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International audience ; The Sharing Economy is much more than collaborative consumption (Botsman and Rogers, 2011) even if this appears as the most visible achievement of this sector. Production, consumption, finance, exchanges are disrupted by the sharing economy revolution. But what are the common points between Airbnb, Uber, Wikipedia, Ulule, Blablacar, Kickstarter, the FabLabs/hackespaces, the Local exchange trading systems (LETS), Linux, etc.?Most of these achievements rely upon digital platforms (Kenney and Zysman, 2015) enabling peer-to-peer exchanges. These digital platforms act as « weapon of mass collaboration » (Tapscott & Williams - 2007), flattening relationships between Internet users and inside organizations (Castells, 1996 ; 2002).Specifying what the sharing economy is isn't an easy task. For-profit, non-profit, reciprocity, competition can be observed at a stage or another in the sharing economy galaxy. A bright constellation in this galaxy is the think tank Ouishare created in France in 2012. It's s a « global community that connects people, organizations and ideas around fairness, openness and trust » (ouishare.net). For them collaborative economy deals with five phenomena: collaborative consumption, crowdfunding, open knowledge (open data, open education, open governance), the maker movement (open design and manufacturing, do it yourself), open and horizontal governance (participatory budgeting, open government initiatives, co-operatives, open value networks, do-ocracries, holacracies).Internet seems to enable peer-to-peer exchanges between consumers (Bauwens, 2005) who are also sometimes producers (Tapscot and William - 2007 speak about "prosumers" to stress how the lines have been blurring). Of course Uber and Airbnb's algorithms are working like digital auctioneers: tiny invisible hands enabling peer-to-peer exchanges. Could this be the return of Smith or Hayek? Why am I asking this question? Because Jimmy Wales, Wikipedia's founder, pointed out "Hayek's work on price theory is central to my own thinking about how to manage the Wikipedia project" (Mangu-Ward, 2007). In order to figure out how to understand the complexity of the sharing economy we propose to explore three paths to characterize it. In the first one we'll distinguish, with Karl Polanyi, two kinds of economy. Then we will try to figure out where to position the sharing economy (1). In the second one we'll see if all the sharing economy organizations really share everything and how (2). The last way to characterize the sharing economy is around its global political project (3).1) The economic anthropologist Karl Polanyi is known for his opposition to traditional economic thought. He distinguishes two ways to understand economy: formal and substantive (Polanyi, 1944). The formal meaning refers to an economy interested only in minimizing means and maximizing results (in neoclassical words: utility maximization under conditions of scarcity). The substantive meaning refers to how humans make a living interacting within their social and natural environments. In this case the economy is embedded in society. Karl Polanyi identifies four principles (or forms of integration) of economic behavior, three in a substantive meaning (reciprocity, redistribution, domestic administration) and the last in the formal sense (market exchange). These principles will be used to classify sharing economies.2) The sharing economy seems to offer a third way between state and market, the collaborative commons (Rifkin, 2014), which are aimed to produce, innovate, manage, all in common (Ostrom, 1990; Hess & Ostrom, 2007). Some projects or organizations of the sharing economy are managed as common pool resources (Wikipedia, Linux). These projects/organizations have been deeply influenced by the free culture movement (Lessig, 2004 ; Suber, 2012 ; Stallman, 1985) very present in Internet culture (Castells, 1996 ; Benkler 2002) and are close to a an economy in its substantive meaning. The principles of common pool resource management (Ostrom, 1990) are, according to us, useful tools to characterize sharing economy projects.3) Proponents of the sharing economy advocate action. This is to participate in the creation of a new world by being an agent of change. Acting is a way to test ideas and overcome the internal contradictions of the movement. 3D printers, laser cutters, digital milling machine found in all FabLabs provide access to a new form of bricolage, an interconnected DIY (Anderson, 2012 ; Lallement, 2015). More than a political project, a way of being: to not be a passive consumer and join the ranks of the makers (Anderson, 2012). The concept of bricolage (Levi-Strauss, 1962 ; Duymedian et Rüling, 2010 ; Gundry et al., 2003 ; Garud et Karnøe, 2003) could help us in identifying the real spirit of the sharing economy.On the one hand the culture of open access (Suber, 2012) where peers gather behind a socially useful project and produce in common; on the other huge corporations that take advantage of the opportunities opened up by the internet to establish a " netarchical capitalism" (Bauwens and Kostakis, 2014). The sharing economy concentrates contradictions. We hope to give, in this paper, some guidelines to identify sharing economies.

Overview This dissertation evaluates the long-term fiscal stability and adequacy of public pension schemes in Poland and Hungary after recent reforms. It shows that Poland is confronted with an unprecedented decline in pension adequacy over the next decades. Hungary, on the contrary, is challenged by an increasing pension deficit over the long-term. Abstract Public pension systems in Western societies are in a continuous transformation process. This becomes most apparent when looking at Central Eastern European (CEE) countries, such as Poland and Hungary analysed in this study. First, their populations are ageing far more rapidly than in most other EU countries. In Poland, for instance, the old age dependency ratio is expected to triple by 2060 which severely challenges the long-term stability of pension finances. Second, labour market careers have become more discontinuous since the fall of the Iron Curtain due to long periods of unemployment and grey market activities. These less beneficial work careers carry the potential to translate into very low pension levels in the future. Third, the legal framework of public pension systems itself changed profoundly in recent years. Prominent examples are the reforms to funded 2nd pillar pension schemes. Starting with Hungary in 2010, most CEE countries rolled back from the 2nd pillar and shifted sizeable pension obligations to the general government. The study at hand evaluates how the Hungarian and the Polish public pension systems are affected by these three transformation processes over the long-term. Thereby, it aims to partially bridge the gap of independent pension projections for these two countries. The assessment is carried out from two perspectives: 1) future pension adequacy and 2) long-term fiscal stability. Various standard and newly developed pension indicators are used for the evaluation, including implicit pension liabilities, a new mandatory figure of European national accounts. The evaluation bases on extensive micro datasets of past labour market careers. For the projection of future careers a micro simulation model is developed. On this basis, the study provides a differentiated picture of future pension adequacy by various socio-economic characteristics (age, gender, education, job contract). Additionally, it gives an outlook on the likely distribution of future public pension benefits for Poland under different reform scenarios. A dynamic cohort simulation model is set up to project the future fiscal development. Thereby, the cohort model is linked to the micro simulation model in order to reflect various demographic, employment and reform scenarios. The results indicate, that neither Poland nor Hungary are sufficiently prepared for the upcoming pension challenges. The Polish pension system performs relatively well in terms of fiscal sustainability - despite the tripling of the old age dependency ratio. The pension deficit amounting to 4.8 % of GDP in 2010 is expected to shrink to 1.8 % by 2060. The Achilles' heel of the Polish pension system is, however, its future adequacy. Under current rules, adequacy ratios, measuring the starting pension relative to average economy-wide earnings, are expected to decline from 65 % in 2015 to about 31 % in 2040 for men. For their female counterparts a drop from 42 % in 2015 to 27 % in 2040 is estimated. These results already reflect the retirement age increase to 67 which raises adequacy ratios for women by 11 percentage points (p.p.) and for men by 5 p.p. in 2040. Changes in contribution careers and their valuation in the benefit formula are the key drivers of the drop in pension adequacy. They explain about four fifths of the decline in adequacy ratios until 2040. Only about one fifth of this drop is induced by the demographic factors of the benefit formula. In light of these findings, the study evaluates various reform measures for Poland and their fiscal and adequacy impact, such as the introduction of a basic pension. In contrast to Poland, the Hungarian pension system scores high in terms of pension adequacy. Adequacy ratios are expected to decline only modestly from 43 % in 2015 to 39 % in 2040. Two factors explain these relatively stable adequacy levels. First, the transformation of the Hungarian labour market since the fall of the Iron Curtain was less intensive compared to Poland. Second, the Hungarian benefit formula has a number of redistributive elements which cushion the impact of broken contribution careers on pension adequacy. The fiscal outlook for Hungarian public pension scheme is mixed: Until 2025, the large pension deficit of 2.5 % in 2010 will gradually turn into a slight pension surplus by 2025 and remain at that level until 2035. This positive fiscal development over the next 20 years is mainly driven by recent reforms. After 2035, however, the stability of pension finances is in jeopardy. In the period 2035-2060 the pension deficit is expected to skyrocket from -0.2 % to 3.7 % of GDP. Given this outlook, the study evaluates various reforms options, such as the introduction of a life expectancy factor, to stabilize long-term pension finances in Hungary.

Intense precipitations in winter generates floods by overflowing of tributaries in areas of flooding of urban and rural areas, which don't have the proper planning of land use. This affects to a certain percentage of the population generally from the lower to middle class. Knowing climatic conditions and natural variables as the geology, geomorphology and hydrology allow to create a threat model with specialized software like ArcView 3.2 which contains SINMAP extension and ArcGis 10.1, used in this research, generating maps which delimitate safe and stable zones. The main target is to inform the population about areas inclined to floods and ground movements in the sector of Monte Sinaí of the city of Guayaquil (Ecuador). The present research work was developed in the sector of Monte Sinaí on the subbasin of river The Achiotes in which its morphology was characterized using ArcGis 10.1 and complementing with information of geology, geomorphology, and geomechanic the models of saturation and of stability of the sector were obtained. Another purpose of this study was to use hydrological and geodynamic studies as mathematical tools through geographic information systems, for the characterization of river basins generating mathematical modeling of river systems for addressing drains directions, runoffs, avoiding natural phenomena such as floods, removing mass and anthropic phenomena. The characterization of The Achiotes river basin allowed identifying basin with high erosive potential. Through models of saturation and accumulation flows areas of inundation by waterlogging were identified, using geomechanical and geotechnical parameters of the lithology of the sector of Mount Sinai. Most dangerous areas were localized in river banks of The Achiotes river tributaries and in areas with no vegetative cover located in medium to high terraces. This methodology can be used for the generation of risk and vulnerability maps. With the obtained results in saturation models, flows accumulation and ground stability critical points or areas can be identify, which will be used for the location of infrastructure such as bridges or schools. These may serve as hostels and projects for the development of the sector Mount Sinai and at the same time avoiding conflict of land and water use, and so to provide tools for the decentralized autonomous governments (GADS) for territorial planning. ; Las intensas precipitaciones en época de invierno generan inundaciones por desbordamientos de afluentes en zonas de anegación en las áreas urbanas y rurales que no cuentan con la debida planificación de ordenamiento territorial. Esto afecta a un cierto porcentaje de la población generalmente de la clase media a baja. Al conocer las condiciones climáticas y variables naturales como la geología, geomorfología e hidrología de un área permite generar un modelo de amenaza a través de softwares especializados como ArcView 3.2 que contiene el módulo SINMAP y ArcGis 10.1 que se utilizó en la investigación presentada aquí, generando mapas de delimitación de zonas seguras y estables. El objetivo principal es dar conocer a la población las zonas propensas a inundaciones y a movimientos de tierra en el sector de Monte Sinaí de la ciudad de Guayaquil (Ecuador). El presente trabajo de investigación se desarrolló en el sector de Monte Sinaí sobre la subcuenca Hidrográfica Río Los Achiotes en la cual se caracterizó la morfometría utilizando software ArcGis 10.1 y, complementando con información de geología, geomorfología, y geomecánica, se obtuvo modelos de saturación y de estabilidad del sector. Otro de los propósitos de este estudio fue de utilizar los estudios hidrológicos y geodinámicas como herramientas matemáticas a través de sistemas de información geográfica, para la caracterización de las Cuencas Hidrográficas generando modelamientos matemáticos de sistemas fluviales para obtener el direccionamiento de los drenajes, escorrentías, evitando fenómenos naturales tales como inundaciones, remoción de masa y fenómenos antrópicos. La caracterización de la Cuenca de Río Los Achiotes permitió identificar una cuenca con alto potencial erosivo. A través de modelos de saturación y flujos de acumulación se identificaron zonas de inundación por anegación, utilizando parámetros geomecánicos y geotécnicos de la litología del sector de Monte Sinaí. Las zonas de mayor peligrosidad se ubicaron en las riberas de los afluentes de Río Los Achiotes y en las zonas que no poseen coberturas vegetales que se encuentran las zonas de terrazas medianas a altas. Esta metodología puede ser empleada para la generación de mapas de riesgos y vulnerabilidad. Con los resultados obtenidos en los modelos de saturación, flujos de acumulación y de estabilidad se pueden identificar puntos críticos o zonas críticas, que servirán para la ubicación de infraestructura tales como puentes, o escuelas. Estos podrán servir como albergues y proyectos para el desarrollo del sector Monte Sinaí y a su vez evitar el conflicto de uso de tierras y agua, y así poder brindarles a los Gobiernos Autónomos Descentralizados (GADS) herramientas para su planificación territorial.

RESUMEN: La factura electrónica es un documento tributario que se genera utilizando medios informáticos y cuyo procedimiento de envío se realiza de forma telemática. La factura en formato electrónico tiene la misma validez que su equivalente en papel y, desde hace varios años, viene apareciendo como una promesa de futuro, de cambio, debido a las numerosas ventajas que aporta su uso. Entre los beneficios que pueden conseguir las empresas que hagan uso de la factura electrónica destacan el ahorro de dinero y tiempo y la optimización de sus procesos internos, ganando en eficiencia y seguridad, sin olvidar además los beneficios medioambientales que lleva aparejados la eliminación del papel en la facturación diaria. A pesar de todas estas ventajas, la realidad es que la facturación electrónica está todavía lejos de sustituir al papel. La existencia de un mercado muy fragmentado y la ausencia de formatos y tecnologías que funcionen como estándares son algunas de las causas que han impedido el avance y progreso de la facturación electrónica, existen multitud de proveedores que ofrecen los servicios de distinta manera y tampoco existe una legislación global que armonice la forma de facturar de manera electrónica. El hecho de depender todavía del papel en sus procesos contables resta eficiencia a las empresas en un contexto global en el que la automatización de los procesos es cada vez mayor, y depender aún de métodos manuales es fuente de desventajas competitivas. La realidad de la factura electrónica está cambiando y los agentes impulsores por fin están dando importantes pasos para romper con los métodos tradicionales e instaurar definitivamente la facturación electrónica a gran escala. Este es también el caso de España. Desde enero de 2015 existe un nuevo paradigma en la facturación electrónica en España, cuando entra en vigor la Ley 25/2013. No obstante, el proyecto de implantación de la factura electrónica se encuentra apoyado por casi todos los estamentos del Estado e intervienen en él multitud de agentes. La implicación del Ministerio de Hacienda, el IGAE, la SEAP (Secretaría de Estado de Administraciones Públicas), el DTIC (Departamento de Tecnología Informática y Computación), el Ministerio de Industria y Turismo, SETSI (Secretaría de Estado de Telecomunicaciones y para la Sociedad de la Información) y Red.es y la creación del Punto General de Entrada de Facturas y el Registro Contable de Facturas son vitales, herramientas imprescindibles para lograr las metas y objetivos en materia de facturación electrónica. ; ABSTRACT: Electronic invoice consists in a tax document generated using informatic technology and which sending method is fully electronical. Electronic invoice has the same validity as its paper equivalent and, since several years, e-invoicing is appearing as a promise of future because of the numerous benefits associated with its use. The benefits the companies can get using electronic invoice include saving money and time and optimizing their internal processes , gaining in efficiency and safety , and not forgetting the environmental benefits related thereto the elimination of paper in the daily tasks. Despite all these advantages, the reality is that electronic invoicing is still far from replacing the paper. The existence of a highly fragmented market and the absence of formats and technologies that could work as standards, are some of the causes that have stopped the advancement and progress of electronic invoicing, there are many providers that offer services by different ways and there is no comprehensive legislation to harmonize the way to bill electronically. Still depending on paper in the accounting processes reduces the efficiency of companies and organizations in a global context, in which the process automation is growing , and still rely on manual methods is a source of competitive disadvantage. The situation of electronic invoicing is changing all around the world and driver agents are finally taking important steps to break with traditional methods and definitely set electronic invoicing for most users. This is also the situation in Spain. Since January 2015 there is a new paradigm in electronic invoicing in Spain, when it enters into force the Law 25/2013. However, the proposed implementation of electronic billing is supported by almost all branches of government and are involved a lot of political and legal agents. The involvement of the Ministerio de Hacienda, IGAE, SEAP (Secretaría de Estado de Administraciones Públicas), DTIC (Departamento de Tecnología Informática y Computación), Ministerio de Industria y Turismo, SETSI (Secretaría de Estado de Telecomunicaciones y para la Sociedad de la Información) y Red.es and the creation of E Punto General de Entrada de Facturas y el Registro Contable de Facturas have also a great importance, they are essential tools for achieving the goals and objectives for e-invoicing in Spain. ; Máster en Empresa y Tecnologías de la Información

The concept of social inclusion, also referred to as social integration or social cohesion, represents a vision for "a society for all" in which every individual, each with rights and responsibilities, has an active role to play (Report of the World Summit for Social Development, 1995). While various definitions have been developed to describe social inclusion, they all have been grounded in the promotion of a normative vision of society, in which individuals, groups or institutions are interconnected within a wider social system, and their relationships are maintained and enhanced in a harmonious way. This paper refers to social inclusion as a goal, process and outcome. As a universal goal, social inclusion aims to achieve an inclusive society that entails respect for human rights, cultural diversity and democratic governance, and upholds principles of equality and equity. As a process, it enables citizens´ participation in decision-making activities that affect their lives, allowing all groups to take part in this process, especially marginalized groups. As an outcome, it ensures the reduction of inequalities, elimination of any forms of exclusion and discrimination, and achievement of social justice and cohesion. Since the concept of social inclusion gained prominence following the World Summit for Social Development held in Copenhagen in 1995, there has been a tendency to (i) treat it as an expanded version of "economic" inclusion; (ii) identify exclusion with the marginalization of certain individuals or groups based on their race, ethnicity or gender; and (iii) focus on individual well-being in analysing and measuring social inclusion. Over time, however, it has become evident that, like other social ills such as poverty and inequality, exclusion has multiple causes and takes diverse forms related to age, disability and location, among others. It is therefore important to adopt a more comprehensive approach to inclusion. Furthermore, there has been a renewed interest in social inclusion, with a number of policies and programmes having been implemented around the world, which highlighted the need for the simultaneous promotion of productivity, poverty reduction and greater inclusiveness. The recognized limits in the Millennium Development Goals have generated calls for more transformative and universal policies that are better integrated across social, economic and environmental domains within a more coherent development framework. The Second UN Decade for the Eradication of Poverty (2008-2017) has further reiterated the need to address social exclusion and called for more inclusive approaches to overcome poverty in its multiple dimensions. In some countries, social programmes are now evolving towards a social inclusion framework, which incorporates (i) access to basic services, particularly health and education, requiring the active participation of beneficiaries in relevant programmes; and (ii) access to economic opportunities with the focus on inclusion in the labour market, with an overarching goal to reduce poverty and vulnerability, particularly among the most disadvantaged groups. This paper argues that there are three key interrelated areas that are critical for poverty eradication and inclusive development, which include (i) universal social protection; (ii) meaningful participation; and (iii) social and solidarity economy. It discusses some of the main issues related to these areas and provides examples of best practices at the national level that have been implemented during the UN Decades for the Eradication of Poverty. The paper concludes that it is unlikely that development will be sustainable unless it is inclusive. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development thus needs to be an inclusive plan of action, pursuing the goal of leaving no one behind in the way that meets the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to participate in the processes that impact their lives. Social policies that promote practices based on universal rights-based entitlements, equal and meaningful participation, as well as norms of solidarity and reciprocity, while paying due respect to diversity and the environment, are more likely to enable social inclusion. It is therefore necessary to move away from the use of social inclusion schemes as remedial action towards making them an intrinsic part of broader and coherent development strategies. Government interventions in the form of enhancement of productive capacities, improved access to quality social services, adequate social protection and decent work are crucial to achieving socially inclusive, broad-based and sustainable development. Under this approach, social policy should be concerned not only with the welfare and rights of an individual but also with supporting social relations, institutions and structures through which the welfare of individuals in their households, communities and nations could be sustained and improved, while recognizing the importance of societal levels of analysis and not simply economic or individual indicators.

Предварительные итоги работы АПК Брянской области отражены в двух наиболее значимых отраслях сельскохозяйственного производства: растениеводства и животноводства, а также переработке в текущем году имеют положительную динамику развития. Прирост производства продукции сельского хозяйства в действующих ценах к уровню 2014 года в настоящее время составляет более 117,9%. Посевная площадь сельскохозяйственных культур в хозяйствах всех категорий области расширилась на 11 тыс. га и составила 823 тыс. га, продолжилось расширение посевных площадей традиционных культур зерновых и картофеля, перспективных пшеницы, кукурузы на зерно и силос, сои, подсолнечника. Площади под зерновыми занимали 354 тыс. га, под картофелем 58 тыс. га. Площади под кукурузой составили 72 тыс. га, что на 15 тыс. га больше прошлого года, из них кукуруза на зерно занимает площадь 34,5 тыс. га или 48% площадей кукурузы. Селянами сделано все необходимое, чтобы урожай в этом году был выше прошлогоднего. На цели сортообновления хозяйствами области было приобретено более 2 тыс. тонн семян, внесено более 115 тыс. тонн минеральных удобрений, что на 28% больше уровня прошлого года. Увеличение посевных площадей напрямую повлияло на увеличение валовых сборов сельскохозяйственных культур в 2015 году в хозяйствах всех категорий в области. Уборка зерновых и зернобобовых культур практически завершена. Собрано более млн. тонн зерна (факт 2014 года 949 тыс. тонн). Зерна пшеницы собрано свыше 450 тыс. тонн. При средней урожайности зерновых культур по области 28,1 ц/га средняя урожайность пшеницы составляет более 35 ц/га. В среднем урожайность зерновых должна быть более 30 ц/га. В хозяйствах всех категорий ожидаем собрать 124 тыс. тонн овощей (в 2014 году 119 тыс. тонн). Среди овощных культур отмечается превышение к прошлому году по свекле столовой в полтора раза, по моркови в два раза. Также ожидаем увеличение к уровню 2014 года валовых сборов технических культур: сахарной свеклы, сои, рапса. В осенний период завершена закладка основ урожая 2016 года сев озимых культур. Отрадно, что все тенденции в АПК находятся под постоянным контролем правительства области. Продолжается оказание государственной поддержки, разрабатываются новые меры. ; Preliminary results of the work of agrarian and industrial complex of the Bryansk region reflected in two most significant branches of agricultural production: crop growing and animal husbandry, and also processing in the current year have positive dynamics of development. The increase in agricultural production at current prices to the level of 2014 makes more than 119% now. The cultivated area in all farms of the region has expanded by 11 thousand hectares and made 823 thousand hectares, the expansion of the cultivated areas of traditional crops as grain and potatoes, perspective crops as wheat, corn for grain and silage, soy and sunflower has proceeded. The areas under grain crops occupied 354 thousand hectares, under potatoes 58 thousand hectares. The areas under corn made 72 thousand hectares that is 15 thousand hectares more than last year; from them the corn for grain occupied 34. 5 thousand hectares or 48% of the corn areas. The peasants have done all the best to make this year harvest higher than that of the last year. More than 2 thousand tons of seeds have been purchased for updating cultivars, more than 115 thousand tons of mineral fertilizers have been introduced that is 28% more than the level of the last year. The increase in cultivated areas has directly affected an increase in gross output of crops in all farms of the region in 2015. Harvesting of grain and leguminous crops has been almost completed. 800 thousand tons of grains have been collected. More than 30 thousand hectares of corn on grain are to be harvested. It is planned to receive more than one million tons of grain (the fact of 2014 949 thousand tons). The grains of wheat have been got over 450 thousand tons. At the average, the productivity of grain crops of 28, 1 cwt./hectare in the region, the average productivity of wheat makes more than 35 cwt./hectare. At the average the productivity of grain crops has to be more than 30 cwt./hectare. In all farms 124 thousand tons of vegetables are expected to be harvested (in 2014 119 thousand tons). Among vegetables there is an excess of beetroots by one and a half times, of carrots by two times in comparison to the last year. We expect an increase in output of industrial crops: sugar beets, soy and colza as well compared to the level of 2014. At present the laying of bases of the harvest of 2016 sowing of winter crops is coming to the end. It is pleasant that all tendencies of the agrarian and industrial complex are under a constant control of the regional government. The state support is still proceeding, and new measures are being developed.

A nivel mundial las empresas y organizaciones de distintos sectores gubernamentales, sociales, académicos y económicos han incrementado su interés y atención en la protección de lo que hoy en día es un activo de vital importancia la "INFORMACIÓN", todo esto consecuencia de que los avances tecnológicos han derivado en nuevas amenazas, y los problemas que afectan a la seguridad informática avanzan a la par que la tecnología. Si no se disponen de estrategias, políticas y soluciones de hardware y software sofisticadas cualquier organización Grande, Mediana o Pequeña puede ser fácilmente víctima de un hacker o pirata informático que haya decidido perjudicarlas. La infraestructura de redes de una organización está amenazada constantemente en que sea filtrada y atacada en sus sistemas de almacenamiento de información para arrebatar datos e información privilegiada, ya que ésta puede tener recovecos o espacios donde infiltrarse. ¿Qué hacer ante un escenario de constante amenaza? Dos acciones: Protegerse constantemente y Actualizarse "No bajar la Guardia" ante las diferentes vulnerabilidades que pueden surgir a diario. En este trabajo se describe una forma de transmitir información de forma segura que usa un método esteganográfico de ocultamiento y se proporciona una herramienta que facilita la implementación de dicho método. El desarrollo del proyecto se encuentra divido en tres momentos, un primer momento de contextualización donde se realizó la respectiva revisión bibliográfica y revisión de antecedentes investigativos para dar soporte teórico a esta tesis. Un segundo momento que incluye además de la fase de desarrollo de la herramienta en su primera versión, una segunda versión que es la incluida en este trabajo. En esta segunda versión se corrigieron algunos errores que fueron detectados durante la primera etapa de desarrollo. Por último se encuentran los resultados y análisis de datos de los cuales se obtuvieron las conclusiones y recomendaciones finales. ; INTRODUCCIÓN 11 1. GENERALIDADES DEL PROYECTO 13 1.1 FORMULACIÓN DEL PROBLEMA 13 1.2 JUSTIFICACIÓN 14 1.3 OBJETIVOS 15 1.3.1 Objetivo General 15 1.3.2 Objetivos específicos 15 2. MARCO REFERENCIAL 17 2.1 ANTECEDENTES 17 2.2 MARCO TEÓRICO 20 2.2.1 Qué es la esteganografía 20 2.2.2 Historia esteganografía 21 2.2.3 Terminología 23 2.2.4 Cómo funciona la esteganografía 25 2.2.5 Métodos de audio esteganográficos 26 2.2.6 Codificación LSB 26 2.2.7 Codificación por paridad 28 2.2.8 Codificación por fase 29 2.2.9 Espectro expandido 30 2.2.10 Ocultación de eco 31 2.2.11 Transformada discreta del coseno 31 2.2.12 Conversión Análogo/Digital 36 2.3 SOFTWARE ESTEGANOGRÁFICOS 45 2.3.1 Jphide y Jpseek 45 2.3.2 MP3STEGO 48 2.3.3 Data STASH 49 2.4 FICHEROS DE AUDIO 51 2.4.1 Motions picture Experts Group – Audio Layer 3 (.MP3) 51 2.4.2 Waveform Audio File Format (.WAV) 51 2.4.3 WMA 51 2.4.4 OGG 52 2.4.5 ATRAC3 52 2.4.6 M4A / MP4 / AAC 52 2.4.7 MPC (MUSEPACK) 53 2.4.8 RA (Real Audio) 53 2.5 INTERFACES DE USUARIO CON MatLab 53 2.5.1 Introducción a MatLab 53 2.5.2 Guides de MatLab 54 3. METODOLOGÍA PROPUESTA 69 3.1 MÉTODO PROPUESTO 69 3.2 INTERFAZ GRÁFICA 72 3.2.1 Menú principal 72 3.2.2 Interfaz del emisor. 73 3.2.3 Interfaz del Receptor. 83 4. CONCLUSIONES Y OBSERVACIONES 89 REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS 91 ; Maestría ; Companies and organizations from government, social , academic and economic sectors have increased their interest and attention on protecting what today is a vital asset "information" , all of that as a result of what technologic advances have led to new threats; and challenges affecting the Informatics security go hand to hand with technology . If not disposed of strategies, policies and hardware solutions and sophisticated software any organization large, medium or small can easily be the victim of a hacker that has decided to harm them. The network infrastructure of an organization is constantly threatened as it is filtered and attacked in their storage systems to snatch data and privileged information , as this may have recesses or spaces where can be infiltrated. What to do in a scenario of constant threat? Two actions: Protect and updated constantly "remain vigilant" to the different vulnerabilities that may arise daily. In this paper is described a way to securely transmit information using a stenographic method of concealment and provides a tool that facilitates its implementation. The project is divided into three stages, the first stage is contextualization where the respective bibliographical review and review of background research was conducted to give theoretical support to this thesis. A second stage that in addition to the development phase of the tool in its first version, include a second version in this work. In this second version some errors that were detected during the first stage of development were corrected. Finally the results and analysis of data from which the final conclusions and recommendations were obtained are shown.

The article analysis motivations and expectations of pension systems' participants. The major question is what goals of pension systems are viable or what are the correct indicators to measure success of pension systems. The question strives from the fact that modern societies raise very ambitious tasks for their pension systems and are not successful in implementing them. The hypothesis is that behind visible shortages of pension systems, that are well known and researched, there are deeper, fundamental reasons causing inner contradictions of these systems. They are due to human natu­re – to seek for own interest. The article argues that without solving this inner contra­diction, pension systems can not become viable and beneficial for societies. Today's political decisions are predominantly influenced by economic thoughts based on experimental principles and statistical data calculations. Human motive is not considered to be essential. Contrary to this, Austrian economic school places the acting man at the centre of all economic matters. According to this theory, all social systems have to function in the way that allows different participants to fulfil their interests and cooperate. Otherwise conflicting interests create inner tensions in the system and do not allow it to function effectively. There are three groups of the pension system's participants defined in the article: pensioners (receivers), work force and business (contributors) and politicians (decisi­on makers). Primary interest and fair expectation of a pensioner is to receive his pen­sion. If this is fulfilled, he wishes bigger pension, earlier retirement or similar value increase. The expectations of pensioners are reasonable from their point of view but limitless, therefore not reasonable from the society's point of view. This conflict can be avoided only if retirement conditions are well defined. In order not to have void expectations people have to understand realistic benefits while contributing to pensi­on system. However present set up of public pensions excludes this possibility totally. Unrealistic and ever increasing expectations of pensioners, that put the pressure on politicians and public finances and ultimately ruin pension systems, are determined by PAYGstructure itself. The other group of participants – working population – that supply PAYGpen­sion systems with funds has the interest to contribute as less as possible. From the point of view of the employee, at least in Lithuania, pension contribution is hardly considered his own input in future pension because weak connection between contri­bution and allowance, weak trust in government, fact that contribution is paid by the employer and etc. Even if considered own, being future benefits most often are low in priority (due to time preference). Bearing in mind the fact that contributions are obligatory and do not allow any flexibility in payment, the only reasonable interest is to minimize them. Such interest for the employer is even stronger. Pension contribu­tion is a substantial financial and administrative burden which brings no added value, because employee doesn't treat it as part of his salary, but as the employers tax. For motivation purposes employer has other much more efficient tools, however can not chose between them and PAYG, because the latter is mandatory.The third interest group in pension system is the decision maker – political parties and individual politicians. It is not so obvious that their interest is to preserve PAYGrunning – when a big part of public finance problems are caused by it. However structural pension reforms, needed to eliminate its inner conflict, require decisions that offend short term interests of possibly big part of population. The benefits of structural reform come up in long run and are dispersed among different groups. This does not motivate politicians to introduce structural changes.The article concludes that first of all it is very important to realize interest contra­dictions of pension system participants as well as to stop describing public pension system as life-time income guarantee. Such guaranty can not be created both in gene­ral (due to nature of our existence) and in particular by mandatory public means (due to inherent inefficiency of such undertakings). However, while public demand for social security illusion exists and it fits well with political interests, the only pragmatic trend is one propagated by Word Bank – to increase pension scheme diversification that makes PAYGpillar less dominating. It shall be gradually replaced by the schemes, where choice is established instead of obligation and individual, family or unenforced community is approached instead of statistical unit of population. ; Straipsnis skirtas pensijų reformų temai, tačiau ne įvairiems reformų modeliams analizuoti, o pačios reformos būtinumui pagrįsti. Daugiausia dė­mesio teikiama skirtingiems ir prieštaringiems pensijų sistemų dalyvių inte­resams. Straipsnyje teigiama, kad reformuoti pensijų sistemą reiškia pakeisti jos dalyvių interesus iš antagonistinių – kokie jie yra PAYGarchitektūroje – į kooperacinius. Kooperaciniai santykiai – asmeninių santykių, bendruomenių ar verslo forma – gali skleistis tik laisvesnėje, lankstesnėje ir mažiau politiš­kai paveikioje socialinės apsaugos sistemoje. Daroma išvada, kad priešingu atveju jokiomis ekonominėmis bei politinėmis priemonėmis nepavyks iš­vengti vidinės sistemos įtampos ir pasiekti ilgalaikį pensijų sistemos tvarumą bei socialinę vertę.

This work tries to understand the logics and the effects that face many Latin American countries in major or less scale on the processes of intensive growth of the urban development and with it a sharpening of the housing crisis, where wide popular sectors survive to the margin of the formal sector. The inadecuate politics of the governments, as well as socio-economic factors of the countries have affected to unleash multiple processes of human settlement, neighborhoods, districts, favelas, how it is about to call them, to the margin of the law and of the local regulations. We do not pretend into the political and structural aspects of the State, nor enter on the development plans of the local goverments, we want is to understand how the informal settlements have been constructing not only the physical space, their territory in wich they are, their identity, the generation of a culture of belonging, based of tangible and intangible knowledge that they possess, they share and to adopt, for wich it is necesary into an analysis of how are seen themselves, like neighborhood, informal settlements, how they have organized themselves and grouped, in order to achieve the attention of the authorities to be inserted in a process of regularity and development that the sumak kawsay allows them to reach or well to live. We find to understand that across the participation of the proper inhabitants with comom interests, they are able to organizing themselves, of establishing social networks, in the search of finding mechanisms and solutions for many of it´s problems, how the power struggles appear, also to understand the concepts of territory and territoriality, as they have assimilated it at the same time to pick up and to analyze what the literature or the "state of the art" have development on informal settlements, wich and that raise relation level with the existing models of territorial arranging, the point of view of planning participatory urban and citizen, and the different plans that have been implemented in the last years in the Metropolitan District of Quito. In this general frame, the investigation materializes in the analysis of a case in particular that is the neighborhood named Comité Pro-Mejoras del barrio "Buena Vista" of the sector San Juan, the parish Calderón. ; Este trabajo intenta comprender las lógicas y los efectos que enfrentan muchos países latinoamericanos en mayor o menor escala sobre los procesos de crecimiento acelerado de la urbanización y con ello una agudización de la crisis habitacional, donde amplios sectores populares subsisten al margen del sector formal. Las inadecuadas políticas de los gobiernos, así como factores socio-económicos de los países han incidido para desencadenar múltiples procesos de asentamientos humanos, barrios, barriadas, favelas cómo se las quiera llamar, al margen de la ley y de las normativas locales. No pretendemos incursionar en los aspectos políticos y estructurales del Estado, ni profundizar sobre los planes de desarrollo de los gobiernos locales, lo que queremos es entender como los asentamientos informales han ido construyendo no sólo el espacio físico, su territorio en el que se encuentran, sino su identidad, la generación de una cultura de pertenencia, en base a los conocimientos tangibles e intangibles que poseen, que comparten y que adoptan, para lo cual es necesario adentrarse al análisis de cómo se ven a sí mismos, como barrio, asentamiento informal, cómo se han organizado y agrupado, a fin de lograr la atención de las autoridades para insertarse en un proceso de regularidad y desarrollo que les permita alcanzar el sumak kawsay o buen vivir. Buscamos entender que a través de la participación de los propios moradores con intereses comunes, son capaces de organizarse, establecer redes sociales, en la búsqueda de encontrar mecanismos y soluciones para muchos de sus problemas, cómo se presentan las luchas de poder, además entender los conceptos de territorio y territorialidad, como lo han asimilado, al mismo tiempo recoger y analizar lo que la literatura o el "estado del arte" han desarrollado sobre asentamientos informales, cual y que nivel de relación se plantean con los modelos de ordenamiento territorial existentes, el punto de vista de la planificación urbana participativa y ciudadana y los distintos planes que se han implementado en los últimos años en el Distrito Metropolitano de Quito. En este marco general, la investigación se concreta en el análisis de un caso en particular que es el barrio denominado Comité Pro-mejoras del barrio "Buena Vista" del sector de San Juan de la parroquia Calderón.

ABSTRACThis thesis discuss strategy Pontianak City Police in maintaining order on the organization of elections (Presidential Election Study 2014). In order to secure the implementation of the Presidential Election 2014 Police Pontianak organizing internally that is organizing the parts and units Operational Police Pontianak become a united force and coordinated properly it is also necessary organizing externally that the City Government of Pontianak, KPU Pontianak, Pontianak city Supervisory Committee, Organizing Committee for the 2014 presidential election and Community Potential in an integrated and coordinated systematically according to the task, role, functions and responsibilities of each in relation to the implementation pemelihan pressiden 2014. The dominant factor affecting the implementation of the 2014 Presidential Elections Police Pontianak and public order are primed in Pontianak Police region are: geographical conditions very broad Pontianak City 107.82 km2, with a population of 550 304 inhabitants. While the number of Police personnel Pontianak just as much as 1331 personnel, is certainly not sufficient to Pontianak Police efforts in protecting, nurturing and serving the people of the city of Pontianak in the face of the organization of the election year 2014.Kondisi jobs in Pontianak are still limited or not comparable with the needs of the population to get decent work in various sectors of life, has the potential to create interference in the administration of the 2014 presidential election in the City of Pontianak.Kondisi socio-economic, socio-political and socio-cultural in Pontianak are still vulnerable to the dynamics of democratic life that deviate from the values of moral, religious, social, and applicable laws and regulations, can trigger horizontal conflict and / or crime-impact kontijensi.Strategi strategy lakukakan by Pontianak City Police in maintaining maintaining order on the implementation of the 2014 presidential election through prevention, deterrence and prevention of crime to support the implementation of the general election president in 2014 conducive manner: Improving the implementation of the policing function optimally, a partnership Police with the City of Pontianak, KPU Pontianak, Panwaslu Pontianak City and related institutions, establish partnerships Police with the Community, as well as improve the ability, character, identity and professionalism Police personnel on an ongoing basis. Doing deterrence, the condition of the "threshold interference" with the objective to reduce the social order "chance factor" and lower "faith factor" through regulation, guard, escort and patrol. Enforcing the law against "real threat" kamtibmas explicitly, consequently and consistently under the provisions of applicable law.Keywords: Policing Strategy, the implementation of the presidential election.2ABSTRAKTesis ini membahas masalah strategi Kepolisian Resort Kota Pontianak dalam menjaga ketertiban pada penyelenggaraan pemilihan umum (Studi Pemilihan Umum Presiden 2014) . Dalam rangka pengamanan penyelenggaraan Pemilihan Presiden Tahun 2014 Polresta Pontianak melakukan pengorganisasian secara intern yaitu pengorganisasian bagian-bagian dan satuan-satuan operasional Polresta Pontianak menjadi suatu kekuatan yang utuh dan terkoordinir dengan baik perlu juga dilakukan pengorganisasian secara ekstern yaitu dengan Pemerintahan Kota Kota Pontianak, KPU Kota Pontianak, Panwaslu Kota Pontianak, Panitia Penyelenggara Pilpres 2014 dan Potensi Masyarakat secara terpadu dan terkoordinir secara sistimatis sesuai tugas, peran dan fungsi serta tanggung jawabnya masing-masing dalam rangka penyelenggaraan pemelihan pressiden tahun 2014. Faktor dominan yang mempengaruhi pelaksanaan penyelenggaraan Pemilihan Presiden Tahun 2014 Polresta Pontianak dan ketertiban masyarakat yang prima di wilayah Polresta Pontianak adalah: Kondisi geografis Kota Pontianak yang sangat luas 107,82 km2, dengan jumlah penduduk 550.304 jiwa. Sedangkan jumlah personil Polresta Pontianak hanya sebanyak 1331 personil, tentunya tidak memadai dengan upaya Polresta Pontianak dalam melindungi, mengayomi dan melayani masyarakat kota Pontianak dalam menghadapi penyelenggaraan pilpres tahun 2014.Kondisi lapangan kerja di Kota Pontianak yang masih terbatas atau belum sebanding dengan kebutuhan penduduk untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan yang layak diberbagai sektor kehidupan, berpotensi untuk menciptakan gangguan dalam penyelenggaraan Pilpres 2014 di Kota Pontianak.Kondisi sosial ekonomi, sosial politik dan sosial budaya di Kota Pontianak yang masih rawan terhadap dinamika kehidupan demokrasi yang menyimpang dari nilai-nilai moral, agama, sosial, dan ketentuan hukum yang berlaku, dapat memicu terjadinya konflik horizontal dan/atau kejahatan berdampak kontijensi.Strategi-Strategi yang lakukakan oleh Kepolisian Resort Kota Pontianak dalam menjaga menjaga ketertiban pada penyelenggaraan pemilihan umum presiden 2014 melalui pencegahan, penangkalan dan penanggulangan kejahatan untuk menopang terlaksananya pemilihan umum presiden tahun 2014 yang kondusif dengan cara :Meningkatkan pelaksanaan fungsi kepolisian secara optimal, menjalin kemitraan Polri dengan Pemerintah Kota Pontianak, KPU Kota Pontianak,Panwaslu Kota Pontianak dan Instansi terkait, memantapkan kemitraan Polri dengan Masyarakat, serta meningkatkan kemampuan, watak, jati diri dan profesionalitas personil Polri secara berkelanjutan. Melakukan penangkalan, terhadap kondisi "ambang gangguan" kamtibmas dengan sasaran untuk mengurangi "faktor kesempatan" dan menurunkan "faktor niat" melalui pengaturan, penjagaan, pengawalan, dan patroli. Melakukan penegakan hukum terhadap "ancaman nyata" kamtibmas secara tegas, konsekuen dan konsisten berdasarkan ketentuan hukum yang berlaku.Kata Kunci: Strategi Kepolisian, penyelenggaraan pemilihan president.

Актуальность и цели. В современной России происходит рост социальной активности религиозных объединений и верующих. Очевидна необходимость совершенствования концепции отношений государства с различными конфессиями для обеспечения стабильности современной религиозной ситуации. Цель работы проанализировать факторы влияния на государственно-конфессиональную политику в 1985-1988 гг., выявить внутренние и внешние причины ее поворота, изучить роль партийных и государственных органов в определении курса данной политики. Материалы и методы. Реализация исследовательских задач была достигнута на основе использования документов из фондов Российского государственного архива новейшей истории, Государственного архива Российской Федерации, в частности фондов специального хранения, к которым доступ исследователей ограничен. Особое место занимают документы ЦК КПСС и Совета по делам религий при Совете Министров СССР. Методологическую основу исследования составляет принцип историзма, позволяющий проанализировать динамику взаимоотношений советского государства и религиозных обществ в указанный период. В работе были также использованы как общенаучные, так и специально-исторические методы. Структурно-системный метод применялся при изучении системы партийно-государственных органов, осуществлявших государственно-конфессиональную политику советского государства. Статистический метод был необходим для выявления и фиксирования количественных изменений, например, численности религиозных объединений. Диахронный метод позволил анализировать процессы и явления религиозной жизни в исторической последовательности на общеисторическом фоне. Синхронный метод помог установить причинно-следственные связи между событиями и явлениями, одновременно происходившими не только в религиозной сфере, но и в экономике, внутренней и внешней политике, социальных отношениях. Результаты. Исследован комплекс причин поворота государственно-конфессиональной политики в 1985-1988 гг.: усиление напряженности религиозной ситуации на фоне демократизации политической системы и гласности, распространение деструктивных националистических тенденций в регионах традиционного униатства и ислама, структурные сдвиги в соотношении различных вероисповеданий в пользу католического и протестантского направления, активная позиция духовенства и верующих, идеологическое противостояние с Западом. Выводы. В годы перестройки М. С. Горбачева, в преддверии празднования Тысячелетия крещения Руси изменилась концепция государственно-конфессиональных отношений, осуществился поворот государства к диалогу с верующими и сотрудничеству с религиозными объединениями. Особую роль в подготовке поворота общества и государства к конструктивному диалогу с верующими сыграл Совет по делам религий, аналитическая деятельность которого показала политическому руководству объективную картину религиозной ситуации в стране. ; Background. There is a growth of social activity of religious organizations and believers in modern Russia. It is obvious that there is a need to improve the relations of the state with the concept of different faiths to ensure the stability of the current religious situation. The purpose of the article is to analyze the factors of influence on the church-state policy in the period from 1985 to 1988, to identify the internal and external reasons for its turn, to examine the role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and state organs in determining the course of the policy. Materials and methods. The research tasks were implemented through the use of documents from the Russian State Archive of Contemporary History, the State Archive of the Russian Federation and, in particular, a special fund of storage, access to which is limited to researchers. A special place is occupied by the documents of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council on Religious Affairs under the the USSR Council of Ministers. The methodology of the study is based on the principle of historicism, which allows to analyze the dynamics of the relationship of the Soviet state and the religious communities in this period. The research also used many of general scientific and special historical methods. The structural and system method was used in the study of the party and government bodies responsible for the state-religious policy of the Soviet state. The statistical method was needed to identify and fix the quantitative changes, such as the number of religious associations. The diachronic method allowed analysis of processes and phenomena of religious life in the historical sequence in the general historical background. The synchronous method helped to establish causal relationships between events and phenomena occuring simultaneously not only in the religious sphere, but also in the economy, domestic and foreign policy, social relations. Results. The authors studied a complex of reasons for turning the state-religious policy in the period from 1985 to 1988: increased tension on the background of the religious situation of democratization of the political system and society, the spread of destructive nationalist tendencies in the regions of traditional Islam and the Uniate Church, structural shifts in the ratio of different faiths in favor of the Catholic and Protestant, the active position of the clergy and the faithful, the ideological confrontation with the West. Conclusions. In the years of Gorbachev's perestroika, specifically in the eve of the millennium of Christianity in Russia, the concept of church-state relations changed with turning the state to engagement in a dialogue with believers and cooperation with religious associations. The Council for Religious Affairs played a special role in preparation of the state's and society's turn to a constructive dialogue with the faithful people. Its analytical work showed an objective picture of the religious situation in the country to the political leadership.

In Niger Republic land issue is a concern to all parties acting in the rural area. The drought cycles of the last decades and the rapid increase of the population that doubles every ten years are determinant factors of degradation of the agricultural land of culture with as consequence the land and food insecurity of the households in particular in the region of Tahoua. Despite efforts by the government and its partners through the village land management programs and natural regeneration, land access difficulties persist particularly for women households. The objective being to assess and analyze the impact of land dynamics induced by the recovery of land in order to find some solutions to the problems of land insecurity and access and control of natural resources by households, a survey was conducted in two phases. The first in 2010 for a sample of 420 households in twenty villages selected through a stratified sampling. The second in 2012 for a sample of 84 households with 42 female heads of household from the first sample being associated with a group of 42 male heads of households for a specific gender analysis. It appears from this study that men households have an average land area about twice as large as that of female households .It was also found that the land is usually concentrated in the hands of older householders over 60 years. It is noticed that the inheritance is also one of the most dominant modes of access to land. The fragmentation and the expansion of croplands favor the emergence of fields beyond the northern boundary of crops dedicated to breeding. Finally, the last three years, agricultural production has generally fallen. The results of the analysis also show that unlike men, women household heads have less inputs, on the one hand, and little income, on the other hand. These female households derive their main income from the sale of animal products. This proves that women are the poorest households with limited access to natural resources. To fight against tenure insecurity and poverty of households recommendations and perspectives have been identified for the establishment of good governance of land resources, intensification of anti-erosion works by households with substantial resources and initiation of other additional research for sustainable development of the region. ; Au Niger, la question foncière reste au centre des préoccupations de tous les acteurs du monde rural. Les sécheresses cycliques de ces dernières décennies et l'accroissement rapide de la population en sont les facteurs déterminants de dégradation des terres de culture avec comme conséquence l'insécurité foncière et alimentaire des ménages notamment dans la région de Tahoua. Malgré les efforts consentis par l'Etat et ses partenaires à travers les programmes de gestion des terroirs villageois et de régénération naturelle, les difficultés d'accès au foncier persistent particulièrement pour les ménages femmes. L'objectif étant d'apprécier et d'analyser l'impact de la dynamique foncière induite par la récupération des terres afin de trouver certaines réponses aux problèmes d'insécurité foncière et d'accès et contrôle des ressources naturelles par les ménages, un travail d'enquête a été mené en deux phases. La première en 2010 pour un échantillon de 420 ménages répartis dans vingt villages sélectionnés suivant un échantillonnage stratifié. La deuxième en 2012 pour un échantillon de 84 ménages dont 42 chefs de ménage femmes issus du premier échantillon auquel a été associé un groupe de 42 chefs de ménage hommes pour une analyse spécifique sur le genre. Il ressort alors de cette étude que les ménages hommes possèdent une superficie moyenne des terres environ double de celle des ménages féminins. Il a été également constaté que les terres sont généralement concentrées aux mains des chefs de ménage âgés de plus de 60 ans. Il est remarqué que l'héritage est aussi l'un des modes d'accès à la terre les plus dominants. Le morcellement et l'extension des terres de culture favorisent l'émergence des champs au-delà de la limite nord des cultures réservée à l'élevage. Enfin, ces trois dernières années, les productions agricoles sont généralement en baisse. L'analyse des résultats montre également que contrairement aux hommes, les femmes chefs de ménage disposent de moins de facteurs de production, d'une part, et de peu de revenu, d'autre part. Ces ménages féminins tirent essentiellement leur revenu de la vente des produits animaux. Cela prouve que les ménages femmes restent les plus pauvres avec un accès limité aux ressources naturelles. Pour lutter contre l'insécurité foncière des ménages et la pauvreté des recommandations et perspectives ont été dégagées visant l'instauration d'une bonne gouvernance des ressources foncières, une intensification des ouvrages antiérosifs par les ménages avec des moyens conséquents et l'initiation d'autres recherches complémentaires pour un développement durable de cette région.

Предмет/тема.В статье проводится анализ замедления роста в промышленном секторе экономики России. По предварительным данным Росстата, величина ВВП России в 2014 г. составила 70,975 трлн руб. Рост экономики составил 0,6% по сравнению с аналогичным периодом 2013 г. в размере 1,3%. Несколько оживила внутренний спрос и стабилизировала ситуацию в бюджетной сфере девальвация рубля. Однако оборотной стороной такого процесса является ускорение темпа инфляции и еще большая концентрация ресурсов в топливно-энергетическом секторе. Методология. В работе с помощью эконометрических методов проанализированы различные аспекты деятельности предприятий основных секторов экономики и их финансовое состояние. Результаты. Действующие государственные программы по поддержке отдельных отраслей экономики функционируют не в полной мере. Существенным недостатком является разработка и ведение их в автономном режиме, без учета суммарного запроса на финансовые, материально-технические, кадровые и иные ограниченные ресурсы. Неопределенность экономической обстановки, способствующая снижению деловой активности, приводит к уменьшению прибыли. Не способствует росту инвестиций и отток капитала, при этом вывоз капитала в 2014 г. осуществлен в основном внебанковским сектором, что свидетельствует о нежелании предпринимателей вкладывать средства в развитие производства. Следовательно, это означает уменьшение капитальных вложений за счет собственных средств предприятий. Выводы/значимость. Проведенные исследования позволяют заключить, что с большой долей вероятности инвестиционные проблемы затронут автомобильную промышленность, машиностроение, серьезнейшие проблемы появятся в строительной отрасли и во всех производствах, связанных со строительством производстве всех стройматериалов, сталелитейной промышленности и производстве отделочных материалов. В рамках формирования современной национальной кредитно-финансовой системы необходимо следовать основным целям модернизации, развития российской экономики и замещения внешних кредитов. В этой связи предложен комплекс мер, направленный в среднесрочной перспективе на расширение денежно-кредитной системы, включая механизм формирования специальных институтов инвестиционного развития. Опираясь на зарубежный опыт стимулирования экономической активности субъектов малого и среднего бизнеса, необходимо расширить способы применения ускоренной амортизации основных средств, а также освободить от налогообложения полученный доход для предприятий, экспортирующих не менее 50% товаров, изготовленных с использованием российской интеллектуальной собственности (на период возврата инвестиций) или при условии выпуска импортозамещающей продукции и реализации ее внутри Российской Федерации. ; Importance The article presents the analysis of growth slowdown in the industrial sector of the Russian economy. According to the preliminary data of the Federal Service of State Statistics, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Russia amounted to 70.975 trillion rubles, i.e. the economy expanded by 0.6%. Compared with the same period in 2013, the economy grew by 1.3%. The devaluation of the Russian ruble slightly revived the domestic demand and stabilized the situation in the public sector. However, the downside of this process is accelerated pace of inflation and greater concentration of resources in the Russian fuel and energy sector. Objectives The objective of the work is to analyze the growth slowdown in the industrial sector of the Russian economy and its implications. Methods In the paper, using econometric methods, we analyzed various aspects of performance and financial status of enterprise operating in the major sectors of the economy. Results We highlighted that the government programs for promoting certain sectors of economy are not fully operational. The development and implementation of the programs independently, without taking into account the total demand for financial, material, technical, human and other limited resources, is a material weakness. Uncertainty of economic environment causing the general stagnation of business leads to profit shrinkage. The capital outflow does not promote investment growth either. At the same time, export of capital in 2014 was largely from the non-banking sector. This testifies to the reluctance of entrepreneurs to invest capital in production development. Therefore, this implies reducing capital investment at the expense of equity capital of enterprises. Conclusions and Relevance Using the findings, we conclude that investment problems will very likely affect the automobile industry, mechanical engineering, and construction industry. In addition, all industries involved in construction will definitely face serious problems, i.e. production of all sorts of construction materials, steel industry and production of finishing material. Within the framework of modern national credit and financial system, it is necessary to follow the basic goals of modernization, Russian economy development and substitution of external loans. We proposed a set of measures aimed at expanding the monetary and credit system over the medium term, including a mechanism for establishing special institutions for investment development. Relying on foreign experience in stimulating economic activity of small and medium-sized businesses, it is necessary to extend the application of accelerated depreciation of fixed assets, as well as to exempt from taxation the income of enterprises exporting at least 50% of products they manufacture using Russian intellectual property (for the investment's payback period) or, the enterprises manufacturing import-substituting products and selling them in the Russian Federation.

Tesis (Doctorado en Ciencias, especialista en Economía).- Colegio de Postgraduados, 2014. ; En México, la guayaba (Psidium guajava L.) es una fruta que se cultiva en el municipio de Calvillo en el Estado de Aguascalientes, así como Michoacán, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Estado de México, entre otros. En el mercado de Estados Unidos, es un producto poco conocido y se ha apostado a posicionarla al mercado hispano. Lograr la comercialización internacional, requiere que los productores puedan competir en condiciones de certidumbre, contar con recursos técnicos, financieros y humanos para atender los aspectos de productividad, logística, promoción, publicidad y comercialización. En el presente trabajo, se determinan las necesidades de Logística de 7 estados productores: Aguascalientes, Guerrero, Jalisco, Estado de México, Michoacán, Querétaro y Zacatecas. Se analizó la infraestructura logística de transporte para la Exportación de Guayaba en fresco hacia los Estados Unidos, determinando 9 rutas óptimas que se considera como punto de salida las acopiadoras certificadas de Calvillo en Aguascalientes y Junganpeo y Zitácuaro en Michoacán, para enviarse a irradiación del fruto en Tepeji del Rio Querétaro, para después transportarlo a las tres fronteras de salida, Mc Allen y Nuevo Laredo en Tamaulipas y Nogales en Sonora y de ahí llegar a los mercados de Mc Allen, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio, Atlanta, Orlando, Philadelphia, New York, Los Ángeles y San Francisco en Estados Unidos. Se determinaron dos modelos de programación lineal de minimización de costos con el lenguaje de programación LINDO: en el primero se planteó analizar un Mercado Cerrado para la distribución eficiente a nivel nacional de acuerdo a los consumos estatales y a la oferta disponible, resultando la distribución de 199 mil toneladas a todos los estados y dejando un remanente de 5 mil toneladas que pueden ser exportables; el segundo, analiza un mercado abierto (para exportación), que demuestra que Aguascalientes, Michoacán y Zacatecas son oferentes con más de 205 mil toneladas, de las cuales 190 mil se destinan a mercado nacional y 14 mil a mercado internacional, resultando rutas logísticas que minimizan costos de transporte por cada oferente. De igual forma se estableció un modelo matemático para determinar a partir de los huertos certificados, la ubicación óptima de los Centro de Acopio y Cuarto de Frio; el modelo muestra que Morelia Michoacán y Calvillo Aguascalientes son los lugares ideales para estos fines. Estos resultados sirvieron como base para proponer la ubicación de la Planta de Irradiación, resultando dos propuestas, una en Mazatlán Sinaloa y otra en Zacatecas, Zacatecas, las cuales optimizan tiempos y costos para la distribución de guayaba. _______________ ANALYSIS OF THE LOGISTICS OF EXPORT OF GUAVA (Psidium guajava L.) IN FRESH TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ABSTRACT: In Mexico, guava (Psidium guajava L.) is a fruit that is grown in the municipality of Calvillo in the State of Aguascalientes and Michoacán, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Mexico State, among others. In the US market, it is a little known product and has opted to locate the hispanic market. Achieve international marketing requires that producers can compete in conditions of certainty, have technical, financial and human resources to address productivity issues, logistics, promotion, advertising and marketing. Aguascalientes, Guerrero, Jalisco, Mexico State, Michoacán, Querétaro and Zacatecas: In this work, the needs of Logistics 7 producing states are determined. Logistics transportation infrastructure export guava fresh to the United States was analyzed, determining nine optimal routes is considered as a starting point the foragers certified Calvillo in Aguascalientes and Junganpeo and Zitacuaro in Michoacan, to be sent to irradiation of the fruit Tepeji del Rio in Queretaro, then transported to the three frontiers output, Mc Allen and Nuevo Laredo in Tamaulipas and Nogales Sonora and then reach markets in Mc Allen, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio, Atlanta, Orlando, Philadelphia , New York, Los Angeles and San Francisco in the United State. Two models of linear programming cost minimization in the language of LINDO programming were determined: the first was raised analyze a closed market for efficient nationwide distribution according to government consumption and available supply, resulting distribution of 199 thousand tons to all states and leaving a remnant of 5000 tons that can be exportable; the second examines an open (for export) market, which shows that Aguascalientes, Michoacán and Zacatecas are bidders with more than 205,000 tons, of which 190,000 are for domestic market and 14,000 international market, resulting logistical routes minimize transportation costs for each bidder. Likewise, a mathematical model was established to determine from orchards certified, the optimal location of the Collection Center and Fourth Frio; the model shows that Morelia Michoacan and Aguascalientes Calvillo are the ideal places for these purposes. These results served as the basis for proposing the location of the plant irradiation, resulting in two proposals, one in Mazatlan Sinaloa and another in Zacatecas, Zacatecas, which optimize time and costs for the distribution of guava.

Purpose. Development of theoretical approaches and practical recommendations for evaluation of the methods and ways of organizing mechanism for managing the competitiveness of the railways of Ukraine, which contribute to stabilize the industry in a market economy transformation and economic instability. Methods. Reforming the rail transport today is the first step towards institutional adaptation Railway Transport of Ukraine and transparent use of market mechanisms. The first reform requires qualitative improvement of the legal framework and organizational structure, which requires a systematic, integrated approach. Results. The paper proposed areas of innovation, motivation innovative processes for rail transport innovation in rail companies that will increase the competitiveness of rail transport in the transport market and improve the competitive position in the development of interspecific competition. Scientific novelty. Organizational measures to improve the competitiveness of rail transport and the need for branch development potential as a competitive activity of railway transport, accompanied by the formation of vertically - integrated in the structure and maintenance of infrastructure. The practical significance. Our studies allow to say that nowadays the most important task railway complex of Ukraine to work in a volatile market economy is to provide a stable financial situation. In Ukraine, the railway infrastructure is for public funds. The current system of rail transport in Ukraine is a combination of railways and other public companies that do not actually executed in a single industrial complex with low attractiveness for investors and can not without government guarantees to attract the necessary investment in fixed assets. Given the above, you can ensure increased competitiveness of railway transport of Ukraine. ; Цель. Разработка теоретических подходов и практических рекомендаций по оценке уровня конкурентоспособности, методов и способов организации механизма управления конкурентоспособностью железными дорогами Украины, которые способствуют стабилизации отрасли в условиях рыночной трансформации экономики и нестабильности экономики. Методика. Реформирование системы железнодорожного транспорта сегодня является первым шагом на пути институциональной адаптации железнодорожного транспорта Украины, а также применение прозрачных рыночных механизмов. В первую очередь реформирование требует качественного совершенствования законодательной базы и организационной структуры, для чего необходим системный, комплексных подход. Результаты. В работе предложены направления развития инновационной деятельности, мотивации инновационных процессов на железнодорожном транспорте, внедрение новшеств в работу железнодорожных компаний что позволит повысить конкурентоспособность железнодорожного транспорта на рынке транспортных услуг и улучшить конкурентные позиции в условиях развития межвидовой конкуренции. Научная новизна. Предложены организационные мероприятия по повышению уровня конкурентоспособности железнодорожного транспорта, и необходимость отделения развития потенциала как конкурентного вида деятельности железнодорожного транспорта, сопровождается формированием вертикально - интегрированной структуры в области и ремонта объектов инфраструктуры. Практическая значимость. Проведенные исследования позволяют утверждать, что в современных условиях важнейшей задачей железнодорожного комплекса Украины при работе в условиях нестабильной рыночной экономики является обеспечение устойчивого финансового состояния. В Украине поддержка железнодорожной инфраструктуры происходит за государственные средства. Существующая система железнодорожного транспорта в Украине является совокупностью железных дорог и других государственных предприятий, которые фактически не оформлены в единый производственный комплекс, имеют низкую привлекательность для инвесторов и не позволяет без государственной гарантии привлекать необходимые инвестиции в обновление основных средств. Учитывая вышесказанное можно обеспечить повышение конкурентоспособности железнодорожного транспорта Украины. ; Мета. Розробка теоретичних підходів і практичних рекомендацій щодо оцінки рівня конкурентоспроможності, методів та способів організації механізму управління конкурентоспроможністю залізниць України, що сприятиме стабілізації галузі в умовах нестабільності економіки та євроінтеграції. Методика. Реформування системи залізничного транспорту сьогодні є першим кроком на шляху інституційної адаптації залізничного транспорту України до викликів глобалізаційного простору, євроінтеграційних процесів, а також необхідності застосування прозорих ринкових механізмів. У першу чергу реформування вимагає якісного удосконалення законодавчої бази і організаційної структури, для чого необхідний системний та комплексних підхід. Результати. У роботі запропоновані напрями розвитку інноваційної діяльності, мотивації інноваційних процесів на залізничному транспорті, впровадження нововведень в роботу залізничних компаній, що дозволить підвищити конкурентоспроможність залізничного транспорту на ринку міжнародних транспортних послуг і поліпшити конкурентні позиції в умовах загострення конкуренції. Наукова новизна. Запропоновано організаційні заходи щодо підвищення рівня конкурентоспроможності залізничного транспорту та необхідність відділення розвитку потенціалу як конкурентного виду діяльності залізничного транспорту, що супроводжується формуванням вертикально - інтегрованої структури в галузі та реформування об'єктів інфраструктури. Практична значимість. Проведені дослідження дають змогу стверджувати, що в сучасних умовах найважливішим завданням залізничного комплексу України при роботі в умовах нестабільної економіки та векторів євроінтеграції є забезпечення стійкого фінансового стану. В Україні підтримка залізничної інфраструктури відбувається за державні кошти. Існуюча система залізничного транспорту в Україні є сукупністю залізниць та інших державних підприємств, які фактично не оформлені в єдиний виробничий комплекс, мають низьку інвестиційну привабливість і не дозволяють без державної гарантії залучати необхідні інвестиції в оновлення основних засобів та впровадження інновацій. Враховуючи вищезазначене актуалізуються питання щодо формування напрямів та умов забезпечення конкурентоспроможності залізничного транспорту України в конттекстієвроінтеграції.