Suchergebnisse

La presente investigación caracteriza los contextos cultural, económico, social, biológico y psicológico de las personas usuarias del programa Clínica de Heridas dirigido por un grupo de profesoras del área de Fundamentación en enfermería de la Facultad de Enfermería de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Se sabe que el cuidado de personas con heridas exige el conocimiento de la severidad de las mismas, especialmente las heridas vasculares que son crónicas y de lenta cicatrización. Las condiciones que retardan su recuperación conllevan alto riesgo de complicaciones, así como el estado nutricional, la accesibilidad a asistencia médica y la motivación para la recuperación. La pobre cicatrización y las lesiones derivadas de los procesos lentos de recuperación de la integridad de la piel en las heridas de origen vascular son un grave problema de salud porque exponen al individuo a infecciones que pueden volverse graves o incluso llevar a la muerte, además porque originan una importante alteración de la autoestima, que puede causar en algunas personas aislamiento y sentimientos de minusvalía. En el proceso de recuperación hay que tener en cuenta aspectos como la nutrición, edad, enfermedades asociadas, estadio de la herida, aspectos psicológicos y apoyo social con que cuenta la persona. Una vez definida la multicausalidad en las personas con heridas de origen vascular, se realiza esta investigación que pretende aportar, desde los diferentes contextos de estudio, las bases teóricas y prácticas que orienten en forma asertiva al profesional de enfermería y al resto del grupo interdisciplinario para elaborar planes de cuidado más integrales que trasciendan lo biológico, a fin de mejorar el estado de salud en la población vulnerable. ; This research characterizes the cultural, economic, social, biological and psychological context of users of the Injury Treatment Center program led by a group of lecturers of the area of Groundwork in Nursing of the Nursery Faculty of Colombia's National University. It is well known that the care of injured people demands the knowledge of the severity thereof, especially vascular injuries that are chronic and heal slowly. The conditions delaying the recovery from these injuries imply a high level of complication, as well as the individual's nutritional state, access to medical assistance and motivation to recover. The poor healing and injuries derived from slow recovery processes of the skin integrity in injuries of vascular origin are a serious health problem because they expose the individual to infections that may become severe and even fatal, also because they cause an important alteration of the self-esteem, which in turn can cause, in some people, isolation and disability feelings. In the process of recovery, one should take into account aspects such as nutrition, age, associated diseases, and the condition of the injury, physiological aspects and the social support provided to the person. Once the multiple causality is defined in the individuals with injuries of vascular origin, this research will be carried out, whose intention is to provide, from the different contexts of the study, the theoretical and practical bases that may orientate, in an assertive manner, the nursing professional and the rest of the interdisciplinary group for them to be able to prepare more integral care plans that go beyond the biological aspect in order to improve the health conditions among vulnerable population.

Hoy es cada vez más difícil considerar a la naturaleza como un elemento externo e independiente de la sociedad. Procesos como el cambio climático, la deforestación y la pérdida de biodiversidad, son algunas muestras de la capacidad humana para alterar la dinámica de los sistemas naturales pero, aún más importante, nos señalan que aquello que conocemos como naturaleza puede ser socialmente creado, tanto en términos discursivos como materiales.
El propósito de este trabajo es reflexionar acerca de los procesos sociales y políticos ligados a las trasformaciones ambientales, así como las luchas materiales y discursivas que se establecen en torno a los recursos naturales en el área natural protegida conocida como el Cañón del Usumacinta en el municipio de Tenosique, Tabasco, cuyos habitantes son de origen maya y se hallan ubicados en un área geográfica de enorme riqueza no solo natural sino también cultural; comunidades que hasta ahora han sido de una u otra manera impactadas por los macro procesos globalizadores a través de los programas de desarrollo turístico impulsados en forma vertical por los distintos niveles de gobierno.
Si bien, en su política ecológica, el gobierno estatal plantea que el desarrollo económico y social puede ser alcanzado por medio del desarrollo sustentable a través del ecoturismo, contemplado como un instrumento para combatir la pobreza y elevar el nivel de vida de la población, no obstante para ello es importante conocer y evaluar la infraestructura de los sitios que se pretenden promover dentro de esta actividad, así como proteger el patrimonio natural, valorar el sector social, y provocar una mayor equidad de los beneficios turísticos en los pueblos en cuestión para lograr un desarrollo sustentable.

ABSTRACT
Today it is increasingly difficult to regard nature as an element that is external to and independent from society. Processes such as climate change, deforestation and the loss of biodiversity are some of the signs of human beings' capacity to alter the dynamics of natural systems. Even more importantly, these processes indicate that what we know as nature may be socially created in both discursive and material terms.
This article seeks to reflect on the social and political processes linked to environmental transformations, and on the material and discursive struggles taking place around natural resources in the protected natural area known as Cañón de Usumacinta in the municipality of Tenosique in Tabasco. The inhabitants of this place are of Maya origin and live in a geographical area of enormous natural and cultural richness. They are communities that in one way or another have been affected by globalizing macro-processes through the tourist development programs imposed by the various levels of government.
The state government suggests, in its ecological policy, that economic and social development can be achieved by means of sustainable development through ecotourism, regarded as an instrument for combating poverty and raising the population's standard of living. It is nevertheless important to study and evaluate the infrastructure of sites that are being promoted within this activity, and to protect their natural assets, prioritize the social sector and promote greater equity in the profits from tourism in these areas, in order to achieve sustainable development.

ÖZETAnadolu İhtilalinin siyaset arenasına bir armağanı olan CHP, iktidarda bulunduğu 27 yıl süresince ve de iktidarı demokratik yöntemlerle devrettiği süreç boyunca Cumhuriyet Türkiyesinin kaderinde söz sahibi olmuştur. Cumhuriyetle yaşıt olan Parti, tarihi boyunca çeşitli yıllarda revizyona gitme ihtiyacı hissetmiş ancak asıl dönüşümünü, 1965 yılında Genel Başkan İnönü'nün Ortanın Solunda bulundukları beyanatını vermesi ile gerçekleştirmiştir. Parti devlet anlayışını temsil eden CHP'nin, mevkisi konusunda Ortanın Solunun adres gösterilmesi, hem Parti içinde bulunan muhalif kanadın harekete geçmesini sağlamış hem de siyasi yelpazede yer edinen sağ muhalefet partilerinin tepki göstermesine neden olmuştur. Bu muhalefet hareketini sonlandırmak ya da söyleme yönelik takındıkları tutumu değiştirmek için ise önderliğini Bülent Ecevit'in üstlendiği Ortanın Solunun kavramsallaştırılması seferberliği ilan edilmiştir.Bülent Ecevit ve arkadaşları tarafından kavramsal çerçevesi oluşturulan Ortanın Solu, merkezinde yer verdiği demokrasi kavramının etrafında ekonomi, eğitim gibi bir ülke için yaşamsal öneme sahip olan sahalarla ilgili açılımlar sunmuştur. Bunun yanında on yıl aralıkla gerçekleşen Türkiye'nin ikinci askeri müdahalesi 12 Mart ise, CHP'de yeni kapıların aralanmasına vesile olmuştur. Müdahalenin, Ortanın Soluna verildiğini söyleyen Bülent Ecevit, müdahale sonrası CHP'deki Genel Sekreterlik görevinden ayrılmıştır. Kısa süreli bir ayrılık olan bu durum Bülent Ecevit'in CHP Genel Başkanı seçilmesi ile bitmiş ve hem Türkiye hem de CHP için yepyeni bir sayfa açılmıştır. Genel Başkanlığı sonrasında gerçekleştirdiği icraatlarla, Karaoğlan efsanesini yazdıran Ecevit, Ortanın Solu kavramı ile birlikte Sosyal Demokrasi kavramını seslendirmiş, kısa bir süre sonra da Sosyal Demokrasi kavramının Partinin ideolojisi olmasını sağlamıştır.SUMMARY CHP, a gift to the political arena from the Anatolian Revolution, has had a voice in the fate of Republic Turkey for 27 years while in power and while assigning the competence with democratic methods. Party, same age as the Commonwealth, had the need to go for revision in its history however realized its conversion in year 1965 when the General President İnonu made a declaration stating that they are in the Left-of-Centre. CHP, representing the understanding of the party state, showing the Left-of-Centre as its address made both the Party and dissident wings to take action and caused the right opposition parties of the political spectrum to react. To end the opposition acts or change the attitude maintained towards the statement, the conceptual mobilization of the Left-of-Centre has been declared with Bulent Ecevit as the leader.Left-of-Centre, formed within the conceptual framework by Bulent Ecevit and his friends, has offered an insight into fields vital for a country such as economy, education. Also on 12th March, the second military intervention in Turkey within 10 years, it conduced to CHP opening new doors. Bulent Ecevit stating that the intervention was given to the Left-of-Centre resigned from his CHP General Secretary position after the intervention. This short separation ended with Bulent Ecevit being elected as the General President of CHP and a new page opened for both Turkey and CHP. After realizing the practices after his appointment as the General President, Ecevit, inditing the Karaoglan legend, has voiced the concept of Social Democracy with the concept of Left-of-Centre and provided the concept of Social Democracy to be the ideology of the Party after a short time.

La presente investigación caracteriza los contextos cultural, económico, social, biológico y psicológico de las personas usuarias del programa Clínica de Heridas dirigido por un grupo de profesoras del área de Fundamentación en enfermería de la Facultad de Enfermería de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Se sabe que el cuidado de personas con heridas exige el conocimiento de la severidad de las mismas, especialmente las heridas vasculares que son crónicas y de lenta cicatrización. Las condiciones que retardan su recuperación conllevan alto riesgo de complicaciones, así como el estado nutricional, la accesibilidad a asistencia médica y la motivación para la recuperación. La pobre cicatrización y las lesiones derivadas de los procesos lentos de recuperación de la integridad de la piel en las heridas de origen vascular son un grave problema de salud porque exponen al individuo a infecciones que pueden volverse graves o incluso llevar a la muerte, además porque originan una importante alteración de la autoestima, que puede causar en algunas personas aislamiento y sentimientos de minusvalía. En el proceso de recuperación hay que tener en cuenta aspectos como la nutrición, edad, enfermedades asociadas, estadio de la herida, aspectos psicológicos y apoyo social con que cuenta la persona. Una vez definida la multicausalidad en las personas con heridas de origen vascular, se realiza esta investigación que pretende aportar, desde los diferentes contextos de estudio, las bases teóricas y prácticas que orienten en forma asertiva al profesional de enfermería y al resto del grupo interdisciplinario para elaborar planes de cuidado más integrales que trasciendan lo biológico, a fin de mejorar el estado de salud en la población vulnerable. ; This research characterizes the cultural, economic, social, biological and psychological context of users of the Injury Treatment Center program led by a group of lecturers of the area of Groundwork in Nursing of the Nursery Faculty of Colombia's National University. It is well known that the care of injured people demands the knowledge of the severity thereof, especially vascular injuries that are chronic and heal slowly. The conditions delaying the recovery from these injuries imply a high level of complication, as well as the individual's nutritional state, access to medical assistance and motivation to recover. The poor healing and injuries derived from slow recovery processes of the skin integrity in injuries of vascular origin are a serious health problem because they expose the individual to infections that may become severe and even fatal, also because they cause an important alteration of the self-esteem, which in turn can cause, in some people, isolation and disability feelings. In the process of recovery, one should take into account aspects such as nutrition, age, associated diseases, and the condition of the injury, physiological aspects and the social support provided to the person. Once the multiple causality is defined in the individuals with injuries of vascular origin, this research will be carried out, whose intention is to provide, from the different contexts of the study, the theoretical and practical bases that may orientate, in an assertive manner, the nursing professional and the rest of the interdisciplinary group for them to be able to prepare more integral care plans that go beyond the biological aspect in order to improve the health conditions among vulnerable population.

Environmental policy is an art of execution. Hence the fact that European Union member states have recently managed to agree on targets of emissions to fight climate change leaves open the question of how they will meet them. Economics can not but embrace the scientific consensus on climate change and can not say much about the efficiency of alternative technologies. Yet, its expertise is valuable to calculate economic effects and fairness of policies and to assess the relevance of incentives structures and effectiveness of institutions put into place to convert scientific consensus into action. This article is concerned with this latter point: does the EU have the right institutions to fight climate change? We claim that such is not the case, and offer to institute a « European Community of Environment, Energy and Research » to go forward. ; L'économie de l'environnement entremêle les questions économiques et d'économie politique les plus complexes en théorie et les plus retorses en pratique : la justice entre les générations, la production et la préservation des biens publics, la gestion des externalités au niveau national et international, la cohérence temporelle des politiques publiques ou encore l'action collective globale et régionale. Supposer un arbitrage entre croissance économique et préservation des ressources naturelles est une façon naïve de poser le problème, lorsque l'on sait que, pour l'essentiel, les outils ont été inventés par l'homme pour transformer la nature. Les véritables arbitrages portent sur les différents modes de développement durable et les moyens pratiques de les mettre en œuvre. La politique environnementale est en effet un art d'exécution : tout est affaire de moyens et de méthodes dès lors que les fins font, sur l'essentiel, l'objet d'un consensus. Ainsi, les États européens sont-ils parvenus à s'accorder sans trop de mal en mars 2007, sous la vigoureuse impulsion de la Présidence allemande, sur l'objectif de réduire unilatéralement de 20 % d'ici à 2020 leurs émissions de gaz à effet de serre par rapport au niveau de 1990. Mais le problème demeure entier : comment ? Comment faire pour que le projet d'une Europe durable ne devienne pas « un agenda de Lisbonne » bis, une immense ambition aux moyens minuscules ? L'analyse économique passe en plein milieu du problème environnemental ainsi défini : elle ne peut guère se prononcer, en amont, sur la validité du consensus scientifique qui s'est construit sur le changement climatique et encore moins, en aval, sur les qualités technologiques respectives des méthodes de limitation des émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Elle peut en revanche à la fois offrir son expertise sur la pertinence des modèles utilisés pour calculer les effets de moyen et long terme du changement climatique sur les modes de vie et trancher le problème de l'efficacité potentielle des systèmes d'incitation envisagés pour atteindre des objectifs environnementaux donnés. La contribution de cet article porte sur ce dernier point. Nous tentons de répondre à la question : l'Union européenne dispose-t-elle du meilleur système institutionnel pour mener à bien sa stratégie environnementale ? Après avoir montré pourquoi tel n'est pas le cas, nous proposons de l'améliorer en instituant une Communauté européenne de l'environnement, de l'énergie et de la recherche dont nous détaillons les objectifs et les instruments.

Environmental policy is an art of execution. Hence the fact that European Union member states have recently managed to agree on targets of emissions to fight climate change leaves open the question of how they will meet them. Economics can not but embrace the scientific consensus on climate change and can not say much about the efficiency of alternative technologies. Yet, its expertise is valuable to calculate economic effects and fairness of policies and to assess the relevance of incentives structures and effectiveness of institutions put into place to convert scientific consensus into action. This article is concerned with this latter point: does the EU have the right institutions to fight climate change? We claim that such is not the case, and offer to institute a « European Community of Environment, Energy and Research » to go forward. ; L'économie de l'environnement entremêle les questions économiques et d'économie politique les plus complexes en théorie et les plus retorses en pratique : la justice entre les générations, la production et la préservation des biens publics, la gestion des externalités au niveau national et international, la cohérence temporelle des politiques publiques ou encore l'action collective globale et régionale. Supposer un arbitrage entre croissance économique et préservation des ressources naturelles est une façon naïve de poser le problème, lorsque l'on sait que, pour l'essentiel, les outils ont été inventés par l'homme pour transformer la nature. Les véritables arbitrages portent sur les différents modes de développement durable et les moyens pratiques de les mettre en œuvre. La politique environnementale est en effet un art d'exécution : tout est affaire de moyens et de méthodes dès lors que les fins font, sur l'essentiel, l'objet d'un consensus. Ainsi, les États européens sont-ils parvenus à s'accorder sans trop de mal en mars 2007, sous la vigoureuse impulsion de la Présidence allemande, sur l'objectif de réduire unilatéralement de 20 % d'ici à 2020 leurs émissions de gaz à effet de serre par rapport au niveau de 1990. Mais le problème demeure entier : comment ? Comment faire pour que le projet d'une Europe durable ne devienne pas « un agenda de Lisbonne » bis, une immense ambition aux moyens minuscules ? L'analyse économique passe en plein milieu du problème environnemental ainsi défini : elle ne peut guère se prononcer, en amont, sur la validité du consensus scientifique qui s'est construit sur le changement climatique et encore moins, en aval, sur les qualités technologiques respectives des méthodes de limitation des émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Elle peut en revanche à la fois offrir son expertise sur la pertinence des modèles utilisés pour calculer les effets de moyen et long terme du changement climatique sur les modes de vie et trancher le problème de l'efficacité potentielle des systèmes d'incitation envisagés pour atteindre des objectifs environnementaux donnés. La contribution de cet article porte sur ce dernier point. Nous tentons de répondre à la question : l'Union européenne dispose-t-elle du meilleur système institutionnel pour mener à bien sa stratégie environnementale ? Après avoir montré pourquoi tel n'est pas le cas, nous proposons de l'améliorer en instituant une Communauté européenne de l'environnement, de l'énergie et de la recherche dont nous détaillons les objectifs et les instruments.

YÖNETİM AÇISINDAN E-DEVLET UYGULAMALARI VE İSTANBUL İLÇE BELEDİYELERİ ÜZERİNDE BİR ARAŞTIRMAE-devletin temel amacı, kamu hizmetlerinin daha kaliteli ve daha az maliyetle vatandaşa sunulmasıdır. Özellikle 1990'lı yılların başından itibaren, bilişim teknolojilerinin kamu hizmetlerinin sunumunda bir araç olarak nasıl kullanılacağı konusu önem kazanmaya başlamıştır. Başarılı ülke uygulamaları; e-devlet yaklaşımının kabul edilebilir, gerçekleştirilebilir ve uygulanabilir bir fikir olarak görülmeye başlanmasına yardımcı olmuştur. Türkiye bilgi toplumu olma yolunda attığı adımlarla son yıllarda önemli aşamalar kat etmiştir. Türkiye genelinde başlatılan projelerden bazılarında henüz sonuca ulaşılamasa da çarpıcı sonuçlar elde edilmiş ve dünyada önemli sayılabilecek birtakım projeler hayata geçirilmiştir. Bu projeler, Türkiye'nin e-devlet çalışmalarına öncülük etmiş ve birçok yeni projenin tasarlanmasına örnek olmuştur. Bu doğrultuda, çalışmada e-devlet uygulamalarının kavramsal olarak incelenmesi ve Türkiye'deki örnek e-devlet uygulamalarının İstanbul ilçe belediyeleri kapsamında araştırılması amaçlanmıştır. Buna göre çalışmanın birinci bölümünde e-devlet kavramı, tanımı ve tarihsel gelişimi temel kavramlar başlığında incelenmiş; ikinci bölümde e-devlet uygulama süreci, e-devlet uygulama türleri, uygulama aşamaları, uygulamalarda karşılaşılan sorunlar açıklanarak ABD, AB ve Türkiye'deki e-devlet uygulama örneklerine değinilmiş; üçüncü bölümde e-devletin yönetim fonksiyonlarına etkisi ve yönetsel sonuçları üzerinde durulmuştur. Çalışmanın son bölümü olan dördüncü bölümde ise İstanbul ilçe belediyelerinde ne tür e-devlet uygulamalarının var olduğu, söz konusu uygulamaların belediyelere ne tür faydalar sağladığı, e-devlet uygulamalarına geçiş aşamasında ne tür zorlukların yaşandığı sorularına yanıt arayan araştırmanın sonuçlarına yer verilmiştirE-GOVERNMENT APPLICATIONS in TERMS OF ADMINISTRATION: A RESEARCH at İSTANBUL COUNTY MUNICIPALITIESThe major purpose of the E-Government is to supply high quality public services with lower costs to citizens. Especially from the beginning of 1990's, the question about how to use Information Technologies on supplying public services has gained importance. Success stories about the achievements in many countries helped the conceptualization of E-Government approach as an acceptable, feasible and practical idea. On the other hand, Turkey achieved an important success on becoming an "information society". Though not all of the projects initiated have proven to be fruitful yet, there has been a great deal of accomplishment in many others and some new and state-of-the-art initiatives are taken. These successful initiatives were the pioneers of the E-Government applications in our country and leaded way to the many new projects. The main aspects of this study comprise the conceptual analysis of E-Government applications and inquiry of the E-Government applications within the framework of the İstanbul county municipalities. This study consists of four main parts: in the first part, the basic concepts such as E-Government, its definition and historical progress have been observed. In the second part, its application process in its varieties with its various steps have been analyzed, stating the major problems encountered and a series for example from US, EU and Turkey have been mentioned. In the third part of this study, impact of the E-Government on administrative functions and its administrative effects were emphasized. In the last part of the study, the conclusion of the research conducted is laid down, where the answers to questions like the variety of E-Government applications in services, the benefits obtained through such applications to the municipality administrations, the problems and difficulties encountered during transition to E-Government applications are sought.

Since 1986, Vietnam has moved from a centrally planned towards a market-oriented system through several major economic and trade reforms. First positive results of the reform process became visible in the early 1990s when poverty declined significantly. The Vietnamese agricultural sector has also experienced high growth and impressive export achievements. The country changed from a food importer to one of the major exporters worldwide. The question arises to what extent support policies contributed to this growth, especially of the agricultural sector. To answer this question, domestic and trade policies in the agricultural sector are analysed and the market price support (MPS) and producer support estimates (PSEs) are calculated. To account for the special conditions in Vietnam, adjustments for country- and commodity-specific factors like transportation costs, marketing margins and the quality difference of exportables (or importables) at the border and domestically are included. Selected agricultural commodities for MPS and PSE calculation comprise rice, coffee, tea, rubber, pepper, sugar, groundnut, cashew nut and pig meat. Their shares in total output exceed 70% allowing for a generalization of the calculated PSEs, thus roughly representing the whole agricultural sector. The finding is that most agricultural products were taxed in the mid 1980s until the mid 1990s. This was mainly due to the dominance and monopoly position of the state-owned sector, restrictive trade policies like import and export quotas and licenses, and distorted markets and prices in the country. The domestic reform process and the opening of the economy since the early 1990s, however, impacted on the gaps between the domestic and international prices. Thus, since the mid 1990s, the net support of agriculture became positive and increased - but still reaching only rather moderate levels. This study of Vietnam is the third comprehensive review conducted within an IFPRI project on understanding and assessing domestic and trade policies in the agricultural sector in developing countries. The data are meant to deliver a basis for further trade-related research to be conducted in the future. ; Seit 1986 hat sich Vietnam infolge mehrerer größerer Wirtschafts- und Handelsreformen von einem zentral geplanten hin zu einem marktorientierten System entwickelt. Die ersten positiven Ergebnisse des Reformprozesses wurden Anfang der neunziger Jahre sichtbar, als die Armutszahlen deutlich zurückgingen. Zudem verzeichnete der vietnamesische Agrarsektor ein hohes Wachstum und beeindruckende Exporterfolge. Das Land wandelte sich von einem Nahrungsmittelimporteur zu einem der größten Exporteure weltweit. Es stellt sich die Frage, inwieweit politische Stützungsmaßnahmen zu diesem Wachstum, speziell im Agrarsektor, beitrugen. Zur Beantwortung dieser Frage werden innen- und handelspolitische Maßnahmen, die auf den Agrarsektor abzielen, untersucht und die Marktpreisstützung (MPS) sowie Produzentensubventionsäquivalente (PSEs) berechnet. Um den speziellen Bedingungen in Vietnam Rechnung zu tragen, werden Anpassungen für landes- und produktspezifische Faktoren vorgenommen, z.B. für Transportkosten, Marketingmargen und die Qualitätsunterschiede der Export- oder Importprodukte an der Grenze und im Inland. Zur Berechnung der MPS und PSEs wurden folgende Agrarerzeugnisse ausgewählt: Reis, Kaffee, Tee, Kautschuk, Pfeffer, Zucker, Erdnüsse, Cashewnüsse und Schweinefleisch. Da der Anteil dieser Produkte an der Gesamtproduktion mehr als 70% beträgt, lässt sich eine Verallgemeinerung der errechneten PSEs vornehmen, welche somit den gesamten Agrarsektor repräsentieren. Das Ergebnis zeigt, dass die meisten Agrarprodukte während der achtziger bis Mitte der neunziger Jahre besteuert wurden. Dies lag im Wesentlichen an der Dominanz und Monopolstellung des staatlichen Sektors, an einer restriktiven Handelspolitik durch Import- und Exportquoten und Lizenzen sowie an verzerrten Märkten und Preisen im Land. Der inländische Reformprozess und die Öffnung der Wirtschaft Anfang der neunziger Jahre beeinflussten jedoch die Diskrepanz zwischen Inlandspreisen und internationalen Preisen. So nahm seit Mitte der neunziger Jahre die Netto-Agrarunterstützung steigende positive Werte an, die sich allerdings immer noch auf vergleichsweise niedrigem Niveau bewegten. Diese umfassende Untersuchung von Vietnam ist die dritte Studie, die innerhalb eines IFPRI-Projektes vorgenommen wurde, und zum besseren Verständnis und zur Einschätzung innen- und handelspolitischer Maßnahmen im Agrarsektor in Entwicklungsländern beitragen soll. Die Studie ist auch als Datenbasis für künftige handelsbezogene Forschung zu verstehen.

National Systems of Innovation systems can be defined as the set of organisational, institutional and meta-institutional arrangements for the generation, diffusion and application of scientific and technological knowledge operating in a specific country. This concept was developed in the late 1980s, and has diffused remarkably fast in academic circles and among policy makers who used its framework to understand differences between economies and the various ways to support technological change and innovation. The concept's focus on the nation state is its strength but also its weakness. The national perspective easily neglects sector-specific differences. The dynamics of the agricultural sector are distinctively different from those in the telecommunication sector. That is why Herman Oosterwijk has proposed to extend the national perspective with sectoral elements in a national-sectoral approach. The starting point for his analysis is that interaction is the vehicle for innovative activities. Social and economical actors organise their working relations in sector-specific ways and these relations are embedded in an institutional environment. Each sector has its own, distinct patterns for rules and regulation, for research funding and for the generation and diffusion of knowledge. Innovative activities should therefor be explored within the social fabric in which they are embedded. Oosterwijk's study is a historical analysis of working relations and interactions in the telecommunication and the biotech sector. The roots of telecommunication are relatively easy to trace, starting with the introduction of telegraphy and telephony at the end of the 19th century. Tracing back the roots of biotech was harder, because the word 'biotechnology' was only used for the first time in the 1920s. Oosterwijk chose to concentrate on the agriculture, food and chemistry cluster as the most important predecessors of modern biotechnology. What he found were persistent patterns of social behaviour throughout the twentieth century. The telecommunication sector was a highly regulated sector, with only few actors, which were linked to each other in a monopoly like structure. The sector was outspokenly inner-oriented. Problems were basically seen as technical problems and solutions were sought in the hierarchy of the firm, whether PTT/KPN or the national telecommunication industry. Links between firms were often stronger than links within the firm. The agriculture, food and chemistry cluster had a distinctively different profile. This cluster was deeply embedded in societal structures, with numerous links to the local community, research and education institutes, politics and regulation systems. Problems were basically solved in networks, with the utmost use of skills, technologies and partnerships. This type of networking has its origins in the classical agricultural co-operatives. These patterns remained hardly unchanged throughout the century. Even important changes of the technological paradigm have not been able to radically change the pattern. The liberalisation and privatisation of the telecommunication sector may have changed the structure of the sector, but currently the pendulum is already swinging back again towards a highly concentrated sector, with only few actors and monopoly-like structures. This underlines that economical sectors have their own sectoral-specific structures, which are not fully captured in a national approach in innovation research. A national-sectoral approach offers a much better toolbox for the analysis of innovation systems and the development of effective innovation policy tools.

Uno de los permanentes objetivos de índole geopolítica y geoestratégica de las potencias mundiales reside en su aspiración al dominio de los países interoceánicos, los estrechos, los puertos, puntas e islas que les permita el control de las rutas de comunicación universal. De igual manera, una de las aspiraciones permanentes de las medianas potencias y de los países pequeños, es lograr el paso franco por las vías interoceánicas para tener libertad de comunicación, tránsito y comercio. A medida que se avecina la presencia Estadounidense en la República de Panamá y la transferencia a este país del canal que atraviesa su territorio; hecho que ha de ocurrir en poco más de 60 días (31 de diciembre de 1999, a las 12:00 meridiano, hora de Panamá), las discusiones a lo interno del congreso norteamericano y en los más altos sectores políticos conservadores de ese Estado, al igual que a lo interno de la nación panameña, son cada vez más intensos. Uno de los temas más debatidos en torno al Canal Interoceánico es el referido a la Defensa y el régimen de Neutralidad al que será sometido el mismo después del año 2000 por virtud del Tratado de Neutralidad Permanente y Funcionamiento del Canal de Panamá. En este breve esbozo informativo ensayamos algunas aproximaciones y críticas sobre este tema que se ventila en éste espacio geopolítico y que es de interés capital para todas las naciones de la comunidad internacional. ; One of the permanent geo-political and geo-strategic objectives of world superpowers is their aspiration to dominate inter-oceanic countries, straits, ports, islands, which allow them to control the routes of world communication. Likewise, one of the permanent aspirations of middle powers and small countries is to reach open passage through inter-oceanic ways in order to achieve freedom of communication, transit and trade. As the American presence comes nearer to the Panama Republic and the transfer to this country of this canal which crosses its territory, happening in about 60 days time (on 31 December 1999, at 12 o clock Panama Time), discussions within the American Congress and the most highly conservative political sectors of this state, as well as within Panama, are getting more and more intense. One of the issues under debate as regards the Inter-oceanic Canal is the one of Defence and the Neutrality Regime under which the canal will be ruled after the year 2000 by virtue of the Treaty of Permanent Neutrality and Functioning of the Panama Canal. In this brief informative article, we try to reach some approximations and critical views concerning this issue, which is of immense interest to all the international community. Uno de los temas más debatidos en torno al Canal Interoceánico es el referido a la Defensa y el régimen de Neutralidad al que será sometido el mismo después del año 2000 por virtud del Tratado de Neutralidad Permanente y Funcionamiento del Canal de Panamá. En este breve esbozo informativo ensayamos algunas aproximaciones y críticas sobre este tema que se ventila en éste espacio geopolítico y que es de interés capital para todas las naciones de la comunidad internacional. ; Instituto de Relaciones Internacionales

SUMMARYThe fact has been widely recognized that the present stagnation of social sciences is fraught with dangers for the physical existence of humanity. This premise being accepted, the article sets out to discover the factors hampering the development of social sciences. These, it is here suggested, have three sources: (1) the nature of the subject of enquiry; (2) the nature of the empiric method and (3) the limited applicability of the present‐day social sciences to the life of the private individual.The difficulties attributable to the first source are two: the high degree of differentiation in human psychology and the inventive capacity of the human mind. Both of them have the effect of creating a pattern of behaviour distinguished by great variety and rapidity of change. Ensuing, to some extent, from the other two is the third characteristic, namely the fact that some of our lines of behaviour are incapable of being measured quantitatively. Under such conditions, the task of scientific analysis is obviously extremely difficult, and this accounts for the strong "post‐ante" bias inherent in most of our present‐day social sciences.The empirical method of analysis, so much in vogue at present, has contributed two additional difficulties of its own. These are: taxonomic approach and anti‐normative inclination. The former is another way of saying that, unlike their predecessors in the 18th and 19th centuries, which operated on the implied assumption of the perennial uniformity of human behaviour, the present‐day social sciences have adopted the method of dealing with each situation as a unique case. Consequently, the "social laws" derived from this procedure have only a limited validity.It was the very simplicity of the social sciences of the preceding two centuries that made them popular and gave them an influence over the actual shaping of public life, and, incidentally, it is the lack of such simplicity that so effectually prevents the social sciences of today from winning popularity. For it is manifest that, in the present state of social knowledge, an extremely important aim of social science—probably the most important of all its aims—namely, to help the individual to form a comprehensive and consistent outlook on life, is a dream of the very distant future.But, however formidable the difficulties in this field may be, the need for the social sciences of our day to produce a coherent synthesis is most pressing. This is so because of (1) the decline in the influence of religion, (2) the increasing capacity of man for self‐destruction and (3) the existence of sharp political conflict between the communist and non‐communist worlds. This necessity being admitted, a further problem arises. It is a question of popularizing the social sciences. For, assuming that our social sciences are, or will shortly be, capable of serving as a guide to the understanding of social life, it is obvious that unless such knowledge is widely spread it will remain useless. Here the main stumbling‐block is the low earning power of social sciences. Thus it would appear that the prospects of solving the problems connected with the relative underdevelopment of our social knowledge are by no means hopeful.

PurposeWomen are starting businesses at unprecedented rates, yet little is known about the leadership of small business owners. Establishing new ventures may allow women to use their full abilities and benefit from a more level playing field. Business owners have the unique opportunity to lead and define their businesses based on their authentic selves, values and goals; therefore, they are more likely to be authentic leaders. Women in nontraditional industries may be challenged because the owner's characteristics do not match those of the industry. When the enactment of one identity interferes with another identity, identity interference (II) occurs. Relational authenticity and role incongruity suggests that women founders must uniquely resolve II and find synergy among their gender and leader identities if they are to extend the boundaries of what it means to be a woman and an industry's business leader. This research aims to determine whether gender and leader II was an antecedent or link to authentic leadership (AL).

Design/methodology/approachStudy participants were from 63 businesses in the USA states of California, Ohio and Maryland. Three leader models were established to determine whether owner gender functioned as a moderator: all genders (n = 155), women only (n = 75) and men only (n = 65). The individual owners and their employees were the units of analysis and structural equation modeling was used.

FindingsThe findings revealed that II was an antecedent to AL, owners were AL and owner gender moderated AL and II.

Research limitations/implicationsThis study supports (Kernis, 2003; Gardner et al., 2005) the proposition that identity congruence is necessary for AL; the less interference found between gender and leader identities, the more authentic the leader. II functioned as an antecedent to AL. Moreover when the AL self's subscales were examined relative to II, the components that were active varied dramatically based on leader gender. This suggests that addressing II and resolving the incongruence between what it mean to be a woman (or a man) and a leader contributes to the development of AL. Additionally, the AL boundary condition of relational authenticity was supported by this study; leader gender was related to the different amounts of AL (Eagly, 2005; Kernis, 2003). Support was found that AL was a dynamic process between leaders and employees. When authentic leadership questionnaire (ALQ) self (leader) and rater (employee) were compared, there was a significant amount of consistency between these ratings. For the all genders leader model, when ALQ self's subscale was analyzed relative to the employees' ratings, the leaders' relational transparency was found to be active. The women only leader model revealed that AL was activated through internalized moral perspective suggesting they were able to tap into the hearts and minds of their employees. For the men only leaders, no relationship was revealed between ALQ self's subcomponents and employee AL ratings. Relational authenticity suggests that this may be due to employees rating men owners more based on the experience and perceptions of men leaders in general and not these business owners in particular.

Practical implicationsLeadership development professionals should address how II may help women examine who they are, how they work with others, and their values; decrease leader II by providing insight on how to manage potentially conflicting roles through examples of synergistic behaviors and benefits; and, build upon women owners' ability to connect with their followers by sharing their goals and aspirations. Men owners may benefit by ensuring their employees know their business' unique value proposition.

Originality/valueThis research sought to link the identities of leader and gender to AL in the context of small businesses. It builds upon the AL theory of Avolio et al., (2004) and Jensen and Luthans (2006) who advocated using AL to study small businesses. This study determined whether business owners experienced interference between their gender and leader identities; II hindered the formation of AL and was an antecedent to AL; and the owner's gender led to more or less AL and thus determined if leader gender moderated AL. The support for studying leader gender comes from role incongruity (Eagly and Diekman, 2005) and relational authenticity (Eagly, 2005; Kernis, 2003) which suggests that differences in how employees perceive AL may be a function of the owner's gender. Added support comes from Jensen and Luthans (2006); they asked future studies to examine AL to determine the mechanisms behind gender differences in small businesses. Such research provides insight on the development of AL in theory and practice.

BACKGROUND: Globalisation and the rapid advancement in scientific and information communication technology require health care providers to constantly update their knowledge thus ensuring currency. Nurses are the largest workforce in the health care system and are required to participate in continuing professional education (CPE) to maintain their competency and meet the standards of the profession. The Nurses and Midwifery Board of Malaysia has legislated for mandatory CPE and now requires all nurses to provide evidence of having completed 25 credit points of approved CPE each year as part of the licensure process. However, despite this requirement, many nurses are not able to participate in CPE for a range of reasons including an inability to access educational opportunities because they neither have time nor financial capacity nor are geographically isolated. E-learning programs may be an option to enhance learning opportunities for nurses as through e-learning nurses can learn in their own time and at their own pace to keep up to date with contemporary technology. AIM: The study consisted of two phases. Phase 1 was a survey of Malaysian nurses CPE practice, and Phase 2 surveyed nurses with regard to their readiness for e-learning. The aims of this study were to determine 1. The practice of CPE among Malaysian nurses and 2.Their readiness towards e-learning. DESIGN AND METHODS: A cross sectional descriptive study was used in both surveys. For the CPE survey, multistage cluster sampling was used to recruit the sample. 1000 registered nurses were selected randomly from 12 hospitals and four health district offices from four states of Peninsular Malaysia. Subsequently, in the second survey, random sampling was used to draw from the pool of nurses from the first survey who had agreed to participate in the follow up. 300 samples individuals recruited for this final stage. Self-reports questionnaires were used to collect data for both phases. Likert scale rating from 1 to 5(1 representing not at all to 5representing a great deal) was used for factors affecting CPE, factors affecting e-learning, attitude towards e-learning and self-directed learning readiness. RESULTS: The response rate was high with 79% (792/1000) returning the Phase 1 questionnaire and 100% (300/300) of the sample participating in the Phase 2 survey. Eighty percent (n=562) of the nurses had engaged in CPE activities within the last 12 months. The most popular form of attendance was workshops (345, 43.6%) followed by conferences (323, 40.8%), and the least attractive activity was undertaking a tertiary education program of study (10, 1.3%). The most important motivation factors for participation were, 'to give quality care to patients' (mean= 4.39) and to update their knowledge (mean=4.34). The major factors impeding respondents' participation were work commitments (mean=3.54) and domestic responsibilities (mean=3.42). In terms of e-learning readiness, the majority of the respondents (289, 96%) had experience in using a computer. Eighty five percent (85%) of the respondents had access to the internet and 71% of them had internet connection at home. Eighty seven percent of those with internet connection were using high speed internet (ADSL). About three quarters (72%) used a computer for more than 2 hours per week. The three main factors that deterred them from e-learning were limited time (mean =3.42), lack of support from supervisor and limited understanding about network systems (LAN, internet and intranet) (mean =3.27). However 86% of the nurses who had not experienced any e-learning were very interested in engaging in e-learning in the future. Respondents' attitude towards e-learning were good with a mean score 3.87. Eighty seven percent of the respondents had scored more than 150 for SDLRS which mean the nurses were ready for e-learning. CONCULSION: Implementation of Mandatory Continuing Professional Education (MCPE) is considered to be an important measure to increase nurses' participation in CPE however the findings from this study indicate that policy makers should review the continuing professional development system to ensure accessibility of relevant CPE activities to all nurses. Respondents in this study indicate that they are ready to learn on-line, suggesting that e-learning options will increase the accessibility of CPE. A number of recommendations are proposed to enhance the quality and uptake of e-learning in Malaysia.

Due to the dynamic nature of the urban development in developing countries in parallel to rapidly changing economic, social and technological environments, decisions based on master plans do usually fail. Therefore, spatial transformation is the number one prerequisite to create more livable cities in countries where land use and location decisions do greatly divert from master plans that ill-fully represent the nature of urban development in rapidly changing environment. It is very unfortunate that like many developing countries, central government as well as local governments in Turkey have adopted this approach which is totally inappropriate to their changing environment due to rapid urbanization. In middle and low income economies, urbanization has increased by an average of 3.5 and 3.7% per annum, respectively, compared with an average of 1.5% per annum in the industrialized countries (the rate in Turkey was 4.35% from 1965 to 1985). The percent of urban population in the largest city in Turkey, Istanbul, was 24% in 1980 compared to 18% in 1960. The population of Istanbul was 11.2 million in 2000 compared to 11.3 million of Paris and 11.1 million of Osaka, Kobe (World Development Report by World Bank, 1984). In the periphery of the metropolitan city of Istanbul, there are numerous neighborhoods and urban centers hat need spatial transformation or renewal for the betterment of urban space. Renewal was defined as clearance and redevelopment until the mid-1960s. This approach for the urban betterment was changed in the 1970s by establishing legal ground via improvement and development plans. In contrast to this, in parallel to the radical changes in economic policies in the 1980s, renewal policy for the problematic locations in large urban areas were again equaled regeneration, and spatial transformations were made for the capitalization of global interests in the name of urban rent by transformation projects (Dündar, 2001). The former— improvement and development plans— failed due to the reason said in the beginning. The latter— transformation projects— have found limited application (Portakal Çiçeði, Dikmen Vadisi, Zafer Plaza transformation projects and some others) due to two great limitations: finances and public acceptance towards transformation projects. To overcome these obstacles in general, some approaches are developed, such as ÝHT-ÝHTr-Real-estate planning tools, master plans for earthquakes and natural disasters (Istanbul Metropolitan City), KED Model (Çelikhan et al., 2004). However, these approaches have not found widespread application yet due to necessary legal changes they require and most importantly the finances needed for the transformations desired in urban areas. Under the economic and social conditions in developing countries, what expected from ideal transformation approaches are to create financial tools during the process and to offer the urban rent to land owners primarily in order to speed up the transformation process towards the desired direction by creating voluntarily participation at the utmost level and to reduce the legal problems due to the introduction of new developments and land use planned by the transformation projects to be applied. This study is originated from the idea that large urban developments attract new land uses and users to their proximity or repel current land uses and users around them. This process can be seen as a "voluntarily transformation" process. Since large shopping centers or malls are built in almost every largely populated urban area all over the world in the last 20-30 years due to new shopping habits and global capital investments, we studied the effects of large shopping malls on land use in their proximity as being large developments they create urban transformation process in their proximity, as a case study in Istanbul, Turkey. To support our approach, Dennis at al. (2002) interestingly reported in their study in Northern London that the fist step in urban renovation is to renovate retail shopping and shopping centers. In this context, we performed user surveys in residential and commercial areas as well as at real estate agents in the proximity two large shopping centers; namely, Akmerkez (Etiler, Beþiktaþ) and Tepe-Nautilus (Acýbadem, Kadýköy) in Istanbul. In addition, in the study areas the data on land use changes provided by State Statistics Institute of Turkey have been examined. It is concluded the shopping centers stimulated urban transformation on real estates in their close proximity, and in time they created transformations from residential to commercial within their primary influence boundaries, and beyond those up to a certain distance they became an attractive zone for residential use.

When animals are exposed to a novel situation such as transportation, they react by eliciting certain physiological and behavioural functions in order to cope with the situation. These changes can be measured to indicate how much stress the animal is suffering. Physiological stress indicators often measured in animal transport research include changes in heart rate, live-weight, cortisol levels, and blood composition including electrolytes, metabolites and enzymes (Broom and Johnson, 1993). Animal behavioural stress indicators include struggling, vocalisation, kicking or biting, hunching of the back, urination, defecation and recumbence (Broom et al. 1996; Gregory, 1998). Meat quality parameters post mortem can also help to indicate stress levels in animals (Grandin, 1990; Gregory, 1998). These include incidence of bruising and DFD in all farm animal species and PSE in pigs. Mortality is also an obvious indicator of poor welfare. Combined aspects of transport that contribute to causing stress in livestock include loading and unloading procedures, close proximity to stock handlers, water/feed deprivation, noise, riding in a truck, mixing with other animals and being forced into unfamiliar environments. The responses of stock to these conditions will depend on the animal's genetically controlled adaptability, physical condition and its previous handling experiences (Gross and Siegel, 1993). Factors such as the adequate preparation of animals for transport, controlled prior access to feed and water, minimal disruption to social groups, considerate animal handling skills, adequate handling and transport facilities including good ventilation in trucks, and careful driving technique are major areas that dictate the standard of animal transport. For example, considerations for pigs should include a pre-transport fasting period which balances the requirement to avoid hunger, travel sickness and deaths. Breeding and selecting for more stress-resistant genotypes of pigs can improve the welfare by reducing mortality and the metabolic consequences of transport stress. Other factors influencing animal transport include farm size and country size. For example, livestock transport in Scandinavia involves transport vehicles travelling to more than one farm in order to fill a vehicle. In Australia often one farm pick up can fill a truck, and although the distances may be much longer to the abattoir, it will be more direct. The market demand dictates the type of animals transported. For example the veal trade in Europe demands young live calves to be transported over long distances from northern countries which supply it to the southern countries which demand it. This trade exists in live animals rather than meat because the demanding countries further fatten and slaughter these animals specific to their needs. The industry set up influences the standard of animal transport in different countries. For example in countries where industries are vertically integrated consisting of producer-owned slaughter plant co-operatives (Sweden and Denmark), producers are paid according to slaughter weight and lean meat percentage, therefore there is more consistent quality control measures in place. In Australia the marketing system is such that it provides no economic incentive to reduce losses. Greater public awareness of animal welfare seems to be increasing in western countries, and as a result there is more pressure on the livestock industry to adopt better standards for the farming, handling, transport and slaughter of animals. The transport of livestock in Australia continues to be under increased scrutiny from overseas markets and animal welfare groups. In the European Union (EU), public pressure has been a successful instigator to the drafting and continued improvement of comprehensive legislation for animal transport. EU animal transport laws cover aspects such as minimum design standards for livestock vehicles (including ventilation controls), maximum journey lengths before resting intervals, stocking rates, what animals are considered as fit to travel, and general handling and care requirements of animals in transport. These laws are causing debate between northern and southern countries in areas such as maximum journey lengths and vehicle design standards. Some countries such as the UK have also gone to a great effort to adjust national laws in order to incorporate EU transport laws, but countries such as Spain and Italy have not. Typically it is these countries that more often have poor standards of animal welfare, and the welfare of farmed animals has historically been of low priority (Schmidt, 1995). When and how these countries will adopt the comprehensive EU animal transport regulations, continues to be an unanswered and politically sensitive question between EU member states.