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Vuosien 2008−2014 Euroopan finanssi- ja talouskriisi nosti esille kysymyksiä yritysten yhteiskunnallisesta roolista. Tämä tutkimus tarkastelee Euroopan unionin oikeudellisia kriisitoimenpiteitä ja niiden vaikutuksia yrityksiin. Tutkimus pyrkii luomaan kokonaiskuvaa yrityksistä oikeushenkilöinä ja yritysten yhteiskunnallisesta roolista tarkastelemalla kriisiaikana tapahtuneita muutoksia. Eurooppalaisesta yhtiöoikeudellisesta tutkimuksesta puuttuu teoreettinen malli yrityksistä oikeushenkilöinä, malli, joka tunnistaisi yritysten vallan laajuuden ja sen rajat. Tämä tutkimus tarjoaa alustavan mallin yritysten oikeushenkilöllisyydestä jatkokeskustelua ja -kehitystä varten. Tavoitteena on kehittää EU-oikeuteen soveltuva malli yrityksistä oikeushenkilöinä, analysoida kriisitoimenpiteiden oikeudellisia vaikutuksia yritysten näkökulmasta, ja tunnistaa keskeiset yritysten oikeudellisen vallan määrittelyn kannalta keskeiset muuttujat. Tutkimus kehittää hybridimallin yritysten oikeushenkilöllisyydestä. Hybridimalli yhdistää kolmea aiemmin kirjallisuudessa käytettyö mallia. Tutkiakseen yritysten oikeudellista valtaa, oikeussuhteita ja niissä tapahtuneita muutoksia, tutkimus esittelee myös revisioidun version Hohfeldin typologiasta. Revisioitu typologia tunnistaa esimerkiksi horisontaalisten sopimussuhteiden kolmitahoiden luonteen, jossa valtio viime kädessä turvaa sopimusvelvoitteiden noudattamisen. Tutkimus tunnistaa yksityisten oikeushenkilöiden ja erityisesti yritysten oikeudellisen vallan perusteet systematisoimalla EU:n primaarioikeutta ja yleisiä oikeusperiaatteita. Tutkimus argumentoi, että tunnistamalla yritykset autonomiseksi oikeushenkilöiksi, luodaan oikeushenkilöllisyyden ylijäämä. Yritysten oikeudellinen valta rajautuu niihin vapauksiin ja oikeuksiin joita se tarvitsee yhteiskunnallisen tarkoituksensa toteuttamiseksi. Sen vapauksiin ja oikeuksiin autonomisena oikeushenkilönä voidaan puuttua teoriassa missä määrin tahansa EU:n tavoitteiden edistämiseksi, yleisen edun turvaamiseksi tai luonnollisten henkilöiden perusoikeuksien suojelemiseksi. Tutkimus analysoi havaintoja soveltaen revisioitua typologiaa tuottaen seitsemän eri oikeuksien kategoriaa, sekä kolme oikeudellisten velvoitteiden lähdettä. Tämän jälkeen tutkimus muotoilee ensin yksityisten oikeushenkilöiden oikeudellisen hallinnan yleiset oikeusperiaatteet ja sen jälkeen yritysten oikeudellisen hallinnan yleiset periaatteet. Se tunnistaa Euroopan unioin peruskirjoihin kirjoitetut staattiset ja dynaamiset periaatteet sekä niiden merkityksen yritysten oikeudellisessa hallinnalla, erityisesti Euroopan kilpailullisen sosiaalisen markkinatalouden periaatteiden keskeisen roolin. Tätä hallintaa hahmotellaan tarkastelemalla oikeudellisia kriisitoimenpiteitä. Tutkimus tarkastelee vuosien 2008–2014 aikana sekä alkuvuonna 2015 omaksuttuja oikeudellisia toimenpiteitä, lakiesityksiä ja lakeja, sekä niiden taustatöitä. Toimenpiteiden analysointi osoittaa, miten finanssi- ja pankkisektorin toiminnan turvaamiseksi omaksuttiin normeja ja niitä tukevia sanktioita. Samanaikaisesti, kriisin sosiaalisiin vaikutuksiin vastattiin pääasiassa markkinoiden tai markkinoiden kaltaisten mekanismien avulla. Näiden mekanismien kehittämiseksi omaksuttiin sääntelyä joka pyrki vahvistamaan liiketoiminnan läpinäkyvyyttä, heikompien osapuolien suojaa ja kilpailua. Toimenpiteiden tavoitteena oli varmistaa talouden toipuminen ja talouskasvu, sekä turvata julkisten varojen tehokas käyttö ja taloudellinen vakaus. Suurin osa muutoksista yritysten oikeudellisessa asemassa onkin johdettavissa muutoksista ulkoisissa muuttujissa, kuten taloudellisen tilanteen muutoksesta ja sen vaikutuksista yritystoiminnan tuottamiin yhteiskunnallisiin hyötyihin ja haittoihin. Lakien esitöissä ulkojuridisia muuttujia on tarkasteltu yksityiskohtaisesti ja lainsäädännön kustannuksia ja hyötyjä punnittu tarkkaan. Juridisten muuttujien tarkastelu on pääosin pinnallisempaa. Keskusteluluvussa tarkastellaan lähemmin EU-oikeuden dynaamista luonnetta, ja kytketään siinä havaitut heilurimaiset liikkeet Euroopan unionin toimenkuvaan ja tehtävään. Keskusteluluvussa tunnistetaan myös EU-lainsäätäjän ja tuomioistuimen paikoin hyvin erilaiset lähestymistavat joiden arvioidaan vaikuttavan kielteisesti oikeusjärjestelmän selkeyteen, yhtenäisyyteen ja johdonmukaisuuteen. Tutkimuksen ollessa teoreettisesti painottunut, se ei tuota suosituksia tilanteen ratkaisemiseksi. Tutkimuksen tuottama oikeudellinen terminologia mahdollistaa kuitenkin keskustelun käymisen siten, että peruskäsitteistä on olemassa yhteisymmärrys. ; The financial and economic crisis of 2008−2014 raised many questions about the role of corporations in European society. This research studies the European Union's response to the crisis and its impact on the legal powers and legal relations of corporate entities. It seeks to increase our understanding of the nature of corporations as legal entities and the development of their societal role during the crisis period. A model of corporate legal personhood recognising the extent and limits of corporate legal power has been lacking from the current EU legal debate. The research aims to elucidate the role and powers of corporations as legal entities and provide preliminary models for further discussion and development. The research formulates a hybrid model of corporate legal personhood. The hybrid model combines artificial, aggregate and real entity models. For the study of corporate legal relations, the research introduces a reviewed Hohfeldian typology of legal powers and legal relations. The typology reviewed recognises the trilateral nature of all formal relations recognised by the State, providing a more accurate description of also contractual relations between private law entities. The research systematises EU primary legislation and general principles. It systematises the legal powers of private law entities in general and corporate entities in particular in the framework of the European Union's primary legislation. It then analyses the legal powers applying the reviewed Hohfeldian typology. The systematisation produces yields seven categories of legal rights and liberties and three sources of legal duties recognised by the EU. It is argued that statutory legislation recognising the corporate entity as an autonomous entity adds a surplus of legal personhood. The liberties and rights of CEs are limited to those necessary for their economic function in society. The research then recognised key principles of legal governance of private law entities generally and corporate entities in particular. Together with the systematisation of corporate legal powers, these principles constitute the four principles of legal governance of CEs. The liberties and rights of CEs can be intervened to any efficient measures to achieve Union objectives or to protect general interests recognised by the Union or promote fundamental non-market liberties and rights of natural persons. To recognise the key variables that determine the legal status of corporate entities, the research studies the impact of crisis measures on the legal powers and legal relations of corporate entities. It covers relevant regulatory measures adopted between 2008 and 2014 and early 2015. The analysis of these measures demonstrates that ensuring the proper functioning of the financial and banking sector required entailed establishing a robust regulatory framework. At the same time, responses to the social challenges posed and perpetuated by the crisis were pursued primarily through markets or market-like mechanisms. To enhance the proper functioning of these mechanisms, the EU adopted regulation enhancing corporate transparency, protecting weaker contractual parties, and aiming at more efficient enforcement of competition. According to the research, the key objectives of the measures adopted were to ensure economic recovery and growth in the prevailing conditions while also ensuring efficient use of pubic resources and financial sustainability. The majority of changes in corporate legal power are traceable to changes in extrajudicial variables, such as changed economic conditions and their impact on the costs and benefits created by business activities. In contrast to judicial factors, extrajudicial variables have been carefully assessed and balanced, highlighting their significance in determining the legal powers and legal relations of corporate entities. The discussion recognises the dynamic nature of EU law. It connects this regulatory pendulum with the nature and function of the European Union as an intergovernmental organisation, aiming to create added value for Europeans. The discussion also recognises differences in approaches when comparing the EU legislator and the Court of Justice of the European Union. While the research at hand cannot solve policy issues, it provides a common terminology for future discussion.

This paper discusses the manner in which the European Union (EU) has managed its newfound position as security actor during the 1990s. It also looks at the manner in which security considerations have become a considerable impetus behind the EU's actions & identifies a range of factors that impose threats to the EU: an end to EU integration & resulting instability in Central & Eastern Europe, a continuously unstable Russia, & instability in the Mediterranean. The paper contends that only enlargement & integration can be utilized to counter these threats. The paper then looks at global security from an EU perspective, arguing that an examination of past policies is essential if current security situations are to be fully understood. The findings of Waever & Buzan, & Waever & de Wilde (1995-1997) are examined. The paper concludes that the civilian power perspective, which has dominated EU policies, should be reevaluated, as the EU is in the process of being endowed with the security means necessary to become a powerful foreign policy actor. 29 References. K. A. Larsen

In this article, we propose a theoretical model which help us to define two possible settings where the European "migration competition" could be analysed. First, we analyse the scenario in which there are two regions: a receiving country and a net sending country. In this scenario we introduce the possibility for each country to increase, by investing resources, the level of integration between countries which consequently reduces the level of migration costs. Thus it is possible to capture the receiving country's trade off between investing resources in order to attract foreign high skilled workers or investing on educational incentives for his citizens. Second, we analyse the scenario in which there are three regions. Starting from the first scenario's framework, we could analyse either the case in which a new country is able to intercept a significant quota of the flow of skilled migrants, either the effect of migration competition between the two regions in order to attract the skilled workers of the sending country. In both case analysed, the presence of a central authority which coordinates the migration and fiscal policies is determinant to obtain better results.

In this article, we propose a theoretical model which help us to define two possible settings where the European "migration competition" could be analysed. First, we analyse the scenario in which there are two regions: a receiving country and a net sending country. In this scenario we introduce the possibility for each country to increase, by investing resources, the level of integration between countries which consequently reduces the level of migration costs. Thus it is possible to capture the receiving country's trade off between investing resources in order to attract foreign high skilled workers or investing on educational incentives for his citizens. Second, we analyse the scenario in which there are three regions. Starting from the first scenario's framework, we could analyse either the case in which a new country is able to intercept a significant quota of the flow of skilled migrants, either the effect of migration competition between the two regions in order to attract the skilled workers of the sending country. In both case analysed, the presence of a central authority which coordinates the migration and fiscal policies is determinant to obtain better results.

Pervasive use of ethnic and religious stereotypes by law enforcement across Europe is harming efforts to combat crime and terrorism, according to this report released by the Open Society Justice Initiative. Ethnic profiling occurs most often in police decisions about who to stop, question, search, and, at times, arrest. Yet there is no evidence that ethnic profiling actually prevents terrorism or lowers crime rates. Throughout Europe, minorities and immigrant communities have reported discriminatory treatment by the police. From massive data mining operations to intimidating identity checks, ethnic profiling is often more of a public relations stunt than a real response to crime. The report, Ethnic Profiling in the European Union: Pervasive, Ineffective, and Discriminatory, details widespread profiling in France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, and other EU member states.--Publisher description

La Unión Europea está terminando de perfilar una política europea de seguridad alimentaria que pretende estar en lo más alto de su agenda. El programa "De la Granja a la Mesa" así lo atestigua. En los documentos de la Unión Europea al respect

In advance of the referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union (EU), this Brief considers the differences in how the UK's constituent regions and nations interact with other EU countries, focusing upon trade in goods. The regional dimension of the UK/EU relationship has received relatively little attention in the public debate around the implications of 'Brexit', yet the evidence examined here suggests that the notion of whether the UK will be 'better off' or 'worse off' as a result of voting to exit or remain within the EU is too simplistic. An examination of the different trade relationships that different UK regions and nations have with the EU helps us to consider both how the UK will be affected by Brexit, and who will be most affected. In particular, the Brief reflects upon the possible implications of Brexit for the policy agendas around 'rebalancing' and 'the Northern Powerhouse', which are predicated upon a resurgence of manufacturing industries in the North of England.

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Analysing endeavours to restructure welfare provision, Paul Pierson proposes that the 'politics of retrenchment' is very different from the politics of welfare expansion. In particular, the difficulties of welfare retrenchment are not to be explained by existing theories of welfare expansion; and the 'old' politics of welfare expansion has little to offer in explaining the 'new' politics of welfare retrenchment. This article questions these claims. First, contemporary societal developments are considered in the light of three major theories advanced to explain the emergence of welfare states in Western Europe: the logic-of-industrialism, the crisis of capitalism, and nation-building. Secondly, focusing on trade unions, mainstream left parties, and traditions of governance, the current status of the political forces regarded as vital in building welfare states is assessed. The conclusion drawn is that the resilience of the welfare state in Western Europe lies less in the 'new' politics of 'policy lock in' and 'client interest groups' than in the persistence of the 'old' forces that led to the founding and expansion of welfare states. (European Journal of Political Research / FUB)