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It is disturbing for a student of foreign policy to read Tolstoy. It is even more disturbing for anyone interested specifically in the implementation of foreign policy, for in several respects he said it all inWar and Peacein a way that makes twenty-five years of theorising about foreign policy look ridiculous. Tolstoy is greatly interested in the execution of policy and his conclusions are not only distinctive but they attack some of the most basic assumptions on which foreign policy is based. For in his elaboration of a view of historical causation, he is concerned to examine the elusive forces which motivate events and to ridicule the notion that policy-makers shape history by making effective decisions. He demonstrates this most vividly in describing the business of war, where he adopts a tone of devastating sarcasm in his accounts of the generals, "who of all the blind instruments of history were the most enslaved and involuntary'. Thus, he states starkly:

This study represents a methodological attempt to discover the fundamental semantic dimensions underlying people's perceptions of the physical environment, applying both nonverbal and verbal techniques. Dimensional structures were assessed across people with urban, nonurban, and mixed backgrounds. The subjects sorted a set of envirionmental displays into as many groups as they wanted, and rated each of these displays on a set of selected bipolar scales. The sorting data (nonverbal) were analyzed by Kruskal's multidimensional scaling method and the rating data (verbal) by a factor-analytic technique. Both analyses revealed three significant dimensions upon which people based their judgments of th physical environment: evaluation, urbanization, and organization.

This paper is built upon the assumption that modernization consists of processes of structural transformation which tend to increase both the resource-producing or energy-producing capacity of a social configuration and the extent to which this capacity may be realized and coordinated by strategic elites. There are a number of qualifications. For example, modernization involves an increase in resources or energy producedand/oran increase in the extent to which such resources are channelled into the hands of groups such as capitalist entrepreneurs and state officials. In the short run, rapid increases may occur in either of these aspects while the other remains relatively stable. 'Resources' and 'energies' are terms broadly interpreted to include the enthusiasms and allegiances of a population experiencing profound alterations in the conditions of its existence, the fruits of colonial expansion and frontier exploration, and the outcomes of scientific research and technological innovation. A proportion of resources is likely to be drawn from outside the national polity (for example through colonial receipts or 'development aid'); a proportion is also likely to beappliedoutside this polity (as in warfare and commercial activity).