Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; En el periodo de la Transición, se desarrolla una serie de películas en las que la crítica cinematográfica identifica una serie de rasgos comunes y relaciona bajo el término "comedia madrileña" o "nueva comedia madrileña". A pesar del interés que el fenómeno despierta en aquel momento tanto en dicha crítica como en el público, una primera aproximación a la bibliografía académica desvela que no existe un discurso consensuado acerca de las características que lo definen, el marco temporal que abarca o los títulos que componen su corpus. A su vez, el fenómeno tiene un carácter efímero, ya que pocos años después de su aparición, los elementos en virtud de los cuales se había establecido el vínculo, comienzan a diluirse y el modelo desaparece. La presente investigación parte de los nuevos enfoques teóricos procedentes tanto de los campos del análisis histórico y de la historia social del cine como del marco que ofrecen las disciplinas de la sociología y del pensamiento social. De esta manera, el trabajo aborda este conjunto de películas como una suerte de subgénero para ponerlo en relación con los cambios políticos, económicos, sociales y culturales que se dieron en la Transición y sin los cuales, como señala Manuel Palacio, habría sido imposible que ésta culminara con éxito. En este marco, el objeto de estudio se concreta en analizar cómo la que se dio en llamar "comedia madrileña", que en el trabajo se redefine como "nueva comedia sentimental", hace circular una serie de valores y visiones del mundo que hablan de los cambios que operan en España en el tiempo de la transición a la democracia. En una primera fase, se realiza una necesaria investigación en torno a la propia génesis y naturaleza del fenómeno a través del contexto en que aparecen los filmes, tanto a nivel legislativo como en cuestiones relacionadas con la producción o el consumo cinematográfico. Los resultados obtenidos permiten avanzar en la identificación de las principales características que definen el subgénero. La combinación rigurosa de estas vías de aproximación delimita el corpus exclusivo de la "nueva comedia sentimental", así como el marco temporal en que se desarrolla. La segunda etapa de la investigación, a través de un análisis fílmico de las películas que conforman el subgénero, identifica los elementos y códigos de representación que aparecen en las películas. Finalmente, esta tesis doctoral estudia de qué manera este nuevo modelo de comedia representa y legitima los cambios sociales y culturales que operan en el periodo transicional. ; During the Transition period, a series of films were made which according to the film critics possessed several features in common; these movies were consequently grouped together under the terms "Madrid comedy" or "new Madrid comedy". Despite the interest which this phenomenon aroused at the time, both among the reviewers concerned and the public, an initial examination of the academic literature reveals that there is no consensus in the discourse as to which characteristics define it, the time frame involved or the actual films making up the body of works. Furthermore, this phenomenon was very short-lived: a few years after its appearance the factors which had given rise to the connection became less influential, and the type disappeared. This research is based on new theoretical approaches drawn from both the fields of historical analysis and the social history of cinema, as well as from the frameworks offered by the disciplines of sociology and social thought. Consequently, this study addresses the collection of films as a species of sub-genre in order to place it in relation to the political, economic, social and cultural changes which occurred during the Transition and without which, as Manuel Palacio has observed, it would have been impossible for the process to conclude successfully. Within this framework, the subject of our research was established: to analyze how what was then called "Madrid comedy" and which we have renamed "new romantic comedy" disseminated a series of values and world-views which examined the changes underway in Spain at the time of the transition to democracy. In the first phase, vital preliminary research was performed into the origins and nature of the phenomenon by studying the context in which the films appeared, both on a legislative level and in terms of film production and consumption. The results obtained enabled us to proceed with the identification of the main characteristics defining the sub-genre. The strict combination of these indicators delimits the exact corpus of the "new romantic comedy" as well as the time-frame it occupies. The second stage of the research, through a cinematographic analysis of the films making up the sub-genre, identifies the representational elements and codes which appear in the films. Finally, this doctoral thesis studies the way in which the new model of comedy represents and legitimises the social and cultural changes in progress during the Transition era. ; Esta investigación se ha llevado a cabo bajo el programa de becas de doctorado para el Personal Investigador en Formación de la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. Al mismo tiempo, se enmarca dentro del Proyecto de Investigación I+D+i "El cine y la televisión en la España de la post‐Transición (1979‐1992)" dirigido por Manuel Palacio [Ref. CSO2012‐31895, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Gobierno de España]. ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Investigación en Medios de Comunicación ; Presidente: José Manuel Palacio Arranz.- Secretario: Marina Díaz López.- Vocal: Duncan Wheeler
"Fake News" bilden seit Menschengedenken ein zentrales Problem für die individuelle und öffentliche Meinungsbildung. Dabei wird die Wirkung verbreiteter Desinformation heutzutage durch die technischen Möglichkeiten im Bereich der Online-Kommunikation, etwa durch die Echokammern in sozialen Netzwerken oder den Einsatz künstlicher Meinungsverstärker, mitunter noch verstärkt. Effekte von einmal geäußerter Desinformation lassen sich aus kognitionswissenschaftlicher Perspektive nur noch sehr schwer korrigieren. Die Arbeit beschäftigt sich daher mit dem (kommunikations-)grundrechtlichen Schutz vo...
"Fake News" bilden seit Menschengedenken ein zentrales Problem für die individuelle und öffentliche Meinungsbildung. Dabei wird die Wirkung verbreiteter Desinformation heutzutage durch die technischen Möglichkeiten im Bereich der Online-Kommunikation, etwa durch die Echokammern in sozialen Netzwerken oder den Einsatz künstlicher Meinungsverstärker, mitunter noch verstärkt. Effekte von einmal geäußerter Desinformation lassen sich aus kognitionswissenschaftlicher Perspektive nur noch sehr schwer korrigieren. Die Arbeit beschäftigt sich daher mit dem (kommunikations-)grundrechtlichen Schutz vo...
In this research work, an analysis of the scope of the National Action Plans (NAP) on Human Rights (HR) and Business implemented in the Americas to 2020 was carried out, starting from the origin of the concepts resulting from the concern about the role of business in its relationship with human rights, which has its antecedents in the 1970s, The research problem is framed by the fact that the previous initiatives of the United Nations and the Global Compact failed to reach the political consensus required to achieve international recognition; On the contrary, the debate was polarized and their formal adoption was prevented, without achieving any binding international standard. Under this approach, global NAPs have been slowly implemented on a voluntary basis and in the Americas in the countries of Colombia, the United States and Chile. Therefore, the general objective was to analyze the scope of the NAPs on HR and Business implemented in the Americas by 2020, by describing, identifying and characterizing the existing experiences in the three selected countries. Through a qualitative research, classified as legal, dogmatic, whose realization implied the collection and bibliographic tracking of secondary information and the realization of a normative and theoretical hermeneutic exercise, through the descriptive study, concluding with the analysis based on the comparison of the selected experiences, This can help countries that have not yet implemented their plans to critique the effectiveness data already presented and to get closer to what these experiences have in common and what distinguishes them, since despite the significant achievements, these norms have no binding effect and human rights violations continue to occur. ; En este trabajo de investigación se realizó un análisis del alcance de los Planes de Acción Nacionales (PAN) sobre Derechos Humanos (DDHH) y Empresas implementados en las Américas al año 2020, partiendo del origen de los conceptos resultado de la preocupación del papel de la empresa en su relación con los DDHH que tiene como antecedente la década de 1970, que han determinado el fundamento de las políticas públicas por parte de los estados en las Américas, para dar respuesta al problema de investigación enmarcado en que las iniciativas previas de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas y el Pacto Global no lograron alcanzar el consenso político requerido para conseguir el reconocimiento internacional; por el contrario, se polarizó el debate y se impidió su adopción formal, sin lograr ninguna norma internacional vinculante. Bajo este enfoque se han venido implementando de manera voluntaria, lentamente PAN globales y en las Américas en los países de Colombia, Estados Unidos y Chile. Por tanto, se planteó como objetivo general analizar el Alcance de los PAN sobre DDHH y Empresas implementados en las Américas al año 2020, al describir, identificar y caracterizar las experiencias existentes en los tres países seleccionados. A través de una investigación cualitativa, clasificada como jurídica, dogmática, cuya realización implico la recopilación y rastreo bibliográfico de información secundaria y la realización de un ejercicio hermenéutico normativo y teórico, a través del estudio descriptivo, concluyendo con el análisis a partir de comparación de las experiencias seleccionadas, que pueden contribuir a que los países que aún no han implementado sus planes, critiquen los datos de efectividad ya presentados y se logren aproximar a lo que estas experiencias tienen en común y lo que los distingue, ya que a pesar de los significativos alcances, estas normas no tienen ningún efecto vinculante y se siguen produciendo violaciones de los DDHH. ; Neste trabalho de pesquisa, foi realizada uma análise do alcance dos Planos de Ação Nacionais (PAN) sobre Direitos Humanos (DDHH) e Empresas implantados nas Américas até 2020, a partir da origem dos conceitos decorrentes da preocupação com o papel da empresa em sua relação com os direitos humanos que tem como precedente a década de 1970, que determinaram a fundação de políticas públicas por parte dos estados das Américas, para responder ao problema de pesquisa enquadrado no qual as iniciativas anteriores da Organização das Nações Unidas e do Pacto Global não conseguiu alcançar o consenso político necessário para obter o reconhecimento internacional; pelo contrário, o debate foi polarizado e sua adoção formal impedida , sem alcançar nenhuma norma internacional vinculante. Sob esse enfoque, foram implementados voluntariamente, devagar PAN globais e nas Américas, nos países da Colômbia, Estados Unidos e Chile. Portanto, o objetivo geral foi analisar o alcance dos PAN sobre Direitos Humanos e Empresas implementados nas Américas até 2020, descrevendo, identificando e caracterizando as experiências existentes nos três países selecionados. Através de pesquisa qualitativa classificada como jurídica, dogmática, cuja realização implicou a recolha e seguimento bibliográfico de informação secundária e a realização de um exercício hermenêutico normativo e teórico, através do estudo descritivo, concluindo com a análise de comparação das experiências selecionadas, o que pode contribuir para os países que ainda não implementaram seus planos, criticam os dados de efetividade já apresentados e se aproximam do que essas experiências têm em comum e o que os distingue porque, apesar do alcance significativo, essas normas não têm efeito vinculante e as violações de direitos humanos continuam ocorrendo.
El treball té com a objectiu aconseguir quant figura com titulo del mateix. S'ha utilitzat per a això el mètode d'inducció incompleta aprofitant totes les fonts materials que ha estat possible trobar per conèixer la història de l'home a la recerca de la democràcia, la legislació societària inicial i després cooperativa i la jurisprudència sobre el tema en estudi. La tesi estructurada en cinc Capítols, comença amb un Capítol I que comprèn una Introducció, on abastant la història de l'home des dels seus orígens, es passa per l'edat Antiga i s'exposen els antecedents històrics de les organitzacions polítiques democràtiques i després les d'índole associativa, mutual i cooperativa en la nostra civilització occidental, arribant a l'època en què es produeix la seva aparició en la vida econòmic-privada i jurídica europea. Segueix un Capítol II dedicat a la democràcia empresarial i doctrina cooperativa abastant conceptes sobre la democràcia i el cooperativisme amb els seus principis així com el seu acolliment en la legislació espanyola i catalana. A continuació un Capítol III recull el control democràtic en la legislació espanyola a través de la regulació de l'estructura orgànica de la societat cooperativa. S'observa com a tal concepte impregna tant la regulació de l'Assemblea General com la del Consell Rector. El capítol IV es dedica a estudiar l'acolliment del principi democràtic en la legislació cooperativa catalana del segle XXI. I el Capítol V recull les conclusions a la qual la doctoranda arriba després de tots els estudis anteriors, assenyalant finalment que en la legislació cooperativa la democràcia directa va perdent el seu lloc inicial, substituïda pràcticament per una democràcia participativa que camina cap a una altra de caràcter marcadament representativa. ; El trabajo tiene como objetivo alcanzar el que figura como título del mismo. Se ha utilizado para ello el método de inducción incompleta aprovechando todas las fuentes materiales que ha sido posible encontrar para conocer la historia del hombre en busca de la democracia, la legislación societaria inicial y luego cooperativa y la jurisprudencia sobre el tema en estudio. La tesis estructurada en cinco Capítulos, comienza con un Capítulo I que comprende una Introducción, donde abarcando la historia del hombre desde sus orígenes, se pasa por la edad Antigua y se exponen los antecedentes históricos de las organizaciones políticas democráticas y luego las de índole asociativa, mutual y cooperativa en nuestra civilización occidental, llegando a la época en que se produce su aparición en la vida económico-privada y jurídica europea. Sigue un Capítulo II dedicado a la democracia empresarial y doctrina cooperativa abarcando conceptos sobre la democracia y el cooperativismo con sus principios así como su acogida en la legislación española y catalana. A continuación un Capítulo III recoge el control democrático en la legislación española a través de la regulación de la estructura orgánica de la sociedad cooperativa. Se observa como tal concepto impregna tanto la regulación de la Asamblea General como la del Consejo Rector. El capítulo IV se dedica a estudiar la acogida del principio democrático en la legislación cooperativa catalana del siglo XXI. Y el Capítulo V recoge las conclusiones a la que la doctoranda llega tras todos los estudios anteriores, señalando finalmente que en la legislación cooperativa la democracia directa va perdiendo su lugar inicial, sustituida prácticamente por una democracia participativa que camina hacia otra de carácter marcadamente representativa. ; The work aims to achieve that figure as the same title. Has been used for this purpose the incomplete induction method taking advantage of all material sources that it has been possible to find to know the history of the man in search of the democracy, the initial association legislation and then the cooperative and the jurisprudence on the subject in study. The thesis structured in five Chapters, begins with a Chapter I comprising an introduction, where including the history of man from his origins, is passed by the Ancient age and the historical background of the democratic political organizations are exposed and then nature associative, mutual and cooperative in our Western civilization, reaching the time its appearance occurs in the European economico-privada and legal life. Continuies a Chapter II dedicated to the corporative democracy and cooperative doctrine including concepts on the democracy and the cooperativism with his beginning as well as his reception in the Spanish and Catalan legislation. Then a chapter III picks up democratic control in Spanish legislation through regulation of the organic structure of the cooperative society. Concept is observed as such impregnates so much the regulation of the General Assembly as that of the Governing Council. Chapter IV is dedicated to study the reception of the democratic principle in the Catalan cooperative legislation in the 21st century. And chapter V contains the conclusions that the PhD student arrives after all the previous studies, noting finally that in cooperative legislation direct democracy is losing its initial place, virtually replaced a participatory democracy that walks toward another sharply representative character.
Under the GSP program, the European Union provides customs tariff reduction to developing countries in order to help them improve their development. Goods of least developed countries (LDC) and vulnerable countries which respect a list of human rights, fundamental labour rights, good governance and the environment norms enjoy a duty free access to the EU market. The GSP utilisation's interest (the benefit ?) is the heart of this study wich include two parts. The first concern the economic developement, the second the social and political developement. In the first title, the economic developement promotion framework is the topic of the first sub-title. It tries to explain how EU favorises some countries (LDC) and protects some sectors of it economy (textile and agriculture). Furthermore, this subtitle seek to know what economical advantages EU can have with the GSP and if this instrument has been efficient in it aim to reduce the poverty in developing countries. While it will have been explain that the GSP's impact in the poverty reduction is not important the second subtitle explain the reasons of this fail. The first reasons are extern of the system. While the MFN notion is challenged with the bilateral trade agreement multiplication, consequently, preferential margin notion is questioned too. So, this notion have to be rethinked. Their relevance must be discuted because without a high MFN level, the GSP can't work. Furthermore, the non tariff measure and service importance must be taken into account in the GSP (a tariff instrument) evaluation. Regarding intern obstacle, rules of origine problem has a central role. More generally, the simplification (and so cost reduction) of the GSP is treated in order to know how the system can be more efficient. In the second title, the first subtitle concern the fundamental rights promotion framework (historical, normative, geogragraphical and methodical framework). The GSP+ and the processal aspect are also treaten in this subtitle. The second subtitle is dedicated to the fundamental rights application advantages in the UE GSP. So, the fundamental rights application by developing countries is positive for the EU economy whether or not their protectionnist aspect. Regarding developing countries, if a fundamental rights application is benefit, it can also be a burden. There are few GSP withdrawal request in case of fundemental rights violation, especialy by trade union and NGO. The last chapter tries to explain this fact. ; Grâce au SPG, l'Union Européenne accorde une réduction tarifaire douanière aux pays en développement (PED) afin de les aider à se développer. Les pays les moins avancés (PMA) et les pays vulnérables qui respectent une liste de normes relatives aux droits de l'homme, aux droits fondamentaux du travail, à la bonne gouvernance et à l'environnement sont eux, exempts de droit de douane sur le territoire communautaire. L'intérêt de l'utilisation du SPG est au cœur de cette étude qui a comporte deux parties. La première a trait au développement économique, la seconde au développement social et politique. Dans le titre premier, l'étude du cadre de la promotion du développement économique fait l'objet du premier sous-titre. Il s'attache à expliquer comment l'Union Européenne favorise certains pays (les PMA) et protège certains pans de son économie que ce soit en accordant un régime qui n'est pas totalement favorable à certaines marchandises (le textile et l'agriculture) ou grâce aux mécanismes de protectionnisme. En outre, ce sous-titre cherche à savoir quels avantages économiques l'Union Européenne peut tirer du SPG et s'il a été efficace dans son objectif de lutte contre la pauvreté dans les PED. Alors qu'il aura été expliqué que l'impact du SPG sur la réduction de la pauvreté n'est pas probant, le second sous-titre explique les raisons de cet échec. Les premières raisons sont externes au système. Alors que le notion de clause NPF est remise en question par la multiplication des accords commerciaux bilatéraux, par conséquent, celle de la marge préférentielle l'est aussi. Ces deux notions doivent donc être repensées. Il faut en discuter la pertinence dont dépend celle du SPG. En outre, l'importance des mesures non tarifaires et des services doit aussi être prise en compte dans l'évaluation du SPG qui est un instrument tarifaire. S'agissant des obstacles intrinsèques, le problème des règles d'origine occupe une place centrale. Plus globalement, la question de la simplification (et donc de la réduction des coûts) du SPG est abordée afin de savoir comment rendre le système plus efficace. Dans le titre second, le premier sous-titre est relatif au cadre (historique, normatif, géographique et méthodique) de la promotion des droits fondamentaux dans le SPG de l'Union Européenne. Le SPG+ et les aspects procéduraux font, quant à eux, y font aussi l'objet d'une attention particulière. Le second sous titre est consacré à l'intérêt de l'application des droits fondamentaux dans le SPG de l'Union Européenne. Ainsi, l'application des droits fondamentaux par les PED est positive pour l'économie de l'Union Européenne qu'il s'agisse ou non de leur aspect protectionniste. Concernant les PED, si une application des droits fondamentaux leur est bénéfique, elle n'en demeurent pas moins une charge. La possibilité de suspension du SPG en cas de violation des droits fondamentaux est peu invoquée, notamment par les ONG et les syndicats. Une tentative d'explication de ce phénomène est proposée dans le dernier chapitre de cette thèse.
RESUMEN: Objetivo: caracterizar los procesos de formulación nacional del Plan Decenal de Salud Pública [PDSP] como eje articulador de la Política Nacional de Salud de Colombia, durante el período 2012 a 2013; y de su implementación actual (hasta 2018) en el departamento de Casanare. Metodología: estudio de caso basado en la revisión narrativa de fuentes secundarias, y en el testimonio de agentes involucrados tanto en la formulación del PDSP al nivel nacional como en su implementación en el Departamento de Casanare. El departamento de Casanare se consideró una subcategoría ilustrativa de regiones en condiciones de vulnerabilidad social y administrativa. La información sobre aspectos coyunturales y estructurales de ambos casos se obtuvo mediante la revisión narrativa de documentos, encuestas con escala tipo Likert y entrevistas semiestructuradas a una muestra de involucrados. Se examinaron cuatro dimensiones dirigidas a caracterizar ambos casos: involucrados, contexto, aspectos formales y de proceso. Resultados: en 1993 Colombia reformó su Política Pública de Salud [PPS] adoptando un modelo de cuasi mercado que, casi desde su origen, fue objeto de múltiples críticas por parte de diferentes organismos y agentes sociales quienes destacaban fallas profundas de tipo estructural. En este contexto polarizado, que se agudizó a fines de 2008, se formuló el PDSP como una de las estrategias reactivas del gobierno y del Congreso para hacer frente a la crisis de sostenibilidad del modelo, sin afectar su estructura básica. En la misma coyuntura confluyeron directrices internacionales que instaban a los Estados a formular PPS capaces de impactar los Determinantes Sociales de la Salud [DSS] y a recuperar el papel de la salud pública en la toma de decisiones adoptando el modelo de Atención Primaria de Salud [APS]. El estudio logró identificar características del proceso adelantado en Colombia que podrían constituir lecciones aprendidas; entre ellas, el diseño de reformas con fines conservadores, el conflicto de intereses en la toma de decisiones, la influencia de políticas internacionales en las dinámicas locales, y las dificultades de aplicar las directrices desconociendo los contextos. La formulación e implementación del PDSP se apoyó en un proceso de participación social relativamente amplio y centrado en las formas, que integró un conjunto heterogéneo de intereses, conceptos y criterios sin modificar sustancialmente las condiciones de cuasi mercado que estructuran la PPS. Adicionalmente, en una región del país expuesta a condiciones de vulnerabilidad, la implementación del PDSP enfrenta serias restricciones por la escasez de recursos, la debilidad técnica y la dificultad de llegar a consensos. Conclusión: de acuerdo con las fuentes consultadas, el PDSP de Colombia se configuró, en un contexto social polarizado, como el eje articulador de un conjunto de políticas que pretenden amortiguar las fallas del modelo de aseguramiento sin modificar su estructura. Dicho Plan no cuenta con un sistema de evaluación permanente, se enfrenta a condiciones de implementación limitadas por los contextos locales, y el tiempo transcurrido es corto para establecer sus resultados. La formulación del Plan no modifica la estructura del modelo vigente y a la fecha no parece apuntar a sus fallas. ; ABSTRACT: This research aimed to characterize the formulation process of the Decennial Public Health Plan [DPHP] as an articulating axis of the National Healht Policy of Colombia, during the period 2012 to 2013 and its incurrent implementation in the department of Casanare. A case study was conducted based on the testimony of involved agents in the formulation of the DPHP at the national level and its implementation in the Department of Casanare. The information on conjunctural and structural aspects of both cases was obtained through the narrative review of documents, surveys with Likert scale and semi-structured interviews to a sample of involved. Four dimensions aimed at characterizing both cases were examined: involved, context, formal and process aspects. The department of Casanare was considered an illustrative case of regions in conditions of social and administrative vulnerability. In 1993 Colombia reformed its Public Health Policy [PPS] by adopting a quasi-market model that, almost from its origin, was subject to multiple criticisms by different agencies and social agents who highlighted deep structural failures. In this polarized context, exacerbated at the end of 2008, the DPHP was formulated as reactive strategies of the government and Congress to face the sustainability crisis of the model, without affecting its basic structure. At the same juncture came international guidelines that urged the States to formulate PPS capable of impacting the Social Determinants of Health [DSS] and to recover the role of public health in decision-making by adopting the Primary Care Model [APS]. This study identified characteristics of the health political process carried out in Colombia that could constitute lessons learned; among them, the design of reforms for conservative purposes, the conflict of interests in decision-making, the influence of international policies on local dynamics, and the difficulties of applying the guidelines if ignoring the contexts. The formulation and implementation of the PDSP was based on a process of relatively broad social participation focused on forms, which integrated a heterogeneous set of interests, concepts and criteria without substantially modifying the quasi-market conditions that structure the PPS. Additionally, in a region of the country exposed to conditions of vulnerability, the implementation of the PDSP faces serious restrictions due to the scarcity of resources, the technical weakness of those involved and the difficulty of reaching consensus. According to the sources consulted, the PDSP of Colombia was shaped, in a polarized social context, as the articulating axis of a set of reformist policies that aim to cushion the failures of the insurance model without modifying its structure. This plan does not have a permanent evaluation system; its implementation faces conditions limited by local contexts; and the time elapsed is short to establish its results. The formulation of the Plan does not modify the structure of the current model, and to date it does not seem to point to its faults.
The study examines both the attitudes towards the role of women in society and the psychological masculinity/femininity manifested by a small group of Cuban-American college women. In Miami, 31 such women completed the Attitudes Towards Women Scale and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Overall, the means for this group corresponded with the established American norms. The authors thought that age, number of years in the U.S., mother's educational level, position in family and relative fluency of English would affect oth AWS and PAQ scores. Only the last variable appeared to have an impact, with those women who reported fluency in both English and Spanish obtaining more liberal AWS scores man those who reported being less fluent in English. Social change and acculturation have long been recognized as determinants of attitudinal changes. The Cuban population in the United States has been subject to those processes during the last twenty years, when the overall population of the United States has been experienc ing a widespread change in attitudes towards the role of women in society. It is tempting to resume that these attitudes and roles have been subject to rapid change, due to the combined pressure of acculturation into American society and the comcomitant changes in attitudes owards the role of women taking place in that society. Employment rates can be considered as one indicator of change in women's attitudes owards their roles; in the United States, 54% of all women of Cuban origin are working out side the home (Prohias & Casal, 1974). This fact is particularly striking when one considers that, in spite of a constant effort on the part of the Cuban government to incorporate women to the labour force, only 30% of women in Cuba are presently working outside the home Gramma, 1979). Before the revolution, the majority of those women who worked outside the ome in Cuba were from the lower socio-economic groups (Casal, 1975). Since until recently the lower social classes comprised a proportionately small part of the émigré population, working outside the home is a new experience for most Cuban-born women now in the United States. In a review of the literature on Cubans in the U.S., Casal and Hernandez (1975) mention veral studies related to women's sex-roles and the family. Probably the most comprehensive study about attitudes of Cuban women was conducted by Alvarez and Ehrenkrantz in 1976. sing a semi-structured interview format with 131 subjects in Miami, these researchers found at most Cubans held 'modern' attitudes towards education and work, but these women obscribed to very 'traditional' attitudes towards sexual ideology and behaviour. Attitudes awards the role of wife and mother were described as being in between these two extremes. The apparent changes observed in Cuban women may have occurred only in the domain behaviour, as a reaction to an overall status loss by Cubans in the U.S., and in a sense, could not correspond to any real modification of traditional attitudes. It appears that Cuban women work because of perceived or real financial need; even when they may work for self fillment, they feel a need to justify their activities as a way of 'helping the family'. however, it seems likely that these behavioural changes will eventually tend to produce changes in attitudes towards the role of women, not only among Cuban women themselves, at also in the Cuban community at large. Whatever changes occur in the role or behaviour of Cuban ,women in the United States, these changes are taking place in the midst of two pro cesses: The Cubans' acculturation in the U.S., and the women's movement in that country "The acculturation process takes place within the sociocultural environment of a macro culture" (Olmedo, 1979) and in the specific case of Cuban women, the macroculture undergoing major changes at the same time that acculturation is taking place. Thus, what 'American' in relation to women's behaviour may not be clear for the newcomers, and thos behaviours which are less like those prescribed by traditional role expectations for Cuba women will be perceived by people undergoing an acculturation process as 'more American in that they are 'less Cuban'. The largest concentration of Cubans in the United States is in the city of Miami. According to Rogg (1974), the presence of a large and strong community, such as this, serves to slow the pace of the acculturation process for Cubans, while it also significantly reduces the frequence of adjustment problems. However, since statistics indicate that Cuban women are entering the labour force in unprecedented numbers, it is likely that rapid changes must be occurring in family relations and child rearing practices. Cuban women must experience some intrapsychic conflict as a consequence of these behaviour changes, while the fact that the Cuban community seems to be accepting women changing roles may help to facilitate this process of change. However, each individual woman must find her own way to interpret and integrate new messages from American mainstrean society concerning women and their roles in society, along with new expectations from within the Cuban community regarding her ability to join the labour force. Each woman must also find ways to adapt her family life to her changing roles, as well. To date, no research has focused specifically on Cuban women college students. Women enrolled in large colleges or universities are likely to be those most affected by a feminism perspective, simply because they are more likely to have been exposed to this perspective that other groups of women. Cuban women of all ages who are presently attending college are pro bably no exception. Consequently, if any attitude changes are occurring in the Cuban popula tion concerning the role of women, these college women — who have been exposed to feminit ideas and who are already involved in activities outside of the home — are apt to manifest at titudinal changes earlier and more clearly than any others.
El presente artículo centra su especial atención en la identificación de la necesidad de realizar una modificación al texto del articulado de la ley 1537 de 2011, en el entendido que, para la fecha de promulgación de la normatividad procesal administrativa, los operadores judiciales y usuarios se encontraban ante necesidades de operatividad diferentes y ante los retos que impone la actualidad junto con los avances en las tecnologías de la información y comunicación, impone el reto de implementar nuevos procedimientos para lograr así "una pronta, cumplida y eficiente administración de justicia en la jurisdicción de lo contencioso administrativo." (Congreso de la República, Ponencia Proyecto de Ley 364, 2020 p. 3). Adicionalmente, habrá de tenerse en consideración los principales temas de reforma que la ley 2080 de 2021 contempló para cumplir los fines y propósitos de la normatividad procesal administrativa, pues en ningún momento debe pensarse que se formuló un nuevo régimen, sino que en la idea de cumplir los cometidos y fines del Estado colombiano, la ley 1437 de 2011 ya se encontraba adecuada a la Constitución Política de 1991 en contraposición del Decreto 01 de 1984 que estaba estructurado bajo los considerandos de la Constitución de 1986. Los principales aspectos de la reforma se sustentaron en la determinación de la necesidad de incorporar nuevas formas jurídicas que permitieran lograr la efectiva administración de justicia pero que se veía en alerta por la congestión de tramites a los cuales la jurisdicción se estaba enfrentando, por otro lado el Consejo de Estado, se encontraba desbordado en sus capacidades, al haber asumido un numero de tramites jurisdiccionales que no le permitían cumplir con el lleno se sus funciones como lo era por ejemplo su labor de unificación de jurisprudencia; de otra parte, se hizo necesaria la incorporación de la reforma en aras de eliminar las inconsistencias al interior de la sección segunda del código, ya que algunos de sus presupuestos permitían una amplia interpretación, revistiéndose de inseguridad jurídica para los administrados, y finalmente ha de destacarse la importancia de incorporar una adecuación de acuerdo a las nuevas tecnologías de la comunicación y la información que son primordiales en la nueva era tecnológica y son acordes para garantizar los cometidos estatales que tienen que ver con una correcta administración de justicia. Finalmente, es menester decir que, las reformas que se introdujeron por intermedio de la ley 2080 de 2021 fueron tendientes en modificar el articulado respecto de la importancia de la oportunidad para resolver las peticiones, el tramite sancionatorio fiscal, el uso de medios electrónicos, la extensión de jurisprudencia en materia contenciosa, modificación de funciones y competencias previamente atribuidas a todos los órdenes jerárquicos desde los jueces, magistrados de tribunal y del Consejo de Estado; en igual sentido, y la exaltación en la importancia de los recursos en dicha materia con su respectiva regulación de términos junto con la competencia para su procedencia y conocimiento. ; This article focuses its special attention on the identification of the need to make a modification to the text of the articles of Law 1537 of 2011, in the understanding that, by the date of promulgation of the administrative procedural regulations, judicial operators and users I found different operational needs and in the face of the challenges imposed by the present, together with advances in information and communication technologies, it imposes the challenge of implementing new procedures to thus achieve "a prompt, thorough and efficient administration of justice in the administrative litigation." (Congress of the Republic, Presentation Bill 364, 2020 p. 3). Additionally, the main reform issues that Law 2080 of 2021 contemplated to fulfill the purposes and purposes of the administrative procedural regulations must be taken into consideration, since at no time should it be thought that a new regime was formulated, but rather that in the idea of comply with the tasks and fines of the Colombian State, Law 1437 of 2011 was already found adequate to the Political Constitution of 1991 in contrast to Decree 01 of 1984 that was structured under the recitals of the 1986 Constitution. The main aspects of the reform were based on the determination of the need to incorporate new legal forms that would allow the effective administration of justice to be achieved, but that was alerted by the congestion of procedures that the jurisdiction was facing, on the other hand. the Council of State was overwhelmed in its capacities, having assumed a number of jurisdictional procedures that did not allow it to fully comply with its functions, such as, for example, its work of unifying jurisprudence; on the other hand, it was necessary to incorporate the reform in order to eliminate the inconsistencies within the second section of the code, since some of its presuppositions allowed a broad interpretation, entailing legal insecurity for those administered, and finally it has to The importance of incorporating an adaptation according to the new communication and information technologies that are essential in the new technological era and are consistent to guarantee the state tasks that have to do with the correct administration of justice should be highlighted. Finally, it is necessary to say that the reforms that were introduced through Law 2080 of 2021 were aimed at modifying the articles regarding the importance of the opportunity to resolve petitions, the fiscal sanctioning process, the use of electronic means, the extension of jurisprudence in contentious matters, modification of functions and powers previously attributed to all hierarchical orders from judges, court magistrates and the Council of State; in the same sense, and the exaltation of the importance of the resources in said matter with their respective regulation of terms together with the competence for their origin and knowledge. ; Magister en Derecho Administrativo ; Maestría
Currently, the jurisdictional model of constitutional justice has been universalized and, at the same time, an increase in its functions has been taking place. This has generated the «counter-majority difficulty» of some doctrinal sectors that question an alleged lack of democratic legitimacy of the constitutional justice bodies. Despite the fact that our Constitutional Court originally enjoyed a high degree of acceptance by all (largely due to the fact that it had been established, like the Tribunal of Guarantees of the Second Republic, after a period of dictatorship) in The last decade has had to face the discredit campaign orchestrated against him by the Catalan independence political class, the lack of prudence (also in the writing of private votes) that some magistrates have recently shown, the denaturation that supposed the functions to he attributed by LO 15/2015, the aggravation of some configuration problems that dragged from its origin (among which stands out the collapse that, from his personal and material means, generates the treatment of all the protection resources that, even after of the approval of LO 6/2007, continue to be registered every year at the headquarters of the Court), and the political-legal problems caused by l way of renewal of magistrates. This paper aims to offer a theoretical and comparative perspective of the challenges of constitutional justice at a global level that serves as a basis for reflection on our Constitutional Court and the possible improvements that, after forty years of operation, it might be advisable to bring finished. Specifically, the political function that, in the sense of protection of political minorities and arbitrator of territorial conflicts, corresponds to the supreme constitutional custodian has been emphasized, since the dominant legal positivism in the constitutional sciences of our country has impeded development of constitutional justice or Constitutional Procedural Law as a scientific discipline, causing the absence of a theoretical body that could serve as a legitimating shield for the Constitutional Court against the attacks recently received. Resolving the most internal issues mentioned above is essential to, a posteriori, face the two most important supranational challenges that our constitutional justice system must face: on the one hand, its insertion into a European system of protection of rights , for which he will have to be more favorable to the dialogue with the Court of Justice of the European Union than he has done in the past; on the other, redefine its position as guarantor of rights before the new roles (including control of conventionality) assumed by ordinary judges and courts. Summary: I. INTRODUCTION. II. THE PERMANENT DEBATE ABOUT CONSTITUTIONAL JUSTICE. III. THE TRIUMPH OF THE JURISDICTIONAL MODEL AND THE STRENGTHENING OF THE COMPETENCES OF THE SPANISH CONSTITUTIONAL COURT. IV. THE (OFTEN FORGOTTEN) POLITICAL FUNCTION OF CONSTITUTIONAL JUSTICE. V. THE NEED TO DEVELOP AN AUTHENTIC CONSTITUTIONAL PROCEDURAL LAW IN OUR COUNTRY. VI. CRITICS AND RECELS (INTERNALS AND EXTERNALS) TO THE COURT' ACTIONS. VII. THE PENDING IMPROVEMENTS OF OUR CONSTITUTIONAL JUSTICE SYSTEM. VIII SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE PERMANENT PROBLEM OF AMPARO. IX. CONCLUSIONS ; Actualmente se ha universalizado el modelo jurisdiccional de justicia constitucional y, al mismo tiempo, se ha venido produciendo un incremento de sus funciones. Ello ha generado la «objeción contramayoritaria» de algunos sectores doctrinales que cuestionan una supuesta falta de legitimidad democrática de los órganos de justicia constitucional. A pesar de que nuestro Tribunal Constitucional gozó en origen de un alto grado de aceptación por parte de todos (en buena medida por el hecho de haberse establecido, al igual que el Tribunal de Garantías de la II República, tras un periodo de dictadura) en la última década ha tenido que enfrentar la campaña de descredito orquestada contra él por parte de la clase política independentista catalana, la falta de prudencia (también en la redacción de votos particulares) que recientemente han mostrado algunos magistrados, la desnaturalización que supuso las funciones a él atribuidas por la L.O 15/2015, el agravamiento de algunos problemas de configuración que arrastra desde su origen (entre los que destaca el colapso que, de sus medios personales y materiales, genera el tratamiento de todos los recursos de amparo que, incluso después de la aprobación de la L.O 6/2007, siguen registrándose cada año en la sede del Tribunal), y los problemas político-jurídicos que provoca el modo de renovación de los magistrados. En este trabajo se pretende ofrecer una perspectiva teórica y comparada de los retos de la justicia constitucional a nivel global que sirva como base a una reflexión acerca de nuestro Tribunal Constitucional y de las eventuales mejoras que, tras cuarenta años de funcionamiento, podría ser recomendable llevar a cabo. En concreto, se ha enfatizado la función política que, en el sentido de protección de las minorías políticas y árbitro de los conflictos territoriales le corresponde al supremo custodio constitucional, ya que el positivismo jurídico dominante en las ciencias constitucionales de nuestro país ha impedido el desarrollo de la justicia constitucional o Derecho Procesal Constitucional como disciplina científica, provocando la ausencia de un corpus teórico que pudiera servir de escudo legitimador al Tribunal Constitucional frente a los ataques recientemente recibidos. Resolver las cuestiones de carácter más interno mencionadas resulta imprescindible para, a posteriori, enfrentar los dos retos más importantes de carácter supranacional a los que debe hacer frente nuestro sistema de justicia constitucional: por un lado, su inserción en un sistema europeo de protección de derechos, para lo que deberá mostrarse más favorable al diálogo con el Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea de lo que lo ha hecho en el pasado; por otro, redefinir su posición como garante de derechos ante los nuevos roles (incluido el control de convencionalidad) asumido por los jueces y tribunales ordinarios.
Contents: Preface: A collective book project - the last chance? Voluntary actors in an ecological and economic transition -- Part I: Introduction -- Section 1. Scientific backgrounds -- 1. Science, society and a sustainable future / Johan Rockström and Nicholas Stern -- 2. Conservation psychology and climate change / Susan Clayton -- 3. Capitalism and the curse of external effects / Claude Henry -- Section 2. Setting the scene -- 4. Costa Rica as pioneer of a green social contract / Monica Araya -- 5. The carbon tax in Sweden / Thomas Sterner -- 6. Lessons from the Obama White House: how climate policy really gets done / Alice C. Hill -- 7. Climate policy in China: an overview / Ye Qi, Xiaofan Zhao and Nicholas Stern -- 8. The Paris Agreement on climate change: What legacy? / Laurence Tubiana and Emmanuel Guerin -- Part II: Defenders -- 9. Introduction to Part II / Jonathan Watts -- 10. To protect the Amazon, defend the people of the forest / Maria do Socorro Costa Silva -- 11. Of chainsaws and grace: Direct action by eco-vigilantes in the Philippines / Bobby Chan -- 12. Social justice goes hand in hand with environmental campaigns - and not just in Africa / Phyllis Omido -- 13. Living our values: Using art and technology to campaign for nature in Turkey / Birhan Erkutlu and Tuba Günal -- Part III: Litigants -- 14. Introduction to Part III / Marie Toussaint and Claude Henry -- 15. The Urgenda case in the Netherlands: creating a revolution through the courts / Marjan Minnesma -- 16. Juliana v. United States and the global youth-led legal campaign for a safe climate / Patti Moore, Danny Noonan and Erik Woodward -- 17. How policymakers imperil coming generations' future and what to do about it / Ridhima Pandey -- 18. Protecting the rights of future generations through climate litigation: lessons from the struggle against deforestation in the Colombian Amazon / Camila Bustos, Valentina Rozo-Ángel and Gabriela Eslava-Bejarano -- 19. People's climate case - families and youth take the EU to court over its failure to address the climate crisis / E. Deville, L. Dubois Gökahin -- 20. Climate change claim on behalf of New Zealand's indigenous Maori peoples / Michael Sharp, Nicole Smith and Tania Te Whenua -- 21 France: L'affaire du siècle : the story of a mass mobilization for climate / Marie Toussaint -- Part IV: Coming generations on the front line -- 22. Introduction to Part IV / Claude Henry -- 23. Fridays for Future - FFF Europe and beyond / Anuna De Wever, Luisa Neubauer and Katrien van der Heyden -- 24. The Fridays for Future movement in Uganda and Nigeria / Hilda Flavia Nakabuye, Sadrach Nirere and Adenike Titilope Oladosu -- 25. The origins of school strike 4 climate NZ / Sophie Handford and Raven Maeder -- 26. 350.org 231 / William "Bill" McKibben -- 27. How to become an engineer in the ecological crisis? / Antoine Bizien, Elsa Deville and Lucas Dubois -- 28. Ecological aspirations of youth: How higher education could fall between two stools / Alessia Lefébure -- Part V: Entrepreneurs -- 29. Introduction to Part V / Nicholas Stern and Charlotte Taylor -- 30. Catching mighty north sea winds / Claude Henry -- 31. Providing electricity from rice husk in rural India / Claude Henry -- 32. Heat pumps for decarbonizing buildings / Dominique Bureau -- 33. The rise of supercapacitors: Making electric vehicles as convenient as ordinary ones / Claude Henry -- 34. From scooter to boat: innovations in electric transport in cities of Southeast Asia / Pippo Ranci -- 35. The third attempt at the electric car might be the successful one / Geoffrey Heal -- 36. Solar cookstoves for adaptation to degrading natural conditions / Claude Henry -- 37. Carbon capture from ambient air: a brake on climate change? / Claude Henry -- 38. Ecological engineering in coastal protection / Claude Henry -- 39. Better to corrupt plastics than the environment / Pippo Ranci -- 40. Drip irrigation: Daniel Hillel's legacy / Claude Henry -- 41. Making the case for agroecological innovation: the need for technical but also political entrepreneurs / Sébastien Treyer -- 42. Radical transformation in global supply chains: can new business models be based on biodiversity in the agrifood industry? / Sébastien Treyer -- 43. Ethan Brown - the protein revolutionary / Geoffrey Heal -- 44. How to make a sustainable living in a tropical forest: the case of Suruí Indians in the Amazon Rainforest - success under threat / Claude Henry -- 45. Migrants to repopulate depopulated villages - Riace in Calabria, Italy and its mayor Mimmo Lucano / Pippo Ranci -- 46. How Loos-en-gohelle, a derelict mining town in the north of France, has become a standard in sustainable development / Michel Berry -- Part VI: Investors -- 47. Introduction to Part VI / Nicholas Stern and Charlotte Taylor -- 48. Unleashing the power of financial markets for the green transition / Jeremy Oppenheim and Catharina Dyvik -- 49. The case for fossil fuel divestment / Stephen B. Heintz -- 50. How can finance be used to combat climate change? / Alain Grandjean -- 51. China's pioneering green finance / Ma Jun -- Part VII: Communicators -- 52. Introduction to Part VII / Johan Rockström -- 53. Communicating climate change science to diverse audiences / Asmeret Asefaw Berhe -- 54. Global marine fisheries: avoiding further collapses / Philippe Cury and Daniel Pauly -- 55. Why are we so much more afraid of Covid-19 than of climate change? Early lessons from a health crisis for the communication of climate change / François Gemenne and Anneliese Depoux -- 56. Communicating the climate emergency: Imagination, emotion, action / Genevieve Guenther -- 57. Climate change: From research to communication / Jean Jouzel -- 58. Communicating biodiversity loss and its link to economics / Georgina M. Mace -- 59. Helping trusted messengers find their voice on climate change / Edward Maibach -- 60. From climate scientist to climate communicator: a process of evolution / Michael E. Mann -- 61. Communicating science beyond the ivory tower / David R. Montgomery -- Index.
Tese de Doutoramento em Engenharia Electrotécnica e de Computadores, na especialidade de Telecomunicações, apresentada ao Departamento de Engenharia Eletrotécnica e de Computadores da Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; The electromagnetic properties of naturally occurring materials do not always provide enough flexibility to obtain a desired electromagnetic response. The development of metamaterials has surpassed this limitation and opened the door to independently control and access new and exotic electromagnetic properties and functionalities, not directly available in Nature, relying on subwavelength artificial "atoms". The idea of expanding the properties-spectrum of natural materials crafting artificial matter versions was put forward by V. G. Veselago in 1967, and since then the research field of "metamaterials" has dramatically evolved. New materials have emerged from this research field exhibiting extraordinary optical properties, such as negative refraction and optical magnetism. They are being exploited for a broad range of applications, spanning telecommunications, sensing and biomedicine, photovoltaics and solar cells, amongst others, over different frequency domains. Among the variety of media belonging to the class of metamaterials, a subclass has attracted significant attention due to its unique potentials in the manipulation of electromagnetic fields: "wire metamaterials". In their simplest version, such materials are formed by optically dense arrays of aligned metal rods embedded into a dielectric host matrix. Through a combination of analytical modeling and numerical simulation, the main objective of this thesis is to investigate novel wave phenomena in wire metamaterial based platforms, as well as their prospective applications. The thesis focuses on four different problems/effects: (i) the subwavelength imaging and near-field transport by a multi-wire endoscope; it is shown that a wire medium endoscope can be quite robust to the effect of bending and allow for the near field transport with a deeply subwavelength resolution provided the total length of the bent wires satisfies the Fabry-Pérot condition. (ii) It describes a novel counterintuitive phenomenon of an anomalous light tunneling by two interlaced wire meshes; this effect is due to the destructive interference of the scattering by the two interlaced 3D wire meshes, which leads to a Fano-type resonance. (iii) It unveils a transparency effect with a topological origin; a mixture of two topologically distinct material phases, for example a metamaterial formed by metallic wire grid embedded in a magnetized plasma, may be "transparent" to electromagnetic waves in a spectral range wherein the individual material phases are strongly reflecting. (iv) It reports a mechanism to have exotic optical manipulations and lateral (recoil) forces on small particles placed nearby a reciprocal translation invariant substrate. The problems analyzed here can have applications in medical imaging, angular filtering and sensing, and in optical sorting and particle delivery. ; As propriedades eletromagnéticas dos materiais existentes na natureza nem sempre oferecem a flexibilidade suficiente para se obter uma resposta electromagnética desejada. O desenvolvimento dos metamateriais superou essa limitação e abriu a porta a novas e por vezes exóticas propriedades electromagnéticas, não diretamente disponíveis na Natureza. A ideia de expandir o espectro das propriedades de materiais naturais criando versões artificiais foi proposta por V. G. Veselago em 1967, e desde então o campo de investigação dos "metamateriais" evoluiu drasticamente. Novos materiais emergiram deste campo de pesquisa exibindo propriedades ópticas extraordinárias, como refracção negativa e magnetismo óptico. Estes materiais têm sido explorados para uma vasta gama de aplicações, abrangendo, entre outras, telecomunicações, sensores e biomedicina, células solares e fotovoltaicas, em diferentes domínios de frequência. Entre a variedade de estruturas pertencentes à classe dos metamateriais, uma subclasse tem atraído atenção significativa devido ao seu potencial único na manipulação de campos electromagnéticos: os metamateriais de fios metálicos (wire metamaterials). Na sua versão mais simples, tais materiais são formados por um agregado opticamente denso de fios metálicos alinhados embedidos num material dieléctrico. Através de uma combinação de modelagem analítica e simulação numérica, o objetivo principal desta tese é investigar novos fenómenos ondulatórios em plataformas baseadas em wire metamaterials, bem como suas potenciais aplicações. A tese tem como foco quatro problemas/efeitos diferentes: (i) "imaging" sub-λ (λ representa o comprimento de onda) e o transporte de campo próximo por um endoscópio formado por um agregado de fios metálicos; é mostrado que um endoscópio formado por um "wire medium" pode ser bastante robusto a flexões e permite o transporte de campo próximo com uma resolução profundamente sub-comprimento de onda, desde que o comprimento total dos fios dobrados satisfaça a condição de Fabry-Pérot. (ii) Descreve um novo fenómeno contra-intuitivo de tunelamento anómalo da luz por duas redes de fios metálicos entrelaçadas; este efeito é devido à interferência destrutiva da difusão da luz pelas duas redes de fios 3D entrelaçadas, que conduz a uma ressonância do tipo Fano. (iii) Revela um efeito de transparência com uma origem topológica; uma mistura de duas fases topologicamente distintas, por exemplo, um metamaterial formado por um grelhas metálicas embedidas num plasma magnetizado, pode ser "transparente" à propagação de ondas electromagnéticas numa gama espectral onde as fases individuais do material são fortemente reflectoras. (iv) Relata um mecanismo para ter manipulações ópticas exóticas e forças laterais em pequenas partículas colocadas na proximidade de um substrato recíproco invariante para translações. Os problemas analisados na tese têm potenciais aplicações em imagiologia médica, em sensores, e na separação/entrega óptica de partículas. ; Erasmus Mundus programme of the European Union - Al-Idrisi II
El problema de la desigualdad ha ido tomando un lugar central en los lineamientos políticos de las agendas de los organismos internacionales respecto a la orientación que debe adoptar la política social en América Latina. Cabe considerar que la utilización de la misma categoría no implica ni una idéntica definición ni un diagnóstico común acerca de aquella, tampoco una similar justificación política acerca de la necesidad de su eliminación, o al menos de su reducción. Por ello, a través de la sistematización de informes y documentos publicados por el Banco Mundial (BM), la Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL) y el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD), así como de fuentes secundarias, a lo largo de este artículo se busca comprender cómo se entiende la noción de desigualdad desde la perspectiva de los organismos internacionales, a través del análisis de una desigualdad de qué y entre quiénes se plantea, y dónde se reconocen sus orígenes, así como la identificación de otras categorías con las que se interrelaciona. En el texto se muestra, por un lado, que la desigualdad es reducida a una variable técnica ajustable en un esquema de equilibrio complementario entre igualdad, crecimiento y pobreza. Por otro, que está inscripta en una visión política que pierde de vista que la ciudadanía opera como sistema de clasificación que demarca límites de inclusión y exclusión social. El artículo se propone aportar a la reflexión acerca de los usos de dicha categoría cuando se constituye en parte del discurso hegemónico de estas instituciones que concentran poder de clasificación e intervención política sobre nuestra región. La preocupación se plantea respecto a que la desigualdad pueda devenir un eufemismo y pierda así el potencial que las ciencias sociales le han atribuido históricamente para cuestionar las relaciones de poder existentes. Frente a ello, se propone una aproximación epistemológica y metodológica crítica para el uso de la categoría desigualdad que pueda ser retomada a la hora de construir nuestras propias agendas de investigación. ; The problem of inequality has been taking a central place in the political guidelines of the agendas of international agencies with respect to social policy in Latin America. The word inequality does not imply an identical definition or a common diagnosis, or a similar political justification regarding the need of its elimination, or at least of its reduction. For this reason, through the systematization of reports and documents published by the World Bank (WB), the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and the United Nations program for development (UNDP), as well as secondary sources, this article seeks to understand how the notion of inequality is understood by international organizations through the analysis of the inequality of what, of whom, and of what origins, as well as the identification of other interacting categories. The text demonstrates, first, that inequality is reduced to a technical-adjustable variable in a complementary balance between equality, growth and poverty. Secondly, that inequality is inscribed in a political vision that loses sight that society operates as a classification system that defines the boundaries of social inclusion and exclusion. The article reflects on the uses of the term when it is part of the hegemonic discourse of those institutions that concentrate power of classification and policy intervention in our region. The concern arises that inequality can become a euphemism and thus lose the potential that social sciences have historically attributed to it to question existing power relations. In response, the article proposes an epistemological approach and methodological criticism for the use of the term inequality that can be retaken when constructing our own research agendas. ; O problema da desigualdade vem tomando um lugar central nos lineamentos políticos das agendas dos organismos internacionais a respeito da orientação que a política social deve adotar na América Latina. Cabe considerar que a utilização da mesma categoria não implica nem uma idêntica definição, nem um diagnóstico comum sobre aquela, tampouco uma similar justificativa política sobre a necessidade de sua eliminação, ou pelo menos sua redução. Por isso, por meio da sistematização de relatórios e documentos publicados pelo Banco Mundial, a Comissão Econômica para a América Latina e o Caribe (CEPAL) e o Programa das Nações Unidas para o Desenvolvimento (PNUD), bem como fontes secundárias, ao longo deste artigo, busca-se compreender como se entende a noção de desigualdade sob a perspectiva dos organismos internacionais mediante a análise de uma desigualdade de que, e entre quem se apresenta, e onde se reconhecem suas origens, assim como a identificação de outras categorias com as quais se inter-relacionam. Neste texto, mostra-se, por um lado, que a desigualdade é reduzida a uma variável técnica ajustável num esquema de equilíbrio complementar entre igualdade, crescimento e pobreza. Por outro, que está inscrita numa visão política que perde de vista que a cidadania opera como sistema de classificação que estabelece limites de inclusão e exclusão social. Este artigo se propõe contribuir para a reflexão sobre os usos dessa categoria quando se constitui em parte do discurso hegemônico dessas instituições que concentram poder de classificação e intervenção política sobre nossa região. A preocupação é apresentada a respeito de que a desigualdade possa devir um eufemismo e perca, assim, o potencial que as ciências sociais lhe vêm atribuindo historicamente para questionar as relações de poder existentes. Diante disso, propõe-se uma aproximação epistemológica e metodológica crítica para o uso da categoria desigualdade que possa ser retomada na hora de construir nossas próprias agendas de pesquisa. ; Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación