.40 for dry land and Rs. 322,651.47 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers, the average land value was Rs. 113,824.88 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 22 functioning and 17 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 64.71 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 48.68 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium, medium farmers and large farmers had an irrigated area of 1.09 ha, 7.31 ha, 4.96 ha, 11.91 ha and 2.83 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Bajra (2.91 ha), Bengal gram (2.18 ha), Cotton (5.26 ha), Drumstick (1.26 ha), Groundnut (3.79 ha), maize (12.01 ha), Sorghum (0.88 ha), Onion (1.76 ha), Red gram (.96 ha), bajra (2.91 ha) and Pearl millet (8.10 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Katarahalli micro-watershed was found to be 74.72 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 47751.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33186.64. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -14564.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.69.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 51818.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74236.52. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 22418.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.43.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 318503.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78255.19. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. -240248.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.25.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 57538.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 52673.65. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -4864.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.92.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 113731.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 195184.89. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 81453.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.72. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46264.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 107609.70. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 61345.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.33.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 51344.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23903.22. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -27441.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.47.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 60030.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32057.96. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -27972.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.53.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Drumstick was Rs. 40072.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 223096.78. The net income from Drumstick cultivation was Rs. 183024.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 5.57.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 78158.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61688.25. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -16470.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.79.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 29807.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38285. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. 8477.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.28.  The results indicate that, 26.47 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and dry fodder was inadequate for 17.65 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 2,400 for landless households, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 89,571.43, for small farmers it was Rs. 184,770, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 103,200, for medium farmers it was Rs. 126,208.33 and for semi large farmers it was Rs. 138,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 18,960.57. For landless households it was Rs. 600, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 14,234.69, for small farmers it was Rs. 24,260, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 22,400, for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,069.44 and for large farmers it was Rs. 115,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 68 coconut trees in their field and1 in backyard, 3 Custard apple trees in their field, 5 Guava trees in their field, 10 Lemon trees in their field, 19 Mango trees in their field, 4 Pomegranate in their field and 3 lime in their field. . 5  The results indicate that, households have planted 40 Teak, 47 neem, 2 tamarind and 7 banyan trees in their field. Also, 1 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, Bengalgram, Cow Pea, Drumstick, Garlic, cotton and Redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent, bajra was sold to the extent of 91.83 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 40.38 per cent, Maize was sold to the extent of 98.01 per cent, Onion was sold to the extent of 64.14 per cent, Sunflower was sold to the extent of 62.5 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 86.67 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 61.76 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 2.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market, 8.82 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Cooperative marketing Society and 52.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Agent/Traders.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 73.53 per cent of the households used firewood, 20.59 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel and 2.94 per cent of the households used Kerosene and Biogas as a source of fuel .  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 67.65 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 32.35 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 67.65 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 41.18 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 61.76 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 100 per cent, milk was adequate for 88.24 per cent, Fruits was adequate for 11.76 per cent, eggs were adequate for 29.41 per cent and meat was adequate for 47.06 per cent.  The results indicated that, Cereals were inadequate for 32.35 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 58.82 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 38.24 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 50 per cent, milk 6 was inadequate for 2.86 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.29 per cent and meat was inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 44.12 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (50 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (47.06 %), inadequacy of irrigation water (35.29 %), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (52.94 %), high rate of interest on credit (47.06 %), low price for the agricultural commodities (35.29 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50 %), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20.59 %), less rainfall (38.24 %) and source of agri-technology information (26.47 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanakapura-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 410 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 79 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops, 14 per cent by mining/industrial, 1 per cent by railway and 5 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 6 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 8 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 27 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 44 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 61 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 21 per cent area of the microwatershed is nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 54 per cent area of the microwatershed is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 4 per cent area of microwatershed is gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands.  An area of about 29 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 50 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 69 per cent soil are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 10 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 51 per cent area.  An area of about 14 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 64 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 51 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 28 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in 1 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 78 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) and 21 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 18(4) 103(25) Sapota 18(4) 84(20) Maize 18(4) 113(27) Pomegranate 18(4) 138(34) Bajra 21(5) 148(36) Guava 16(4) 85(21) Groundnut - 183(45) Jackfruit 18(4) 84(20) Sunflower 18(4) 102(25) Jamun 2(<1) 154(13) Cotton 2(<1) 119(29) Musambi 18(4) 138(34) Red gram 18(4) 102(25) Lime 18(4) 138(34) Bengalgram 54(13) 70(17) Cashew 16(4) 108(26) Chilli 21(5) 46(11) Custard apple 21(5) 276(67) Tomato 21(5) 46(11) Amla 21(5) 276(67) Brinjal 64(16) 216(52) Tamarind 2(<1) 115(28) Onion 61(15) 219(53) Marigold 18(4) 104(25) Bhendi 61(15) 219(53) Chrysanthemum 18(4) 104(25) Drumstick 18(4) 217(53) Jasmine 18(4) 50(12) Mulberry 18(4) 275(67) Crossandra 18(4) 49(12) Mango 2(<1) 61(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 94 (53.11%) men and 83 (46.89%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 4.08, small farmers' was 3.60, semi medium farmers' was 5.10 and medium farmers' was 7.50.  The data indicated that, 27 (15.25%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 90 (50.85%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (27.12%) were in 36-60 years of age and 6 (6.78%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kanakapura-1 had 32.20 per cent illiterates, 20.34 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.34 per cent of them had middle school education, 20.34 per cent of them had high school education, 9.60 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.82 per cent of them had ITI, 3.95 per cent had degree education, 0.56 per cent of master and 2.82 per cent others.  The results indicate that, 91.89 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 8.11 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 40.68 per cent of the household members, 21.47 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.56 per cent of the households industry, 2.82 per cent were in private service, 23.16 per cent were in students, 6.78 per cent were housewives and 2.26 per cent were in children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that, 51.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 8.11 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 40.54 per cent of them possess semi pacca house  The results show that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 48.65 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 8.11 per cent of them possess bicycle, 45.95 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 45.95 per cent of them possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 7,299, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,625, bicycle was 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 47,352, and mobile phone was Rs. 2,078.  About 8.11 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.70 per cent of them power tiller, 5.41 per cent of them tractor, 2.70 per cent of them possess sprayer and 37.84 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs. 1,400, power tiller was Rs. 200000, tractor was Rs. 550,000, sprayer was Rs. 5000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.29. 2  The results indicate that, 18.92 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 29.73 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.11 per cent possess crossbreed cow and buffalo respectively and 2.70 per cent possess sheep.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.31, average own labour (women) available was 1.27, average hired labour (men) available was 3.41 and average hired labour (women) available was 2.92.  The results indicate that, households of the Kanakapura-1 micro-watershed possess 11.55 ha (31.70%) of dry land and 24.87 ha (68.30%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.70 ha (71.91%) of dry land and 2.23(28.09%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 3.78 ha (77.92%) of dry land and 1.07 ha (22.08%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.06 ha (13.81%) of dry land and 12.88 ha (86.19%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.70 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 701,261.82 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 548,576.31. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 929,758.50 for dry land and Rs. 1,482,000. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 554,759.35 for dry land and Rs. 1,398,113.16 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 339,019.61 for dry land and Rs. 454,101.20 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 344,811.54 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 16 functioning bore wells and 1de-functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 5 functioning Open wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well and open wells were the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 43.24 per cent and 13.51per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 35.29 meters and Open well was found to be 3.38 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.70 ha, 1.07 ha, 11.51ha and 10.76 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (12.13 ha), bajra (4.75 ha), cotton (4.21ha), sunflower (3.7 ha), redgram (2.24 ha), sugarcane (2.11 ha), cow pea (2.06 ha), greengram (0.85 ha), paddy (0.81), sorghum (0.81), groundnut (0.46ha), onion (0.4ha) and tomato (0.4 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, redgram, greengram, sorghum and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, sunflower, redgram and onion. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, sunflower, sugarcane, greengram and paddy. Medium farmers have grown bajra, sunflower, maize, cowpea and sugarcane.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kanakapura-1 micro-watershed was found to be 87.86 per cent. 3  The results show that 13.51 per cent of the households possess bank account and saving. The results show that 5.41 per cent of the households possess borrowing status.  The results show that 25 per cent for friends/ relative and 75 per cent for Grameena bank of the households possess credit availed.  The results show that Rs.51250 of the households average credit amount status.  The results show that among 100 per cent of the households purpose of credit borrowed - Institutional credit for agricultural production.  The results show that among 100 per cent of the households purpose of credit borrowed - private credit for agricultural production.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 37230.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46287.02. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 9056.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra+redgram was Rs. 19640.10. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31238.23. The net income from bajra+redgram cultivation was Rs. 11598.13. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.59.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 60582.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59800.00. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -782.20. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 41256.23The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50093.01. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8836.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.21.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 35927.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47954.59. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 12027.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33.  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 87301.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 168979.36. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 81678.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.94.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 80494.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55575.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. -24919.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.69.  The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 55759.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. - 6359.25.Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89. 4  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 23473.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640.00.The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 6166.88. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.26.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 47588.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63232.00. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 15643.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33.  The total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 22280.33 gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640.00. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 7359.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.33.  The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 7811.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 7278.98. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. -532.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.93.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 48836. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49111.08. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 275.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01.  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 22275.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60206.25The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 37931.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.7.  The results indicate that, 29.73 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and 21.62 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 46,000.00 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 51,915.38, for small farmers it was Rs. 66,200, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 91,700 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 62,750.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,560.36. For landless households it was Rs. 3,480, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,494.87, for small farmers it was Rs. 10,260, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,310 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 21,375.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 90 coconut and13 mango trees in their field and 3 coconut and 1 mango trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 2 cashew and 57 neem, 1tamarind and 11banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, cotton sugarcane and sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent, tomato was sold to the extent of 93.33 per cent, bajra was sold to the extent of 71.55 per cent, redgram was sold to the extent of 62.96 per cent, greengram ground nut was sold extent of 50 per cent paddy was sold to 45 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 16.67 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 62.16 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders. 37.84 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 27.03 per cent of them sold their produce through regulated market. 5  The results indicated that, 21.62 per cent of the households used head load, 29.53 per cent of the households used cart and 75.68 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 10.81 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 18.92 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 89.19 per cent of the households used firewood and 13.51 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 45.95 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 48.65 per cent of the households and 2.70 per cent of the households used Canal/Nala in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.30 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 45.95 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 89.19 per cent of the sampled household's possessed BPL card and 10.81 per cent not possessed card.  The results indicated that, 54.05 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.89 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 70.27 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 27.03 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 45.95 per cent, fruits were adequate for 54.05 per cent, milk was adequate for 72.97 per cent and meat was adequate for 54.05 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 8.11 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 29.73 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 70.27 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 54.05 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 35.14 per cent, milk were inadequate for 16.22 per cent, egg was inadequate for 37.84per cent and meat were inadequate for 35.14 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 59.46 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (43.24%),frequent incidence of pest and diseases (56.76%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (54.05%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (48.65%), low price for the agricultural commodities (27.03%),inadequate extension services (16.22%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (51.35%), less rainfall (51.35%) and source of Agri-technology information (24.32%) . ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tavargere microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 516 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soil, four per cent by rock out crops and three per cent by water bodies, settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 14 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 75 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 5 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 65 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 57 kg/ha) in 37 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in an entire area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm)in 4 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 23 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 19(4) 15 (3) Pomegranate - 85(17) Maize - 37 (7) Guava - 66(13) Bajra 15(3) 135(26) Jackfruit - 66(13) Redgram - 34(3) Jamun - 85(17) Bengal gram 19(4) 77(15) Musambi 19(4) 66(13) Groundnut 15(3) 315 (61) Lime 19(4) 66(13) Sunflower 19 (4) 15 (3) Cashew - 171(33) Cotton 19(4) 15(3) Custard apple 34(7) 444(86) Chilli - 15(3) Amla 15(3) 463 (90) Tomato - 15(3) Tamarind - 20(4) Drumstick - 260(50) Marigold - 34(7) Mulberry - 416(81) Chrysanthemum - 34 (7) Mango - - Jasmine - 15(3) Sapota - 66(13) Crossandra - 34(7)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 114 (60%) men and 76 (40%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.09, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 6.28.  The data indicated that, 33 (17.37%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (40%) were in 16-35 years of age, 65 (34.21%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (8.42%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Tavaregere had 34.21 per cent illiterates, 24.74 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.32 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.32 per cent of them had high school education, 7.37 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.11 per cent of them did ITI, and 6.32 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 65 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 12.50 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 46.84 per cent of the household members, 17.37 per cent were agricultural laborers, 9.47 per cent were general labour, 1.05 per cent were in private, 20.53 per cent were students, 2.11 per cent were housewives and 2.11 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 15 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 67.50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 15 per cent of them possess pucca house and 2.50 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 92.50 per cent of the households possess TV, 60 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 17.50 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 50 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.50 per cent of them possess auto and 90 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.7989, mixer grinder was Rs.1980, bicycle was Rs. 2142, motor cycle was Rs.34800, auto phone was Rs.35000 and mobile phone was Rs.2295.  About 22.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.50 per cent of them possess plough, 7.50 per cent of them possess tractor, 30 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.50 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 87.50 per cent of them possess weeder, 5 per cent of them possess harvester, 2.50 per cent of them possess thresher and 2.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20333, plough was Rs.894, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer 2 was Rs.2331, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3200, the average value of harvester was Rs.60000, the average value of thresher was Rs.45000, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.87.  The results indicate that, 30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, and 17.50 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.86, average own labour (women) available was 1.46, average hired labour (men) available was 12.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.40.  The results indicate that, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Tavaregere micro watershed possess 23.76 ha (46.71%) of dry land and 27.10 ha (53.29%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.24 ha (93.72%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (6.28%). Small farmers possess 6.16 ha (57.35%) of dry land and 4.58 ha (42.65%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.25 ha (27.54%) of dry land and 8.54 ha (72.46%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.11 ha (34.50%) of dry land and 13.49 ha (65.50%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 307,172.06 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 545,937.87. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,553.08 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.60 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275,886.99 for dry land and Rs. 850,971.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123,192.01 for dry land and Rs. 561,895.74 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 140,660.59 for dry land and Rs. 392,651.47 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 18 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning and 1 de-functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45 per cent of the farmers, and open well was the source of irrigation for 2.50 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 49.62 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.44 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 4.58 ha, 8.54 ha and 13.36 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (11.62 ha), brinjal (1.78 ha), groundnut (5.15 ha), ladies finger (1.21 ha), maize (21.74 ha), navane (1.70 ha), paddy (2.83 ha), pearlmillet (1.62 ha), sunflower (2.18 ha) and tomato (0.89 ha). 3  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, watermelon and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy and watermelon. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, paddy, sorghum, tomato, watermelon and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, horsegram, paddy, redgram sorghum and maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Tavaregere micro watershed was found to be 93.29 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 96.97 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 84.93 per cent.  The results indicate that, 72.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 42.50 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 81.25 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 6.25 per cent availed loan from cooperative bank, 75 per cent availed loan from grameena bank, and 37.50 per cent availed loan from money lenders.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs. 90,375, Rs. 258,500, Rs. 525,000 and Rs. 260,000 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 50 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions, 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for animal husbandry and 16.67 per cent borrowed for the purpose of borewell/irrigation related equipments.  The results indicated that 84.62 per cent of the households did not repay their loan and 15.38 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  The results indicate that, around 42.31 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 53.85 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 3.85 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, around 9.09 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 18.18 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 27.27 per cent opined that the rate of interest was high in non institutional source of credits. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 52582.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 179075. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 126492.37, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.41.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 49699.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 105455.28. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 55755.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.12.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27360.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35390.45. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8030.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23644.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36489.05. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 1006.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.54.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 49015.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57055.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 8039.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 40080.30. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -3030.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.92.  The total cost of cultivation for ladies finger was Rs. 41939.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95363.45. The net income from ladies finger cultivation was Rs. 53423.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 13772.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28106.90. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 14334.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.04.  The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 53235.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 186686.05. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 133450.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.51.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 22.50 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 97,600 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 64,581.82, for small farmers it was Rs. 98,320, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 69,571.43, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 108,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,532.54. For landless households it was Rs. 19,360, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,727.27, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,604.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,387.76, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 8,534.69.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 126 coconuts and 22 mangoes in their fields. They have also grown 1 coconut tree in their backyard. 5  The results indicate that, households have planted 147 neem trees, 5 tamarind trees, 2 banyan trees and 2 peepul tree in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 2125, for irrigation facility Rs. 1175, for improved crop production Rs. 1075 and for improved livestock management Rs. 575.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 22.5 per cent of the households for land development, 20 per cent for irrigation facility, 22.5 per cent for improved crop production and 15 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, brinjal, groundnut, ladies finger, maize, navane, paddy, sunflower and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 55 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 15 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 2.50 per cent of the farmers have sold through agents/traders and 27.50 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 22.50 per cent have used truck and 40 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 18.18 per cent of marginal farmers, 71.43 per cent of semi medium farmers and 14.29 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 72.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.50 per cent used fire wood and 2.50 per cent of the households used dung cake.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 92.50 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 7.50 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 27.27 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 28.57 per cent of the semi medium and 14.29 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.50 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.50 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 17.50 per cent, fruits were adequate for 30 per cent, 6 milk was adequate for 87.50 per cent, eggs were adequate for 85 per cent and meat was adequate for 82.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 25 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 90 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 70 per cent, milk was inadequate for 10 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 10 per cent and meat was inadequate for 12.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 12.50 per cent, vegetables were market surplus for 2.50 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 70 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (72.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (52.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (45%), high rate of interest on credit (50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (57.50%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (72.50%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.50%), less rainfall (12.50%), inadequate extension services (72.50%), and source of agri-technology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (7.50%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 613 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 211 ha (35%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 376 ha (61%) in the microwatershed is covered by rock outcrops and about 25 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 35per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 12 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to deep (75 - 150 cm) and 23 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese (>1.0 ppm) and copper (>0.2 ppm) are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 70(11) Guava - 63(10) Maize - 46(7) Sapota - 63(10) Bajra - 80(13) Pomegranate - 63(10) Groundnut - 72(12) Musambi 1(<1) 62(10) Sunflower - 62(10) Lime 1(<1) 62(10) Redgram - 63(10) Amla - 79(13) Bengal gram - 8(1) Cashew - - Cotton - 8(1) Jackfruit - 62(10) Chilli - 71(12) Jamun - 1(<1) Tomato - 71(12) Custard apple 38(6) 41(7) Brinjal - 80(13) Tamarind - 1(<1) Onion 39(6) 41(7) Mulberry - 71(12) Bhendi 38(6) 42(7) Marigold - 71(12) Drumstick - 72(12) Chrysanthemum - 71(12) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed among them 6 (17.65 %) were landless, 14 (41.18 %) were marginal farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were small farmers, 4 (11.76 %) were semi medium farmers and 3 (8.82 %) were medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 91 (54.49 %) men and 76 (45.51 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.33, marginal farmers' was 4.92, small farmers' was 4.28, semi medium farmers' was 5.5 and medium farmers' was 6.66.  The data indicated that, 36 (21.56 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 61 (36.53 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (32.93 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (8.98 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Yadgiri Rf-2 had 70.06 per cent illiterates, 10.18 per cent of them had primary school, 1.80 per cent of them had middle school, 8.98 per cent of them had high school education, 2.40 per cent of them had PUC, 0.60 per cent of them had Masters education and 1.20 per cent of them had Degree education.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 67.65 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 cent of the household heads were General Labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 7.19 per cent of the household members, 67.66 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.60 per cent were in general labour, 0.60 per cent were private service, 16.77 per cent were students, 1.20 per cent were housewives and 5.99 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 14.71 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 67.65 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 20.59 per cent of them possess Pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 47.06 per cent of the households possess TV, 8.82 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 14.71 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 20.59 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Tempo and 82.35 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,343, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,166, Bicycle was Rs. 1,500, motor cycle was Rs. 34,714 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,864.  About 23.53 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 50 per cent of the households possess plough, 38.24 per cent of them possess Seed/Fertilizer Drill, 2 14.71 per cent of them possess sparyer, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler and 41.18 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 12,875, plough was Rs. 4,047, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 3,492, sprayer was Rs. 2,540, sprinkler was Rs. 1,166 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 132.  The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 17.65 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 14.71 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 2.94 per cent of the households possess Poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.03, average own labour (women) available was 1.79, average hired labour (men) available was 9.61 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.70.  The results indicate that, 70.59 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed possess 28.32 ha (75.42 %) of dry land and 9.23 ha (24.58 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.43 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 8.81 ha (90.44 %) of dry land and 0.93 ha (9.56 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.86 ha (58.54 %) of dry land and 3.44 ha (41.46 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.22 ha (56.14 %) and 4.86 ha (43.86 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 370,658.86 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 411,666.67. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 602,092.13 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 376,683.51 for dry land and Rs. 859,130.45 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 267,583.33 for dry land and Rs. 348,705.88 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 128,645.84 for dry land and Rs. 370,500 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 1 De-functioning and 2 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning open wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.88 per cent of the farmers and Canal and Open Well were the irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.94 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 5.29 meters.  The results indicate that, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.93 ha and 3.36 ha respectively. 3  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (2.83 ha), green gram (7.91 ha), groundnut (4.25 ha), Paddy (1.21 ha), Jasmine (2.11 ha), red gram (16.23 ha), Onion (0.81 ha) and sorghum (2.02 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, groundnut, Jasmine, sorghum, cotton and green gram. Small farmers have grown red gram, green gram, onion and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram, green gram and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown red gram, green gram, Jasmine, cotton and sorghum.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yadgiri Rf-2 micro-watershed was found to be 73.97 per cent.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households have bank account and 64.71 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 8.33 per cent of the households have borrowed from Friends/Relatives and 41.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from Grameena Bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs. 55,000.08.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from private sources for the purpose of Household consumption.  The results indicated that, 87.50 per cent of the households Un paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources and 12.50 per cent of the households Partially paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, 75 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 12.50 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from easy accessibility of credit and Higher rate of interest.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 32406.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54751.67. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 22344.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.69.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 37433.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42691.58. The net 4 income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 5258.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.14.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 27567.67. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 94209.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 66641.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 3.42.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 33006.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54609.16. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 21602.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.65.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 39494.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33417.64. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -6076.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.85.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 39803.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82333.33. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 42530.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.07.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 34350.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 85913.05. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 51562.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.5.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 67,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 166,778.57, for small farmers it was Rs. 242,715.43, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 192,500 and medium farmers it was Rs. 191,666.67.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 12,459.04. For landless households it was Rs. 5,277.78, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,194.87, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,068.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 29,600 and medium farmers it was Rs. 34,111.11.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 3 coconut, 29 Custard apple, 4 lime and 7 mango tree in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 50 Eucalyptus, 53 Neem, 4 Acacia, 3 Banyan and 10 tamarind trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,441.18 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,294.12 for Irrigation facility, households have an average investment 5 capacity of Rs. 1,470.59 for improved livestock management and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,470.59 for Subsidiary enterprises.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development, 8.82 per cent for irrigation facility. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 2.94 per cent for subsidiary enterprises. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 5.88 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton and paddy was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, Green gram was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, Onion was sold to the extent of 97.5 per cent, Paddy was sold to the extent of 91.67 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 91.95 per cent and sorghum to the extent of 84.62 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 23.53 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 76.47 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Regulated Market.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation and 11.76 per cent of the households have used Truck as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 38.24 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent have adopted Field Bunding, 5.88 per cent have adopted Farm Pond and 2.94 per cent have adopted Bore Well Recharge Pit.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the Bore Well Recharge Pit structures were good, 50 per cent each of the Farm Pond structure was good and slightly damaged and 100 per cent of the Field Bunding structures were good .  The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent of the conservation structures were constructed with own funds and 8.82 per cent of the conservation structures were used govt funds.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel, 20.59 per cent of the households used Kerosene and 23.53 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 58.82 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households in micro watershed and Solar Lamp was the major source of light for 2.94 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. 6  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards and 2.94 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL cards and Not Possessed.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 67.65 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 79.41 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 32.35 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 8.82 per cent and Milk and were adequate for 17.65 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 29.41 per cent of the households, Pulses were inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 67.65 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82.35 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 91.18 per cent, Milk were inadequate for 76.47 per cent, Egg were inadequate for 97.06 per cent of the households and Meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 79.41 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (70.59 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases and High cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.35 %), Inadequacy of irrigation water (58.82 %), High rate of interest on credit and Low price for the agricultural commodities (79.41 %), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (64.71 %), Inadequate extension services (44.12 %) and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (61.76 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mukkumpi-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of about 621 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 51 per cent is covered by soils, 41 per cent is covered by rock-out crops and 8 per cent is by others (Habitation and Settlements). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 7 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  An area of about 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 5 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 42 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 32 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 2 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 49 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 11 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 40 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 34 per cent soils are very strongly acid to slightly acid (pH 4.5-6.5), 15 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 2 per cent soil are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in the entire cultivated are of the microwatershed.  An area of about 35 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 16 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 1 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur content is low (4.5 ppm) in the available iron content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>1.0 ppm) in the available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in the available copper content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 36(6) 248(40) Sapota 12(2) 55(9) Maize 12(2) 272(44) Pomegranate 12(2) 160(26) Bajra 12(2) 278(45) Guava 12(2) 55(9) Groundnut - 45(7) Jackfruit 12(2) 55(9) Sunflower 36(6) 137(22) Jamun - 173(28) Cotton 24(4) 260(42) Musambi 36(6) 137(22) Red gram 12(2) 160(26) Lime 36(6) 137(22) Bengalgram 24(4) 234(38) Cashew 12(2) 55(9) Chilli 12(2) 86(14) Custard apple 38(6) 252(41) Tomato 12(2) 86(14) Amla 13(2) 277(45) Brinjal 68(11) 216(35) Tamarind - 172(28) Onion 66(11) 32(5) Marigold 12(2) 271(44) Bhendi 66(11) 218(35) Chrysanthemum 12(2) 271(44) Drumstick 12(2) 160(26) Jasmine 12(2) 166(27) Mulberry 12(2) 160(26) Crossandra 12(2) 100(16) Mango - 66(11)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  Results indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Mukkumpi-1 micro watershed among them 11 (32.35%) were marginal farmers, 13 (38.24 %) were small farmers, 13 (38.24 %) were semi medium farmers, 5 (2.94%) were medium farmers and 4 (11.76 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 194 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 115 (59.28%) men and 78(40.21%) were women. The average family size of landless was 3, marginal farmers and semi medium farmers were 5, small farmer was 8 and large farmer was 4. On an average the family size was 6.  The data indicated that 38 (19.59%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 100 (51.55%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (24.74%) were in 36-60 years of age and 8 (4.12 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Mukkumpi-1 had 31.96 per cent illiterates, 1.03 per cent were functional literate, 23.71 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.64 per cent of them had both middle school, 21.13 per cent them had high school education, 6.19 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.55 per cent them had Diploma education, 0.52 per cent them had ITI, 1.55 per cent of them had degree education, 1.03 per cent of them had masters education and 6.70 per cent them had others.  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 11.76 per cent of the household heads were general labour and 2.94 per cent of the household heads were doing other jobs.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 65.46 per cent of the household members, 2.58 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.67 per cent were general labours, 0.52 percent were in household industry, 1.03 per cent of them were in private sector, 19.07 per cent of them were students and 4.64 per cent of them were children. In case of landless households 7.14 per cent were agricultural labour, 78.57 per cent were general labourers and 14.29 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 61.54 per cent were agriculturist, 5.77 percent was in agricultural labour, 3.85 per cent of were in private and 23.08 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 80.61 per cent of them were agriculturist and 10.20 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 53.85 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 3.85 per cent were agricultural labour and 42.31 per cent of them were students. In case of large farmers 50 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 50 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. 2  The results indicated that 85.29 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 5.88 per cent of the households possess Pucca house and 8.82 per cent of them possess Thatched house.  The results showed that, 67.65 per cent of the households possess TV, 29.41 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 23.53 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 20.59 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 94.12 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 9000, mixer grinder was Rs.1800, bicycle was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.36428 and mobile phone was Rs.2013.  Results indicated that about 5.88 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 55.88 per cent of the households possess weeder and 2.94 per cent of the households possess harvester.  The results showed that the average the average value of plough was Rs. 1500, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 1000, the average value of weeder was Rs. 53 and the average value of harvester was Rs. 33.  The results indicated that, 20.59 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.94 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow. 27.27 per cent of the marginal and 7.69 per cent of the small farmers possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers 60 per cent households possess local cow and 20 per cent households possess crossbred cow.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.33, average own labour (women) available was 1.77, average hired labour (men) available was 6.63 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.23.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.73, average own labour (women) was also 1.27, average hired labour (men) was 7.00 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.55. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 3.08, average own labour (women) was 2.38, average hired labour (men) was 7.77 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.77. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.60, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 4.20 and average hired labour (women) available was 4.20. In large farmers average own labour men available was 3 and average own labour (women) was 1.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Mukkumpi-1 micro watershed possess 23.49 ha (61.12%) of dry land and 14.94 ha (38.88%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.93 ha (87.99%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (12.01%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.14 ha (86.18 %) of dry land and 2.43 ha (13.82 %) of 3 irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.43 ha (32.35 %) of dry land and 5.08 ha (67.65%) of irrigated land. large farmers possess 6.62 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 408,475.45 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 448,239.43. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 623,822.53 for dry land and Rs. 1,482,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 330,213.90 for dry land Rs. 782,166.67 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 370,500 for dry land and Rs. 511,713.15 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 150,885.76 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 10 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 29.41 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 30.48 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.81 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 2.43 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 5.08 ha of irrigated land and large farmers were having 4.45 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 12.77 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (7.29 ha), groundnut (3.81 ha), maize (19.43 ha), paddy (4.53 ha) and redgram (1.21 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers had grown bajra, maize and paddy. Small farmers had grown bajra, groundnut, maize, paddy and redgram. Semi medium farmers had grown bajra, groundnut, maize and paddy. Large farmers had grown groundnut, maize and paddy.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Mukkumpi-1 micro watershed was found to be 74.52 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, in small farmers it was 78.34, in semi medium farmers it was 82.26 and in medium farmers it was 42.90 per cent.  The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent of the households have bank account and 8.82 per cent of the household possess savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 36.36 percent of them possess bank account and 9.09 per cent of savings. 69.23 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 7.69 percent of them possess savings. 40 per cent of the semi medium farmers possess bank account and 100 per cent of the large category of farmers possesses bank account and also savings correspondingly.  The results indicated that, 36.36 per cent of marginal, 69.23 per cent of small, 40 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicated that, 6.25 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, friends/ relatives and money lender correspondingly, 87.50 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank. 4  The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and large have availed Rs. 82,500, Rs. 132,222.22, Rs. 225,000 and Rs. 100000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 129,375.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional source was for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 100 percent of the private credit was taken for agriculture production.  Results indicated 100 percent of the households have unpaid their institutional loan.  Results indicated that 100 percent of the households have unpaid their private loan.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households were opined that the loan taken from the institutional sources was helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicated that 50 per cent of the households were opined that the loan taken from the non-institutional sources was helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 50 per cent of the households were opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 33337.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24031.25. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -9306.50, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46766.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 51835.57. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 5069.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.11.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 130496.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 110018.35. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -20477.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.84.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 60597.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56149.70. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -4448.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.93.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Redgram was Rs. 40734.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 85215.00. The net income from Redgram cultivation was Rs. 44480.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.09.  The results indicated that, 20.59 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate respectively.  The table indicated that, in landless, the average income from wage was Rs.66250 and agriculture was Rs.25000. In marginal farmers, the average income from wage was Rs.16181.82, agriculture was Rs.70945.45 and dairy farm was Rs.454.55. In small farmers, the average income from service/salary was Rs.7692.31, wage was 5 Rs.20769.23 and agriculture was Rs.156342.31. In semi medium farmers, the average income from wage was Rs.18000, agriculture was Rs.200000 and dairy farm was Rs.5000. In large farmers the average income from wage was Rs.50000 and agriculture was Rs.130000.  The results indicated that, in land less farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 68333.33 and agriculture was Rs. 85000. In case of marginal farmers average expenditure from wage was Rs.27750, agriculture was Rs.46272.73 and dairy farm was Rs.2000. In small farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs.75000, wage was Rs.29833.33 and agriculture was Rs.88534.46. In semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.27500, agriculture was Rs.107600 and dairy farm was Rs.18000. in large farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.25000 and agriculture was Rs.85000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 6 coconut trees and 3 mango tree in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 46 neem trees in their field and also grown 1 Neem tree in the backyard.  The results indicated that, Bajra, groundnut, maize and paddy crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Redgram was sold to the extent of 95.83 per cent.  The results indicated that, 79.41 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 32.35 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets.  The results indicated that 2.94 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 100 per cent have used tractor.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 36.36 percent of marginal farmers, 53.85 per cent of small farmers, 40 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 97.06 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.94 percent of the households used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 20.59 per cent, 67.65 per cent of them were using bore well and 11.76 per cents of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 29.41 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 75 per cent of landless, 18.18 per cent of marginal, 23.08 per cent of small, 20 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of large had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 11.76 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card. 6  The results indicated that, 64.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 54.55 percent of the marginal, 69.23 per cent of the small, 40 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that cereals and pulses were adequate for 97.06 per cent of the households. Oilseed, vegetables and fruits were adequate for 5.88 per cent of the households. Milk and egg were adequate for 94.12 per cent of the households and meat was adequate for 8.82 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseed, vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 91.18 per cent of the households respectively. Egg was inadequate for 2.94 per cent of the households and meat was inadequate for 88.24 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 88.24 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (67.65%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (79.41%), inadequacy of irrigation water (82.35%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.29%), high rate of interest on credit (82.35%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.24%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50%), inadequate extension services and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (44.12%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Maslapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 510 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 92 per cent is covered by soils and 8 per cent by rock outcrops, habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 10 per cent has sandy soils at the surface, 78 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and 4 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 6 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 86 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 22 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 70 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 35 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) and 56 per cent are very neutral (pH pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 31 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 34 per cent are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 50 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 336 (66) Sapota 18 (4) 70 (14) Maize - 336 (66) Pomegranate 18 (4) 79 (15) Bajra 26 (5) 383 (75) Musambi 18 (4) 79 (15) Groundnut 26 (5) 377 (74) Lime 18 (4) 79 (15) Sunflower - 53 (10) Amla 44 (9) 382 (75) Red gram - 53 (10) Cashew - 88 (17) Bengalgram 9 (2) 257 (50) Jackfruit 18 (4) 70 (14) Cotton - 336 (66) Jamun - 97 (19) Chilli - 327 (64) Custard apple 44 (9) 382 (75) Tomato - 327 (64) Tamarind - 27 (5) Brinjal 26 (5) 284 (56) Mulberry 18 (4) 95 (19) Onion 26 (5) 284 (56) Marigold - 336 (66) Bhendi - 284 (56) Chrysanthemum - 336 (66) Drumstick 18 (4) 51 (10) Jasmine - 327 (64) Mango - 18 (4) Crossandra - 327 (64) Guava - 88 (17) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The result indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Maslapur-2 micro watershed among them 5(14.29%) were landless, 4 (11.43%) were marginal farmers, 16 (45.71%) were small farmers and 10 (28.57%) were semi medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 98 (58.68%) men and 69 (41.32%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.75, small farmers' was 4.56 and semi medium farmers' was 5.40.  The data indicated that, 27 (16.17%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (44.31%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (29.94%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16(9.58%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Maslapur-2 had 30.54 per cent illiterates, 49.70 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.80 per cent of them had middle school education, 8.38 per cent of them had high school education, 4.79 per cent of them had PUC, 0.60 per cent of them had diploma and ITI education, 2.99 per cent of them had degree education and 0.60 per cent of them did other education.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 20.96 per cent of the household members, 56.29 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.80 per cent was in private sector, 20.36 per cent were students and 0.60 per cent was children. In case of landless farmers, 8 per cent were agriculturist, 60 per cent were general labourers and 32 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 20 per cent of them were practicing agriculture, 40 per cent were agricultural labourers, 6.67 per cent were in private service and 33.33 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 21.92 per cent were agriculturists, 58.90 per cent were agricultural labourers and 19.18 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers 25.93 per cent were agriculturist, 55.56 per cent were agriculture labourers, 3.70 per cent were in private service, 12.96 per cent were students and 1.85 per cent was housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 51.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 40 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess Pucca house.  The results showed that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 80 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 91.43 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.4906, mixer grinder was Rs.1332, bicycle was Rs. 1650, motor cycle was Rs.33583 and mobile phone was Rs.1707.  Data showed 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 31.43 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess both power tiller and tractor, 28.57 per cent of them possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.86per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18500, plough was Rs.2029, the average value of power tiller was Rs.30000, the average value was tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.3368, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.17.  The results indicate that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess both bullocks and local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess both crossbreed cow and sheep respectively.  In case of marginal households, 25 per cent of them possess bullocks, local cow and sheep respectively. 43.75 per cent of the small farmers possess bullock and local cow correspondingly, 6.25 per cent of the small farmers possess crossbred cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 30 per cent of households possess bullock and local cow respectively.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.80, average own labour (women) available was 1.63, average hired labour (men) available was 6.80 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.09.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 7.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.50. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was 1.63, average hired labour (men) was 8.94 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.25. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.90, average hired labour (men) was 5.20 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.30.  The results indicate that, 97.14 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Maslapur-2 micro watershed possess 23.43 ha (61.01%) of dry land and 14.97 ha (38.99%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.59 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 18.81 ha (88.74%) of dry land and 2.39 ha (11.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.03 ha (13.90%) of dry land and 12.58 ha (86.10%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 243,202.62 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 460,746.14. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,812.21 for dry land. In case of small famers, the 3 average land value was Rs. 207,250.43 for dry land and Rs. 753,559.31for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 147,609.56 for dry land and Rs. 405,178.51 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning and 14 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 42.86 per cent of the farmers in micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 29.52 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40ha, 3.48 ha and 11.05 ha of irrigated land respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (14.71 ha), groundnut (8.40 ha), bajra (1.88 ha), Sunflower (1.62 ha), Bengal gram (1.21 ha), Red gram (1.21 ha), Sorghum (1.21 ha), castor (0.81 ha), Tomato (0.81 ha), water melon (0.81 ha) and Banana (0.49 ha) in kharif season and also grown maize (1.62 ha) and groundnut (1.21 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra, sunflower and Bengal gram. Small farmers had grown maize, groundnut, bajra, Bengal gram, paddy, red gram, sorghum, castor and banana. Semi medium farmers had grown maize, groundnut, sunflower, tomato and watermelon.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Maslapur-2 micro watershed was found to be 92.65 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 92.25 per cent and in case of semi medium it was 92.18 per cent.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of the households have bank account and 85.71 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 60 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27663.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28612.58. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 949.39, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.03.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53510.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54452.62. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 942.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.02.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 30927.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 43172.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.4.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for water melon was Rs. 37280.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69160. The net income from water melon cultivation was Rs. 31879.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for banana was Rs. 95816.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 679249.97. The net income from banana cultivation was Rs. 583433.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.09.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 58817.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 156227.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 97410.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.66.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 45612.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45960.53. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 348.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 27395.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50931.76. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 23535.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 21266.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20729.50. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -537.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 14285.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31369. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 17083.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13687.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31122.00. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 17434.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Castor was Rs. 32673.72. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from Castor cultivation was Rs. -3033.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that, in landless farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 43000, in marginal farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.27500, wage was Rs.23750, agriculture was Rs.28025 and goat farming was Rs.10000. In small farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.5312.50, wage was Rs.24187.50, agriculture was Rs.64390.63 and dairy farming was Rs.3937.50. In semi medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs.13500, agriculture was Rs.69100 and dairy farming was Rs.800. 5  The results indicate that, in case of landless the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs. 17000. In marginal farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.5000, wage was Rs.8333.33, agriculture was Rs.14750 and goat farming was Rs.15000. In small farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.7133.33, agriculture was Rs.31875 and dairy farming was Rs.5800. In semi medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.10000, agriculture was Rs.29000 and dairy farming was Rs.1333.33.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 24 coconut, 2 lemon trees and 13 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 55 neem trees and 5 tamarind trees in their field and also planted 1 neem tree in their back yard.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 7342.86, for irrigation facility Rs. 1057.14 and for improved crop production Rs. 285.71.  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 85.71 per cent of the households for land development, 22.86 per cent of the households for irrigation facility and 5.71 per cent of the households for improved crop production .  The results indicated that, banana, Bengal gram, castor, red gram, sorghum, tomato and water melon crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, maize, paddy and sunflower crops were sold to an extent of 92.05 per cent, 92.02 per cent, 98.89 per cent, 88.89 per cent and 28 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 87.50 per cent of the small farmers and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent of the households were using bore well for drinking water in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 6  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, 100 per cent of the marginal, 6.25 per cent of the small and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 60 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 54.29 per cent, fruits were adequate for 82.86 per cent, milk was adequate for 45.71 per cent, eggs were adequate for 60 per cent and meat was adequate for 60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 40 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 20 per cent, milk were inadequate for 17.14 per cent and egg was inadequate for 31.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (28.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (51.43%), high rate of interest on credit (8.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (8.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (25.71%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20%), less rainfall (62.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (14.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project