10/28/2020 University Journal - March 2014 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol17no6/index.html 1/8 March 2014 Vol. 17 No. 6 Arts | FYI | Newsmakers | Service | Sports FEATURE STORY: Diversity Forum addresses race relations A day-long forum to address the challenges in exploring the importance of diversity on campus was hosted Feb. 19 byPresident Castro and the President's Commission on Human Relations and Equity. See the full story with video here. Dr. Frank Lamas is new vice president for Student Affairs President Joseph I. Castro has appointed Frank R. Lamas as the new vice president forStudent Affairs effective July 1, 2014. Lamas, who has more than 30 years of administrativeexperience in higher education, has been vice president for Student Affairs and dean ofstudents at the University of Texas at Arlington for nearly nine years. A native of Havana, Cuba,and raised in Syracuse, N.Y., he is a first-generation college student. Read the full story. Provost search nets three finalists Fresno State's nationwide search for a provost and vice president for Academic Affairs hasresulted in three finalists who will visit the campus to meet with faculty, staff and students. The new provost will succeedDr. William A. Covino, who became president of California State University, Los Angeles in September. The candidates are: Dr. Christopher Ingersoll, dean of the College of Health Professions – Central Michigan University Dr. Scott Ryan, dean of the School of Social Work – The University of Texas at Arlington Dr. Lynnette Zelezny, associate provost – California State University, Fresno Construction begins on Campus Pointe retail phase, 'The Squ are' Construction of Fresno's newest retail center was formally launchedon Feb. 10 with groundbreaking for "The Square at Campus Pointe."The first 12 business tenants were announced for the project onChestnut north of Shaw, near the Save Mart Center and Highway168.10/28/2020 University Journal - March 2014 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol17no6/index.html 2/8 The Square is the next phase of the 45-acre mixed-use developmentCampus Pointe project, a public/private partnership between theCalifornia State University, Fresno Association, Inc. and KashianEnterprises, the master developer of the project. Read the full story . President Castro, Chancellor White speak at African-American churches Chancellor Timothy P.White and PresidentJoseph I. Castro spoke atAfrican-American churchesSunday, Feb. 16, as part of CSU Super Sunday — the flagship event of the CSU African-American Initiative that focuses on closing the collegeachievement gap for African-American students. Throughout California, CSU campus presidents, trustees, the chancellor andother higher education officials spoke from the pulpit about college readinessand the possibilities for obtaining financial aid. Launched in 2005, CSU SuperSunday is an annual event where leaders throughout the 23 CSU campuseswork together in a united effort to give underrepresented students the toolsneeded to successfully enter college. To date, almost 500,000 churchgoershave received information about financial aid, been introduced to the 23 CSUcampuses and learned how to achieve academic success at the university. Read the full story and view photo gallery . FACULTY / STAFF SPOTLIGHT Madhusudan Katti's international research team uncovers urban biodive Can thriving urban areas support biodiversity in plants and birds?Surprisingly, yes, according to worldwide research findings ofFresno State Associate Professor Madhusudan Katti and aninternational team. The findings were published in the biologicalresearch journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. Contrary toconventional wisdom that cities are a wasteland for biodiversity, thestudy found that overall the mix of species in cities reflects theunique biotic heritage of their geographic location. See the fullstory . Benjamin Boone takes music education to the masses Music Professor Benjamin Boone, a composer and accomplished jazzmusician, has been drawing headlines for his "Inside the Music" pre-concertlectures with the Fresno Philharmonic. The lecture series was recentlyfeatured in the Fresno Bee . See the full story . John Capitman appointed to air quality board Dr. John Capitman, executive director for the Central Valley HealthPolicy Institute, was appointed by California Governor Jerry Brown to theSan Joaquin Valley Unified Air Pollution Control District GoverningBoard. See the full story . FYI 10/28/2020 University Journal - March 2014 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol17no6/index.html 3/8 First Jensen Pistachio professor joins plant science faculty A $1.5 million pledge last year from the California Pistachio Research Board to the Jordan Collegeof Agricultural Sciences and Technology brings Dr. Timothy Spann to Fresno State conductadvanced research and education for the pistachio industry. Read the full story. Inventory of keys is coming; watch for email A campus-wide inventory of keys will be conducted in coming weeks. All administrators, staff andfaculty will receive an email from Bob Boyd, associate vice president of Facilities Management, asking you to logon to awebpage to report the physical keys you have. This information will be reconciled against the Lockshop records.Thisinventory process will also provide you a convenient opportunity to return any keys no longer needed. If you have anyquestions about this process, contact the Lockshop at 278.2172. View a short video on this project. On-site Employee Assistance Program counselor taking appointments Fresno State has selected an on-site, part-time Employee Assistance Program counselor, David Crabtree, throughEmpathia our current provider of EAP services. Appointment times are available 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. on Monday , Tuesday , Thursday and Friday . A licensed clinical social worker, Crabtree is available to provide counseling services to all activefaculty, staff and their family members. His direct phone is 278.1655 and email address is dcrabtree@csufresno.edu . Hisoffice is Lab School Room 185 (confidential side door entry for scheduled appointments). Advancement team wins four communications awards The Council for Advancement and Support of Education (CASE) Western district awarded four honors for excellence toFresno State's Division of Advancement. The university earned a silver award for a magazine insert on former universityPresident John D. Welty. Bronze awards were earned by the Fresno State Alumni Association for the "What Day Is It? It'sHump Day!" video, University Communications editor Eddie Hughes for a Fresno State Magazine story introducing newuniversity President Joseph I. Castro and photographer Cary Edmondson for a water image of Fresno State footballplayer Davante Adams . The awards were presented by the CASE District VII, which represents universities in Arizona,California, Guam, Hawaii, Nevada, Northern Mariana Islands and Utah. Provost's Awards nominations due April 4 Nominations are being accepted through April 4 for the Provost's Awards for the 2013-2014 academic year. Students,faculty, and staff are encouraged to submit nominations of full-time tenured and tenure-track faculty, or an academicprogram for the Assessment of Learning award. Nominations may be submitted in the following categories: Excellence in Teaching Technology in Education Graduate Teaching and Mentoring Faculty Service Distinguished Achievement in Research, Scholarship, or Creative Accomplishment Promising New Faculty Award Distinguished Achievement in Assessment of Learning (Department award) Nomination forms and instructions are available online and in the Office of the Provost, Haak Administration CenterRoom 4116, Henry Madden Library, 4th floor. Peach Blossom Festival is March 13-14 The 56th annual Peach Blossom Festival of Oral Interpretation will be March 13-14 at various locations on campus withapproximately 6,000 children representing nearly 200 San Joaquin Valley elementary schools. The event is hosted by theDepartment of Communication. For more information call 8-4419 or go to www.peachblossomfestival.com . Secret Garden party and Leo Politi Garden rededication, April 13 The Arne Nixon Center Advocates (ANCA) invites you to attend the annual Secret Garden party and Leo Politi Gardenrededicationon April 13, from 3 to 5 p.m. at the Politi Garden on the east side of the Madden Library. The party is ANCA'smajor annual fundraising event, with all profits going to the Arne Nixon Center. Leo Politi was the Caldecott Award-winning illustrator and/or author of over three dozen books. A Fresno native whorelocated to Los Angeles, he was a good friend of Professor Arne Nixon often returned to Fresno to participate in Nixon'schildren's literature classes and festivals. The Politi Garden was created with funds raised by ANCA to honor the specialfriendship between the two men. Paul Politi and Suzanne Bischof, the son and daughter of the late Leo Politi, will attendthe rededication. For more information or to make reservations, please send email to jsanford@csufresno.edu . CLEAR launches a new peer-reviewed journal The Center for Leadership, Equity and Research (CLEAR) has launched " The CLEARvoz Journal ," a quarterly peer-reviewed journal focused on equity issues in education. The online, scholarly journal seeks to promote research in10/28/2020 University Journal - March 2014 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol17no6/index.html 4/8 elementary, secondary and postsecondary schools with articles that address a range of topics including advocacy, equity,mentoring, diversity and engagement. Read the full story . STAR Day is May 29 The annual Staff Training And Recognition – STAR – Day will be held May 29 . STAR Day is designed to commemoratethe end of a successful year, promote staff development and recognize the accomplishments of our campus staff. Theevent will include a guest speaker, professional development workshops, a service recognition awards ceremony, staffluncheon and a vendor fair. Watch for upcoming email announcements about the event and visit the website for updates. Grants offer new opportunities for nurse practitioner students The College of Health and Human Services was awarded nearly $300,000 ingrants to help fill a regional void of primary health care providers. The grantswere awarded by the Song-Brown Commission, which encourages universitiesand health care professionals to provide quality health care in underservedareas. Read the full story . BRAND BULLETIN Social media and branding elements By Susan Hawksworth Continuing and Global Education Many departments and programs are activelycommunicating by using social media, such asFacebook, Twitter or LinkedIn. According to Dr. TamyraPierce, director of Social Media and IntegratedMarketing, there are nearly 100 Facebook pages andapproximately 50 Twitter accounts associated withFresno State. However, having a good social media presence is morethan just "having" a site. It's important to buildconnectionsand engagement. In addition, any site associated withFresno State should also include the correct use ofbranding elements. Pierce conducted an analysis of the known sites affiliatedwith Fresno State and found that some still feature the old Fresno State and no longer approved sunburst logo orthe university seal. Some sites are using the correct new logo, but it has been improperly condensed to fit theexisting space or cropped. The University Communications office has digital versions of the new logo, sized for use on the various socialmedia sites. They are available by emailing brand@csufresno.edu. "We encourage anyone who is theadministrator of a social media site to help promote our branding efforts by using the appropriate logo and thecorrect name of the university," Pierce says. The content analysis of various social media sites found that many of them are using the university nameincorrectly (CSUF, CSU Fresno, Fresno State University, FSU, for example). We encourage everyone to useFresno State in social media to increase search results. FS is permitted on Twitter and Instagram due to characterrestrictions. CSUF is now affiliated with Fullerton and should not be used (FYI, @CSUF is Fullerton's twitterhandle). "Through our Integrated Marketing Communications work over the past two years, we have designated the use ofeither Fresno State or California State University, Fresno for our name," Pierce said. "Consistency with our logoand name help strengthen our brand." It's a good idea to review your department's or unit's Facebook page(s) and website(s) to ensure the properbranding is used. If you're not sure whether the branding is correct, review the brand guidelines( www.fresnostate.edu/brand ) or contact Dr. Pierce at tpierce@csufresno.edu . S10/28/2020 University Journal - March 2014 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol17no6/index.html 5/8 Spring into Service, March 22 The campus community is encouraged to participate in a Fresno State morning of service on Saturday, March 22 from 8-12:30 p.m. As part of the campus-wide "Spring into Service" event, volunteers are needed to complete service projectsincluding tree and shrub planting, and installation of a water wise demonstration garden. Families are encouraged tovolunteeer. Please fill out the Spring into Service 2014-Volunteer Registration Form . Volunteer space is limited and filledon a first come, first serve basis. For questions please contact Renee Delport at rdelport@csufresno.edu or 278.7063. STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT Lopez named campus first-ever Gates Cambridge Scholar Senior Stephanie Gabriela Lopez was awarded the Gates Cambridge Scholarship, afull-ride graduate scholarship to Cambridge University, making her the first FresnoState student to receive the prestigious academic honor. The scholarship is awardedto 95 students worldwide each year. Lopez is one of 40 United States studentsrepresenting 35 institutions. Read the full story. Student wins College Entrepeneur of the Year Award Student Roe Borunda, will receive the College Entrepreneur of the Year Award fromthe Greater Fresno Area Chamber of Commerce for her hatchery-assisted business,Roetography. Borunda is a senior, double major (Art and Mass Communication andJournalism) from Fresno whose company was one of four selected to be recognized atthe chamber's Valley Business Awards Luncheon in March. "If it wasn't for programs like the Lyles Center Student Hatchery and faculty and staffmembers at Fresno State to help push me in the direction of my dreams, I probablywould have never known the sky can be the limit," Borunda said. A Absurd Masterworks , March 14-22 The Theatre Arts Department presents three pieces by the masters of Absurdist theatre, Samuel Beckett and Eugene Ionesco, March 14-22 at the Dennis & Cheryl Woods Theatre. The style of theplays ranges from tragic to comic--from meditations on an adulterous affair to asatire of modern suburban living that morphs into a living puppet show. Other University Theatre productions: Experimental Theatre Company, April 4-6 For Young Audiences - The Velveteen Rabbit, April 5 University Dance Theatre, April 24-26 Othello, by William Shakespeare , directed by Brad Myers , May 2-10. All performances begin at 8 p.m., except for Sunday matinees, which begin at 2p.m. ID must be presented to claim discounted tickets. Tickets can be purchasednoon-4 p.m. Monday-Friday at the University Theatre Box Office at the northentrance of the Speech Arts Building, 278.2216. View ticket information . Other Music events in March: Wind Orchestra Concert, March 6 Keyboard Concerts -Sergei Babayan & Danil Trifonov, March 7 Jazz Bands, March 13 Orpheus Chamber Music Ensemble and El Cimarrón Ensemble present NOTHING and more, March 15 Saxes at Stage, March 18 The Frenso State Guitarists, March 28 Guitar Festival, March 28 Fresno State Symphonic Band Concert, April 210/28/2020 University Journal - March 2014 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol17no6/index.html 6/8 See ticket information. 'Turning Pages: Intersections of Books and Technology' is March 24-May 30 The Arne Nixon Center for the Study of Children's Literature and the Special Collections Research Center will host"Turning Pages: Intersections of Books and Technology." The exhibition will be held in the Leon S. Peters Ellipse Gallery,March 24 - May 30. The Special Collections division has teamed up with the Center for Creativity and the Arts tocollaborate with this year's chosen theme of Data and Technology. Technologies new, old and reinterpreted have altered the paradigm of the book since its inception. From creation andcontent to format itself, the collective notion of the book, a benign object, is continually changing. "Turning Pages" willprovide a glimpse into some of the ways in which technology has radicalized books and bookmaking. Exhibition artistsinclude Thomas Allen, Su Blackwell, Brian Dettmer, Pamela Paulsrud, and Mike Stilkey. A reception to celebrate the exhibition's opening will be held on Friday, March 28, at 6:00 p.m. at the Madden Library2206. A presentation by book artist Mike Stilkey will begin at 7 p.m. The event is free and open to the public. Relaxedparking for the event in Lots P30 and P31. To RSVP email jsanford@csufresno.edu or call the Arne Nixon Center at278.8116. N Wade Gilbert (Kinesiology) will co-present on "Athletic Talent Development: Current Status and FutureDirections" at the U.S. Olympic Academy on April 15 in Los Angeles. The academy will togetherscholars and students, athletes and administrators, business experts and leading mediaauthorities to discuss important Olympic issues. Nitaigour "Prem" Mahalik (Industrial Technology) received a $500,000 grant from the Department of Defense to acquireequipment and instrumentation to further the university's ability to teach and research emphasizingsensing and control. Blain Roberts (History) and Ethan J. Kytle (History) were askedby the New York Times to write about the Central Valley drought. Withinhours of publication online, it was the third most-emailed, the ninth most-viewed and the 10th most-tweeted story. Read the column. A new book by Roberts (History)," Pageants, Parlors, andPretty Women: Race and Beauty in the Twentieth-Century South," was published by the University of NorthCarolina Press. Read more . Asao Inoue (English) won a 2014 Outstanding Book Award in the Edited Collection category for his book,"Race and Writing Assessment" from the Conference on College Composition andCommunication, a constituent organization within the National Council of Teachers of English(NCTE). The award honors books within the field of composition and rhetoric. 10/28/2020 University Journal - March 2014 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol17no6/index.html 7/8 Nancy Akhavan (Kremen School) is the editor of the inaugural issue of CLEARVoz, the peer reviewed journal ofFresno State's Center for Leadership, Equity, and Research (CLEAR). Read the Journal. Steve Spriggs (University Development) challenged a $165 fine for using his cellphone map application whilestuck in traffic and has won an appellate court ruling that Californians can use cellpohnes to look atmap applications while driving. He does not encourage cellphone usage while driving, but hopesthat California legislators will now revisit the issue and fix it. Spriggs story has been widely carried inthe media. Read the USA Today story . S Baseball, softball, basketball and lacrosse are in store thisMarch Don't miss out on the Bulldog action as it offers plenty of opportunities forour veterans, faculty and staff, and your family. Baseball Tuesday, March 11 at 6:35 p.m. vs. Penn State - Season ticket holderappreciation. Wednesday, March 12 at 6:35 p.m. vs. Penn State - Season ticket holderappreciation Friday, March 14 at 6:35 p.m. vs. New Mexico - Alumni Night . Saturday, March 15 at 2:05 p.m. vs. New Mexico - Youth Jersey Saturday . Youth wearing jerseys receive free admission Sunday, March 16 at 1:05 p.m. vs. New Mexico - St. Patty's Kick Off/ Saluteto Sundays . Free admission for all active military and veterans . Kids runbases. Tuesday, March 18 at 6:35 p.m. vs. California - Staff and Facultyappreciation night. Free admission for all staff and faculty. Honor professors. Wednesday, March 19 at 6:35 p.m. vs. BYU Tuesday, March 25 at 6:35 p.m. vs. UC Santa Barbara - Greek night, Tankgiveaway. Softball Thursday, March 13 at 5 p.m. vs. Pacific. Social Media Madness - 2-1 Ticketdeal for fans following Fresno Athletics. Friday, March 14 at 6 p.m. vs. Ohio State - Dog Pound Night/Youth JerseyFriday - Youths wearing jersey receive free admission . Meet the Team post-game. Saturday, March 15 at 3:45 p.m. vs. Cal Poly - Throwback Night/AlumnaeNight Saturday, March 15 at 8:15 p.m. vs. New Mexico State - ThrowbackNight/Alumnae Night Sunday, March 16 at 3:45 p.m. vs. Saint Mary's College - Free Admissionfor all Veterans and active military. Kids run the bases . Friday, March 28 at 6 p.m. vs. Utah State . Strike Out Cancer/Youth JerseyFriday -Youth Wearing Jersey get free admission. First 5 Fresno Countybook drive. Saturday, March 29 at 6 p.m. vs. Utah State. Strike Out Cancer . Blood Drive - First 5 Fresno County Book Drive. Sunday, March 30 at 1 p.m. vs. Utah State - Strike Out Cancer. Freeadmission for all veterans and active military. First 5 Fresno County bookdrive . Kids run bases post-game. Freshman autograph signing post-game. Women's Basketball Friday, March 7 at 7 p.m. vs. San Jose State - Free Admission by Redeeming Voucher (Found at gobulldogs.com) to10/28/2020 University Journal - March 2014 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol17no6/index.html 8/8 Ticket Office . T-Shirt In-Game Giveaway. Kids Fun Activity Zone-bounce house, face painting, and more . Mutts in Motionhalftime Performance. Lacrosse Wednesday, March 5 at 5 p.m. vs. Stanford - Dog Pound/Greek Night . Sunglasses giveaway. Saturday, March 8 at 12 p.m. vs. Colorado - Youth Day : Kids fun activity zone- bounce, face painting, and more . Autograph card giveaway . Team autograph session post-game Wednesday, March 19 at 2 p.m. vs. Columbia - Staff and Faculty appreciation day . Tote bag giveaway . HonoringProfessors. Friday, March 28 at 5 p.m. vs. USC - Alumnae Night. The Journal is published online by the Office of University Communications the first day of each month – or the weekday closest to the first – fromSeptember through May. The deadline for submissions to Journal is 10 days prior to the first of each month. Please e-mail submissions to journal@csufresno.edu . You may include digital photos, video clips or audio clips that are publishable online. Phone messages, PDFs, faxes, andprinted hard copies will not be accepted. President , Joseph I. Castro Vice President for University Advancement , Peter N. Smits Associate Vice President for University Communications , Shirley Melikian Armbruster Director of University Web Communications and Publications , Bruce Whitworth Editorial Coordinator , Margarita Adona • Photographer , Cary Edmondson • Videographer , Randy Haar • Contributor , April Schulthies Web Coordinator , Kevin Medeiros • Editorial Adviser , Angel Langridge Production Assistant , Leilani Esqueda Archives | Academic Calendar | FresnoStateNews | Journal Deadlines | University Communications Print this Page
Author's introductionAlthough criminologists have long dominated the field of school violence research, there has been a growing body of research by cultural sociologists in this area as well. In many ways, a cultural approach to understanding school violence has taken school violence beyond the realm of just criminal and physical acts of violence. These scholars have begun to examine verbal, emotional, sexual, and racial expressions violence, as well as violence that is perpetuated by institutions, what Bourdieu has called symbolic violence. Courses that take this perspective explore how cultural concepts, or what Swidler calls a 'cultural toolkit', can be used as a lens for analyzing the experiences and practices of school violence. This can include, for example, an examination of how the dominant American ideology of meritocracy and competition can foster fights between middle school students, or how a feminine identity might push girls to be relationally aggressive towards each other rather than physically aggressive. In this regard, cultural sociology broadens our understanding of what constitutes school violence to uncover a wide spectrum of behaviors, attitudes and beliefs that may indeed lead to more overt expressions of violence. In doing so, a cultural approach can also help educators rethink discipline policies that have been created to resolve this social problem.Author recommendsSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review51: 273–86.Swidler's concept of a cultural toolkit provides a strong foundation for any cultural sociology course. Swidler defines a cultural toolkit as the symbols, stories, rituals, beliefs, ideologies and practices of daily life through which people use to shape their behavior. This paper presents a broad understanding of culture, which Swidler argues is not a unified system, but rather a set of complex and changing concepts from which we select different pieces from in order to construct different strategies of actions. When considering cultural approaches to school violence, it is useful to consider this broad definition of culture.Henry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.'Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science567: 16–30.Henry provides a definition of school violence that transcends physical violence and interpersonal violence between students to include psychological, emotional, ethical and moral violence that occurs not only between students, but also includes harm committed by teachers and organizations against students. This latter form of harm can include tracking, school security, sexual harassment, or essentially anything that hinders the creativity, learning and academic success of a student. Henry argues that school violence must include symbolic violence, which he defines as the use of authority, power, and coercion to dominate an individual or group of people.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Ferguson builds on Bourdieu's concept of symbolic violence and Foucault's theory of disciplinary power to examine an intervention program for 'at‐risk' students, which was comprised of mainly 5th and 6th grade African‐American males. Her ethnography provides a great example of the benefit of using a cultural approach to studying violence, discipline and punishment in schools. For example, Ferguson argues that fighting among boys should be seen as a symbolic expression of masculinity and a space for boys to do emotional work, as well as a site for the production of power and a form of resistance to authority. Her work also explores how teachers and administrators can enact a form of symbolic violence onto students. She observed how the cultural behaviors of African‐American boys, for example, their use of Black English, was often translated by the teachers as 'problem behavior' and resulted in their label of 'Troublemaker'. Such labels often condemned the boys to the bottom rung of the social order and negatively impacted their academic success.Spina, Stephanie Urso, ed. 2000. Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.This edited collection examines school violence as a complicated and multi‐faceted phenomenon, exploring how political, economic, ideological and discursive practices contribute to school violence. This interdisciplinary book includes chapters from Donna Gaines, Henry Giroux, Peter McLaren, Stanley Aronowitz, and Paulo Freire and Donald Macedo. The authors expand the definition of violence by arguing that youth violence, adult violence and societal violence are all intricately connected, and therefore prevention of school violence would requires educators to move beyond reform that only takes place in the school system. Instead, violence prevention needs to implore a broader strategy for change that includes schools, families, communities, and beyond.Brown, Lyn Mikel 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. New York, NY: New York University Press.Mikel Brown conducted qualitative interviews with more than 400 girls from first grade through high school who were from different economic, racial and geographic backgrounds. She begins the book by analyzing the cultural messages that girls receive in the media; messages and images that she argues provide girls with a context for fighting among their peers. She draws on Paulo Freire's notion of horizontal violence to look at how girls' meanness to other girls is a result of their struggle to make sense of gender‐saturated images of beauty and heterosexuality that often reinforce their subordinate status in the world. Girlfighting then becomes an avenue to power for young girls in a culture that is rife with sexism. Unlike many other recent books on relational aggression among girls, Mikel Brown interrogates the complicated intersections of race, ethnicity, and class as it relates to girlfighting.Casella, Ronnie 2001. 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Casella's ethnography of Brandon High School, a small city school in a diverse neighborhood in upstate New York, takes a cultural‐ecological approach to school violence, capturing systemic, interpersonal and hidden forms of violence. He provides a thoughtful critique of intervention strategies that have been created to deal with school violence, such as peer mediation programs, the use of police officers in the hallways, and D.A.R.E. programs, because these programs only address individual acts of violence and do not account for the realities of urban environments, prejudice, economic injustice and poverty that underlie and contribute to school violence.Merten, Don E. 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly25(1): 29–43.Don Merten has published several articles that provide a useful framework for examining aggressive behavior from a cultural standpoint. The data from this article come from a larger ethnographic project of predominantly middle class students in a suburban area who recently transitioned from elementary to junior high school. Merten argues that middle class culture promotes and celebrates individualism, success and hierarchy, which in turn creates a culture that promotes aggressive behavior among students, because students learn that meanness can be an easy avenue for gaining power and status in the hierarchy of cliques in schools.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives48(1): 25–48.Morris draws on Bourdieu's classic reproduction theory to look at the relationship between cultural capital and bodily discipline as it relates specifically to clothing styles and manners. This article is based on an ethnographic study of an urban middle school in Texas that recently enlisted a 'Standard Mode of Dress' uniform policy. The regulation of dress became a constant source of conflict between the students and staff at the school, but had the most punitive effect on poor and racially ethnic minority students, whose cultural styles tended to be negatively stereotyped by the teachers. These students were more likely to punished for violating the policy, even though all social class and racial groups, to some degree, violated the policy. This harsher punishment engendered resistance and alienation among the minority students, which Morris argues had the potential of pushing these students away from school, further reproducing the very inequalities that the school was trying to change.Online materials http://nces.ed.gov/programs/crimeindicators/crimeindicators2008/ The National Center for Education Statistics puts out an annual report on indicators of School Crime and Safety. The indicators in this report are based on information drawn from a variety of data sources, including national surveys of students, teachers, and principals. The report covers not just overt forms of school violence, such as bringing a weapon to school, fighting, and teacher injuries, but also covers bullying, victimization, student perceptions of school safety, and availability and use of drugs and alcohol. http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/index.htm The Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance System is a school‐based survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The survey is conducted every 2 years and provides a representative sample of 9th through 12th graders in public and private schools in the United States. The YRBSS asks a wide variety of questions, but most relevant to school violence include self‐reported responses about behaviors that might lead to unintentional injuries and violence, such as carrying a weapon to school, being threatened by a weapon or being in a fight on school grounds. These data serve a useful comparison between student self‐reporting of violent behavior and school reporting of incidents of school violence. http://www.sshs.samhsa.gov/default.aspx The Safe Schools/Healthy Students website is a federal initiative by the U.S. Departments of Education, Justice, and Health and Human Services. It provides many useful resources, including links federal reports on school safety, a list of related websites, and video podcast discussions of school violence that can be used in the classroom. http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/uslgbt/toc.htm 'Hatred in the Hallways: Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Students in U.S. Schools' is a report conducted by the Human Rights Watch. Data consists of interviews with 140 students, ages 12–21, and 130 parents, teachers, administrators and counselors across seven states, in every region of the U.S. The findings discuss a broad spectrum of violent behavior, including verbal harassment, homophobia, and physical violence. It can be useful for classroom discussion because each finding section of the report includes a 'case study' of one of the participants with direct quotes from their interview. http://www.aauw.org/research/hostile.cfm 'Hostile Hallways: Bullying, Teasing and Sexual Harassment in School' is a national report conducted by American Association of University Women on 8th to 11th grade students. The study found that 8 in 10 students experienced some form of harassment during their time in school. Both the executive summary and entire report are available to download on the website.Sample syllabusCourse outline and selected reading assignmentsSection 1: Introduction to cultural sociologyDefining CultureSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review 51: 273–86.Jepperson, Ronald and Ann Swidler 1994. 'What Properties of Culture Should We Measure?'Poetics 22: 359–71.Cultural Capital and Symbolic ViolenceBourdieu, Pierre and Jean‐Claude Passeron 1977. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London: Sage.Lareau, Annette, and Elliott B. Weininger 2003. 'Cultural Capital in Educational Research: A Critical Assessment.'Theory and Society 32: 567–606.Reproduction TheoryMacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 2, 'Social Reproduction in Theoretical Perspective.' Pp. 11–24 and Chapter 8, 'Reproduction Theory Reconsidered,' pp. 135–54.Cultural PedagogyGiroux, Henry 2000. 'Representations of Violence, Popular Culture and Demonization of Youth.' Pp. 93–105 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. Edited by Stephanie Urso Spina. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 2: Broadening the definition of school violenceHenry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.' Annals of the American Academy of Political and social Science 567: 16–30.Watkinson, Ailsa 1997. 'Administrative Complicity and Systemic Violence in Education.' Pp. 3–24 in Systemic Violence in Education: Promise Broken. Edited by Juanita Ross Epp and Ailsa M. Watkinson. Albany, NY: State University of NY Press.Urso Spina, Stephanie 2000. 'Violence in Schools: Expanding the Dialogue.' Pp. 1–40 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and LittlefieldCasella, Ronnie 2001. 'What is Violent about School Violence? The Nature of Violence in a City School.' Pp. 15–46 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Edited by Joan Burstyn. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Elliott, Delbert S., Beatrix Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams 1998. 'Violence in American Schools: An Overview.' Pp. 3–30 in Violence in American Schools. Edited by Delbert S. Elliott, Beatrix A. Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part I, Chapters 1–3, pp. 3–76.Section 3: Ideology and aggressionMerten, Don 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly, v. 25 (1): 29–43.Willis, Paul 1977. Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. Farnborough, England: Saxon House.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part II, Chapters 4–7, pp. 77–178.MacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 6, 'School: Preparing for Competition,' pp. 83–111.Devine, John 1997. Maximum Security: The Culture of Violence in Inner‐City Schools. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Read Chapter 1, 'Schools or 'Schools'? Competing Discourses on Violence,' pp. 19–46.Section 4: Cultural scripts – masculinityKimmel, Michael S. and Matthew Mahler 2003. 'Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence.'The American Behavioral Scientist 46(10): 1439–58.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 4, 'Naughty by Nature,' pp. 77–99 and Chapter 6, 'Getting into Trouble,' pp. 163–96.Bender, Geoff 2001. 'Resisting Dominance? The Study of a Marginalized Masculinity and its Construction within High School Walls.' Pp. 61–78 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Klein, Jessi and Lynn S. Chancer 2000. 'Masculinity Matters: The Omission of Gender from High‐Profile School Violence Cases.' Pp. 129–62 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 5: Cultural scripts – femininityEder, Donna 1985. 'The Cycle of Popularity: Interpersonal Relations among Female Adolescents.'Sociology of Education 58(3): 154–65.Merten, Don 1997. 'The Meaning of Meanness: Popularity, Competition, and Conflict Among Junior High School Girls.'Sociology of Education 70(3): 175–91.Merten, Don 2005. 'Transitions and 'Trouble': Rites of Passage for Suburban Girls.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 36(2): 132–48.Artz, Sibylle 2004. 'Violence in the Schoolyard: School Girls' Use of Violence.' Pp. 167–90 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities, edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Morris, Edward W. 2007. ''Ladies' or 'Loudies'? Perceptions and Experiences of Black Girls in Classrooms.'Youth & Society 38: 490–515.Mikel Brown, Lyn 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. NY: New York University Press.Section 6: Culture resources and school violence – languageLanguage and Symbolic ViolenceFerguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 7, 'Unreasonable Circumstances,' pp. 197–226.Youth Talk about ViolenceDiket, Read M. and Linda G. Mucha 2002. 'Talking about Violent Images.'Art Education March: 11–7.Morrill, Calvin, Christine Yalds, Madelaine Adelman, Michael Musheno, and Cindy Bejarano 2000. 'Telling Tales in School: Youth Culture and Conflict Narratives.'Law & Society Review 34(3): 521–65.Burman, Michele 2004. 'Turbulent Talk: Girls Making Sense of Violence.' Pp. 81–103 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities. Edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Obidah, Jennifer 2000. 'On Living (and Dying) with Violence: Entering Young Voices in the Discourse.' Pp. 49–66 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 7: Culture resources and school violence – clothingClothing and School Safety DebatesHolloman, Lillian and Velma LaPoint, Sylvan I. Alleyne, Ruth J. Palmer, and Kathy Sanders‐Phillips 1996. 'Dress‐Related Behavioral Problems and Violence in Public School Settings: Prevention, Intervention, and Policy—A Holistic Approach.'The Journal of Negro Education 65(3): 267–281.Stanley, M. Sue 1996. 'School Uniforms and Safety.'Education and Urban Society 28(4): 424–35.Gereluk, Dianne 2008. 'Limiting Free Speech in the United States.' Pp. 41–64 in Symbolic Clothing in Schools: What Should Be Worn and Why. New York, NY: Continuum.Brunsma, David L., ed. 2006. Uniforms in Public Schools: A Decade of Research and Debate. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.Clothing, School Policies and Symbolic ViolenceHorvat, Erin McNamara 1999. '"Hey, Those Shoes are Out of Uniform": African American Girls in an Elite High School and the Importance of Habitus.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 30(3): 317–42.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives 48(1): 25–48.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 3, 'School Rules,' pp. 49–73.FilmsTough guise: violence, media, and the crisis in masculinity (2002)This Media Education Foundation film explores the relationship between popular culture and the construction of violent masculinity. Of particular relevance to this class, the film examines how the construction of masculinity relates to school shootings. The film is directed by Sut Jhally and narrated by Jackson Katz. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.Wrestling with manhood: boys, bullying and battering (2004)This Media Education Foundation film, written and directed by Sut Jhally, examines the relationship between professional wrestling and the construction of masculinity. The film looks at how wrestling contributes to homophobia, violence against women and bullying in school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.School violence: answers from the inside (2000)This film originally aired on PBS''In the Mix,' a television series created by and for teens. The film examines stereotyping and conflict in schools through the eyes and voices of teenagers attending a diverse suburban high school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Resources – Language.The killer at Thurston high (2000)This PBS Frontline film focuses on Kip Kinkel, who in 1998, at the age of 15, shot his mother and father, and then opened fire at his school in Springfield, Oregon, killing two and injuring 25. He is currently serving 111 years in prison. The film provides an understanding of the tragedy through multiple viewpoints, including interviews with Kip's sister, teachers and psychiatrists. This film could be used in the section Broadening the Definition of School Violence.Mean girls (2004)Written by Tina Fey and based on Rosalind Wiseman's book, Queen Bees and Wannabes: Helping Your Daughter Survive Cliques, Gossip, Boyfriends, and Other Realities of Adolescence, this fictional account of 'mean girls' is a film that most college students will be familiar with. Clips from the film can be used in the section Cultural Scripts—Femininity to begin a discussion about relational aggression between girls in schools. It can also be used to examine the role that racism and classism play in our public perception of violent behavior, particularly since 'mean girls' in this film tend to be constructed as white and upper class, whereas in contrast, 'violent girls' in film have historically been constructed as poor, young women of color.Project ideas1. Social Policy and Intervention. This assignment is intended to get students critically thinking about how educators approach school violence. Have students pick either a national intervention program, such as D.A.R.E., or a local school policy created to deal with school violence. Begin by analyzing how school violence is defined and what type of intervention/prevention is being proposed. Require students to use a cultural approach to understand and critique the policy. In writing the paper, students should consider the following questions. How would a cultural sociologist define violence? What types of violence are missing from this policy? How would this policy be different if it took into account a cultural approach? The book, 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools (2001) by Ronnie Casella provides a good background resource for completing this assignment.2. Observation Project: Clothing and School Safety. Students will begin by gaining permission to observe at a local middle school or high school. Begin by analyzing the school policy towards clothing. Some schools might have an official uniform policy, whereas others might have policies regarding certain types of clothing (i.e. gang clothing, clothing with profanity, etc.) Next, spend several days observing students in non‐classroom settings, like the hallways, cafeteria, bus or playground. Take detailed fieldnotes. Pay particular attention to the clothing that students wear, any discussion made about clothing by either students or teachers, the relationship between clothing and identity, how clothes are used as a site of resistance, and how clothes might cause conflict between students, or between students and teachers. (You may also want to informally interview students about their perception of the school's policy on clothing, how they negotiate rules about clothing, and how they see clothing policies as contributing to conflict and violence, as well as school safety.) As a class, develop a coding scheme for the fieldnotes. Each student will then individually write an analysis paper on the relationship between clothing, conflict, discipline policies, and school violence.3. Mean Girls: Examining Relational Aggression in Schools. There has been much public attention in recent years to 'mean girls.' As a class, view the film Mean Girls during the course section, Cultural Scripts – Femininity. As a class, develop an interview guide with about six open‐ended questions (i.e. What were your experiences with 'mean girls' in high school? How did you or a close friend deal with being the victim of relational aggression? To what extent did you ever participate in being a 'mean girl'? How did teachers at your school respond to relational aggression between girls?) Next, have students interview six female students using the class interview guide. Students can work individually or in groups to write a paper that compares and contrasts the social construction of mean girls in the film with the actual perceptions of mean girls from their research participants. The analysis should be grounded in the social science research that students are reading on relational aggression.
Author's introductionThe media landscape has changed dramatically in recent decades, from one predominated by traditional mass communication formats to today's more personalized communications environment. Mobile telephony plays a central role in this transition, with adoption rates that surpass even those of the Internet. This article attempts to situate the role of mobile communication technology in the changing media environment by examining key areas of social change associated with its widespread diffusion and use. These areas include symbolic meaning of technology, new forms of coordination and social networking, personalization of public spaces, and the mobile youth culture. Drawing from these areas of change, we advance the argument that mobile telephony is iconic of a larger socio‐technological shift toward a new 'personal communication society.'Author recommendsRheingold, Howard 2002. Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books.From Tokyo to Helsinki, Manhattan to Manila, Howard Rheingold takes us on a journey around the world for a preview of the next techno‐cultural shift – a shift he predicts will be as dramatic as the widespread adoption of the PC in the 1980s and the Internet in the 1990s. The coming wave, says Rheingold, is the result of super‐efficient mobile communications – cellular phones, personal digital assistants, and wireless‐paging and Internet‐access devices that will allow us to connect with anyone, anywhere, anytime. From the amusing ('Lovegetty' devices in Japan that light up when a person with the right date‐potential characteristics appears in the vicinity) to the extraordinary (the overthrow of a repressive regime in the Philippines by political activists who mobilized by forwarding text messages via cell phones), Rheingold gives examples of the fundamentally new ways in which people are already engaging in group or collective action. He also considers the dark side of this phenomenon, such as the coordination of terrorist cells, threats to privacy, and the ability to incite violent behavior. Applying insights from sociology, artificial intelligence, engineering, and anthropology, Rheingold offers a penetrating perspective on the brave new convergence of pop culture, cutting‐edge technology, and social activism. At the same time, he reminds us that, as with other technological revolutions, the real impact of mobile communications will come not from the technology itself but from how people use it, resist it, adapt to it, and ultimately use it to transform themselves, their communities, and their institutions.Katz, James E. and Mark A. Aakhus (eds.) 2002. Perpetual Contact: Mobile Communication, Private Talk, Public Performance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.This edited volume contains a landmark collection of chapters from researchers all over the world. The book offers a multi‐national perspective on some of the key themes that were identified at the outset of the emergent new field of mobile communication studies, ranging from the private sphere of interpersonal relations to the public performance of social groups and structures. In their conclusion, the editors advance the theoretical orientation of Apparatgeist (translation: 'spirit of the machine') to explain cross‐cultural consistencies in how people conceptualize and use personal communication technologies such as the mobile phone.Ling, Rich 2004. The Mobile Connection: The Cell Phone's Impact on Society. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.This book, based on worldwide research involving tens of thousands of interviews and contextual observations, looks into the impact of the mobile communication on our daily lives. Areas of impact include accessibility, safety and security, coordination of social and business activities, use of public places, and the social emancipation of youth.Ito, Mizuko, Daisuke Okabe, and Misa Matsuda (eds.) 2005. Personal, Portable, Pedestrian: Mobile Phones in Japanese Life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.This edited volume explores how Japan's enthusiastic engagement with mobile technology has become part of its trendsetting popular culture. The chapters document the emergence, incorporation, and domestication of mobile communications in a wide range of social practices and institutions. The book first considers the social, cultural, and historical context of keitai (i.e., mobile phone) development in Japan, including its beginnings in youth pager use in the early 1990s. It then discusses the virtually seamless integration of keitai use into everyday life, contrasting it to the more escapist character of Internet use on the PC. Other essays suggest that the use of mobile communication reinforces ties between close friends and family, producing 'tele‐cocooning' by tight‐knit social groups. The book also discusses mobile phone manners and examines keitai use by copier technicians, multitasking housewives, and school children.Castells, Manuel, Mireia Fernandez‐Ardevol, Jack Linchuan Qiu and Araba Sey 2007. Mobile Communication and Society: A Global Perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.This book looks at how the possibility of multimodal communication from anywhere to anywhere at any time affects everyday life at home, at work, and at school, and raises broader concerns about politics and culture both global and local. Drawing on data gathered from around the world, the authors explore who has access to wireless technology, and why, and analyze the patterns of social differentiation seen in unequal access. They explore the social effects of wireless communication – what it means for family life, for example, when everyone is constantly in touch, or for the idea of an office when workers can work anywhere. The authors consider the rise of a mobile youth culture based on peer‐to‐peer networks, with its own language of texting, and its own values. They examine the phenomenon of flash mobs, and the possible political implications. And they look at the relationship between communication and development and the possibility that developing countries could 'leapfrog' directly to wireless and satellite technology. Drawing from a global body of research, the book helps answer the key questions about our transformation into a 'mobile network society'.Ling, Rich 2008. New Tech, New Ties: How Mobile Communication Reshapes Social Cohesion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.In New Tech, New Ties, Rich Ling examines how the mobile telephone affects both mobile‐mediated and face to face interactions. Ling finds that through the use of various social rituals the mobile telephone strengthens social ties within the circle of friends and family – sometimes at the expense of interaction with those who are physically present – and creates what he calls 'bounded solidarity'. Ling argues that mobile communication helps to engender and develop social cohesion within the family and the peer group. Drawing on the work of Emile Durkheim, Erving Goffman, and Randall Collins, Ling shows that ritual interaction is a catalyst for the development of social bonding. From this perspective, he examines how mobile communication affects face‐to‐face ritual situations and how ritual is used in interaction mediated by mobile communication. He looks at the evidence, including interviews and observations from around the world, which documents the effect of mobile communication on social bonding and also examines some of the other possibly problematic issues raised by tighter social cohesion in small groups.Katz, James E. (ed.) 2008. Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.This edited volume offers a comprehensive view of the cultural, family, and interpersonal consequences of mobile communication across the globe. Leading scholars analyze the effect of mobile communication on all parts of life, from the relationship between literacy and the textual features of mobile phones to the use of ringtones as a form of social exchange, from the 'aspirational consumption' of middle class families in India to the belief in parts of Africa and Asia that mobile phones can communicate with the dead. The contributors explore the ways mobile communication profoundly affects the tempo, structure, and process of daily life around the world. They discuss the impact of mobile communication on social networks, other communication strategies, traditional forms of social organization, and political activities. They consider how quickly miraculous technologies come to seem ordinary and even necessary – and how ordinary technology comes to seem mysterious and even miraculous. The chapters cut across social issues and geographical regions; they highlight use by the elite and the masses, utilitarian and expressive functions, and political and operational consequences. Taken together, the chapters demonstrate how mobile communication has affected the quality of life in both exotic and humdrum settings, and how it increasingly occupies center stage in people's lives around the world.Ling, Rich and Scott W. Campbell (eds.) Forthcoming in Fall/Winter 2008. The Reconstruction of Space and Time: Mobile Communication Practices. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Mobile communication enables us to call specific individuals, not general places. This advancement had changed, and continues to change, human interaction. It also alters the ways people experience both space and time. This edited volume explores these changes through a collection of studies from some of the top mobile communication researchers from around the world. Collectively, the contributions highlight nuanced changes in coordination and cohesion across space and time, the ways people manage mobile communication and mobility in new spatio‐temporal realms, and how individuals relate to their co‐present surroundings while using mobile communication technology.Online materials Resource Center for Mobile Communication Studies http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/ci/cmcs/ The Center for Mobile Communication Studies is the world's first academic unit to focus solely on social aspects of mobile communication. Established in June 2004 at Rutgers University's School of Communication, Information and Library Studies, the Center has become an international focal point for research, teaching, and service on the social, psychological, and organizational consequences of the burgeoning mobile communication revolution. International Journal of Mobile Communication Studies https://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=40 The International Journal of Mobile Communication (IJMC), a fully refereed journal, publishes articles that present current practice and theory of mobile communications, mobile technology, and mobile commerce applications. The objectives of the IJMC are to develop, promote, and coordinate the development and practice of mobile communications. The IJMC aims to help professionals working in the field, academic educators, and policy makers to contribute, to disseminate knowledge, and to learn from each other's work. The international dimension is emphasised in order to overcome cultural and national barriers and to meet the needs of accelerating technological change and changes in the global economy. IJMC is an outstanding outlet that can shape a significant body of research in the field of mobile communications and in which results can be shared across institutions, governments, researchers, and students, and also industry. Wi: The Journal of Mobile Media http://wi‐not.ca/ Wi publishes the latest in Canadian mobilities research, encompassing disciplines such as design, engineering, computer science, communications, and media studies. MobileActive.org http://mobileactive.org/ MobileActive.org is an all‐volunteer community of people and organizations using mobile phones for social impact. They are committed to increasing the effectiveness of NGOs around the world who recognize that the 3.5 billion mobile phones provide unprecedented opportunities for organizing, communications, and service and information delivery. They work together to create the resources NGOs need to effectively use mobile phones in their work: locally relevant content and services, support and learning opportunities, and networks that help MobileActives connect to each other. With these things on hand, tens of thousands of NGOs will be in a better position to enrich and serve their communities. The MobileActive.org community includes grassroots activists, NGO staff, intermediary organizations, content and service providers, and organizations who fund mobile technology projects. Mobile Society http://www.mobilesociety.net/ Mobile Society is an academic research website focusing on social aspects of the mobile phone. The site includes links and information about news, events, publications, and other related sites pertaining to the social consequences of mobile communication. SmartMobs: The Next Social Revolution http://www.smartmobs.com/ A Website and Weblog about topics and issues discussed in the book 'Smart Mobs' by Howard Rheingold.Select sample syllabus topics and readings for course on 'the social consequences of mobile communication' History and adoption of the mobile phone
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 1: Introduction. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 1: The Diffusion of Wireless Communication in the World.
Theoretical perspectives on the relationship between technology and society: Part 1, social and technological determinism
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 2: Making Sense of Mobile Telephone Adoption. Campbell, Scott W. and Tracy C. Russo 2003. The Social Construction of Mobile Telephony. Communication Monographs 70: 317–34.
Theoretical perspectives on the relationship between technology and society: Part 2, the 'network' perspective
Castells, Manuel. 2000. 'The Rise of Network Society' Opening Chapter: The Network is the Message. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 5: The Space of Flows, Timeless Time, and Mobile Networks.
Mobile communication in everyday life: Part 1, safety and security
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 3: Safety and Security.
Mobile communication in everyday life: Part 2: new forms of coordination
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 4: The Coordination of Everyday Life.
Mobile communication in everyday life: Part 3: new social networking practices
Ling, Rich and Birgitte Yttri. 2002. 'Hyper‐coordination via Mobile Phones in Norway' in Katz & Aakhus (eds.) Perpetual Contact. Licoppe, Christian. 2003. 'Two Modes of Maintaining Interpersonal Relations through Telephone: From the Domestic to the Mobile Phone' in J. Katz (ed.) Machines that Become Us. Campbell, Scott. W. and Michael Kelley. 2006. Mobile phone use in AA networks: An exploratory study. Journal of Applied Communication Research 34: 191–208.
Apparatgeist: 'Spirit of the machine' and the fashion and function of the mobile phone
Katz, James E. and Mark Aakhus. 2002. 'Conclusion: Making meaning of mobiles – a theory of Apparatgeist' in Katz & Aakhus (eds.) Perpetual Contact. Campbell, Scott W. 2008. 'Mobile Technology and the Body: Apparatgeist, Fashion and Function' in J. Katz (eds.) Handbook of Mobile Communication.
SMS and the language of wireless communication
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 7: Texting and the Growth of Asynchronous Discourse. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society, Chapter 6: The Language of Wireless Communication.
Use of mobile technology in public settings
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 6: The Intrusive Nature of Mobile Technology. Okabe, Daisuke and Ito, Mizuko. 2005. 'Keitai in public transportation' in Ito, Okabe, & Matsuda (eds.) Personal, Portable, Pedestrian. Ito, Mizuko, Daisuke Okabe and Ken Anderson 2008. 'Portable Objects in Three Global Cities: The Personalization of Urban Places' in Ling & Campbell (eds.) Reconstruction of Space and Time: Mobile Communication Practices. Campbell, Scott W. 2006. Perceptions of mobile phones in college classrooms: Ringing, cheating, and classroom policies. Communication Education 55: 280–294.
M 10/22 Use of the technology around co‐present others and the challenge of 'absent presence'
Cumiskey, Kathleen. 2007. 'Hidden meanings: Understanding the social‐psychological impact of mobile phone use through storytelling' in Goggin & Hjorth (eds.) Mobile Media Proceedings. Gergen, Kenneth. 2002. 'The challenge of absent presence' in Katz & Aakhus (eds.) Perpetual Contact.
The mobile youth culture
Ling, Rich. 2004. 'The Mobile Connection' Chapter 5: The Mobile Telephone and Teens. Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 4: The Mobile Youth Culture.
Mobile communication in the socio‐political sphere
Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society Chapter 7: The Mobile Civil Society: Social Movements, Political Power, and Communication Networks. Rheingold, Howard. 2002. 'Smart Mobs' Chapter 7: Smart Mobs – The Power of the Mobile Many. Campbell, Scott W. and Nojin Kwak. 2008, May. Mobile communication and the public sphere: Linking patterns of use to civic and political engagement. Paper presented at the ICA pre‐conference, The Global and Globalizing Dimensions of Mobile Communication: Developing or Developed?, Montreal.
W 11/7 Mobile communication in the developing world
Castells et al. 2007. 'Mobile Communication and Society' Chapter 8: Wireless Communication and Global Development: New Issues, New Strategies. Donner, Jonathan. 2008. Research approaches to mobile use in the developing world: A review of the literature. The Information Society 24: 140–159. Donner, Jonathan. 2008. The rules of beeping: Exchanging messages via intentional 'missed calls' on mobile phones. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 13(1). Available: http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/donner.html.
M 11/12 Mobile communication and work
Andriessen, Erick and Mattai Vartianen. 2006. Emerging Mobile Virtual Work in Andriessen & Vartianen (eds.) Mobile Virtual Work: A New Paradigm? Perry, Mark and Jackie Brodie. 2006. Virtually Connected, Practically Mobile in Andriessen & Vartianen (eds.) Mobile Virtual Work: A New Paradigm? Chesley, Noelle. 2005. Blurring boundaries? Linking technology use, spillover, individual distress, and family satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and Family 67: 1237–1248.
OptionalFocus questions
To what extent does mobile communication lead to changes in family dynamics? On the one hand, mobile communication empowers youth to carry out their social relations 'under the radar' of parental supervision. In the 'old days', kids had to share a domestic landline phone and had less privacy, or had to shut themselves up in their room when on the phone to get privacy. The mobile phone is anytime/anywhere and it a personal object (not shared), so users have much more control over their private relations. Text messaging is an especially effective way of having private communication. Because of all this, young people have more autonomy to live out their social lives as they see fit. On the other hand, the mobile phone also gives parents more control by being able to better keep tabs on their kids and their kids' whereabouts. In some respects, it can actually be considered as an 'umbilical cord' keeping kids accountable to their parents. This is an interesting dichotomy for discussion. To what extent and how does the mobile phone support 'perpetual contact' among social ties? There seems to be a continual flow of communication now, which some refer to as 'perpetual contact'. Follow‐up questions could be: how is this a good thing? Are there negative aspects of perpetual contact? How is the mobile phone used for boundary management (i.e., demarcating in‐group members from out‐group members)? This can be seen in names kept in contact lists, who people text with, whose calls they screen, and even the style or brand of a phone ... some groups of friends get the same types of phones. What are the effects of taking/placing a phone call when interacting with physically co‐present others? What are norms for doing this? How can people mitigate the intrusion? On a related note to the questions above ... to what extent does the mobile phone lead to 'absent presence?' The notion of absent presence refers to being physically present, but socially absent. To what extent is this problematic? To what extent might mobile communication lead to 'tele‐cocooning?' Some are concerned that people are getting so wrapped up in their tight little social networks now, that they are less engaged with others who are weak social ties. If this is true, then it begs the question about whether there are benefits to having weak social ties. Most feel there are benefits, like being exposed to a diversity of perspectives and ideas. With regard to the changing media landscape, where else do we see increased 'personalization' in our uses of traditional mass media? In this sense, 'personalization' can refer to personalized content, interactivity, control, etc.
Research project idea (note this approach can be taken with any of the topics recommended above)Description of the paperMobile communication technology has become a common artifact in public settings, offering a means for social connection for its users and unsolicited melodies, chirps, and half conversations for co‐present others. Because social norms for behavior around others often conflict with those for phone conversations, mobile communication can present as many challenges as it does opportunities for maintaining social order. In class, we will discuss numerous perspectives on this topic, such as absent presence, symbolic fences, front stage‐back‐stage dynamics, and cocooning through mobile media. The purpose of this paper is to conduct an original investigation of the use of mobile communication technology around others. Each student will select a particular aspect of this phenomenon to explore in depth by collecting data first‐hand, analyzing those data, and drawing conclusions to shed new light on this topic. Students may choose to examine mobile communication in a particular setting, compare mobile communication in different social contexts or across different users, examine or compare the use of certain types of mobile technologies, observe reactions of and effects on non‐users of the technology, or select some other such 'angle' for the project that sheds light on this topic.Paper guidelinesYour paper should contain the following sections: (1) An introduction that justifies the importance of your topic and provides a clear explanation of the purpose of the paper, (2) a review of relevant literature/theory/key concepts to frame your particular project followed by specific research questions, (3) a method section explaining how you collected data (observation, interviews, questionnaires, and/or otherwise) and how you analyzed your data, and (4) a discussion section that develops conclusions based on the findings. Each paper should have at least 10 scholarly citations, of which at least half should come from readings other than those assigned for class. Use American Psychological Association (5th edition) to format citations and reference list. Papers should be about 10 pages in length, double‐spaced. In addition to meeting these guidelines, the writing should be clearly organized within each section and (of course) well‐written. Students will present their papers in class at the end of the semester.
Issue 22.2 of the Review for Religious, 1963. ; EVODE BEAUCAMP, O.F.M. Sin and the Bible Throughout1 the New Testament the work of Christ is presented as a victory over sin. To speak of sin in this connection is to evoke an agelong experience which is highly complex and which can not be neglected if one wishes to comprehend the matter in all its extent and fullness. The word sin is a familiar one to us; yet it is no older than the Greek of the Septuagint. Before the Sep-tuagint there can not be found in the sacred text a single word exactly corresponding to it. The Alexandrian trans-lator has included under this single word the varying nuances of a number of terms; through this word he has thereby evoked all the forms which were taken through the course of centuries by the resistance of Israel to the salvific activity of God. There can be no question of giving here a study of sin in the Bible; for that is a problem entirely too large. We shall simply mark out the essential lines in order that we might have a better understanding of the problem of sin and that as a consequence we may be able to provide a catechetical presentation of sin that will be more richly nourished by the vitality of the Bible. The God of the Bible ancl the Problem o] Good anti Evil Like all the surroundin~ peoples, Israel united into one word evil and unhappiness on the one hand, goodness and happiness on the other. The first of these words is simultaneously disorder, deceit, emptiness, and death; the second is virtue, fullness of life, and peace. Every deed carries within itsel~ its own consequences: evil in-volves unhappiness while goodness implies happiness: Do no evil, and evil will not overtake you; avoid wickedness, and it will turn aside from you. Sow not in the furrows of in-justice, lest you harvest it sevenfold (Sir 7:1-3). Moreover, one finds in the Bible different ways of ex-pressing the same proverb: This article is translated with permission from the magazine Catdchistes, n. 49 (January 1, 1962), pp. 5-19. The magazine is pub-lished by Procure des Frhres; 78, rue de Shvres; Paris 7, France. 4. 4. Evode Beaucamp O.F.M., a Scripture scholar, lives at Via di Decima Kin. I; Rome, Italy. VOLUME 22, 1965 129 4. 4. ÷ Erode Beaucnmp, O.I~.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 130 Those who conceive malice bring forth emptiness; they give birth to failure (Jb 15:35). They sowed the wind, and they shall reap the whirlwind (Hos 8:7). What is original in the Bible is the teaching that good-ness, physical as well as moral, has only one source: God. "O Lord," cries the Psalmist, "thou art my welfare; there is none beside thee." And for Amos the two expressions "to seek God" and "to seek the good" are perfectly identi-cal; both the one and the other offer the secret of life (Amos 5:4-14). The successful issue of human existence is found on the way which Yahweh points out and only there: For this reason will all go well with us, because we obeyed the voice of our God (Jer 42:6). You must keep his commands., that you may prosper, and your children after you, and that you may live long . (Dt 4:40). You must do what is right and good in the sight of the Lord that you may prosper (Dr 6:18; see also 12:25 and 28). The Law given by Yahweh to His people is the way of happiness: "You must keep my laws and ordinances, by the observance of which man shall find life (Lv 18:5).'° This is a point which is important to remember when the idea of the Law is presented; the love of the Jews for the Torah is incomprehensible if it is not realized that Yah-weh is legislator precisely insofar as He is father, bene-factor, shepherd, and defender of His people. Moreover, this throws light on the well-known problem of reward. The Bible does not say that happiness is received as a recompense for goodness but that happiness is the fruit of goodness and that it is to be found at the end of the way. Evil is not treated in the same way as is goodness; the God of the Bible never attributes to Himself a paternir.y with regard to evil. For the Psalmists, evil is the absence of God; and it is towards Him that one must turn to be freed from it. Nevertheless, it is in relationship to God that evil is defined: evil is the reverse of what He wills, of the course of :action that He teaches. As the author of Chapters Three and Four of Genesis has carefully sho~qn, the evils which weigh on humanity are not imputable to the Creator; the responsibility falls on man who has at-tempted to find his happiness outside of God, to flee his dependence on Yahweh by himself possessing the key of good and evil. Man has set himself on the desperate route that leads far from Paradise: Woe to them that have wandered away from reel (Hos O Lord, thou hope of Israel, all who forsake you shall be put to shame; those who prove faithless to you in the land shall be brought to confusion, because they have forsaken the Lord, the fountain of living water (Jer 17:13). Let us remark in passing that the God of the Bible never reproaches man for his thirst for greatness and happiness; what is reproached is the attempt to satisfy this outside of God. Unlikei the gods of Surher and Baby-lon, Yahweh has the intention of giving His creature the fullness of life and happiness, but He teaches that this must be done by Him: If my people would but listen to me, if Israel would only walk in my ways, I would quickly humble their foes . he would be fed with the finest of the wheat; and with honey from the rock would I satisfy you (Ps 81:13-14, 16). Although man punishes himself by separating himself from God (see Jb 22:3 ft.), the Bible, nevertheless, does not hesitate to show us Yahweh personally intervening to punish with all the power of His anger. It is He who hardens the pharaoh, as it is He who brings evil upon His unfaithful people: I am watching over them for evil and not for good (Jet 44:27). I will set my eye upon them for evil, and not for good (Amos It is curious to observe how the inspired writers can com-plain both that Yahweh hides His face and remains dis-tant from His chosen ones (Ps 88:14) and that He turns His face against them (Jer 44:11): "The face of the Lord has scattered them; he no longer regards them" (Lain 4:16). And some of the sacred writers are heard to cry out: Will you never take your eye off me, nor let me alone till I swallow my saliva? (Jb 7:19). Turn your gaze away from me, that I may be glad (Ps 39:13). Yahweh never ceases to assert His exclusive right to bestow good on His chosen ones even when they turn away from Him to their own loss. In the evils which then beset them, there can always, be detected the avenging pursuit of a cheated love: So I will be unto them like a lion; or like a leopard by the road I will lurk. I will rend them like a bear robbed of its cubs; and I will tear off the covering of their heart (Hos 13:7-8). Pursued by the love he has denied, the sinner sees him-self abandoned by all: "Thou has put friend and com-panion far from me" (Ps 88:18). He is abandoned even by the earth which bears and nourishes him: I am bringing upon them a disaster which they shall not be able to escape (Jet 11:11). I will rend and be gone; I will carry off, with none to rescue (Hos 5:14). Sin VOLUME 22, 1963 13! + + + Evode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Behold, I am going to make a groaning under you (Amos 2:13). Unlike the Egyptian god Aten, Yahweh is not indif. ferent when He distributes life and happiness. His gifts are always made from a personal and jealous love. Hence He can not but react vigorously when man prefers deceit, nothingness, and ruin to His love. The blows which He deals as well as His tragic silence can lead the wanderer back to the road of return: I withdraw to my own place, until they realize their guilt and seek my face, searching for me in their distress (Hos 5:15). And yet it is necessary that this appeal be heard and followed: It was I that gave you cleanness of teeth in all your cities . it was I that withheld from you the rain, three months before the harvest . I laid waste your gardens and your vineyards . I sent a pestilence like that of Egypt among you . But you did not return to me (Amos 4:6-10). When sin is presented as disobedience to the Law of God, it is necessary to realize that this Law is the path marked out by God and leading to life and happiness; to disobey it is to wish to conduct one's life by oneself and to run towards one's own ruin. The God whose love has been scorned will not be content to let us leave; He will inexorably bar the way that leads to peace just as formerly He posted the cherubim with their swords of fire to pre-vent Adam and his descendants from access to the Para-dise that had been lost: They are a people who err in their hearts, and do not know my ways. So that I swore in my anger that they should not enter into my rest (Ps 95:10-11). The Special Demands o[ the Covenant The Bible is not satisfied with presenting man in con-frontation with God; for the Bible the heart of the matter is the elect one in confrontation with the God who has chosen him. The peace dreamt of by the Jews of old, peace between the members of. one community, peace with the external world and the earth where men liv~.~- this peace is the fruit of the covenant of Sinai (see Lv 26:3-13; Dt 11:13-15). From the viewpoint of the history of religions, one of the most original characteristics of this alliance is the tact that the initiative belongs exclusively to God and not at all to the people; it is Yahweh who has chosen Israel and not Israel who has chosen Yahweh. From the beginning to the end of the Bible, Yahweh repeatedly emphasizes the absolute liberty of His choice, a liberty that gives Him the right to demand obedience without reserve or mur-mur. The elect one should adjust his conduct to the direc- tives given by his God; he must seek that "which is right in the eyes of Yahweh"; he must "march perfectly before Him" without "swerving" from the way "either to the right or the left." Hence.the existence of Israel was constitute~ by the acceptance of these demands;~and these;demands were unceasingly renewed nor were they ever fully completed at any given moment of history. The more Israel, through a better understanding of the obligations of the covenant, wished to submit to them, the larger the number of them grew. In its always unsatisfied thirst to stay perfectly close to the divine will, the chosen people never ceased to develop the principles at the base of the Mosaic legis-lation of the Decalogue (Ex 20:3-17; Dt 5:6-21) and of the code of the covenant (Ex 20:22-26) into the different priestly codes and the enormous growths of the rabbinical tradition. Since there existed this demand for a perfection never perfectly attained ("You must be holy; for I, the Lord your God, am holy" fLy 19:2]; "Be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect" [Mt 5:48]), an exhaustive list of sins is nowhere to be found in the Bible; prophets, Psalmists, and wise men give us but certain ones among many. In every epoch and in all circumstances, the obli-gations of the covenant remain unlimited; the human party of the covenant never succeeds in rising to the level of the demands of the divine party. Basically, the sin of later Judaism will be to pretend to arrest this movement of divine improvement by attempting to imprison the divine will within the walls of a definitive and rigid tra-dition. There is no need to emphasize that the same dan-ger lies in wait for every spiritual life, that there will always be a tendency to substitute for the unlimited de-mands of Christian perfection a code of limited rules which each person can hope some day to fulfill com-pletely. The covenant not only implies the demands of a bond faithfully maintained between God and His people, but it also includes the demands of a union between the in-dividual members of this people. Yahweh expects that His people should practice among themselves the justice and mercy which He has bestowed on them. The pious Israelite must never forget to share his joy with the stranger, the orphan, the widow; for, as Deuteronomy puts it: "You must remember that you were once a slave yourself in Egypt" (Dt 16:12). For the same reason it is forbidden to retain one's brother in the state of slavery (Lv 25:55; Dt 15:15); nor ought one to treat a stranger with scorn (Lv 19:34; Dt 24:17). In this principle can be seen the first outline of the thought of the Master: "Love each other as I have loved you." ÷ ÷ ÷ Sin VOLUME 22, 1963 4. + Evode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIL~V FOR RELIGIOUS Hence it is that along with the infidelities of the people towards God, the absence of social justice appears as the chief accusation directed by Yahweh against Israel. From the beginning of prophetism (for example, with Elijah), the struggle is waged on two fronts: opposition to the introduction of foreign cults and the respect for the rights of the weak (Naboth's vineyard, 1 K 21). As the Lord Himself emphasized, the entire legislation of Israel re. volves around this double commandment: to love God with one's whole heart and one's neighbor as oneself. The same is to be found in the warnings of the prophets, the Psalmists, and the wise men: You have been told, O man, what is good and what the Lord requires of you'. Only. to do l'ustice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly wtth your God (Mi 6:8; see also Jer 7:5-11). It will not be useless to insist somewhat on this capital point; since we have too great a tendency to distinguish sins against God and sins against neighbor, it is necessary to show how every sin against God leads to injustice with regard to neighbor and how every sin against one's neigh-bor is a blow struck against the rights of God. The first chapters of Genesis in the Yahwist and priestly redac-tions already present evil under this double dimension. The murder of an innocent person follows the act by which Adam made himself independent of his Creator, while the union of the sons of gods with the daughters of men (probably an allusion to sacred prostitution) in-volves the unleashing of violence upon the earth. In a more general way, the Bible unites under the single He. brew word resha' the idea of both impiety and evil-doing, The person who so acts is frequently referred to through-out the Psaher; he is a person who intends to do without God and to live his life entirely by himself and who, in consequence, makes use of force, deceit, and lies: The fool says in his heart: There is no God. Such men are corrupt; they do abominable deeds; there is not one who does good (Ps 14:1; see also Ps 9; 10; 12; 52; 62; and so forth). His adversary and his victim is the just man, the man who expects salvation and justification from God alone and who therefore does not seek to take the law in his own hands nor do himself justice at the expense of others. The life of David furnishes an excellent illustration of these two cases of the evil man and the just man. Sens-ing that Yahweh would give to him the crown of Saul, David steadfastly refused to touch the sacred person of the king; for he intended to owe his royalty: to Yahweh alone and he did not wish to do things wrongly. Accord-ingly, through terrible execution or a no less terrible curse, he decisively disassociated himself from all those who wished to hasten the event by doing violence to Saul or his son or the general of his army (2 S 1:15; ~:28 ft.; 4:10 ft.). In contrast to the dynasties of, usurpers, the dynasty of David was not in its origin tainted by blood (2 K 2:5). But in the affair of Uriah, the king of Jerusalem took a completely opposite c#ur.se; here he acted,asian impious and evil person. Nathan" recalled to the guilty monarch everything that Yahweh had done for him and pointed out to him how He was still ready to do more. But David had lacked confidence; he had chosen to take care of him-sell and this he did at the expense of one of his own subjects. There is, then, no rejection of God which does not eventually turn into injustice, just as there is no in-justice which is not a disregard of the power of the God of :the covenant. For a Christian, to sin is not only to disobey the eternal laws of the Creator; it is also a refusal of the covenant and a scorning of the love of the Father of all. Human Resistance and God's Final Victory The covenant supposes a history; it is at the center of a plan that develops by stages. At each of these stages man tries to block the plan, but his actions do not prevent God from having the final word. It is interesting to follow step by step the resistances of those who were the bene-ficiaries of the covenant, for in them are to be found all the possible forms which man's refusal of God's offer can take. 1. The choice of the elect from the midst of a humanity immersed in sin. Because the human race had turned from Him and had obstinately buried itself in evil, Yah-weh drew forth from it Israel in the desire to make of it a people who would follow His directives. Hence the election of Abraham is presented in the Yahwist tradition of Genesis as the last effort made by Yahweh to prevent His creation from going to perdition apart from Him. This evil had begun when Adam, in his desire for in-dependence, had lost Paradise. Nevertheless, Yahweh did not abandon this fugitive from Him; He gave him the hope of a future victory over the evil in which he had immersed himself; He had even covered the nakedness that the guilty couple had become aware of. To the first couple, punished by their pride, there succeeded a gen-eration of murderers: Cain and his descendants. Once more Yahweh intervened to prevent fallen humanity from disappearing, from the earth under the inexorable blows of the curse of blood. The union of the sons of the gods with the daughters of men provoked such a release of violence that Yahweh decided on the complete de-struction of His work. Nevertheless, He saved from the catastrophe a just man with whom He concluded a cove- 4- 4- 4- VOLUME 22, 1963 4, 4, 4, Erode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 136 nant. This was not yet the last act of the drama; the last scene of the beginnings of the human race is the episode of the tower of Babel, the dispersion of the sons of Adam after their aborted attempt to construct a tower that would reach to heaven. Nevertheless, the efforts of Yahweh to arrest man in his vertiginous descent into the abyss were not in vain; for, after the episode of the tower of Babel, a new history begins: the vocation of Abraham, the epic of the patri-archs, the covenant of Sinai. To the first scene of a uni-versal invasion of evil, there succeeds that of the increas-ingly solicitous enterprise of God with regard to a people whom He would choose for His own. Under different forms the same idea is found almost everywhere in the Old Testament. To explain the fact that Israel had taken the place of the Canaanites, the legal texts, for example, tell us that the latter were chased from their land because they had done "what was evil in the eyes of Yahweh"; He had determined to give their land to a people who would agree to live according to His will. But misfortune would come to this people if they ever dared to imitate the conduct of their predeces-sors; He would not hesitate to deprive them of the land. The falling back into the world of sin from which Yah-weh had drawn them led Judah to its ruin, as Jeremiah and Ezekiel emphatically pointed out. The sin of the elect is in fact a return to the sin of the nations after having been freed from it. Each election is pictured as a rupture: Leave your country, your relatives, and your father's house (Gn 12:1), Forget your people and your father's house (Ps 45:11). The call of God implies an ascent towards Him by the practice of what is "right in His eyes" and by a renuncia-tion of "what is evil in his eyes." This initial break must continue throughout the course of time; this requires a constant effort at disencumbrance, for the surrounding world never ceases to exert pressure on the elect to make them fall back under its law. This is the drama of every vocation, not only to religious life but to Christianity self. 2. Resistance to the hand that guides. After He had led the people from Egypt, Yahweh made them cross the desert before bringing them to the Promised Land. The desert is the sign of temptation, a testing of faith. In other words, Yahweh would not give the land of Canaart to the Hebrews unless they abandoned themselves to Him without reserve by remaining faithful to the memory of the marvelous act of liberation by which they left Egypt. But hunger, thirst, and fatigue quickly overcame the faith of the former slaves of the pharaohs. They soon forgot the extraordinary epic of the Exodus; they mur-mured and rebelled against Moses and Aaron; they be-came enraged at seeing themselves in a venture which seemed to be pointless; and they dreamed nostalgically of the onions of Egypt. They refused to march forward on the grounds that the:.P~-omised Land W~s~'fi0t good enough and because the enterprise was to their minds a doomed one (Nm 14). This lack of confidence induced the people of Moses to attempt to assure themselves of the protection of their God by placing Him at their service and by forcing His hand as they wished. This is what the Bible calls "tempt-ing God." Instead of Yahweh "tempting" and trying the people in order to make them proceed according to His will, it was Israel who tempted its God, attempting to bring Him into the service of human caprice. Hence when Moses delayed coming down from the mountain and Yahweh made them wait for His answer, the He-brews made the golden calf, a material representation of their God which would allow them to control Him and to"make Him advance according to their desires at the head of their army. This recalcitrant attitude of the elect blocked the entire matter of the election and prevented their entering the rest of God (Ps 95:11). The intercession of Moses effected a compromise: the rebellious generation died in the desert and only their children possessed the right to the heritage of the God of the covenant. 3. Profanation of God's gift. The covenant gift of the land of Canaan should have created the indissoluble bonds of a steadfast love between Israel and God. Unfortunately, Israel, once it was secure and satisfied, was quick to forget: I led them to pasture; with food came satiety, and with satiety pride; and with pride came forgetfulness of me (Hos 13:6; see also Dt 32:15). The riches of the land of Canaan, instead of constantly recalling to the people the solicitude of Yahweh, drove Him from their mind and nurtured in them the illusion of being able to escape the jealous influence of their God. With the products of their land, they attempted to buy protection abroad; this was a seeking after "lovers"--the famous theme of prostitution. Often this theme is con- [used with the closely related one of adultery. The idea of prostitution certainly includes the notion of unfaith-fulness, but it is wider than that; it is not only the betrayal of love, it is also the profanation of the gifts of love: But you trusted in your beauty, and played the harlot on your reputation; you lavished your harlotries on everyone who passed by. You took off your garments, and made yourself gaily decked shrines, on which you played the harlot. You took also your splendid ornaments of gold and silver, which I had given 4- 4- VOLUME 22, 196;1 4. 4" Erode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 138 you, and made yourself images of men, with which you played the harlot. And you took your embroidered robes, and wrapped them in these. My oil and my incense you set before them; my bread which I had given you-~the choice flour, oil, and honey with which I had fed you--you set before them as a soothing odor (Ez 16:15-19). The Chosen People made use of what Yahweh had given them in order to curry the favor of the baals or to buy alliances with the peoples that surrounded them. Resistance to the hand that Ied them or profanation of the gift received represent two aspects of the rebellion of the children of God. However, none of the stages of the history of salvation exists in an absolutely pure state. Hence it is that throughout the length of our Christian life sin can put on the form of a refusal to proceed in the desert and of a prostitution when one, for his own pur-poses and independently of God, makes use of the gift which he has received from His love. The Old Testament leaves us with a vision of a check-mate: God is not able to regain the human race which from the beginning had plunged itself into sin and sepa-rated itself from Him. Unless God would make a new heart for men, they would never be able to rise up to the level of the divine demands. Even the Law which Yahweh had given His elect in an attempt to free them from the surrounding evil came in the end only to increase sin (Rom 7:7-25). The cross of Christ and the gift of the Spirit are necessary in order that we might escape the in. fernal cycle. It is then that there appears that new man according to the heart of God whom the prophets Jere-miah and Ezekiel had predicted: I will give you a new heart, and will put within you a new spirit; I will remove the heart of stone out of your flesh, and will give you a heart of flesh; and I will put my spirit within you, and make you follow my statutes and be careful to observe my ordinances (Ez 36:26-27). There is no need to emphasize that one must not present the Law of Christ which alone can make us pleasing to God without adding that this Law is impractical if Christ Himself does not communicate to us His power so that we might fulfill the demands of the Law. Fundamental Aspects o[ the Discord Between God and Man Throughout the Old Testament the resistance of man to the work of God is presented under three clearly dis-tinguished aspects; it is essential to guard against con-fusing these three when the idea of sin in the Bible is analyzed. 1. Opposition to the work of divine justice. The prin-cipal adversary of divine justice is an individual whom the Hebrew language terms rasha', a term which is usu-ally translated by the word impious or wicked. This rasha' enters into association with the "makers of iniq-uity," "the proud," "the mockers," and the "men of blood." His weapons are cunning, lies, violence; he is constantly thinking of i~i~l~'ity"in his he;irt~ li'~ Sets traps for the innocent; his hands are soiled with blood and he is given to drink. His opposition to justice is shown in two ways: it is, first of all, undisguised hostility towards God who is thought to be too distant to'react against it; and, secondly, it is a merciless war against the just whose violated rights the God of the covenant is pledged to de-fend. For practical purposes, the rasha' and his satellites coincide with the adversaries of the covenant; for the justice they oppose is at the center of the preoccupation of the parties of the covenant. They appear from the very beginning of the human race, but more ~usually they ap-pear as the enemies of the Chosen People; in every case they constantly menace the stability of the work of God in the cosmos and in history. Gradually the distinction between the just and the impious is found within the nation itself; it is at this time that the realization of a qualitative Israel necessitates a distinction between the faithful and those who are traitors and apostates. None of the faithful aligns himself with the: rasha': Drag me not away with the wicked, with those who do wron.g, who speak of peace to their neighbors though evil is in their hearts (Ps 28:3). On the occasion of the demands of the wicked, the just man frequently prays for justice from God; this im-plies that he is the victim not the accomplice of the wicked. If the good man wishes to be heard by Yahweh, he must disassociate himself as completely as possible from the perverse machinations of the artisans of evil: "I hate the assembly of evil~toers, and with the wicked I will not sit down" (Ps 26:5). It is only on this condition that he can cry out: "Judge me"; "Do me justice" (Ps 26:1; 43:1). In the matter of justice, then, the Old Testament knows only negative confessions (Ps 5; 26; 139; Jb 31) like those that the dead recite for their justification be-fore the tribunal of Osiris. There is no avowal of an atti-tude of present opposition to justice, an attitude that the God of the covenant would have to punish; only past sins are confessed the consequences of which are already or about to be felt. This is evidently insufficient for Chris-tians. We not only have to present to the Father our past errors but also a heart which even now is evil and which we ask Him to transform. There can be no doubt that ÷ ÷ ÷ Sin VOLUME 22, 1963 139 ÷ .I. ÷ Erode Beaucamp, O~F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS such a prayer supposes a pure intention, and this is the profound significance of our negative confessions. Man can not pray to God while desiring evil; nevertheless, pure intentions do not effect that we see exactly what God wants nor even that we feel the power to accomplish it. Our pure intentions require from us only that we aban-don ourselves,to Him in order that we might see and will the perfection which He expects from us: For I do not the good that I wish, but the evil I do not wish, that I perform . Unhappy man that I aml Who will deliver me from the body of this death? (Rom 7:19 and 24). 2. A state of rupture with God. The three Hebrew roots which are ordinarily translated by such words as sin, transgression, iniquity, fault, and so forth express, though each with different nuances, the idea of a state of rupture with the God of the covenant: The Lord's hand is not .too short to save, nor his ear too dull to hear; but your iniquities have been a barrier between you and your God. And your sins have hidden his face, so that he could not hear you (Is 59:1-2). This state is a present situation the cause of which is a definite past act; hence one goes from the awareness of the rupture to an appreciation of its origin: "I have sinned." This is equivalent to saying that if God aban-dons me to my lot, I can blame only myself; it is my own fault: O Lord, the great and revered God, who keeps loving faith with those who love him and keep his commandments, we have sinned . To us, O Lord, pertains confusion of face . but to the Lord our God pertain compassion and forgiveness (Dn 9: 4-5, 8-9). The awareness of sin, then, is the awareness of being abandoned by God through one's own fault; the sinner is like a child experiencing the feeling of no longer being loved by his mother; he feels himself cut off from the one who is his source of life: My anger shall blaze against them, and I will forsake them~ and withhold my favor from them; they shall become a thing to be consumed, and many evils and troubles shall befall them, so that they will say at that time: Is it not because God is not in our midst that these evils have befallen us? (Dt 31:17). By the fact of sin--and this holds true for the relations between man and man as well as for the relations be-tween God and man--the Protector finds Himself re-leaged of His obligation 'towards His proteges; in particu-lar He is no longer bound to see justice done them and He can consider them as His enemies: We look for redress, but it comes not; for salvation, but it remains f~r from us. For many are our sins before you, and our faults bear witness against us (Is 59:11-12). Abandoned by his God and even pursued by His ill will, the sinner is sooner or later doomed to death. In the case of an individual he will use up his strength in a dis-ease that is without hope; in the case of a country it will perish under the blows of epidemics, famines, and wars. For sin breaks not only~th@,~bbnds betwe~en,~n~fi and his God; it also isolates man frbm society and even from the earth, since peace with God is the condition of peace with one's fellow men and with the entire world. In his dereliction and total loneliness, the sinner possesses only one resource: to throw himself into the arms of the One he has offended. On the whole, the Old Testament attaches more im-portance: to this state of rupture than to the nature of the acts which provoke it. Contrary to the confessions of Babylon which attempted to exorcise evil by interminable lists of all possible sins, the Bible generally reduces its inventory to the simple assertion: '~I have sinned." For the Bible, it is God, not sin, that is of interest; it is God that is considered. A sense of sin that is not a sense of God and does not suppose the experience of a valued intimacy is a false sense of sin which can lead to the greatest catastrophes as the history of Luther and Jansen-ism have shown. 3. Impurity, the state of incompatibility with the divine presence. The notions of purity an~l impurity are among the most common and primitive ones in the his-tory of religions. In them is found everywhere the same confusion between taboos of a ritual nature and ethical prescriptions in the proper sense. Sexual pollutions, for example, whether licit or illicit, make one impure, just as the shedding of blood, whether justly or unjustly, profanes the earth. And the contagious nature which is attributed to such impurity makes the notion even more difficult for the modern mind. There has been a mis-understanding of the place which the Bible gives to such a primitive category of thought in later books like Leviti-cus; many see in this a reaction to the effort made by the prophets to form the moral conscience of Israel. But presented in this way, the problem is wrongly placed. Impurity is on a completely different level than that of sin, the rupture with God. It is not concerned with the difficulties and blocks that can lessen the rela-tions of man with God but with that which appears in-compatible with the maintenance of the divine presence in the midst of the country: Because the Lord your God moves within your camp to rescue you and to put your enemies at your mercy, your camp must be clean, so that he may not see anything indecent with you, and turn away from you (Dr 23:14). If the Bible attaches a great importance to this notion sin VOLUM£ 22, 1963 141 ÷ ÷ ÷ E~ode Benuc~mp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 142 of impurity, it is because for it the question is not re-ducible to the simple fact of not offending God; it is the much more profound matter of living with Him in His presence. The sense of purity is the awareness of the holiness which election requires, a holiness that must ex-tend to everything which conditions the existence of the elect: I am the Lord your God; consecrate yourselves, therefore, and be holy; for I am holy; so you must not defile yourselves with any kind of insect that crawls on the earth. For I am the Lord who brought you up out of the land of Egypt to be your God, and so you must be holy; for I am holy (Lv 11:44-45). You must be holy to me; for I, the Lord, am holy, and have separated you from other peoples to be mine (Lv 90:26). As long as Israel remained a political and sociological reality, the community of life between Yahweh and His people had necessarily to preserve a character that was both interior and exterior, implying demands both of a physical and a moral order. This combination should not, then, be surprising. It is necessary to wait for the Gospel in order that the problem of purity be elevated to a properly spiritual level, for then the kingdom of God becomes an interior reality which is not involved in the social and material conditions of the life of the elect: "It is what pr6ceeds from a man that makes him impure" (Mk 7:20). All cases of impurity, however diverse, have this in common that they create a cultic incompatibility and make the approach to the divine dangerous. But it is dif-ficult to find how this incompatibility flows from a single principle; this is a world of different and heterogeneous elements which it would be a waste of time to attempt to unify. So, for example, one type of impurity consisted of any attempt to violate a reality that was initially sacred: harvesting, the gathering of fruits, marriage, and so ford~. But impurity was likewise involved when a being was possessed by foreign divinities; the sinner fell into this category when, being rejected by his god, he became the prey of demons. Finally, every act is impure which lessens the essential integrity of a being, especially a consecrated one: the loss of blood or of seminal fluid, the cutting of the hair of a Nazirite, the cutting of a stone intended for an altar, the putting to work of an animal destined to carry a sacred object, and so forth. All this is common to the ancient world; and the Bible in this matter originates nothing, though it should be noted that matters such as sicknesses, curses, various ca-lamities, blood crying for vengeance, cadavers awaiting burial figure here as simply malefic rather than being at-tributed to foreign divinities or demons. Furthermore, it seems to us that a global impression emerges from all this chaos: a being cannot support the presence of God if its existence is diminished or threatened either by an acci-dental loss of substance or by subjection to some other power. Not being fully himself, man in such a case cannot offer himself to his God. If this interpretation is correct, then the need for purity calls out for the idea of the In-carnation, for the Priest without stain who can enter the sanctuary of the God of the covenant; this is the perfect man who has attained the fullness of his stature: "Be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect." Before the majesty of the King-God who was revealed to his eyes, Isaiah becomes frightenedly aware not of his sin but of his impurity: Woe to me, for I am lost; I am a man of unclean lips. and my eyes have seen the King, the Lord of hosts (Is 6:5). It is not sin but impurity which impedes the vision of God: "Blessed are the pure of heart, for they shall see God." Whatever may have been for primitive man the deep roots of the notes of impurity, the idea should not be suppressed but moralized and spiritualized. From this an-cient notion, two elements should be kept for the profit of our own Christian life: first, our Christian life is truly a life with God, and it supposes a full realization of our stature as the "new man" according to Christ and a full posses-sion of ourselves that withholds nothing from the in-fluence of God; secondly, every lessening of our personal vitality is a lessening of the vitality of the community; every lessening of our charity detracts from the global charity of the Church, and it tarnishes her purity, since impurity by its nature is contagious, always passing from individuals to the collectivity. Solutions to the Discord Between God and Man 1. The judgment of the wicked. A victorious judgment of the God of the covenant will put an end to the opposi-tion of the wicked man. This judgment, however, is never purely negative. The wicked man is a dangerous individ-ual, and his downfall affects the salvation of the just: The righteous shall rejoice that he has seen vengeance; he shall wash his footsteps in the blood of the wicked. And men shall say: There certainly is a reward for the just; there cer-tainly is a God who judges on earth (Ps 58:10-11). As we have seen, the wicked man is generally con-sidered as unable to be converted; this is why his disap-pearance appears as the only solution to the evil of which the just man is a victim; the world will regain its peace only when God has caused this evil to fall on its authors. Gradually, however, other conceptions of the matter came into existence. Jeremiah and especially Ezekiel envisage ÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 22° 1963 ÷ Evode Beaucamp, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS the case of a wicked man who abandons his wickedness to practice "judgment and justice": As I live, says the oracle of Yahweh, I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but rather in this that the wicked man turn from his way and live. Turn, O turn, from your evil waysl Why should you die, O house of Israeli (Ez 33:11). This view of the conversion of the wicked is a direct preparation for the Gospel. Christ will proclaim that He has come not for the just but for the wicked---the publi-cans and adulterers who without conversion would fall beneath the blows of the avenging anger of God. The great revolution of the Gospel is the distinction between evil and evil men; in the Our Father it is from evil that we ask to be freed and not from our enemies, as was done in the Psalms. As long as a man has not drawn his last breath, he is never to be identified with evil and we must always hope for his eventual conversion. The venge-ance of the just is no longer the extermination of the wicked but their penance and reparation. 2. The pardon of the sin. The one who has culpably lost communion with God can only hope for the gratui-tous act of clemency and pity Which the One offended can grant or not grant when pardon is asked of Him. In the rupture man took the initiative, but the initiative in the matter of reconciliation belongs exclusively to God. More than in any other case there apears here the impos-sibility of forcing His hand. Sin, the rupture of relations between God and man, is an intolerable weight from which the sinner cannot free himself by his own effort; it is a weight that only the One offended is in a position to lift: For, day and night, your hand lay heavy upon me . I said: I will confess my transgressions to the Lord, and you forgave the guilt of my sin (Ps 32:4-5). The Babylonians, in order to have greater certainty of their restoration to favor, frequently attempted to have another friendly divinity intervene with the angered god. In the Bible, as is evident, man is without the possibility of such a mediation. He must directly approach the God he has offended and throw himself at His feet while de-claring "I have sinned"; he must rely entirely on God's mercy. It is clear that such an act implies conversion; it is the return of the prodigal son to his Father's house. While the Bible does not permit the sinner to avoid encountering the God he has angered, still it does not leave him without arguments by which he can plead his case. He can, for example, invoke the glory of the God of the covenant whose name he still continues to bear: What will the nations think of Yahweh if He continues to leave his people defenseless? (Ps 79; 80; Ez 32:11-14). He can also invoke His justice: In abandoning His own, does not Yahweh yield to His enemies? (Ps 41). Finally, he can appeal to the shortness of life--life which a pro-lUonngfoedrt uabnsaetnelcye, owf eG coadn m naokte ds eelmayp thye aren du ,s epngsne~le sths e(Pses 9a0rg).u-ments which still retaiii,:th~ir~, validity for, oi~i~ prayer as Christians. We have already pointed out that the penitent does not dwell upon an analysis of his culpable act but keeps his eyes on the God the lack of whom he suffers and in whom he sees his only hope; the simple fact of the rupture is al-ready virtually the presence of death and it constitutes for the sinner the deepest kind of punishment than which nothing greater is to be feared. The penitent calls on the judgment and justice of Yahweh as a grace the right to which he has lost by sin. He awaits the moment of pardon which will reestablish him in the friendship of His God so that once again he will be protected in the midst of a hostile world: The anger of the Lord must I bear--for I have sinned against him--until he shall take up my case and do me justice (Mi 7:9). Once pardon h.as been granted, the remembrance of the sin disappears in the remembrance of the victorious love of Yahweh, a love which is capable of overpowering all offenses and which in its profundity and total gratuitous-ness leaves the soul of man in confusion (Ps 103); here already there is almost found the felix culpa of St. Au-gustine. Moreover, the world which the divine mercy re-constructs is always more beautiful than the one de-stroyed by sin. To illustrate this law, it is sufficient to reflect on the messianic prophecies which for the most part are prophecies of pardon (Ps 85; Is 40-55; 60; Ez 34; and so forth). 3. Purification of Defilement. Having been excluded from worship, the defiled man must purify himself be-fore coming into the presence of God.'It is a co.mmon idea among all the ancient religions that the gods have given men ritual materials and formulas that are capable of purifying them, their temples, and their country. In particular, there are appropriate rites that permit the expulsion from the impure being of the evil spirits and demons who have taken possession of him; thus, for ex-ample, spells and curses which had victimized a person were made to pass on to the body of animals wh~ch.~:were then driven far away or burned. In the Bible this liturgi-cal transfer has left only a few traces, the most notable ex-ample of which is that of the scapegoat of the D~y of Atonement (Lv 16). This animal, loaded with the sins of Israel, was not offered to Yahweh but driven far aw~iy to Azazel. 4, 4, VOLUME 22, 1963 ÷ ÷ ÷ Erode Beau~arap, O.F.M. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 146 In place of this image of a transfer, the Bible has pre-ferred that of cleansing through ablutions and sprinkling with blood and water. This symbol is simultaneously negative and positive: at the same time as it removes the uncleanliness, the water restores all the freshness of life. This is also, as it seems to me, the function of the blood in the atonement rite and in the sin sacrifices. But we shall not delay here on this difficuh and debated point; we will content ourselves with giving our own personal opinion. Blood seems to have as its effect the protection of the things and persons which it covers; it protects them from the various evils which are the sequel of sin just as the blood of the paschal lamb did at the Exodus (Ex 12:1-15). But to this negative effect there is added a posi-tive action; for blood is life, and it is by reason of the life that is in it that Yahweh has given it as an effector of atonement (Lv 17:10-12). Thanks to it, persons, cult ob-jects, and the country that is the abode of Yahweh find their fullness of life, their first integrity which impurity had caused to be lost. The application of this Biblical rite to our Christian life is not difficult. The sin of a Christian can be con-sidered as a stain that not only changes our personal re-lations with God but also diminishes the vital potentiali-ties of the Church and impairs her charity. Reparation, therefore, is a social duty just as it was in ancient Israel. God has given us the Blood of Christ as an inexhaustible source of love so that we can preserve for the Church the immaculate appearance which her divine Spouse initially bestowed on her: He wished to summon into his presence the Church in all her beauty, with no stain, wrinkle, or any disfigurement; she. was to be holy and spotless (Eph 5:27). Conclusion By way of conclusion, let us synthesize the results of our inquiry. In order that the notion of sin preserve all the force that the Bible gives it, it must include three ele-ments: deterioration of the order of creation; rupture with God, the source of life; and impurity which hinders all commerce with the divine. All this is what is repre-sented by the word sin at the time of the New Testament~ it is all this that Christ has come to restore, heal, and purify. Under these three aspects, sin is a flight from God, the only source of life and happiness; it represents the contrary of all the effort God has made throughout his-tory to draw us to Him; it is a return back to a past from which He has drawn us; it is our refusal to allow ourselves to be led by Him blindly; it is our squandering of the gifts we have received. To depart from God is to depart from other men and finally to find oneself alone in a hostile world: And it has brought you. w " as reconciled . ,_ o ~;. ¯ - uom~ wron~ ;-,- - "-' holiness a~a t__ )vu mrough dying, ;,,~.:_ . 6 ~-o.ugn now (Col 1:2'1_~)."ee ~rom reproa~c h. .or ~Ta~'e,'~'~vt~uas op~rensve nbcoedy) ia Sin VOLUME 22, 1963 PAUL W. O'BRIEN, S.J. The Weekly Confession of Fervent Religious ÷ ÷ Paul W. O'Brien, S.J., is the rector of the Pontifical Semi-nary in Dalat, Viet-nam. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 148 The word "fervent" in the title is not meant to frighten away those good religious for whom the article is actually written, but who usually hesitate to think of themselves as fervent. It is used rather to indicate the limited perspective of the article, a perspective however which we trust is representative of religious and hehce applicable to many. It is not unusual to find religious who have a problem with their weekly confession--a problem that seems to arise not from their being tepid but rather from their being fervent. They are serious about their religious life. They would rather do anything than deliberately offend God in the smallest thing. And yet they find a certain uneasiness, tedium, even difficulty with their weekly con-fession. Time and again they have consulted the classical authors to find ways of refreshing this exercise, but usu. ally with only transitory success. The considerations pro-posed in these manuals, while excellent and fundamental and helpful to a certain point, do not really fit. For the religious we have in mind does not come to his weekly confession as an enemy of God; he does not come with mortal sins; he has no need of being "reconciled" to the Church, much less of having divine life "restored" to his soul. His confession is not one of obligation, and con:;e-quently there is nothing that he is obliged to confess (supposing always that to ensure the validity of his con-fession, he mentions his past forgiven sins, at least in a general way). In fact he rarely (more likely never) brings unforgiven sins to the confessional. For to say nothing of the many ways that venial sins can be forgiven out-side the sacrament, his daily communion is constantly purifying his soul, and his habit of immediately turning to God in loving sorrow for any fault committed, plus the. contrition that he excites before confession, brings him to the confession with really no unforgiven matter. Clearly the basic considerations of the purgative way, which may once have applied to him, and whose grateful memory will always remain with him, are not sufficient. There is need of a ditter~ent perspective~a .,shifting of emphasis, if his confession ~is" to produce the,, fruit ex-pected by the Church. ' ¯ ~. ~ For the Church is greatly concerned about these fre-quent confessions. When som~ younger members of the clergy were diminishing esteem for the frequent confes-sion of venial sins, claiming that it was useless, consumed too much time of busy pastors, and was actually un-known in the early Church, Pope Plus XII spoke out clearly and strongly against them (Mystici Corporis 87): Equally disastrou~s in its effects is the false contention that tile frequent confession of venial sins is not a practice to be greatly esteemed. Therefore those among the young clergy who are diminishing esteem for frequent confession are to know that the enterprise upon which they have embarked is alien to the Spirit of Christ and most detrimental to the Mys-tical Body of our Savior. For a constant and speedy ad-vancement in the path of virtue, we highly recommend the practice of frequent confession, introduced by the Church under the guidance of the Holy Spirit; for by this means we grow in a true knowledge of ourselves and in Christian hu-mility, bad habits are uprooted, spiritual negligence and apathy are prevented, the conscience is purified and the will strengthened, salutary spiritual direction is obtained, and grace is increased by the efficacy of the sacrament itself. In the following lines it is not my purpose to touch on all the above advantages nor to give a form to confession nor to enter into the aspect of spiritual direction in the confessional. I wish merely to redistribute the emphasis of certain aspects and thus perhaps help towards a solu-tion of our problem. Sacrament of Loving Sorrow One of the areas that calls for reappraisal and a pos-sible reshifting of emphasis concerns our habitual way of looking on the sacrament. There is danger that a way of speaking will induce a way of thinking. Because of our ordinary practice of speaking of the sacrament of pen-ance as "confession," we may develop a wrong emphasis. Now I am not advocating a change in our traditional terminology, but we must be careful lest our way of speaking throw everything out of focus. For the actual "confession" of sins, in the type of confession we are dealing with, is one of the least important elements of the sacrament. And yet it is frequently the main source of trouble for the fervent religious: "What to say?" Such a preoccupation is understandable when there is ques-tion of the integrity of an obligatory confession of mortal sins, but how completely out of place it is in our con- 4- 4- 4- Weekly onlession VOLUME 22, 1963 ]49 P. W. O'B~i~, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS fessions. I wonder if our exact catechetical training, given chiefly in view of a form of obligatory confession, is not unduly transferred to confessions of devotion. At any rate, it is not rare to find the problem of confession be-coming more acute as the religious becomes more fer-vent, the problem of "what to say" becoming so empha-sized as to bring on uneasiness. But even when we think more exactly in terms of the "sacrament of penance," we must still be on our guard. The very word "penance" can become a source of mis-understanding. The Latin word paenitentia of which our English "penance" is a translation, has been well-chosen and in its real meaning of "sorrow with purpose of amendment" is quite appropriate. But in English we do not think that way. For us "penance" is associated with fasting and disciplines; and even though we have been taught that true interior penance consists in sorrow for our sins, this is not our habitual association with the word "penance." Would that the translating fathers had given us something like "sacrament of sorrow." It would have helped us put the emphasis where it belongs. The emphasis then in this "sacrament of sorrow" should be on sorrow; but a sorrow that is a free and meritorius act. This should immediately put us on our guard against certain counterfeits. It is a free act; hence always in my power. I can make it on Monday; I can make it on Friday. I can make it when I am depressed; I can make it when I am as dry as a stick. Evidently its value does not and cannot depend on emotional inten-sity (which is not in my power). It is a movement of the will detesting sin because of my conviction (intellectua! appreciation) that God's will is above all. Its efficacy measured not by the accompanying emotion or affection. (if there is any) but by the strength derived from my conviction. Now for the fervent religious this conviction has become habitual. It is constantly operative in his daily life as is evidenced by his care in avoiding all that is against God's will. But it can well be that this con-viction has.become so settled in his life that it sets up no emotional resonance. He must not be surprised then when he finds that his sorrow in the confessional reta~ins the same strong voluntary but unemotional tendency that characterizes his daily life. He detests sin and all his failings because he truly loves God and has made will the supreme norm of his life. Here the question of motive enters. It is this that sets the tone to our sorrow and our confession. The faithful religious does not come to God in fear but in love,~,as to his Father. The Little Flower puts it simply: I have long believed that the Lord is more tender than a mother. I know that a mother is always ready to forgive trivial, involuntary misbehavior on the part of her child . Children are always in trouble, falling down, getting themselves dirty, breaking thing~but all this does not shake their parent's love for them. We come to God as His dearest children, sharing His very life, coming with th.e loving sorrow .of asofi; to be reassured that all, all has b&fi forgiven;' to i:eceive the embrace of the Father. Sacrament ol Purification One of the perspectives of the sacrament that opens up a rich vein of thought and deserves to be emphasized by the faithful religious is the aspect of purification-- purification not in the sense of liberation from the guilt of actual sins and faults--but rather a deeper purifica-tion that penetrates to the roots of those faults, to the habitual tendencies which cause them, and to the reli-quiae peccati which are their results. The sacrament be-comes (if you will pardon the expression) a sort of radio-therapy of our deep wickedness. We expose our wounds, visible or not, with a certain reasoned eagerness and joy to the curative influence of the sacrament. We are not so much preoccupied about our past actual faults. We have sorrowed over them and know that they have been wiped out through God's mercy. It is rather the deep of our soul, the roots of the faults, which give promise of bring-ing forth again their fruit of death--it is these roots which disturb us. And here precisely is where the "grace of the sacrament" comes into play--a grace which the Council of Florence describes as a grace of purification, a grace of healing: "Through penance we are spiritually healed" (DB 695). This grace reaches beyond the actual sins, forgiven by the absolution, to reach deep into our nature into the causes of those sins. This purifying influence acts not only on the soul but also on the body. I believe we may find an analogy in the effects of the sacrament of extreme unction which is usually considered as the complement of penance. Its influence in strengthening soul and body during serious sickness should give us some clue to the purifying action of penance. For we may well believe that the effects of this sacrament are but the "finishing touches" to a proc-ess begun and carried on through other sacraments throughout one's life. All the sacraments, even Holy Eucharist, have a purifying influence on the whole per-son, body and soul. Now one of the effects of the sacra-ment of extreme unction is to weaken the effects of con-cupiscence, to restore some part of our original integrity which was lost through Adam's sin. St. Thomas explains our inability to avoid all indeliberate venial sins by concupiscence together with the slowness of our percep- + + + Weekly Con]ession 151 ÷ ÷ ÷ P. W. O'Bden, $.L REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS tion of good, the changeableness of our will, and the frequency of temptation (S. T. 1, q 109, a 8). Now in re-ducing concupiscence, extreme unction restores order to man's strivings, subordinating the sensitive to the spirit-ual and the spiritual to God; it helps put a man in true possession of himself, so that he is able to dominate not only those positive urges of soul and body that escape control but also the oppressive weight of dead inertia by which the sensitive life impedes the striving of the will toward God. From this precious purifying and strengthening action of extreme unction, we may gather some idea of what takes place in the sacrament of pen-ance, not precisely in view of a serious sickness but look-ing rather to the progressive purification of our soul as it weakens concupiscence, counteracts sluggishness, or-ders our passions, and restores us to spiritual liberty. Awareness of Sinfulness Now it is precisely this grace of purification that draws religious to the sacrament of penance. (Perhaps I should say "drives," for there is no question of an emotional attraction, but rather the compelling force of a reasoned conviction based on faith.) It is this that explains the daily confessions of so many saints--St. Catherine of Siena, St. Ignatius, St. Francis Xavier, St. Peter Claver, St. Charles Borromeo, St. A1phonsus Liguori. Surely they were not deliberately sinning nor were they scrupulous. But they understood better the holiness of God. St. Francis Borgia was accustomed to confess twice a day, once in the morning before saying Mass and again in the evening before retiring. By this I do not mean that daily confession, where possible, is a goal to be aimed at. It may be helpful regularly for some persons, or for others at particular times of special grace or difficulty. This is a problem to be determined with one's confessor. I merely mention these examples to illustrate one of the great motives of frequent confession--the desire for pu-rity. This desire of the saints for purity is shared by ,~11 faithful souls according to their grace. For as the reli-gious strives to lead his life more generously, avoiding as far as he can all deliberate failings, he participates more abundantly in God's light. The effect is twofold: he be-gins to understand more clearly who God is, and in the same measure he becomes more aware of his wretched-ness. He finds himself in an attitude of soul similar to that of Eliphaz, one of Job's friends, who tells .us that his hair stood on end when in vision a spirit passed be-fore him. "I heard the voice as it were of a gentle wind: Shall man be justified in comparison with God, or shall a man be more pure than his Maker? Behold. in his angels he found wickedness." (Jb 4:15 ft.). Isaiah re-cords a similar state of soul, the result of his great vision of the holiness of God. "Woe is me because I am a man of unclean lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people that hath unclean lips and I have seen with my eyes the King, the Lord of hosts" (Is 6:l-5)~The religious~in~tlle light of God s hohness becomes painfully consc,ous, I will not say of "sin," but of sinfulness. He longs to bring his sins to the confessional, but what sins? Here precisely is the trouble. The sins that are clear have long since been sub-mitted to the sacrament in sorrow. He knows that they are forgiven and blotted from the sight of God. But the daily failings? Truly they are not deliberate sins. He would rather do anything than displease God. He cannot pin down his failings. And yet he is painfully conscious of a mass of selfishness, insincerity, sensuality, but deep in the soul where he cannot reach. He realizes that this wickedness penetrates all that he does, but it is not in acts where it can be grasped. And he also realizes that this is not an illusion; the wickedness is really there. This creates a problem for him--a problem that per-haps increases with the fidelity of the soul--and which often accounts for much of the difficulty experienced in approaching the sacrament. It seems such hypocrisy to have nothing to say. And yet no matter how long the ex-amination of conscience is prolonged, nothing more spe-cific is discovered. He has only wasted precious time that could have been more profitably spent on deepening his loving sorrow. Nor is this due simply to negligence of the soul. Perhaps most natures do not have the per-spicacity to analyze and draw out into the clear these deep tendencies of the soul. The light that is given them is not so sharp. Nor need it be; for its purpose of hu-miliation and purification is equally accomplished by the confused and painful acceptance of what the soul perceives confusedly. According to One's Light Fortunately, in this type of confession, the accusation is one of the least important parts. Hence very little time should be spent on the actual examination of conscience. The daily examination of conscience faithfully made will guarantee the religious against negligence, and a quick glance will usually reveal where he has displeased God. Hence if within a few minutes nothing specific is dis-covered, he should stop his inquiry and be satisfied with a general accusation: "I accuse myself of all the sins of my past life, especially for my sins of pride, sensuality, or against some commandment." Father Saint-Jure, S.J., gives this directive: Those (venial sins) which we should seek out and confess Weekly ¢onlesslon VOLUME Z2o '1'963 153 4. 4. 4. P. W. O'Brien, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ]54 with more c~ire are those which weigh most heavily on us, and those which cause us more embarrassment and shame, pro-vided that we are able to confess them with honesty a~d de-cency; likewise those which ~hinder us most from attaining the perfection to which God calls us, or which are contrary to the virtue to. which we are particularly devoting our efforts for that week or month. And since among venial sins there are some which arise from mere weakness, which escape us as by surprise, and others from malice, which we commtt with full knowledge, coldly, understanding what we are doing and with full consent, of these latter none should be omitted in con-fession. As for the others, one should leave them to the mercy of God, and confess them in general, all-inclusive terms: If the soul is sufficiently. . .pure so that it commits only these sins of weakness, let zt ~ndzcate some of them" (On the Knowledge and Love of our Lord Jesus Christ, Bk 3, c 10, ~9). Hence we may give as a practical rule: I may accuse myself of whatever God gives me the light to see as dis-pleasing to Him (no matter how trivial it may seem in itselD. If I see specific failings clearly, it is well to accuse myself at least of some of them; if I see them only.in a confused way, as tendencies, I should be content to ac-knowledge them in this general way (paying particular attention to one or another of them for a few weeks at a time)--adding, however, a general accusation of past forgiven sins to insure the validity of the confession. This awareness of sinfulness and inability to reach it through our own efforts is often given by spiritual writers as a reason for God's intervention through the passive purification of the soul. We read of "dark nights of the soul" in which God's purifying action goes deep where the active effort of the soul cannot penetrate, purifying the roots of our evil inclinations, attacking the basic self-ishness of the soul. This, type of purification is usually associated with trials in prayer that fall to the lot of con-templatives. We know, however, that God's purifying action can take many forms, that his apostles are often purified through the trials inherent in their apostolate. Surely a most powerful means of purification and one which is often overlooked is the very sacrament of purifi-cation instituted by Christ, which accomplishes in the soul much the same work as the "dark nights" and apos-tolic trials: namely, the progressive submission of our lower nature to the higher and the higher to God, the liberation of our soul from the weight of its wicked in-clinations and its consequent gradual transformation in God. Building up the Body oI Christ As the religious grows in his vocation, he should grow also in a sense of his solidarity with the Churcli, the Mystical Body. He begins to see his sin and sinfulness in their social aspect. While clearly realizing that his sin is his own, for which he alone is responsible, he is more aware of the consequences of his sin on the organism of which he is a member--and this apart from the harmful effects that may come through bad example, coopera-tion, and so forth. He understands that the life that is in him is a shared lif~e; ~w, eakened with 'his'.~weakness, strengthened with his strength. It.is true that our liturgy today does not give such prominence to the social aspect of penance as in the old days when the penitent, after a period of public penance, was restored on Holy Thurs-day to the family life of the Church so that he might share the Paschal Bread of life with the other members of his family, the Church. Nor is there question of our religious being "restored" to the Church. But he begins to feel deeply his corporate responsibility, He is ashamed of the sinfulness that he brings to the immaculate Spouse of Christ. Aware of the lessening of love, as sin drains this Body anemic, he strives to replenish the blood ;stream with his love. He understands the general disappearance in the world of a sense of sin and rushes with his loving sorrow to make amends. If he be a priest whose mission it is to destroy sin in the world, he finds an added joy both in receiving and administering the sacrament. He offers God a soul in which He may work more purity, and thus "build up the Body of Christ" (Eph 4.9). And with this consciousness of his unity in the Mystical Body, a new dimension is added to his examination Of con-science, or rather a more acute awareness of his already existing obligation: his duty of charity; his responsibility for the spread of God's kingdom; his sins of omission through cowardice, selfishness, love of ease; the primacy of love. Meeting with the Three One beautiful but rarely stressed aspect of this sacra-ment is our meeting with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. While it is true that the glorified humanity of Jesus is the instrument of all our grace, it is still the Word of God who takes away sin. "Who can forgive sin but God alone?" (Lk 5:21), Every sacramental absolution is then the action of Jesus, the great high priest, acting through His representative, a man chosen from amongst sinners. And in receiving that absolution, I come in vital contact with Jesus. Here He bestows on me the grace of redemption. Jt is for this that He came into the world, as He prolongs into my soul the efficacy of His redemp-tive sacrifice. -The life that He gives, He won in His blood. It is this that causes such joy in heaven, more than over the ninety-nine just, this prolongation of the rich mysteries of His death and glorification, for me a new 4- 4- 4- Weekly Conlession VOLUMF 22, 1963 155 + ÷ ÷ P. W. O'Brien, SJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 156 baptism, as plunged into His death, I rise to a new or richer life. But often we are inclined to forget the part of the Father and the Holy Spirit. If there is pardon in the sacrament and grace of purification, it is because the Father loves us beyond all telling. "God [the Father] so loved the world that he gave his only-begotten Son." (Jn 3:16). In the pardon of the Son, I meet the love of the Father. And if there is life in the sacrament, it is because the Father, in giving His Son, gives us also the Holy Spirit who pours forth the charity of God into our hearts (Rom 5:5), this Spirit who cleanses, who burns away the impurities of our soul in the fire that He is. All this is brought out strikingly in the very institution of this sacrament of peace. It is as though the glorified Christ can hardly wait to begin pouring out the effects of His loving sacrifice. The very eve of Easter Sunday, He must come to His frightened Apostles in the upper room to give them power to forgive sin, First He shows them His wounds, the price of the sacrament, and the proof that it is really the glorified Christ in His human-ity. And then: " 'Peace be to you. As the Father has sent Me, I also send you.' When He had said this, He breathed upon them and said to them, 'Receive the Holy Spirit; whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them; and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained' " (Jn 20:21- 23). The Father is there, prolonging in Jesus and through Jesus in the apostles, the love that fathered the redemp-tion. The Son is there, in His glorified humanity, com-municating the fruits of His redemptive offering. But first the Spirit must be given, for it is in the Spirit that the soul is led through the Son to the Father. What happiness for the faithful soul is this meeting in the sacrament with the ThreeI ]oy to the Heart of ]esus But if there is joy to the soul on meeting the Three, there is joy in the Three as They enrich the soul. For the eagerness of the soul to meet its God can never begin to match the love of God that goes out to meet the soul. "I have come that they may have life and have it more abundantly" (Jn I0:10). The entire life of Jesus, with all its sufferings, has been aimed precisely at moments such as these, when meeting with the soul, He can com-municate the graces won on Calvary. If love that is frus-trated and refused can be such a torment, Love that gives and is received can be immeasurable joy. It is this joy that is ours to give to Jesus as we open our hearts in sorrow to His purifying love. JACQUES LECLERCQ The Priest Today In a preceding article? on active lay people, I men-tioned the confusion of priests when they ask themselves what their purpose is since now in meetings of fill kinds lay persons make meditations and in general ~ssume a spiritual role. And yet. The Presence o] the Priest And yet the laity cling to the presence of the priest. It seems that something essential is missing if a priest is not present--this priest who does nothingl Things now are entirely different from what they used to be. For one thing, previously there were no meet-ings that resemble the ones of today. Formerly when the priest .took his part by preaching a sermon, the faithful listened and then left. Or at the time when study clubs began to be organized, the priest presided and directed, trying with more or less success to make the various mem-bers speak; and frequently he was the only one to do any speaking. Today, however, he is neither presiding officer nor director. He is rather a chaplain; he assists--in Italy he is called the assistente ecclesiastico [the ecclesiastical assistant]. At times one may have the impression that everything happens without him, but in reality there is nothing that happens without him. Everything happens with him; but this "with him" is something other than "under his direction." All of this is disconcerting for those who are accustomed to the authoritarian conceptions of former times. The priest does nothing, and yet he is indispensable. When lay persons form a spiritual group of some kind, one of their first concerns is always to have a chaplain; for without a chaplain it would seem that the group is unable to suc-ceed. Is there any way in which we can point out pre-cisely what it is that the priest provides? x In La revue nouvelle, a Belgian periodical, during 1962,. Canon Leclercq published a number of articles on the laity in the Church today. The present article is translated with permission from La revue nouvelle, September 15, 1962, pp. 171-84. 4. 4. 4. Canon Jacques Le- ¢lercq fives at 102, rue de Li/~ge; Beau-lays, Belgium. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS lacqu~s Le¢l~rcq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 158 The matter is a real puzzle, and it is being investigated from almost every angle. It is not a question of the sacra-merits. As is evident, it is the priest who distributes these. But the Christian life, as it is conceived today, is some-thing other than the sacraments. It is based on the sacra-ments; it is nourished by them; yet Catholic Action meet-ings, or meetings of workers or of managers, of students, of scotits and their leaders, have a purpose entirely other than that of receiving the sacraments; they are not even spoken of. Nor is it expected that the priest give an in-struction or a sermon. It is only expected that he be there, participating in the meeting with the rest. It would seem that from the Christian viewpoint some-thing is lacking to lay persons when they are left to them-selves., And yet it is a question of their own life, for it is they who must put into practice what they discuss. But at the same time it is a question of their own life insofar as it is Christian. From this point of view, it is necessary to have a priest in the midst of them. And I think that this expression "in the midst of them" is the exact one. A French priest, who works among the working class, has made the following remark on this point: I think that the people need a founder, someone who ~'will unite them in the charity of Christ. Lay persons can do some things, but they cannot be centers. Hence they need Someone who will be a religious center, a kind of church, for them. They do not only need Christians who are the presence of the Church, but they need above all a church in the sense of the Church realized in this community; they need someone who unites them and who is the head in the sense of being a father, not someone who commands but one who assembles and who is first ("T~moignage de M. Lelubre" in Etudes sur ,le sacre-merit de l'ordre [Paris: Cerf, 1957], p. 432). When this is reflected on, one sees very clearly the ap-pearance of the reality that is the Church. Christ continues His presence and His action by the Church. The Church is the people of God; and the people of God is constituted first of all by lay persons. In order to avoid giving the impression of tending towards laicism --which consists of excluding the clergy--let me say at once that the Church is both lay persons and priests, all of them together. But priests--all of them, even the bishops and the pope---exist for the laity, for the service of the laity. When it is said that they exist for the laity-- the pope himself is entitled the servant of 'the servants of God---this means that the people of God is essentially the laity, that it is to them that the divine life flows and that it is through them above all that it manifests itself. If the Church, according to the words of Scripture, is like a lamp that one lights and puts on a lampstand, this is the laity--Christian life in the family and in daily occupa-tions, The clergy, priests, religious are at the service of this. The result of their work is not that an elite may en-close itself within monasteries in order to live in God, nor even that Christian people in more or less great numbers may gather in churches to. ce,lebrate divine~worship; rather the result of their "dork is that through Christians Christ lives and acts in families and in the world. Priests and religious must sanctify themselves per-sona! ly in order to create a climate of holiness in the Church; but the result of the Church's holiness must be found in homes and in the world. When we use the word "world" [citd] here, we are envisaging professional, politi-cal, and social activities--all that can be called public life. It is to this that the life of Christ in the Church tends. Hence the Church is above all the laity; and it is through the laity that she first manifests her dynamism. But it is priests who form the laity in a Christian way. Priests :are men of the Church and men of God. '.Their function is to represent the Church; they exist only for this. ~ The lay person must be entirely Christian and at the same time something else besides; this shows forth the character of the Incarnation, that reality which is found only in Christianity. The Incarnation consists in this that the work and supernatural action of God is accomplished in and through nature. It has been frequently remarked that the supernatural is above the natural, but not contrary to the natural; it does not. suppress nature but elevates it; it transforms the natural, but it takes the natural into account. It constructs from, above; this can never be repeated too often if one wishes to comprehend what Christianity is. The kingdom of God, then, must be built up among men by taking due account of their nature. The Spirit of God transforms this nature to its depths; this is mani-fested exteriorly by the intention that animates action and by the choice which is made among various actions; .never-theless, these actions retain their .human character, and this must be remembered by those who are concerned with them. The Priest is Leaven Christ compared the kingdom of God to leaven that makes the dough rise; good bread can not be made with-out yeast. But yeast alone is not sufficient to make bread. Flour is needed, and the baker must be careful to secure good flour. It is necessary to knead the bread carefully. It must be baked in a good oven at the right temperature and for the right length of time and so forth. If the 4. 4. 4. The Priest Today VOLUME 22, 139 Jacques l.eclercq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 160 kingdom of God is like the leaven in bread, one can say that the priest is the depositary of this leaven; but it the laity who are like the bakers who must be occupied with all the conditions for the preparation of the bread. Moreover, it is they who must make use of the yeast. If the priest remains alone with his leaven, there will never be any bread; and if the bakers do not have the yeast, once again there will be no bread. Both are neces-sary. Now let us transpose all this into the entirety of life. The laity found homes and give life to the world. This obliges them to think of many things that in themselves are independent of the kingdom of God. It is to be noted that I have said "in themselves," for nothing is a stranger to the kingdom of God when one places it in the entirety of life. For example, parents must be concerned with the health of their children, their nourishment, their cloth-ing, their studies. The kingdom of God takes part in all this as a kind of preoccupation that orientates this activ-ity ir,.~ a certain measure, but only in a certain measure. And the same is the case with employers, workers, farmers, students, and so forth. But the priest is the man of God. He recalls the king-dom of God by his mere presence; one can say, by his existence, for he has no other purpose for existing. Theo-retically it should be sufficient that a priest be present for one to think of the kingdom of God. The word "theo-retically" is used because men are not perfect, and both priests and the laity are men. Nevertheless, this is the way reality is, and it is this that the laity perceive even when they cannot express it; it is this that leads them, when they are concerned with the kingdom or the way in which God should penetrate their life, to unite themselves around a priest. In brief, all the matters which.form the tissue of the llfe of the laity.are of importance for the kingdom of God; but they are not the kingdom of God. If, when they wish to discuss the repercussion of the kingdom of God on these matters, people gather together without a priest, the discussion easily slips over into the purely human condi-tions of activity; the presence of a priest, however, centers it upon the kingdom. Hence the laity need to have a priest present in their life. This also explains the desire of families to have times a visit from a priest. This is especially true in towns; but it differs from one locality to another, for we are discussing here the case of fervent Christians who desire that their faith influence their lives. In places where such Christians do not exist, the matter is quite different and needs to be discussed further. But to return to our subject, the visit of a priest to families is not a matter of giving a sermon or even of speaking principally about religion. It is a presence. Christian families enjoy having a priest in their homes. They want the priest to know them, their children, and their way of life. And this contributes to the general at-mosphere which reigns iri.~th~. home; th~"~ '6hversation spontaneously takes a vein different from the conversa-tion that is had with colleagues or with friends. And the fact that the priest is involved in their life permits all kinds of questions to be directed to him. The problem of the visit of a priest to families arouses a great many questions which can not be treated here, for they deserve an article to themselves. For the present, let us limit ourselves to pointing out these aspirations of good Christians. We are concerned with good Christians. As we pointed out previously, the Church cannot reach bad Christians or non-Christians except through the laity. The laity must be active or the Church will not take hold of the world; in the terms of the Gospel, she will be a light under a basket or leaven apart from the dough. But these active laity need the priest. Left to themselves, they are liable to be routed even in their interior life. In order that they may be united under the standard of Christ and that they may attack in an orderly way the problems of their interior life and of their Christian action in the world, the priest must be in the midst of them. In conclusion, let us note that in the Church at the beginning of this century the priest was occupied with a good many other things which were often profane; by reason of a tradition which dies away only slowly, many priests today are still taken up to a large extent by ad-ministrative and other activities which the laity would be better occupied with. The result is that priests are ab-sorbed by activities which are not suited to them; at the same time they are unavailable for groups of active Christians or they find it impossible to visi~ families. In any case, this new role of the priest is so important that there can be no Church without him. And the activ-ities that correspond to this role are so numerous and pressing that good priests are crowded with such activ-ities. And there is even the complaint that there are not enough priests. And yet what we have discussed so far is but one of the activities of a priest. Spiritual Action The action of leaven can not be seen; this results in difficulty for some because man has a body and is highly dependent on it. Man needs to see, and yet the soul and action on souls cannot be seen. ÷ ÷ ÷ The Priest Today VOLUME 22, ~.963 161 lacques Leclercq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS There are, first of all, the older priests of whom we have already spoken; for these the pastoral ministry is ex-pressed by material activities and they can not conceive any other type. Moreover, they do not conceive of any other priestly intervention than the authoritarian form of formal congregational meetings composed of a sermon and a greeting. Today, all this has become secondary, if indeed it has not been completely abandoned. Formerly when the priest spoke authoritatively, he gave directions in many matters (politics, for instance) which touched religion only very indirectly. At the present time, there is a growing agreement that priests are not to in-terest themselves in the temporal. However, many priests formerly were interested in nothing else. To the extent that this remains true, one can understand that they have the impression of no longer knowing what to do. This outmoded spirit dies out only slowly; in semi-naries as well as in houses of study of religious orders clerical formation likewise becomes transformed only slowly. One even finds young priests who think that, when they are with the laity, their role should be one of teaching and that they alone should do the talking. They find themselves ill at ease when persons are not disposed to listen to them first of all. Others still think that they must do everything themselves~determine the place, day, and hour of the meetings and issue the announcements. Again they feel discomforted when a group of active Christians organize everything without them and then come to invite them. We are living in an age of transformation. The older attitude with its way of doing things is gradually giving way. But some priests still retain the older attitudes and do not conceive the possibility of allowing the laity to act. On the other hand, many of the laity retain a purely passive conception of their role; not only do they leave everything to the priest, but they will do nothing if they are asked to take over a work. "Adult" lay persons (of whom I have been speaking) and priests adapted to such are still but few in number. Nevertheless, when one compares today with the be-ginning of the century, the transformation is unmistak-able. The essential thing is that this evolution continue and that the priest should more and more return to. the spiritual; that is, to the domain that belongs to him. But is "return" the correct word? He should rather aspire to it. But man is material, and the older conception gives satisfaction to a kind of unconscious materialism. Collaboration Formerly, one spoke only of authority and obedience. The faithful should obey, and nothing else was asked of them. Today, however, as we have seen, they are asked to think and to act for themselves. The meetings of active Christians have as their purpose a united program to enable the realization of the Christian ideal in the actual circumstances of life. Accordingly, the pri~est.is, no longer '~oncerned only with teaching; he listens and he invites the faithful to make their own personal contribution. This can be seen even in the matter of worship; the Mass has ceased to be a sacrifice offered by the priest alone at an altar distant from the people and in front of a congregation uncon-cerned with what he is doing, Now the Mass has become the community sacrifice offered by the priest an'd the faithful together, the priest being the spokesman of the community, the representative of the Church and of Christ, the celebrant of a sacrifice which belongs to the entire community. This is a profoundly changed state of affairs. Priests and laity act together. The Church is a single body and all of its members are active. This is a true resurrection. And by this very fact the priest has been strikingly ennobled, for he is no longer limited to being the shep-herd of a passive flock but has become instead the ani-mator of an active community. This change is to be found on all levels of the Church. The last and highest is that at the very center of the ChurCh, the See of Rome. Vati-can Council II gives witness to this transformation; and it is clear how John XXIII envisages the matter. His man-ner is not one like this: "Let the bishops say what they want, I shall do only what I want"; rather, his attitude is this: "I am deeply concerned to know the opinions of the bishops in order that I may take their advice into account." No one can derive from this the impression that pontifical power has thereby been lessened; but every-one does get the impression that the. Church forms one living body, animated by a movement of the whole. The role of the clergy is essential for the Church. When Catholicism is compared with Protestantism and with Orthodoxy, this role of the clergy is one of the most striking characteristics of the Church. Perhaps this ex-plains the retreat of the laity after the Reformation which placed the clergy in the background and in many cases even suppressed the priesthood and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Now, however, the Church has recovered from this crisis; Christian life is now developing in its com-plete totality. Henceforth the Church will no longer be divided into the active Church composed of the clergy and the passive Church composed of the laity. The Church is a body ÷ ÷ ÷ The Priest Today VOLUME 22, 1963 ]63 ÷ ÷ ÷ Jacqo, es REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS I6,t of priests and laity together, living together, thinking together, acting together. As Cardinal Suhard put it: "The true achiever of evangelization is not the simple faithful nor the priest by himself; it is the Christian com-munity." The laity are fulfilling their role; the priest turn is free to be himself. Spiritual Counselor The direction of conscience has enjoyed a large place in the modern Church; it has been one of the principal instruments in the formation of a Christian elite. Never-theless, it has been especially concerned with women. When one reads the letters of the great spiritual directors, it is seen that they have been addressed almost exclusively to women. These women belonged to the higher levels of society. Today, however, as a result of the general spread of education and of the rise of active Christians, those who are concerned with the spiritual life are becoming more numerous and are to be found at all levels; they are found among workers and in the country as well as among the intellectuals. If it is necessary to practice direction of souls as it was formerly conceived, the clergy will be un-able to cope with it. But here once more, does not the spirit of collabora-tion profoundly transform conditions? Christians gather together with a priest to reflect on their Christian life; together they confront most of the questions that were formerly treated by individual conferences between the director and his spiritual child. In these conferences those seeking direction used to speak to their director not only of their interior life but of everything that con-cerned themselves. They asked their director's advice with regard to their relations with their husbands, with their children, and with their friends. They discussed the amount of freedom to be given their children, the amount of money to be given them, their clothes, companions, activities. Now all this is discussed in groups and in a way that is far more effective. Formerly, the person seeking direction would describe a situation to the director and he would decide the matter. The one consulting would act as though the director were omniscient, and he in turn would decide everything as though in fact he were. It was even taught as a received doctrine that the word of the director, was the word of God, that the director had the required graces of state, and that one should obey him blindly. Now it is realized that this was a false mystique, foreign to the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation; neverthe-less, it formed a coherent system. Christians concerned with the exigencies o[ morality would consult their con[essor on the matter o[ all their reading. No priest, however, can be acquainted with everything that is being published. The con[essor, i[ he believed himsel[ obliged to answer--and [ormerly the majority believed themsel~ces so obliged h~d~0 answer by guessing or had to make use o[ a systematic severity in order to avoid all risk o[ danger . And thereby/ other dangers were [allen into. From another viewpoint, there were husbands who op-posed the idea o[ their wives having a director o[ con-science on the grounds that they did not want between themselves and their wives a secret authority which the latter obeyed absolutely. Moreover, the women who con-suhed a director were usually women who were not mar-ried or who were unhappily married. This meant that spiritual direction had mixed in with it a purely human desire [or masculine support, and this in a proportion that is difficult to determine. All this has passed, and we have arrived at a much sounder state o[ affairs. All the matters that we have men-tioned are taken up today in groups. In [amily groups there are discussed today the problems o[ conjugal intimacy, o[ prayer in common, and the prayer o[ each o[ the spouses. In all kinds o[ groups, there is discussion o[ diversions, o[ entertainments, o[ reading, o[ the time to be given to recreation and to apostolic work, and o[ the problems o[ pro[essional li[e. Since the dil~erent kinds o[ groups are highly diversified, the questions that are confronted also differ greatly; nevertheless, the great part of matters that were [ormerly treated by individual direction is now considered by groups, each member con-tributing the results o[ his own experience; the priest has only to contribute his own element. The result is that while the number o[ Christians de-sirous o[ a Christian life that will dominate their entire existence is growing, the number of those who want direction o[ conscience in the individualistic sense of former times is diminishing. Even the phrase "spiritual director" is vanishing; the expression tod~y is that of "spiritual counselor." Everything is simplified; every-thing is developed in an atmosphere of collaboration that befits adult li[e. Hence, [or example, when a [amily group discusses the liberty to be given to children o[ different ages or the amount of money to be given them, solutions are reached that are more balanced and more realistic than those [ormerly obtained when the one consulting was limited to accepting the word of a director who was a stranger to the li[e o[ the [amily. Some Christians, however, still have recourse to a spiritual director after the older method, but they are The Pr~st ToOa~y VOLUME 22, 1963 165 ]~que, Leclegcq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in general those who are slow to be caught up by the strong current that is sweeping through the Church and reanimating Christian life. Unfortunately they are still numerous, for a great many Christians as well as a great many priests remain immobilized in older conceptions. The movement that stresses the laity touches only a cer-tain sector and certain levels of the population. There are even entire regions where it is unknown. We are seeking here to emphasize the signs of this renewal, for we are sure that it is in this renewal that the future of the Church lies. That which is merely a prolongation of the past will fall as the world progresses. Undoubtedly, there will always remain certain ele-ments of the old direction of conscience, certain needs (more or less occasional) that will require personal, in-dividual contacts. In most of these cases confession will be sufficient. It is impossible to predict what will eventu-ally happen, but it is clear that everything is being sim-plified as the Christian animation of life grows. The Word Today much consideration is given to the ministry of the word; this again is a reaction against the past. Formerly, it was taken for granted that society was Christian. Children were instructed in religion, but no attention was paid to adults. Certain traditions, peri-odically restated by councils, obliged to a preaching directed to the instruction of the people; but actual practice had stifled the rule. One has only to recall what the state was of the ministry of the word. Now the word lives again; the most significant sign of this rebirth is undoubtedly retreats. The development of the spiritual life of active Christians has been accom-panied by the multiplication of retreats and periods of recollection. These have become so numerous that or~e can speak accurately in this connection in terms of a spiritual explosion. Retreats and days of recollection are organized in every walk of life: workers, business men, engineers, physicians, young persons of every category. Every time a group with a spiritual character is founded, retreats are organized. At the very time I am writing these lines, I have before me the bulletin of the Association of House-keepers for Priests, an organization that exists in France and Belgium; they, too, organize retreats and days of recollection. Moreover, undifferentiated retreats are also multiplying; these are directed towards all Christians and include without distinction both men and women, priests and laity. Once more we can note that formerly there were some retreat houses maintained by the Jesuits who pioneered them and by convents of women imbued by the Jesuit spirit; there was also a small number of persons who went to these houses for retreats. Today it is an immense move-ment. There are parishes which have retreat leagues com-posed of persons who make a retreat each- y.ear. In certain regions these leagues are systematically organized; in cer-tain dioceses of The Netherlands they are a regular insti-tution of every parish. And I am not speaking now of women, for women retreatants are even more numerous. Hence it is not a matter for astonishment that retreat houses are constantly being opened everywhere and that there are always too few of them. Rooms must generally be reserved in advance; and it can happen that a retreat must be canceled for lack of an available retreat house. But there is also need for priests. Preaching is par excellence a priestly duty. At the present moment the number of priests conducting retreats is legion. Formerly retreats were largely reserved to certain religious orders; but now many diocesan priests (pastors, chaplains, teach-ers) give them. Nevertheless, the number of retreat masters is still not sut~ciently large. As a general rule, it is very easy to find retreatants; retreat houses are more difficult to find; but hardest of all to find are priests. At the beginning of these articles, I recalled those who asked what was left for a priest to do now that there are active lay persons; the answer is that priests are needed for things that are genuinely priestlyl The Christian people have a hunger and thirst for the word of God, and those who can dispense it to them are not numerous enough. This is a matter of the priestly ministry par excellence. The tendency of today's priest is to occupy himself by preference in such ministries, for he feels himself the apostle of Christ in the strongest sense of that term; and he prefers to leave to lay persons the care of administra-tion. I have known a pastor who had to build a church; he appointed a committee of lay persons to raise the money while he himself conducted retreats. Perhaps the building of the church progressed a little more slowly than it would have had he devoted all his time to raising money, but he was at work shaping souls. All this also supposes a transformation in the clergy; for the majority of older priests, administrators of parishes, teachers of profane subjects, have been completely held back from conducting retreats. If they left this matter to religious, this was not without good reason. Today the importance of religious has not diminished, but retreat masters now come from every ecclesiastical sector. The Priest Today VOLUME 22, 167 $acques Leclercq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 168 Collaboration Once More Together with divine worship, preaching is un-doubtedly the chief priestly activity; and yet even here there is to be found an interchange of priests and laity. Retreats differ greatly. In some the retreatants are plunged into an absolute silence; the director gives them talks throughout the entire day. In this case the renewal of Christian life is marked by the radical character of the retreat--more contemplative, more silent than could have been borne before. But there are also retreats where with-out any lessened preoccupation with the spiritual an hour a day is reserved for an exchange of views; in this period each one can present his problems as he discerns them in the particular situation in which he finds himself. Persons of an older form of mind find it indiscreet to expose one's state of soul to the whole world. Formerly in a retreat one listened to the director who was the only one to speak; then purely profane recreation pe-riods were had, and the retreatants who desired it could consult the retreat master personally and individually. Often retreatants would bring up the same questions; the retreat master would always give the same answer. In general, the matters discussed were such that there was no compelling reason to keep them secret; hence it often happened that the retreatants told each other what the re-treat master had told them. Today all this is treated in a community session; every-one profits by it, and it produces a community spirit in the group. The retreatants feels themselves engaged in a common work. The divine life in us, our work for the service of God, are problems that interest all Of us to-gether. We no longer go to heaven alone; we go there with our brethren; indeed it is impossible to go there alone, for we depend on those who surround us. The king-dom of God is a community enterprise to which we belong and which we ought to undertake together. Even a re-treat is a community enterprise. In addition to this, it is now customary to have lay persons speak during a retreat. Retreats are par excellence a priestly work; nevertheless, it does happen that a layman is invited to speak of an aspect ofthe Christian life which he knows. One of my friends was invited by a teacher to speak to his students during the retreat at the end of their studies; the subject was the role of the Christian in the world; after the talk the teacher told him: "It does them much more good to hear all this from a layman." Likewise lay persons are invited to speak in seminaries. In a Canadian magazine I found a letter from Rome con-cerned with the matter expressed by Cardinal Sali~ge as "making use of the layman." The correspondent described how some theological students in Rome had invited a father of a family to speak to them of his Christian life. ¯. Montreal, Rome, Toulouse, and now this article which is to appear in Brussels and Buenos Aires--the problems are everywhere the same. Lay persons are eve~:ywher~e.;,~so also are,priests. They are together, shoulder to'~hourder. We cannot do without the one more than the other. What About the Others? The reader will have noticed that the lay persons dis-cussed here are the active la!ty who have grown into Christian maturity. What has been said is concerned only with the activity of a priest in relationship to such laymen. But what about the others--who compose the vast major-ity of men? Clearly, the groups of which we have spoken, the aware-ness of the exigencies of Christian life, and the giving of retreats are giving to Christians a shape and a form very different from that which they previously had. As we have already remarked, we are seeing a new Christian people appearing. But if these Christians remain among them-selves and if the clergy is concerned only with them, what changes will there be in the world as a whole? Whatever else may be said about this problem, it is true that they will always be there in the world. They are not isolated from the world: they are shopkeepers with a neighborhood store; they are factory workers and en-gineers; they are white-collared workers; they are physi-cians and druggists. They are everywhere. They come to-gether to arouse their Christian awareness; but afterwards they disperse and return to the mass. This is a slow work which one can judge only over long intervals. One can see, for example, that the position of Catholic literature in the world is today far different from what it was a hundred years ago. The same can be said for the position of Catholics in philosophy, in art, in politics. This is true, someone may say; but this is only a matter of a few leaders. To this I would answer that the remark is true; but every leader supposes a body of followers. If Catholic writers and artists today show both a talent and a conformity to the aspirations of the times which were not shown a hundred years ago, then this has happened be-cause the environment must have changed. And it is the same if Catholic philosophers are able to speak to the men of today. Such persons are perhaps the flower of Christianity; but the flower supposes the stem, and the stem in turn supposes the root. If I am the root, I need not be humiliated by the 4. 4. 4. The Priest Today VOLUME 2Z, ~.963 169 ÷ ÷ ÷ Jacques Leclercq REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS fact that I am not seen; it is owing to me that the flower can charm the eye. The position of the Church in the world is, then, pro-roundly changed. And in the examples given above, it will be noted that this transformation has been achieved by lay persons. Writers like Claudel, Chesterton, Bernanos, Ger-trud yon le Fort have undoubtedly done more to attract men to Catholicism than any theologian and perhaps more even than any priest. But they have been in relation with a priest. In short, the role of the priest is exercised on the interior of the Church, on those who are united in the Church; it is these latter who thereupon go out to speak to the world. At times the complaint is heard ~that Christians barri-cade themselves within a ghetto, living by themselves without contact with the outside. The complaint is well founded; if they dose themselves up with each other, the salt will not be able to give its flavor. And it is true that there is a dangerous exclusivism, a fear of leaving a Christian background. This fear is a debilitating thing, for of all the emotions fear is the one that is most debasing. The spreading of ideas, and especially the Christian spreading of ideas, is done by the osmosis of personal con-tact; it is to be noted, however, that this notion of per-sonal contact is a wide one extending to the books that are read and the films that are seen. The action of Chris-tianity proceeds from the fact that the Christian environ-ment reflects Christ. A great many who were born and raised Christian turn from Christianity because they do not find Christ in the Christianity which has been pre-sented to them. What they need is for active Christians to give them an exact image of Christianity. Others, also educated as Christians, turn from Christianity when they perceive the demands it makes on them. The Church loses nothing when such quit her, for they discredit her in the measure that they are believed to represent her. This is the case with cei'tain governments which declare them-selves Catholic. This, then, is a question of the large numbers of Chris-tians who are lukewarm and indifferent. But there is an-other group, larger still, those who are not Christian:; at all. Among these the seed must be sown. Here, too, the role of the priest is essential. Father Vinatur in the text cited above remarked that the priest is a founder. It is true; Christianity is founded only by a priest. This is seen from the very beginning; in the Acts of the Apostles there is related the ministry of St. Paul; he is seen taking up his residence in a city, making some converts, and then leaving when Christianity has been set up and a member of the community--the priest--has been established as head. This is a permanent condition of things. Active lay persons can prepare the soil; they can arouse sympa-thetic interest; but a Christian community is.formed only when a priest comes. This.i~ true on all, levels of the Church. When Catholid Action was constituted with its appeal to assume a genuinely religious activity, it was priests who took the initiative in the matter. So also when the family movement was founded to concern itself with the Christian life of married persons, it was begun by priests. Lay persons came afterwards; in a certain sense, they ended by doing everything. But the priest remains, and he will never be able to be dispensed with. This, then, is the design of the new Church, animated by a Christian life which has not been known since early times, a Church of Christians all sharing in the life and action of Christ. This Church is but sketched in the reality before us at the present time; but this sketch is the image of what is being formed. The confidence which we can have for the future comes from the fact that Christ is living in this Church in a way that He has not since her early centuries. ÷ ÷ The Priest Today VOLUME 22, 196,~ 171 LADISLAS M. ORSY, S.J. From Meditation to Contemplation ÷ ÷ ÷ Ladislas M. Orsy, S.J., is professor of canon law at the Gregorian Univer-sity; Piazza della Pilotta, 4; Rome, Italy. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS The aim of this article is both practical and doctrinal: it is to give practical help for the difficult period of tran-sition from meditation to contemplation and to show the theological background of the change that takes place in the soul. Meditation in these pages means prayer with the help of concepts, images, and more or less enforced acts of will. Contemplation means silence before God, prayer in which the soul is transformed under God's powerful ac-tion. In meditation the accent is on activity, in contem-plation on passivity. In meditation the soul tries to reach God by thoughts, feelings, and desires; in contemplation God has reached the soul and works on it without thoughts, feelings, or desires. In meditation the soul fights its way towards God; in contemplation it should stand before God in poverty. Passivity and poverty are then the foundations for a new type of activity and for new riches that have their source in God's powerful ac-tion. Such a deep change in prayer affects the whole man: it is a change in personality. It is not without difficulties; Saint Teresa remarks that there is no time in the spirit-ual life when it is so easy to give up prayer altogether as the time when contemplation begins. God's Work in the Soul God is eternally present in the soul: it is His presence that gives it life and being, it is His presence that sancti-fies it. He is not only present, He is working in the soul, infusing light and love into our mind and love into our will power. His final aim is to take possession of our person so that we should be united to Him and be His adopted children for an eternity. God is eternally present in the soul. He was there since the moment of our creation; but at the moment of our baptism He came again, not in majesty but as a good friend, and made our soul His own dwelling house where He likes to remain. He brought sanctity and holiness with Him and transformed the soul. As when fire is made in a cold and dark r0on~ ~th~ place be~ome~ ~¢arm and full of light, so when God comes into the soul it is filled with warmth and light. It is clothed with immortality, it belongs to God's family, in a way it becomes divine. The new life the soul receives is called sanctifying grace, the new light in the mind faith, and the infused love in the will power hope and charity. They are all fruits of the presence of God; should He leave the soul, there would be dark and cold again. God works in the soul. There is not one moment of rest for Him. He is supremely good and happy, and He wants to share His rich goodness and happiness with others. Consequently, His sanctifying presence is in fact a work of continuous sanctification. Light and love are given to mind and will in abundance: light that we may see and better understand things divine,-.love that we may go towards God at a better pace. This action of God is peaceful and quiet: He does not like noise and agitation. It is this action that ought to be the source of all our thoughts and deeds; unless they proceed from God they will be empty and they will not bear any fruit for eternal life. God's aim is to take possession of our person. He is not satisfied with partial sanctification of His family. He wants to bring them into the very centre of His own life where the Father and the Son and the Spirit are one and where They know and love each other without end. To say that one does not want to be more than an ordinary good Christian (meaning by it that one does not want to be perfect) is to betray a lack of generosity and to show a great ignorance of God's intention who wants all His children to grow continuously and reach their full maturity in Christ. The extent of the necessary trans-formation is indicated by the distance (which each one easily realizes for himself) between God's purity and our impurity, between His charity and our own obscurity. Nevertheless, it is this complete transformation that is God's aim and nothing less. He has the means to achieve it: by the gentle action of His love in this world and by Purgatory in the other. No person who wants to see God can escape this cleansing process; and those who are generous will want to get through it soon, if possible, in this life. Such desire is not a presumption: it is no more than conforming our will to God's will. 4. 4. 4. Meditation to Contemplation VOLUME 22, 196~ 173 4. 4. 4. L. M.'Or~y, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ]74 Meditation When God comes into the soul of man and wants to sanctify him, He encounters a great obstacle which is man's fallen nature with all that it entails: sin, attach-ment to worldly things, false judgments, and selbwill as hard as steel. Purification is necessary. It is mainly done by God, but man has his part in it as well. Meditation is one of the first steps in this cleansing process. Man has heard the voice of God and wants to obey Him and be near Him. But man's mind is not clear and clean enough to perceive the light that comes from God living in his soul, his will is not sensitive enough follow the inspirations of grace. It is literally embedded in mortal and perishing things, it is ruled not by God but by the senses. Training is necessary for both mind and will in order to lift them from the visible into the in-visible, from the tangible into the intangible, from the sensitive into the spiritual. Part of this training is what we call meditation. The mind has to be trained. It should be a training in divine truth so that our thoughts, ideas, judgments correspond to those of God and thus that the two minds be united as far as possible into one. This training is done by the soul in an active and discursive way when it meditates on the words of our Lord, on the mysteries of His life, on the Church. What the person does is to fill his mind with God's thoughts instead of his own. He is really trying to m~ike his mind a better instrument for the perception of God's inspirations, an instrument more adapted to receive God's light. It is a tuning-up or warm-ing- up process. The mind is bathed in the divine truth so that it may become divine. This is done in an active way, by reasoning, by considering the call of Christ our Lord or God's beauty in nature, or by imagining the Holy Family. Man is working his way towards God. The will has to be trained as well. The attraction of things eternal is fine and delicate, and our selfish will does not easily notice it. In order to become more sensi-tive to the action of grace, the selfishness of our nature and of our will in particular ought to be broken by con-tinuous exercise in mortification. The aim is that our will should become soft and flexible, attached to nothing, so that it may follow the will of God in everything. To attain that aim, one has to work hard and in an active way. One has to do penance, one has to give up many things, many of his likings, one has to be humble; and there is no dispensation from this work. Since the mind and will are active, activity predomi-nates at this stage of the spiritual life. But sometimes it may happen that a longing awakens in the soul after God Himself, a desire to meet the living God without any human speech, image, or idea. Words and pictures are created things; they do not satisfy the soul that has been created to see God face to face. The desire to meet God without passing through created images all the time may be a sign of better things to come. Transition Thoughts, perception, and feelings are all created things. If we are called to union with God, there must be a moment when they have to disappear since no hu-man person can be satisfied with looking at the picture of somebody he loves when personal contact is possible. Besides~ those acts may fulfill their purpose in the puri-fication of mind and will. Their nature being limited, their efficacy is limited too. I can penetrate the mind of God to a certain extent by meditating on the Gospel; I can follow the will of God to a great extent by trying to do what I think the best. But neither my meditations nor my good deeds have the power to cleanse my soul so well that I may truly say that God has taken possession of me and that I am no more than an instrument in His hand. The true cleansing is reserved to God. It is He who transforms the soul by infusing light and love into it in a more than ordinary measure; it is that light and love that sanctify and purify the whole man. 1. External Signs. The first sign to indicate that a per-son might have a "vocation" to contemplative prayer is that he does not find any more "taste" in meditation: he does not enjoy it any more in the best and spiritual sense of the word. Before, he was able to collect a great va-riety of fruit in his meditation: words and images paci-fied his soul and helped him to formulate good resolu-tions. Now he finds that his meditation is more like a dried-up fountain which does not contain fresh water. But not to have any "taste" in meditation is a purely negative sign: it might well be the indication of careless-ness or of drifting towards the world. Hence, a more posivite sign is needed to confirm that it is God who brought about the change. The positive sign will be a deep longing in the soul for God and a sincere desire to follow Christ our Lord in everything and to be con-formed to His image. A sincere desire that is manifest in deeds. The loss of "taste" in meditation and the longing for God are always coupled with a turning away from this created world. This loss of interest in created things, even if they are very good in themselves, is the third sign; and it is a natural consequence of what has taken place: 4. 4. Meditation to Contemplation VOLUME 22, 1963 ]75 ÷ 4. 4- when the soul is not satisfied any more with created con-cepts in its prayer, it cannot be satisfied with created things either. The change may be astonishing for the person concerned: he used to enjoy music and art, litera-ture and human company, and now he notices that they all leave him dry and empty. When all these signs are found together, loss of "taste" in meditation after it has been practiced for a fairly long time (which may vary from person to person), longing for God in solitude (the longing being confirmed by solid virtues in practice), and the consequent loss of good and legitimate pleasure in created things, then the person concerned may have the vocation to a simpler form of prayer. If these signs are not there, any attempt to leave be-hind meditation and practice another form of prayer, namely the prayer of simplicity, may be poisonous for the soul; it may weaken its spiritual life and it may even ruin the soul altogether. 2. An Explanation. The signs just described are ex-ternal, but what is happening internally in the soul? What is it that brought the change about? The answer is that gradually and in a hidden way God is taking possession of the soul and its facilities. As mind and will have been purified to a reasonable degree, though by no means perfectly, God's work on them~be-comes more intense. Light and love are being given in a larger measure than ever before, and the hand of God begins to shape the new man, the new creature of St. Paul, out of the old. It is as if the hand of God had touched the soul from behind and in the dark. The soul recognised the touch instinctively but could not see the person. It turned away from all creatures, whether con-cepts, images in prayer, or works of art, and conceived a longing for its Maker and Creator. Hence the loss of "taste" in meditation, longing for God, and the feeling of emptiness in the presence of created objects. God comes near enough to awaken a deep desire in the soul but not near enough to let the soul perceive something of God's beauty. It follows that for a while (and it may be a very long while) one may remain in the dark: all consolation from this world is lost, but no sen-sible consolation from the other world is coming. Per-haps it would be truer to say that though the heart is pure enough to feel the obscure touch of God, as yet it: is not able to receive the light in its fullness because of the many impurities that it still has. The result is darkness; and if one does not know what is happening it is easy to lose confidence and even to give up prayer altogether. In truth, it is a time of grace for the soul. 3. Some Practical Advice. If the signs for contempla-tion are there, it would not be wise to force oneself to make meditations in a strict and methodical form. One cannot turn the clock back, not even in the spiritual life. The time of predominantly active prayer, is over; now one has to learn how to~follow~the lead The first step towards more passivity should be the simplification of prayer. Intellectual considerations dur-ing prayer time should be left out as much as possible. Their place should be taken by simple acts of faith, hope, and love, which are the beginning of any prayer and the fruit of the best of prayers. The soul should .learn how to come back to the same idea again and again and find peace, joy, and "taste" in it. Also there should be a tend-ency towards greater receptivity, but with prudence and wisdom. God likes to take His time; He likes to build slowly and gradually. Our duty is to follow the move-ments of His grace: we should not try to go any faster than He wants us to go nor should we lag behind. The adaptation to this new way of life in which it is God who holds the initiative is bound to be a long process. It is not an exaggeration to say that it is a change in our personality. It is bound to affect everything in our life, our way of thinking, working, and our relations with other persons. A likeness to Christ our Lord is being formed in us. After the initial difficulties a long period of peaceful development may ensue. Prayer will be a mixture of ac-tivity and passivity; but if the soul is faithful, it may reach the stage in which the main rule is passivity. A passivity that leads to a readiness to do the will of God and to a very practical love of God and our neighbour. One final remark is necess
Issue 10.2 of the Review for Religious, 1951. ; ~:~ - ~, A.M. D, G., ~ Reiciew for Religious St. Jos~ph;s Patronage . Francis L Filas ' Dominican Spirffuality . .~ Regknald Hughes Ten÷afive Tes¢incj ~ P¢ogram . Sister M. Digna, Peace . : . Winfrld Herbst Why Do They Leave.'! . ; . . . Anonymou,s ~uesfions and Answsrs Book Reviews ¢ Summer Sessions Communications VOLUME X NUMbeR~ 2 RI::VII:W FOR RI::LIGIOUS VOLUME X MARCH,, 1951 NUMBER 2 CONTENTS ST. JOSEPH'S PATRONAGE--Francis L Filas, S.J .5.7 THE FAMILY FOR FAMILIES . 66 THE ASSUMPTION . 66 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . , . 66 DOMINICAN SPIRITUALITY--Very Rev. Reginald Hugl~es, O.P. 67 FRANCES SCHERVIER CAUSE ADVANCES .7.4. : TENTATIVE TESTING pROGRAM-~Sister M. Digna, 'O.S.B. 75 PEACE--WINFRID HERBST, S.D.S . 81 WHY DO THEY LEAVE?--Anony.mous . 84 BOOK REVIEWS-- Catholic Social P,rinciples; The Nun~.at her Prie-Dieu; Recruiting for , Christ; .Patrology ; Religious Sisters .~ . ' . 93 BOOK NOTICES . . 101 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . ;.~. . 102 COMMUNICATIONS ° 104 ' QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 7. Term of Office for Local Superior . 8. Obligation to Sick Religious under Temporary Vows . 106 9. Letter to Local Ordinary . 107 I0. General Chapte~ and Change in Constitutions " 108 11. Attwater on Apgstoli ~ndulgence . 108 12. Indulgence for Reeling Rosary . 109 13. Vote on Clerical Religious before Major Orders .109 14. Vows Reserved to the Holy See . 1 I0 SUMMER SESSIONS . 111 REPRINTS : SINGLE SETS . 112 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS,~ March, 1951, Vol. X, No. 2. Published bi-monthly : January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press," 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka. Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.I., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: ,Jerome Breunig, S. 3. Copyright, 1951, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, proyided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a rear. Printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, pleese consult notice on inside back'cover. S!:. Joseph's Patronage Francis L. Filas, S.J, ST. JOSEPH'S closeness tO Jesus and Mary gives him~a'degree of dignity and holiness which it is hard to understand. 'However, if we consider his position as Patron of the Universal Cl~urch, we can grasp to some extent the exalted rank God has given him. By studying the greatness of the patronage, we learn the greatness of the patron. , Like every pa.,tron saint, 5oseph receives from God a quasi-right to protect his clients. This precise relation of .patron "saint to client is difficult to express in our language, but the" fact is certain. The patron is like a father toward his charge, and a s~rong note of fatherly love characterizes his watchful care. The Communion of Saints is the bond that unites the Church Triumphant with the Church Militant and the Church Suffering. Due to this bond God grants the saints in heaven a special interces-sory power so that.by their prayers they can further the spiritual and temporal interegts of their brethren on earth. They invoke the merits they gained during their tim~ 6f pilgrimage, and by an act of suppli-cation they present to God~'t'bei}~requests for~th~ir clients, In this we rightly discern a manifestation of:the all-eml~ra~ing love which'Chrlst desires to flourish in His Church. ':'* Individual saints can freely be chosen as~patrons by anyone. In the case of some, however, it is fitt,ng that,~ttiey spec,ally watch over particular groups of people or types of~enterprises. Ordinarily, this fitness exists because of a circumstance df the saints' lives or some providential direction of their energies and prayers. Thus, the patrons' interests are more specific.ally those of ,their clients. Papal Pronouncements on Reason for St. Joseph's Patronage In the case of St. Joseph his patronage is the logical extension of his duties on earth. Although he was officially declared Patron of the Universal Church by Plus IX in 1870, Pius did not actually create him as such. The Pope. proclaimed what had already been a reality. St. Joseph's office as Patron of the Ufiiversal Church, a~ well as the dignity belonging to this title, was a corollary of the office and the dignity whichGod bestowed on him in making Joseph the head of the Holy Family. Reoieto for Religio,,s The decree of Pius IX makes this clear. "'Because of this sublime dignity which God conferred on His most faithful servant, the Church has always most highly honored and praised Blessed Joseph next to his spouse, the Virgin Mother of God, and has besought his intercessiob in times of trouble . Plus IX has therefore declared St. J~oseph~ Patron of the Universal Church.''1 The same termi-nology of "declaring" the Saint's patronage occurs in the Pope's decree of 1871.2 Even more detailed is Quamquam Pturies, the encyclical of Leo XIII concerning devotion to St. Joseph. "There are special reasons," Leo says, "why Blessed Joseph should be explicitly named the Patron of the Church, and why the Church in turn should expect much frdm his patronage and, guardianship. For he indeed was the husband of Mary, and the father, as was supposed, of Jesus Christ. From this arise all his dignity, grace, holiness and glory . "The divine h~usehold which Joseph governed as with paternal authority contained the beginnings of the new Church. The Virgin most holy is the mother of all Christians, since she is the mother of Jesus and since she gave birth to them on the mount of Calvary amid the indescribable sufferings of the Redeemer. Jesus is, as it were, the firstborn of Christians, who are His brothers by adoption and redemption. "From these cor~siderations we conclude that the Blessed'Patriarch must regard all the multitude of Christians who constitute the Church as confided to hih care in a certain special manner. This is his numberless family scattered throughout all lands, over which he rules with a sort of.paterr~hl" authority, because he is the husband of Mary and the father of J~sus Christ. Thus, it is conformable to rea- .~on and in every way becoming to Blessed Joseph that as once it was his sacred trust to guard with watchful care the family of Nazareth, no matter what befell, so now by virtue of his heavenly patronage he is in turn to protect and to defend the Church of Christ.''s The Recognition of St. Joseph's Patronage Its Historq This modern concept of Joseph's patronage lay hidden and unnoticed for centuries. Probably the first writer to call attention to it was John Gerson, the chancellor of the University of Paris. Gerson proposed St. Joseph's. guardianship of the Church in a set-lPius IX, Quemadmodum Deus, ASS 6, 193. ZPius IX, lnclgturn Patriarcbam, ASS 6, 324. SLeo XIII, Quamquam Pluries, ASS 22, 65.' 58 March, 19 51 ST. JOSEPH'S PATRONAGE mon to the. members of the Council of Constance, September 8, I 416. °The sermon had as its purpose the adoption of a feast of the espousal of Joseph and Mary. With deep anxiety the chancellor noted the disastrous results of the great Western Schism of 1378, a wound to the Church which was still unhealed. Gerson asked for al3proval of the feast of the espousal "in order that through the meri~ of Mary and through the intercession of so. great, so powerful, and in h certain way so omnipotent an intercessor with his bride., the Church might be led to her only true and safe lord, the supreme pastor, her spouse in place of Christ.''4 The suggestion made by Gerson was not acted upon, but once it had been put forth, the idea continued to recur to others. What really began to receive marked emphasis was JoSeph's part as guardian of the. Holy Family. This contained in germ the concept of Joseph's further guardianship of Christ's Churqh. It was next elaborated in the Summa of the Gifts of St. Joseph, a Latin book written by a Dominican, Isidore de :Isolani, in 1522. While depicting the exceptional honors he felt sure would be granted the saint, Isidore heralded the future with this prophecy: "For the honor of His name: God has chosen St. Joseph as head and special patron of the Church Militant.'.'~ The theme, of St. Joseph's guidanc~ of the Holy Family and of-the Church continued to run tl~kough the devoii3n~'as it flourished up to the middle of the eighteenth century. H~re, in.common with the temporal fortunes of the Church, it suffered a rela13se; but with the reign of Pius IX, a hundred years later, it. aggin surged forward. During the 1860's, various petitions'from bishops, priests, and the faithful were sent to the'Holy See, *asking for St. Joseph's full glorification in the liturgy and for the declaration of his patronage of the 13niversal Church. Three special, petitions were presented to the Vatican Council i.n 1869-70. ,It seems that these three were the petitions which immediately led Pius IX to make his declaration on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception in 1870.6 St. Joseph as Patriarch ~ Closely related to Joseph's title of Patron of the Universal Church is his title of Patriarch. Ordinarily, the name. "patriarch" is reserved for a man who is the father of numerous descendants. The patriarchs 4John Gerson, Sermon of September 8, 1416, Conclusion; Summa Josephina, 213. 5Isidore de Isolani, Summa de donis S. loseph, III, 8. ~For historical details, cf. Film, The Man Nearest to Christ, oh. 9, 10. 59 FRANCIS L. FILAS Review for Religious of the Old Testament deserve the title not only because of their ven-erable fatherhood, but also (in a spiritual sense) because of the Mes-sias who was to be born of their line. They were literally "patri-archs. in preparation," in view of God's promise of the Savior who was to spring from the Jewish people. St. Joseph was truly the greatest of the patriarchs, understanding the term in this spiritual meaning. Our Lord took human nature of the virginal wife of Joseph, and in this fashion the saint exercised the rights.~of father over Him whose spiritual posterity would embrace all the elect. Leo XIII explains how Joseph's. position as patriarch is linked with his offke as patron. "Conformably with the Church's sacred liturgy," the Pope writes in his encyclical on St. Joseph, "the opinion has been held by not a few Fathers of the Church that the ancient Joseph, son of the Patriarch Jaco.b,foreshadowed both in person and in office our own St. Joseph. By his glory he was a prototype of the grandeur of the future' guardian of the Holy Family. In addition to the circumstances that both men bore the same name--a name by" no means devoid of si~nificance-~'it is well known to you that they resembled each other very closely in other respects as well. "Notable in this regard are the facts that the earlier Joseph re-ceived spec!al favor and b~nevolence from his lord, and that when placed by him as ruler over his houkehold, fortune and prosperity abundantly accrued tO the master's house because of Joseph . Thus, in that ancient patriarch we may recognize the distinct image of St. Joseph. As trio. one was prosperous and successful in the domestic concerns of. his lord, and in an exceptional manner was set forth over his whoIe kingdom, so the other, destined to guard the name of Christ, could well be chosen to defend and to protect the Church, which is truly the house of God and the kingdom of God on earth.''~ ¯ . In the e.arly 1700's the Holy See was considering the re-insertion of Joseph's name into the Litany of the Saints,. from which he seems to have been dropped at some earlier date. In the study of this ques-tion, Cardinal Lambertini (the future Benedict XIV) published a st~orig defe'nce of Joseph's position as patriarch. He wrote, ~ '"That St. Joseph can be called Patriarch is proved from the fact that the patriarchs, according to the holy Fathers and both ancient ~nd more recent writers, were those who were the progenitors of the ;Leo XIII, Quarnquara Pluries. 6O .March, 1951 ST. JOSEPH'S PATRONAGE families of the Chosen People. Since, therefore, St. Joseph was the putati~'e father of Christ our Lord, He who is the head of the pre-destined and the elect, the name of patriarch is for this reason rightly and deservedly attributed to St. Joseph, and by- this very name is he a,ddressed by most writers. "St. Joseph was not the natural father of Christ our~L-ord and did not generate Him, but this alone can prove that he was not the father of the faithful by natural generation, as. were the other patri-archs. It doesnot hinder him from being patriarch in a more perfect and more exalted manner according to the "explanation we have already giyen.''s The Di~nitq and Ef~cacy .'of St. Joseph's Patrohaqe Joseph's dignity both as Patriarch and as Patron of the Church is most exalted, for these two titles recognize in,him ar~ excellence that is absent in other men. The wider the extent of his patronage, so much the wider must be its dignity; and since Joseph's patronage is concerned wiLh the entire Church, he is, reverenced to a degree that is subordinate only to the honor given Mary. The sterling worth of the saint's office is also measured by the perfection on which it is based. Because he ~cted ast the father of Jesus, his patronage is an extension of his office oia earth. Yet, his role as patroh is not based merely on. a certain fittingness, as is the case of other saints. Instead, his God-g!ven titles of husb~and of Mary and father of Jesus directly place ~the interests of Christ's Church close to his heart. All this has b~en solemnly con.firme.d by ,official papal decree. The power of Joseph's intercession appears from his holiness, from his virginal fatherhood, and from his relationship to our Lady-. We know that the effi.cacy of a saint's intercession depends in general on his love of God and on his glory in heaven. The higher a soul exists in glory, by so much is he more acceptable to Ggd. Joseph's holiness and glory are considered second only to the holiness and glory of our Lady. Again with the sole exception of Mary, no one except St. Joseph ever had a quasi-authoritative position over Christ. No other saint shared that intimacy with the blessed Mediatrix of all graces which only Mary's virginal husband possessed. This gives Joseph a tre-mendous intercessory power which the Church has officially reco~- SBenedict XIV, De Beatif. Serv. Dei et Canon, Beat. I. 4, p. 2, c, 20; n. 57. 61 FRANCIS L. FILAS nized. Among other indicative actions it has approved and indul-genced a Memorare in imitation of the same type of prayer addressed to Mary: "Remember O most pure spouse of the Virgin Mary, St. Joseph, my beloved pat~ron, that never has it been heath that anyone invoked thy patronage and sought thy aid without being comforted. Inspired by this confidence, I come to thee and fervently commend myself to thee. O, despise not my petition, dear foster father of our Redeemer, but accep.t i~. graciously. Amen.''9 The Univ~rsatitg of St. Joseph's Patronage It would appear that Joseph's patronage as understood in its full extent embraces all those who owe their.salvation to the redemptive work of Jesus and to the intercession of the Blessed Virgin. The reason is clear. Joseph was chbsen to be virginal father and virginal husband in order that the redemptive work of our Lord in co-operation with Mary might be accomplished. Hence, the saint's guardianship (which is the outgrowth of his protection of Jesus and our Lady) logically embraces all who participate in the fruits of the Redemption. Meditative consideration of the full meaning of Joseph's title "reveals still further consequences in another direction. Since the saint is patron of the whole Church, his interests must be more universal than those of othe~ sa.ints. Other patrons concern themselves with one group of persons; Joseph is patron of all. Resultantly,.writers have amplified his title so that they describe him as universal patron because Patron of the Universal Church. In other words, he is the patron of everyone in every class. Because he was a member of an impoverished family of kings, the story of his life heartens all who suffer financial reverses. Earning his livelihood and supporting his holy charges at the carpenter's bench, he fittingly leads all who work for a living. In his actions we discover a guiding principle that can often hold true for every employer. He can look to Joseph, who, while supe-rior in authority, recognized that he was inferior in dignity and used his authority with the utmost moderation and prudence. Thus, while on the one hand St. Joseph inspires employers to provide just wages and healthful working conditions, on the other hand his example reminds employees to return fair and industrious service for °Indulg. 500 days, S. P. Ap., Jan. 20, 1933; Encbirid. Indulg. (1950), n. 472. 62 March, 1951 ST, JoSEPH'S PATRONAGE wages received. , ¯ . . Against the purveyors ofthe false ide.ologies of our day, Joseph stands out as the antithesis of racial prejudice and international ha-tred. Himself a Jew, he suffered because of the political dreams of a monarch '~ho was mad for power at any cost. Welcoming the for-eign Magi and then living in exile in a not too friencl, ly land, he knew the distress caused by prejudice against color and against race, Joseph's pIace as father in the Holy Family shows a11 fathers how steadfastly they must strive to imitate him in cherishing and educating their children. No husband can ever offer his wife a degree of fidelity and self'sacrifice great.er than thatwhich Joseph offered our Lady.' Hence, in him we behold the worthy patron of the Chris, tian family. As head bf Nazareth, the first Christian religious community, he exemplifies' the ideal religious superidr~ the serv'ant of the servants of God. Simultaneously his absolute and unquesti6ning obedience to the messengers of God mark him dut as the mbd~l foe priests and religious.' When ~he end comes to his iS~riod of. service Joseph di~s in the presehce of Jesus and Mary and is made the.gr.and protecto~ at the hour of death--the friend who le~ds departing souls peacefully to their Judge. " ' In our own age st. Joseph's patror;age'of labbr has been particu-larly emphasized~ Closely coupled with thi~ '~mphasis was the new honor grfinted him in 1937 by Plus XI. 'At ~hat tlm~ '£he Pope dec!.ared him the patron of the Church's campaign again.st atheistic communism, for"he ~belgngs to the work~ing-clas~, and he bor~ th~ burdens of i~6verty for himself and the Holy Family, whose tender and vigilant hea'd he was.''~° Universal Patron--Papal Pronouncements ¯ We possess sound Church authority for, claiming St. Joseph as the universal patron of the Church. The encyclical, of.Leo XIII, after tracing the saint's present office to his earlier,vocation on earth, continues, "This is the reason why the faithful of al! places and con-ditions commend and confide themselves to the guardianship of Blessed Joseph. In Joseph fathers of families have an eminent model of patern~l care.and providence. Married couples' find in him the perfec.t image, 6f love., harmony, and conjugal loyalty. Virgins can look to him for their pattern and as the guardian of virginal integ-rity. " " ¯ ~0Pius XI, Dioini Redemptoris, AAS 29, 106. FRANCIS L. FILAS Review for Religious '"With the picture of Joseph set before them, those of noble lineage can learn to preserve their dignity even under adverse circtim-stances. Let the wealt,hy understand what goods they should chiefly seek and earnestly amass, while with no less special right the needy, the In, borers, and all possessed of merely modest means should fly to his protection and learn to imitate him.''11 The Pope's.Briet~ on the Holy Family is entirely devoted to the subject of family life, placing Joseph with Mary and Jesus as a family exemplar.12 In the words of Benedict XV, "Since Joseph (whose death took place in the presence of Jesus and Mary) is justly regarded as the most efficacious protector of the dying, it is our purpose here to lay a special injunction on Our Venerable Brethren that they assist in every possible manner those pious associations.which have been insti-tuted to obtain the intercession of St. Joseph for the dying.''1~ The Litany of St. Joseph The shortest official summary of the Saint's patronage is found in the Litany of St. Joseph, approved by Plus X in 1909. This Litany expands; as it were, Leo XlII's earlier catalogue of.Joseph's clients --"all the faithful of all places and conditions." The action of Plus X in sanctioning the Litany of St. Joseph for use in public services gave Josei~h one of his most exclusive honors. Only four other litanies have been granted this rare and signal approval: the Litanies of the Sacred Heart and of the Holy Name of Jesus, the Blessed Virgin!s Litany of Loreto, and the Litany of the Saints (with its" two' adaptations for Holy Saturday and the Vigil of Pentecost, and for the commendation of a departing soul). The use of a litany as a form of prayer dates from the very earli-est days of the Church. The word itself comes from the Greek term, lissamai, "I pray," Probably Psalm 135 is the prototype on which the first Christians modeled their primitive litanies: "Praise the Lo~rd, for He is good; for His mercy endureth forever." Here, after every statement of the Psalmist, the phrase is repeated, "for His mercy endureth forever." This repetition of the same prayer has passed over into our mod-ern litanies. When addressing God we beg, "Have mercy on us"; when petitioning a saint's intercession, we say, "Pray for us." In. this manner, God or our Lady (and in the present instance, St. Jo-l~- Leo XIII, Quaraquam Pturies. 12Leo XIII, Neminem Fugit, Decr. No. 3777, CSR. l:~Benedict XV, Bonura Sane, AAS 12, 313. 64 Ma~h, 1951 ST. JOsEPH'S PATRONAGE seph) can be honored under different titles but always with the same petition. There is. a very interesting feature about the Litany of St. Jo-seph. Unlike the older litanies which spontaneously grew out of separate and more or less unrelated invocations this Litaoy was com-posed according to a rigid grouping. Seven tides depict the role that Joseph played on earth: Two concern his royal ancestry in preparation for the Messias: "'Illustrio~ts descendant of David"; "'Light of patriarchs"; Two, his relationship to Mary: "'Spouse of the Mother of God"; "'Chaste guardian of the Virgin"; Two, his relationship to Jesus: "'Foster father of the Son of God';; ¯ ' "'Watchful defender of Christ"; and finally, one' title as "'Head of the Hotg Famitg."" In the second group of invocations, six llst Joseph's special vir-tues: justice, chastity, prudence, valour, obedience, and faith. In the final division of eleven titles, four address him as ex-emplar: "'Mirror of patience"; . "'Lover of povert~t"; ~.,. "'Model of workmen"; "'Ornament of familg life"; and seven invoke him as a protecting patron: "'Guardian of Virgins"; "'Safeguard of families"; "'Consolation of the poor"; "'Hope of the sick"; "'Patron of the dgin9"; "'Terror of demons"; and "'Protector of Holg Church." For the final word on the patronage of St. Joseph, probably no tribute to the saint's widespread and powerful friendship will ever surpass the words of St. Teresa of Avila, long become classic: "It seems that to 'other saints our Lord has given power to help 65 FRANCIS L. FILAS:" " us.in only one kind'of: necessity; but this glorious saint, I know by my own experience, assists us in all kinds of necessities . I only request, for the love bf God., that. whoever will not belie~ve me will test the truth of what I say, forhe will see by experience how great a blessing it is to'recommend oneself to this glorious Patriarch and to be devout to him . Whoever wants a rnas~ei to instruct him how to pray, let him chobse tl~is glorious saint for his guide, and he will hot lose his way:''14 " ' THE FAMILY FOR FAMILIES One of the first of.the Catholic pocketbooks (50 centsL to be issued by the Lumen Books (P.O. Box 3386, Chicago 54, I11.) is a reprint of The Family for Families, by Francis L. Filas, S.J. In this behind-the-scenes story of the Holy Fam-ily at home Father F, ilhs, a'Ibioneer in the Cana Conference movement in the De-troit area. shows mode~;n husbands,and ~vives how they can share the happiness.and inspiration of the Nazareth home. Father Filas, also the author of Tbe Man Near-est Christ, is giving a cours,e at .Loyola University, Chica.go, on the theology of St. Joseph (cf.p.age 111)' " ¯ ; THE ASSUMPTION Pope Pius xII, on Octob'e~- 31, 1950, in connection with the formal definition, decreed that the invocation, Qr}een assumed into hedven, ¯should be added to the Litany of Loretto after the iti:cocation "Queen concei~d without original sin." He also approved a new Mass which is to replace the Mass formerly said on the Feast of the Assumption. . , . . ¯ our cONTRIBUTORS REGINALD HUGHES is .pr!or at S't. Peter Martyr Priory, Winona, Minnesota, and professor of philosophy] and religion at the College.of St. Teresa. WINFRID HERBST, author and retrea.t master, is on the faculty of the Salvatorian Seminary, St. Nazianz, Wisconsin. SISYER M. DIGNA is professor"of psychology at the Col-lege of' St. Schq~astica,, Duluth, Minesota. FRANCIS .L. ,FII~A$, the author of The Man Nearest Christ, is teach, lug at Loyola University, Ch!cago. Illinois. ¯ 14T~resa of Avila, Autobiooraphg, c. 6, n. 1 1. 66 Dominican Spirit:u lit:y Reginald Hughes, O.Po, UST beca'use they were men, the Apostles differed in tempera-ment and char.acter, peter was impetuous and quick; Paul, fi~ery and brilliant; John, loving and gentle. More than this, they were entrusted with distinct missions. Hence 'we cannot be 'surprised that the founders of religious orders, those wh6 took the apostolic band as their inspiration, manifested distinctive character-istics. St. Benedict consecrated his sons in a special way to the choral recitation of the Divine Office. The childreh of St. Francis find the secret of their spiritual Father in his seraphic poverty. St. Ignatius instituted a militia which united prudence and versatility to zeal for God's greater glory. St. Dominic was inspired to form an order of preachers and teac~hers, a closely knit organization dedicated to the diffusion of Divine '.Truth. ¯ Our Lord Himself revealed this .fact to St. Catherine of Siena when He told her: '~'Thy Father, Dominic, desired that his brethren have no other thought than the salvation of souls by the light of knowledge. It is this light that ~he wished to make tl~e principal object of his. order, to extirpate the errors existing in his day." Truth, then, contemplated and preached, is the ideal of the Order of St.Dominic. How faithful the early disciples of Dominic were to'this ideal We learn from the Vicars of Christ. In 1216, Pope Honorius III approved them as "champions of. the Faith and l!ghts of the world." POpe Alexander IV recommended them in 1257 as "men steeped in the divine science, powerf.ul preachers." In 1266, Pope Clement IV could laud their order as the "Guardian of T;uth." Not only that, but these decades, penetrated with the spirit of Dominic himself, produced in his order the friar who became the incarnation in his life and w~rks of the idefil which his'spiritual Father had envisaged. "See the glorious Thomas. Wldat a none intelligence, wholly applied to the contemplation of my Truth. There he found supernatural and infused knowledge, and this grace he obtained more by his prayers than by study." It would seem obvious that an investigation of the principles of Dominican life and spirituality would fittingly begin with an inter- 67 REGINALD HUGHES Review/or Religious rogation of the Angelic Doctor and his writings. Therein must be found those cardinal principles which have inspired the spiritual children of Domin'ic Guzman for more than seventy decades; We shall not be disapl~ointed in our search if we turn to the Summa Theologica, Thomas' masterpiece of Christian thinking. As a primary and fundamental principle Thomas would seem to advocate the fullest development of one's natural faculties. God has created us for His honor and glory, and to help us fulfill this mission He has endowed us with wonderful natural powers and properties: a spiritual soul, with an intellect, will, imagination and memory; a b.ody, with the physical ability of achievi.ng our earthly destiny. Each one of these gifts of Almighty God has within itself the capability of being developed to a certain degree of perfection that we call natural. Our duty is to develop all these natural powers, however not of ourselves nor for ourselves, but with God and for God alone. He has given us all that we have of goodness; He alone preserves us in the very existence we enjoy. The realization of this principle is witnessed in a grand phalanx of preachers,.: theologians, scripture scholars, canon lawyers, mystics, ascetics, philosophers, s~ientists, medical doctors, historians, painters, sculptors, miniaturists, architects, artists, engineers, litterateurs, poets, and simple, humble souls who have taken their inspiration from St. Dominic and placedtheir own distinctive mite and talents where they might best serve God's glory. But Thomas would remind us, when we have discovered all that nature in its very perfection can do, we must realize that it is as nothing in comparison, with the life of grace, the supernatural life of the soul, to which life God has raised us. This supernatural order surpasses the powers and exigencies of every created nature---even that of the most perfect angel. God could keep on creating angels more and more.perfect, yet never by their natural powers alone could they attain to the least degree of grace, There is simply no compari-son between created natur.e, actual or possible, and the Divine Na-ture, of which grace is a real and formal participation. By nature God gives us gratuitously to ourselves; by grace He" gives Himself gratuitously to us. Thus nature and grace are as distinct from each other as we are from God--infinitely. The just soul is "a partaker of the Divine Nature" insofar as it has within itself the radical prin-ciple of supernatural life, the life of God. St. Thomas tells us that 68 March, 1951 DOMINICAN SPIRITUALITY. the sanctifying grace of a single soul is of more value than all the natural good of the universe, m.'9(~ than all created or possible angelic natures combined. " -:" We can hardly conceive ~( higher idea of the order of grace. Neither can we' admit that thei'e is in us the least germ of this super-natural life. It is absolutely and entirely "the free gift of Almighty God. We have, it is true,, the purely passive capacity of being raised to the supernatural life. .This capacity, however, is no greater in the most perfect angel than in the humblest Christian soul. o And if the latter die with a degree of grace equal to that of the most perfect angel, she will see God as perfectly as that angel does. Such are some of the notions of the Angelic Doctor with regard to the order of grace and the supernatural. Our Faith teaches us that we are destined to this supernatural life. Grace is but the commence-ment of it, the seed of our eternal happiness. The effects of grace, he says, are the healing 6f the soul, wounded by sin, original or actual; the incentive to good desires; the effective operation .of these desires; final perseverance and eternal happiness. Grace unites us to God in charity, supernaturalizes every good action, elevates and perfects us as creatures of an infinitely superior world. The necessity of grace is such that without it we canfiot love God above all things, we cannot fulfill all the precepts of the natural law, we cannot abstain from all mortal sins and we dannot persevere in a good life until death. This teaching of Dominican spirituality thus. emphasizes our complete dependence upon the grace of God~ Are we then reduced to mere machines? No. We have free wills and God saves no man who has not the dksire to be saved. But He does command us to pray, to ask for His. grace and assistance, to beseech Him to bless us with those good gifts which He has determined to bestow only when we ask for them.° By prayer we recognizd God as the sole Author of all good and we realize that we have nothing of ourselves but sin. Thomas used to say that since natural wisdom is the gift of God, man ought not try or hope to acquire it by dint of study without humbly asking for it in prayer. Briefly, these are three'guiding principles of Dominican spir-ituality to be drawn from the Summa Theologica: the development of human nature; the infinite superiority of the life of grace; our complete dependence upon God, with the obligation to pray and labor ceaselessly for His honor and our eternal salvation. 69 REGINALD HUGHES Review for Reli~lious The important place that this spirituality gives to the natural development of our superior faculties has occasioned an accusation of naturalism by some who preferred to consider Thomas more of a philosopher than a theologian. Some have held that the Summa itself savors more of Aristotelian wisdom' than of the Gospel and St. Paul. However, since St. Thomas possessed a very precise notion of the power and purpose of human nature, he comprehended better any, thing that deformed it, all that was unregulated in it. The rooting out and healing of human defects is always considered by him from the point of view of the first cause and the last end, God. He de-clares that true human renovation in our present state is impossible without grace, whose two principal functions are to heal nature an'd elevate it supernaturally. Hence when Thomas speaks of natural perfection and the acquired virtues which constitute it, he is speaking not only as a philosopher, but also as a Christian and a theologian. Dominican spirituality emphasizes as well the infinite superi-ority of the theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity, over the natural knowledge and love of G6d, and also over the natural knowledge of miracles and other signs of revelation. Our infused act of faith is not a natural act clothed over with supernatural mo-dality. It Is essentially supernatural. Its immediate formal motive is none other than Divine revealing Truth. Consequently, it is in-finitely superior to an act of faith made by the devil, founded on the natural evidence of miracles~ even though the devil has infused ideas more perfect than our acquired ones. From this point of view One conceives as well the inestimable value of the least act of charity, the elevation of the infused moral virtues above the acquired moral vir-tues, and the grandeur of the gifts of the Holy Ghost which render us docile to His inspirations. If, as for St. Thomas, fidelity to the Holy Spirit normally leads " one to the living waters of prayer, what should be said of the relation between contemplation and the apostolate? Does the intensity of the first demand the sacrifice of the second, and can the latter hope to be nourished by the warmth and light of the former? Dominican spirituality replies: the teaching of sacred doctrine and preaching ought to be derived from the plenitude of contempla-tion. In the language of St. Thomas these words have a very special significance. Contemplation is not ordained to action as a means subordinate to an end, such as study in view of a lecture, but it pro-duces it as from a superior cause. The culminating point in the life 70 March, 1951 DOMINICAN SPIRITUALITY of the apostle is the hour of Unibn with God in prayer. From this union he should return to men filled with the light of life, to speak of God and lead them to Him. Thus St. Thomas considers the active life and the purely con-templative life as means less perfect than the aposiolic life uniting both. As Christ and the twelve, the modern apostle should be a contemplative who gives to others the fruits of his contemplation to sanctify them. "°"'Contempla,re et contemplata aliis tradere," the motto of Dominican spirituality, are the very words of St. Thomas. With the hours of recollectioia which it exacts, contemplation, far from impeding apostolic activity, is its source. Thomas would say: where our contemplation ceases, there ends our apostolate also. Without it, without the desire to prepare one's self for it, inflated with knowledge, the soul radiates light no longer. Practical natural-ism envelops it and can wholly destroy it. Such divine contemplation as is demanded by Dominican spir-ituality makes one forget what flatters or bruises one's personality. It turns one always to God and souls; it suppresses the fever of superficial activity and spiritualizes one, causes him to act pro-foundly, to say much in a few words. ,~ Such a contemplative and apostolic life was lived by Dominic and many saints and blesseds of his religious family who preached and taught with indefatigable zeal and fire of which the Psalmist speaks: "ignitum eloquium tuum vehementer" (Ps. 1 15). That is one reason why Thomas himself is such a model of Dominican spirituality. Everything he did--pray, preach, teach, or write--he did with all the zeal and eagerness his heart could sug-gest. Zeal, he tells us, is nothing other than intense love, and the measure of our love of God is to love Him without measure. It is significant to note that Dominic, his successor, Blessed Jordan of Saxony, Blessed Reginald, Thomas, Pope Innocent V, St. Louis Bertrand--all died comparatively young. St. Catherine of Siena and St. ,Rose of Lima did not live thirty-five years, and the eleven-year old heart of Imelda Lambertini burst from the intensity of her love of God. "I feel and am persuaded," said St. Thomas, "that the chief duty of life, which.I owe to God, is in all my words, as in all my. thoughts, to speak. His praise." It was then the genius of St. Dominic that he placed his order as it were midway between the older monastic groups that had con-templatibn and personal sanctification as their aim, and the later 71 REGINALD HUGHES Review for Religious active orders that followed the Dominican lead in working for souls. Dominic envisioned the salvation of souls as the cherished fruitage of his prayer, his study and his teaching. Thus to the older monastic observances he added intensive study because there can be no opposition between truth discovered by study and contemplated Divine Truth. A Dominican does not contemplate and study pri-marily in order to preach and save souls, but he is filled with the zeal for the apostolate because through prayer and study he has acquired a deep personal knowledge of God. The closer a man is to Christ, the more apostolic he becomes. Dominican spirituality includes as well a liturgy peculiarly its own and" has guarded it carefully since its approbation by Pope Clement IV in 1267. It is essentially a Roman liturgy, and if any single peculiarity about it were to be noted it would be that it en-closes in its ceremonies a note of solemnity imprinted upon it by the antiquity of its customs and chant; that its prayers have a decidedly theological tone. In fact, it is the liturgy that rules the life of the Friar Preacher. Study, work, recreation, even sleep is set aside in favor of choral reci-tation of the Office, as the injunction of one of the early legislative Chapters of the Order notes: "The Office takes precedence of all our activities." It is easy to understand why St. Dominic gave such an impor-tant place to the observance of the liturgy in the life of his children. First of all, because it is divine worship par excellence, aiding one to perfect his duty of glorifying God. It also leads religious to the perfection of their state of life, because it is a simple and sure way to assimilate one's life to that of Christ, the model of religious. One might ask, what is the connection in Dominican life between the liturgy on one side, and study and the importance of the aposto-late ori the other side? The answer is that the liturgy does not take a religious from the essential object of his studies: God. The lit-urgy itself is the depository of Catholic doctrine condensed in pray-ers, in extracts from the Scriptures and the writings of the Fathers. It has been called living dogma speaking to the heart as well as to the head. T.he Friar Preacher in regularly dividing his time between study and liturgical prayer in no way sacrifices the latter but makes the former more fruitful. Frequent returns to choir keeps study from becoming simply an intellectual work and cold speculation. The danger of intellectualism can hardly menace one who joins 72 March, 1 ~ 51 DOMINICAN SPIRITUALITY study and preaching and teaching with the solemn prayers of the Church. The truth which the religious finds in his books, he dis-covers again in living liturgical formulas. Thanks to the liturgy theology can become a science filled with deep contemplation. As St. Vincent Ferrer has phrased it: "Through this interchange of prayer and study you will have a heart more fervent in prayer and a mind mor~ clarified for study." Not the least attractive feature of Dominican liturgical life is the perfect freedom which it affords~ in the matter of personal prayers. In the organization of Dominican daily life, everything conduces to contemplation. St. Dominic n~ver had any idea of limiting prayer to certain determined periods or forms. The earliest Con~stitutions consecrated the entire day to Go~d. When the Dominican is obliged to silence it is that he may bet-ter forget th~ world and himself that he may the better hear God. When he is placed under obedience to study, it is that the soul may be steeped in ~he beauty of the~ divine mysteries. Thus for him, study, liturgical prayer, - and pe.rsonal prayer suppose one another, sustain one another, penetrate ~n~ anothe~r. To violate them, to separate them, and to compare [~hem jealously would be to falsify the economy of Dominican life! In other Words, the Friar studies to pray better and prays that he may study better. If o~ were to seek characteristics of Dominican prayer he would find first that it is disciplined a,nd strong because saturated with the dogmas of ~he Faith; that it is humble, with a humility begotten of contemplation of the Divine M.ajesty: I am that which is; ~ou are that which is not"; and eminently free, because knowledge begets love and nothing is freer than tl~e love of God. Thus we find a marvellous ~ariety among the Dominican saints. Each one keeps his own distinci physiognomy, his personal tenden-cies, his preferred virtues, and b~ings together underthe same domes-tic roof differences of race, environment, and education. Yet they are all marked by the same distinctive note: the zeal for souls through the doctrinal apostolate. Each a[Ids his own personal note: a Vincent Ferrer, Spanish impetuosity a~d indomitableness; a Henry Suso, Teutonic mildngss and melancholy; a Catherine of Siena, Italian ardor ar;d harmony. It was th, le late Archbishop Paschal Robinson, O.F.M., who once said: "Dominican saints are wonderfully natural in their goodness." In order to prove our virtu~ and to increase our merit, God per- 73 REGINALD HUGHES Revieu; for Religious mits the power of death to exist in us. The body weighs down the soul, 'the flesh struggles against the spirit. Sin has broken the har-mony between the powers of the soul and their Creator. To re-establish order and to correspond to appeals' from our Saviour, vig-orous restraint must be imposed. Dominican spirituality does not ignore this, but prescribes the practices necessary to subdue rebellious forces of nature and to employ their liberated energies for the realiza-tion of the supreme design of Dominican life. It has been said that were a text to be chosen which should express Dominican spirituality, nothing could be more appropriate than the words of Our Lord set down by St. John: "The truth shall make you~ free." The children of Dominic have ever aimed at Truth and have. thus achieved freedom. Dominican spirituality has thus been likened to the architecture that flourished when the Order began its course in the thirteenth century--joyous and unrestrained-- springing up from earth as though it were part of the earth, pointing upwards as though it were part of heaven. "The Heavenly Husbandman, the Supreme Author and Protector of the Faith, has planted in the paradise of the Church as a fertile tree the Sacred Order of Preachers to exhilarate it by its beauty, to satiate it by the abundance and the exquisite savor of its fruits. Of superb aspect, filled with vigorous and dulcet strength, steeped in the morning dew of heaven, this tree is a source of life for the weak, of health for the infirm. Hence innumerable Christians, nourished by its salutary fruits, are endeavouring to shed around them its life-giving influence." (Alexander IV-~1257.) FRANCES SCHERVIER CAUSE ADVANCES After the Sacred Congregation of Rites examined the processes conducted by ordinary and apostolic authority relative to the life, virtues and miracles of the Servant of God, Mother France} Schervier (1819-1876), Foundress of the Sisters of the Poor of St. Francis (1845), the S.C. of Rites recently decreed the processei valid. Preparations are under way for the next step towards beatification, namely: the judgment on the heroic character of the virtues in particular. In this country the community conducts twenty-eight institutions including General Hospitals, Special Hospitals and Social Service Centers, located in .the Arch-dioceses of Cincinnati, Newark, New York and Indianapolis, also in the Diocese~ of Covington, Columbus, Brooklyn, Springfield in Illinois, Kansas City in Kansas, Charleston, Lansing, Steubenville and Albany. 74 A Tentative Testing Program t:or Religious Lit:e Sister M. Digna, O.S.B. THE interest expressed in the use of psychometrics as one means of evaluating the fitness of aspirants to religious life'~nd as objec-tive guides for the counseling of young religious has motivated the formulation of the following tentative testing program. The primary purpose of the testing program is to screen possibly unfit candidates before admission, or before they have assumed"responsi-bilities that they may be unable to carry¯ Unfitness is one of the indications that an individual has not been called to the life of reli-gion for, as canon 538 states, "Every Catholic who is not debarred by any legitimate impediment . . . and is fit to bear the burdens of the religious life, can be admitted into religion." Father 3osepb Creusen, S.,I., professor of canon law at the Gregorian University, Rome, interprets this further. He says, "But the presence of an obstacle which the subject cannot do away with of his own accord or the lack of aptitude, would suffice to show that this desire is the result of a call to a more perfect life in general, and not of a vocation to the religious life in particular.''1 How does one determine an obstacle or a lack of aptitude? Is it best decided on the basis of subjective opinion? Should scientific methods be employed? Communities now utilize the findings of medical science¯ What about the scientific findings in the field of psychometrics?. True, it is a new.field and one would never wish to rely on the findings of any single test or inventory as the sole deter-minant of fitness for religious life, but these data may implement or supplement other subjective impressions and observation; they may be good clues to hidden motives and personality "kinks" that may be corrected before becoming "set." Any testing program for religious life must necessarily be tenta-tive, for there are no tests, other than intelligence tests, that have been devised in terms applicable to religious life. In establishing a testing program for any community, one must consider such factors as trained or untrained personnel, interpretation of the data, and use of the findings. The ideal prerequisite is that some member of the 1Religious Men and Women in the Code, p. 129. 75 SISTER M. DIGNA Ret~iew for Religious community be trained in the field of psychometrics. As a prelim-inary step, several basic courses in tests and measurements may suffice. In lieu of trained personnel, the services of someone who is sympathet.ic to testing, who will conscientiously adhere to manuals of directions, and who will be extremely careful in interpreting results may be utilized. Much emphasis needs to be placed upon the inter-pretation of the findings, lest an individual be kept from the reli-gious 'life because of hastily drawn conclusions not warranted by the test or inventory itself. The examiner must assemble all types of information. The administrator will then make a careful study of all the data before recommending the admission or rejection of the aspirant. In case the applicant is accepted, the data may. also assist in orienting him to the religious life. A director provided with all the subjective and objective facts about the candidate can help him to a speedier and holier adjustment to religious life. ¯ Use of Intelligence Tests Other things being equal, a director can give better religious guidance according to his knowledge of the subject's degree of intel-ligence. Intelligence tests help one to gain this knowledge. One test, which may be referred to here as an example of the use of. intel-ligence tests, is the California Test of Mental Maturity, advanced series. This test has a number of significant features. .It is both diagnostic and analytical, and the scores may be interpreted in terms of mental ages and intelligence quotients: It includes items dealing with language fadtors, non-language factors, memory, spatial rela-tions, logical .reasoning, numerical reasoning, and vocabulary. The pre-tests are visual acuity, the purpose of which is to discover whether the examinees can see well enough to take the remaining .tests with fairness to themselves; the auditory acuity test, to discover whether individuals hear well enough what is said to them in an ordiliary tone of voice to warrant the giving of the tests; and a third to deter-mine the degree of motor coordinations the examinee possesses. After¯ the tests proper have been¯ administerd, the test results may be interpreted in terms of the language test data, which ale useful in indicating how well the individual understands relationships ex-pressed in words, and the non-language tests data indicating how well the individual ufiderstands relationships among things or ob-jects when language is not involved. The significance of these addi-tional data for guidance, selection, and placement is obvious in that 7,6 March, 1951 TESTING PROGRAM they Will make possible a more appropriate consideration of the real abilities of ti~e person. David .Wecbsler's interpretation of intelli-gence quotients for ages ten to ~ixtyu may be used: 128 and over, very superior; 120-127, superior; 1 I1-I I9, high average; 9i-I10, average; 80-90, low average; 66-79, borderline; and below 65," defective. What are the implications of these figure~ in any psychological testing program? First, the elimination of those unable to grasp the meaning of religious life; and secondly, the utilization of intelligence scores for determining the educational and vocational placement of religious. .In general, the intelligence score of the applicant is one more concrete evidence of the intellectual ability of, the individual. Those who are inferior or very low may need to be re-tested. If the score places the individuals below the low average, it is very doubtful whether they will be useful in religious life, unless the community is willing to assign them to very simple tasks. Then these questions arise: how well will they be able to understand the meamng and implications of religious life? How much benefit will they derive from the novitiate instruction? And will the community be willing to assume responsibility for possible custodial care? Personalitg Tests Intelligence is only one factor. Other factors such as background, personality, aptitudes, and interests should be considered when one applies, for admission into the religious life. Since the personality "from the philosophical point of view is too abstract an approach to give the necessary clues to the'individual's potentialities in getting along with others, the more concrete, approach is considered, here. The social skills which are basic to getting along with others are ski.lls that can be acquired. In community life gra- ¯ ciousness of manner and social skills need to be supernaturalized by stressing the virtue of charity as the- motivating force. What are the potentialities for an individual to get along with others and to sublimate the ups and downs of routine living with diverse temperaments? A personality needs to be free from nervous symptoms and introvertive or anti-social tendencies to adjust to reli-gious life. Even the most conscientious and holy novice master or mistress will succeed only in veneering a personality unless he recog-nizes the basic causes for certain personality defects. True, it may, 2The Measu~'ament of Adult Intelligence, p. 40. 7.7 SISTER M. D[GNA Review fol Religiou~ and likely will; happen that the subject makes a valiant effort to overcome these "faults,~' but if the fight seems continually a losing one, and the pressure of close supericision is removed, there is little doubt that the individual will revert to his innate tendencies. How detect these underlying causes, for maladjustments? No foolproof method of appraising personality has yet been devised. G~nerally, the personality scale takes the form of a rating scale. A definite assumption should motivate the use of any one of several rating scales. Most personality ratings have a number of valid uses if and when they are well administered. Common sense should operate in determining the purposes of the ratings and how they are to be used. Personal'ity tests are not as precise as or as easily interpreted as I.Q. tests; they are indicators rather than measure-ments of personality, and they p'rovide worthwhile leads to work upon for, symptomatic indications of emotional conflicts, maladjust-ments, tensions, anti-socialattitudes, and anxieties. A good person-ality is one that has achieved a balance between self and those around one. The self-adjustment is often indicated in terms of self-reliance, sense of personal worth, sense of belonging, sense of freedom, and freedom from withdrawing and nervousness. The adjustment toward others is interpreted in terms of social standards, social skills, whole-some gregariousness, family and social relationships. Among the several tests suitable for a testing program is the Cali-fornia Test of PerSonality. It includes items that will reveal the presence or absence of desirable or undesirable traits. The test is easy to administer and easy to score and, although the interpretation of the scores is almost self-evident, it is. wise for the one who interprets the test to explore further and probe deeper the other data on the person, particularly the intelligence quotient, the family history, and previous schooling record. In general, letters of recommendation are not too reliable, for tile tendency of.many, flattered by having to recommend an individual, is to put a halo around the person. The expressed purpose of the authors of the California Personality Test is to enable counselors to appraise and to improve thh personality of all ages. This instrument" makes possible a detailed and patterned diagnosis of personality adjustment as a basis for improvement that is possible of realization. Another test, the Bell Adjustment Inventory, attempts to get a reliable measure of an individual's personality in ihe areas of home, health, social, emotional, and occupational adjustments. This inven- 78 March, 1951 A TESTING PROGRAM tory is not more: than thirty minutes in length and it is easy to ad-minister, with simple and clear directions. The time for scoring each' test is not more than three minutes. In utilizing the inventory, the administrator needs to realize that, whereas it is more objective and more penetrating than observation, the results should be used only to implement other data. The Personality Inventory by Bernreuter has four specific areas which are assessed. B1-N is a measure of neurotic tendencies. A person scoring high on this scale tends to be emotionally unstable. Those scoring above the 98~percentile would probably need psychi-atric or medical advice, and certainly one would be hesitant about admitting aspirants to religious life with exceptionally oh'igh scores in this area without further consultation with a medical man. The B2-S is a measure of self-sufficiency.' Persons scoring high on this scale prefer to be alone, rarely ask for sympathy or encourggement, and tend to ignore the advice of others. The low score indicates the type of personality disliking to be alone, and often seeking advice of others. Perhaps scores on this section would in no way debar the aspirant from admission into religious life or from the priesthood, but in directing and guiding the individual, the scores offer clues to innate causes for externaI behavior. Modification of undesirable behavior patterns can best be attained by a.clear understanding of the innate causes. The B3-1 section of the Bernreuter Inventory meas-ures introversion-extroversion, with the high scores indicating intro-version, the low, extroversion. A score above the 98 percentile in this part of the inventory bears a similar significance to a high score on the BI-H section. The B4-D classifies the personality of the individual as either dominant or submissive. Low scores represent the naturally submissive type of individual. The use of the Minnesota Personality Scale and its interpreta~ tion was explained in considerable detail in a previou, s article.8 Unless there are trained individuals for interpreting the results, a community is wise to begin a testing program without attempting the more refined techniques of personality assessment through such projective techniques as the Rorschach Method. The Thematic Apperception Test or the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inven-tory should be administered and interpreted only by individuals trained to do so. As an initial step, it seems wiser to resort to the 8"Practical Application of Psychometrics to Religious Life," by Sister M. Digna, O.S.B., in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, IX, 132-39. 79 SISTER M. DIGNA " Reoieto for Religious simpler tests that can be administered and interpreted by a beginner before attempting to use more penetgating tests. Other Tests To insure better adjustment in religious life, some cognizance might well be taken of the individual interest and occupational pref- .erences. General and occupational interest inventories reveal whether the level, types, and fields of work offered meet the interests and the needs of the individuals. In planning effective community place-ment, an appraisal of the competencies, strengths, and weaknesses of the individual as they relate to a given area of worl~ or a specific task will often insure greater satisfaction on the part of the community as well as th~ individual. Two rather well-known and fairly reliable tests are the Kuder Preference Record, and Strong's Interest Blank. The Kuder Pref- .erence Record determines the types of activities which people prefer. The manual lists typical occupations which may correspond to the :preferred type of activity. Scores are designed to be recorded in the form of a graphic profile showing the percentile rank of the indi-vidual for each type of activity. Form BB gives scores for the fol-lowing activities: mechanical, computational, scientific, persuasive, artistic, literary, musical, social service, and clerical. The test is easy to administer, to, correct, and to interpret. Strong's Vocational In-terest Blank, one for women and one for men, is considered by some authorities more reliable than that of Kuder, but the scoring is very difficult. It is advisable to bare the answer sheets scored by machine, which costs from fifty cents to a dollar for each blank. The under-lying purpose of this appraisal of vocational interest is to indicate how closely the individual's interests correspond, with those of men and women successfully engaged in certain occupations. There are over 35 occupations, six occupational groups and three non-occupa-tional traits for men; for women, over 17 occupations and one non-occupational trait. Since there is a re!ationship between the level of the intelligence quotient and adult occupational adjustment, the following classifica-tion of Bernreuter and Cart4 may be of interest to those who wish to think of future work in terms of measured ability. These au-thorities believe .that the person with superior intelligence (115 and 4"The Interpretation of I.Q.'s on the L-M Stanford-Binet." in Journal of Educa-tional Psychology, XXIX, 312-14. 80 March, 195 l PEACE upward) will be best qualified for professional work requiring college or university training, the individual having a measured normal in-telligence quotient (85-114) will succeed in work requiring high school training, and the low average or dull person with an intelli-gence quotient between 70 and 84, unskilled work. The main rea-sons for using interest tes(s ar,e to isolate, evaluate, and utilize the findings showing aptitudes and interests which are required for the different types of occupations, An adequate testing program for religious communities requires the accumulation of objective, evidence regarding the competencies, weaknesses, and strengths of the candidate. The data should include information regarding the physical, mental, educatio;aal, vocational, and social status of the applicant. The findings need to be integrated as an aid in arriving at the most satisfactory conclusions. The obvious limitations of objective testing devices should be noted, but the failure to use them at all is almost certain to result in great inac-curacies of diagnosis, since personal observation and judgment are not completely reliable. Peace Winfrid Herbst, S.D.S. OF ALL the good things the Savior desires for you, one of the .first is peace. "Pax vobis!" Those were His first thrilling words to the Apostles assembled in the Upper Room after His resurrection. You must ever strive to acquire this deep, interior, lasting peace--a calm, spiritual contentment--and it must influence your exterior actions by making them deliberate and quietly, al-though sensibly, precise. Walking in the presence of God and unceasing watchfulness over your tongue are two means of obtaining and preserving peace. They are particularly helpful, even necessary for you. And there are two secret societies which you may join to your great spiritual advantage, namely, the KYMS and the MYOB. Those letters mean Keep Your Mouth Shut andMind Your Own Business. The careful observance of these directives means greater peace of heart than you would at first believe. 81 WINFRID HERBST Review for Religious You have been a religious long enough to know the calm and contentment that comes to one who reposes trustingly in the arms of God. "Thou hast made us for Thyself, 0 God, and our hearts are not at rest until they rest in Thee." How well you have learned to understand and to feel this, even here below. From now on may yours be a lasting Pax in Domino. Remember the days when the thought of the eternal years, even with God, filled your soul With strange and crushing dread? It is a far cry from that day to this, when your soul is filled with peace and repose at the thought that you belong to God. How long it takes before we understand even a little! But, sometimes, after years of effort and meditation, a certain truth will come to life in a flash. In an instant we seem to realize--and the realization endures. Of late you have been much drawn to meditation on God, as He is in Himself, as thus set forth in glowing words by the Vatican Council: "The Catholic Church believes that there is .one true and living God, the Creator and Lord of heaven and earth, Almighty, Eternal, Immense, Incomprehensible, Infinite in intellect and will and in all perfection; who, being one, individual, altogether simple and unchangeable Substance, must be asserted to be really and essen-tially distinct from the world, most happy in Himself, and ineffably exalted above everything that exists or can be conceived." And then it came home to you with astonishing light and truth that this great God became also Man for love of you! And you profess your faith in the being and power of ~our God; you profess your hope in His wisdom; and you profess your love for Him as the Supreme Good. You pray to Him that He may ever give you the grace to rest peace-fully in the arms of His Providence--in a word, to be completely happy, satisfied, and content that you belong to God. The closer your union with God, the greater will be your peace of heart. You realize this; and that is why there comes from the very depths of your heart the longing prayer: "0 my God, would that I could attain my ideal in the matter of my daily Mass and Com-munion and Office; my evaluation of my vocation; the perfect ob-servance of the Rule; the most perfect observance of the vows, which make me a religious; the spiritual exercises of every day, all of them, during the whole time prescribed! How happy I would then be! My ideal is ever before me. It is clear and definite, outlined in my "law book," the constitutions. To reach it means sanctity. But strive as I may--and the past years have literally been years of be- 82 Ma~h, 195l PEACE ¯ ginnings--I do not seem to be able to attain the heights. Help me, my Savior, to go forward slowly but surely, in a calm, sensible, de-termined way. Come, Holy Ghost, guide me always through those who speak to me in conferences, sermons, chapter exhortations, con-fessional advice, retreat considerations, spiritu,al books--guide me always; for Thou knowest how much circumstances make it neces-sary for me to be thus guided by Thee. Then will I have that peace of heart which surpasses all understanding." Peace will abound in your spiritual life if you let your reverence for God manifest itself by recollection in prayer. Try every day to pray a little more than is necessary, in order to safeguard what is prescribed. And after reverence for God must come reverence for your superiors, who take God's place in your regard. Show them the utmost loyalty, disregarding their faults. Thereupon must come reverence for equals or inferiors. Be sure to treat them all with the deference and respect due to the chosen friends of God. And in all these things there must be respect for self. Of yoursdf you are indeed nothing; yet you must reverence yourself and have great confidence. You must be a worthy child of your Father in heaven. You must-not be a coward and thus seem to make a failure of Almighty God. Pray to the Savior that you may be thus reg, erent. Peace of heart can be lost by being so engrossed in the Father's business that you neglect your daily prayers and spiritual exercises, or at least perform them in a maze of distractions. That will never do. You must never lose yourself in external activity to the detri-ment of inward recollection and union with God." Never let your-self be permanently overwhelmed with work or business. No; rather your vocal prayers must be said without haste; your mental prayer must be calm and quiet, with a varied method and a generous ad-mixture of vocal ejaculatory prayers. Your meditation may not, week after week, be of that more-dead-than-alive sort. Remember, in a practical way, that one prayer is always good-~"Lord, teach us to pray." Let this be your determined resolution and an oft repeated re-solve, one that means great mortification and corresponding progress in the spiritual life: "No matter when or where, I will perform all my spiritual" exercises, eoert.I day, during the whole time prescribed for them, and with devotion." Failure to do this means dissatisfac-tion with self, letting oneself go, ~nd consequent misery because one is not what one professes to be. It is a hard resolution to keep, but 83 ANONYMOUS Review for Religious the peace of heart it brings--and glory of God--is worth it. Do not grow weary of being good. It may be that some day, for a moment at least, you will feel such a deep, personal, sweet, and de-lightful love for our dear Lord that, thus athrill with joy, you will realize for the first time in your life what heavenly happiness means, what bliss floods the soul when it is united with God. It may be a feeling of being in the arms of God, all enveloped by His love, all filled with a sensation of peace and satisfaction such as you cannot describe. And when yot~ are dying that same feeling just described may come over you, so that, exultant in the thought of going home to 3esus, flooded with spiritual joy, you exclaim, in the heart if not with the lips: "Oh, I did not think it was so sweet to die. I am so happy. I am so glad to go. My soul is enjoying a foretaste of heavenly peace." Why Do They Leave? [AUTHOR'S NOTE. The reflections that follow were partly (not only nor chiefly) prompted by two recent books. Though differing in many respects, both books tend to give an unfavorable impression of the religious life. La Nuit est ma Lu-mitre, by Dr. Etienne de Greeff, is a novel by a Catholic doctor-psychiatrist, who is a professor at Louvain University. Instructive in many respects, it tells some unpleasant truths about religious, but fails to do full justice to the Catholic con-cept of the religious life. It portrays "those terrible vows" as a source of medi-ocrity more often than not and maintains that only exceptionally gifted souls would find in" them the starting point and permanent inspiration for more than human greatness. The second book, I Leap ot~er the Wall, by Monica Baldwin, is more literary but less instructive. The well-known bestseller tells the autobio-graphical story of an ex-nun who left a cloistered convent in England in 1941 after twenty-eight years of religious life and struggles with the problem of re-adapting herself to a world where she feels altogether lost. The Rip van Winkle experience of ie-awakening to the world, and to a world at war, after twenty-eight years "sleep" is rather overdone. The author's references to her past religious life fluctuate between two tones: one of slightly ironical depreciation of the antiquated standstill in which the rules and customs, inherited from the Middle Ages, freeze the nuns: another of a sincere endeavor to give "worldly" people an idea of what religious life really is and of how it is possible to live and be happy in it.~The following reflections are written by one who stayed for twenty-eight years and hopes to stay for many ~EW religious live for long in any order or congregation without seeing some of their fellow religious leave. This happens espe-cially during the years of probation, before first or final vows. It is only natural and normal. Religious in training who find out 84 March, 19~ 1 WHY DO THEY LEAVE "they had no vocation" go back to the world. It also happens, con-siderably more rarely, after the last profession. We may not like to think of these facts, but we cannot help knowing them. Perhaps it is good~ just for once, to face them squarely. Why do these religious leave? We who stay are perhaps compelled to answer this question for ourselves. We may and do sincerely endeavor to give a charitable and supernatural answer. Yet, is it not true that these departures always leave some feeling of uneasiness, at times only slight, at other times, when the persons concerned are closer to us, more painful and persisting? We do not mean to say that every one of them shakes our vocation. The grace of our vocation, thanks be to God, does not stand or fall with what happens around us. But the events we are speaking of do not generally leave Us altogether unaffected. They at least provoke reflection and prayer. They Had No Vocation? Why do they leave? The answer to our que,stion is complex, for natural and supernatural reasons fuse. We must endeavor to put them down as simply and sincerely as we can. The truth, here as elsewhere, will be liberating. Why do they leave? Because, we like to think., they find out they had no vocation. Often, very often perhaps, that may be true. A religious vocation" is a grace, and because grace builds on nature and perfects it, the grace of a religious vocation supposes a certain natural foundation. Without this, nor-mally speaking, it can har'dly be genuine. To have or not to have a vocation means that God calls or does not call one to the religious state. But how do we generally come to know the grace God offers? The signs of a true vocation are normally these three: (1) natural and supernatural aptitude to live the religious life; (2) a right intention, mainly or chiefly (perhaps not exclusively), inspired by supernatural motives: and (3) the desire or will to answer the divine call. "Candidates have the natural aptitude when they are physically, mentally, and morally fit, that is, when they have suffi-cient heal~h, gifts of mind and education, and sufficient strength of character and freedom from habits and inclinations that are not com-patible with a life according to the vows and rules and are not likely to be corrected by the regular training. When at the same time they have a sufficient spirit of piety, self-abnegation, and apostolic aspira-tions, born from and nourished by regular prayer' and the reception of the sacraments, then their aptitude is also supernatural. Let such 85 ANONYMOUS Reoieua for Religious apt candidates intend to join a religious institute, not only nor mainly to find an honorable state of life, but chiefly to work out the salvation of their own souls and to do much good, whether to pray and study, or help the sick, or teach and educate the children, or to go to the missions; or more definitely because they believe, after reflection and prayer and taking advice, that such is God's will for them. Then they have also the right intention. It is then enough for them to conceive the desire to enter the religious state in one of its institutes, according to the guidance of Providenci expressed in the concrete circumstances in which they live: school, home educa-tion, contacts, examples, advice from parents or teachers. Their religious vocation then materializes into actual fact. Those who so join have the vocation. It is officially sanctioned, in the name of the Church and of Christ, when the institute accepts their profession. How then does it happen that some religious, after years of actual experience of the religious life, come to believe and to find out that they had no vocation? Normally that is found out before long. When any of the three mentioned factors of a vocation is lacking in a notable degree so as to arouse serious doubts about the genuineness of the vocation,, the religious in probation or their superiors will generally come to know this in the course of the years of training. That such a previous mistake was possible need not cause any sur-prise. What was an apparent vocation may turn out a failure and ¯ prove a'sbam vocation. True self-knowledge is rare especially in the young who have little experience of life and of men. They may have deceived themselves or have been deceived in good faith about their aptness 'for a kind of life of which they bad but little or only second-hand knowledge. Even spiritual directors may have been misled into believing in a vocation that later proves not to have been genuine. When this discovery takes place during the years of pro-bation, it is not abnormal, for such religious to return to secular llfe. But after years of professed life this discovery can only be excep-tional. If it were not so, it would mean that no one could have a sufficient human guarantee of a religious vocation, in spite of the official sanction of the Church contained in the very acceptance by the institute of the perpetual vows. This would go against the whble Catholic idea of a vocation. It would come to mean that, counter to the very belief of the Church, the approved religious institutes are hardly a safe way to Christian perfection. And so it can only be due to abnormal, personal or extrinsic, circumstances that religious failed 86 March, 1951 ¯ WHY DO THEY LEAVE to test sufficiently, during the years of probation, the genuineness of their vocation. They Lost Their Vocation Apart from such rare and exceptional cases', the reason why pro-fessed religious leave will more often be different. It will rather be because theg lost their vocation. Yes, that is possible. What do we mean by saying so? Nothing else but.that the three signs of a religious vocation mentioned above no longer exist. They may have existed in a remarkable degree. At the time they constituted a guar-antee of perseverance in a genuine vocation. But then a moment came, generally not before more or less conscious and guilty neglect of rather important duties, when a gradual decline of.the physical, mental, and moral fitness made the fidelity to the duties of the reli-gious state harder and harder. Till one day these religious find themselves nearly without desire for their state of life and tired of the many duties and occupations that have become almost mean-ingless to them. When natural and supernatu.ral aptness for the religious life have dwindled close to unfitness, it is hard for men to maintain a right intention in the state of life t6 which they were secretly unfaithful. It is then only one step 'for them to give up the desire of an ideal that is no longer their own. And another step to translate into action a listlessness that is but the reverse.side of a hidden new longing which has taken root in their hearts and driven out the former intention. Such religious leave bechuse they lost their vocation. Does this happen without any fault of their own? In some blatant and rare cases the loss of a vocation certainly involves grievous faults. That is beyond doubt when serious and repeated breaches of the vows, to the scandal of outsiders as well, lead to the 'dismissal. These breaches may be entanglements in money matters, or consist in infidelity to the second vow, or in more or less open revolt against obedience. But it probably may also happen without definitely grievous faults. Regular and protracfed unfaithfulness in relatively small ma~ters of religious observance may gradually lead to a kind of tiredness of the religious state which .becomes an ever growing unfitness. Only if this infidelity be persistent over a long period of time does it thus lead ~o disaster. God's grace is faithful and powerful and may easily prevent the worst. But when grace is resisted habitually and persistently, that infidelity may well strike the death blow to a religious vocation. 87 ANONYMOUS Revieu; for Religious When a vocation is lost before the final profession, there is more likelihood that it could and did happen without grave sin. The idea of temporary vocations which some theologians of the spiritual life are inclined to accept would favor the possibility of such cases. God may in His Providence prepare some people for the role He wishes them to play in the world by granting them the grace of a few years of religious training. There are many cases of men and women who tried the religious life and were led to give it up, but remained forever grateful to God for the years they spent in the cloister. But after the last profession when religious have bound themselves for ever, and when the Church, in Christ's own name, has accepted their self-oblation, the idea of a temporary vocation is well nigh excluded. Not absolutely, it is true, because it is possible, though not probable, that Providence prepares one for a plan of His own by a long religious training. His ways are not ours. Every-human rule is open to exception. In Terms o~: Human Psycboloqq The loss of a religious vocation translates in terms of spiritual theology what on the level of human psychology we hear expressed more bluntly by various reasons such as: they are not happy; theg have enough of it; the[l can no longer. Have we not heard some-thing like that after a fellow religious left? They were not happy in the religious life which did not suit them any longer. They felt themselves like square pegs in round holes, out of place, out of tune with their surroundings, their occupations, their duties. How could they be happy in a state which, they dislike and for which they are unfit? That feeling of unhappiness was not just a passing im-pression or temptation. It had grown into a habitual painful state, an obsession with the idea of out-of-place-ness which left them no rest nor peace. Who will wonder if they came to acknowledge to themselves that "they have had enough of it"? It is possible for men to endure passing interior trials valiantly. Both natural courage and the strength that comes from God's grace enable them to stand the purifying test of interior tedium and moral fatigue. That trial allows hope; sooner or later it passes and leaves deeper and firmer happiness. But when there seems to be no end to the feeling of unhappiness, when natural courage fails, even health at times partly failing as well, and when, because of unfaithfulness to God, grace does not come to give strength to those who refuse it, small wonder that they grow tired, over,tired, of an effort which 88 March, 1951 ~rHY DO THEY LEAVE? seems vain and meaningless, too tired to sustain it any longer. "They can no longer." When these religious con. less to themselves that something has snapped in their spiritual resilience, irretrievably, they are but a hair's breadth from "letting things go." That psychological downfall did not, of course, (ome all of a sudden. Its gradual preparation was slow, spread over many months or years. For quite a time they may hav~ been walking, or staying, just on the edge of the precipice. Had they been faithful to God in p?ayer so as to hear and accept the ¯ warning and the help of His never-failing grace, they would have had the light and the courage to withdraw from that state of danger. But unfaithfulness to regular duty cut them off from that source of strength. Left to themselves in their pitiful condition of weariness and loneliness they came to tell themselves that it really was too much, they could no longer. They dare to make this self-avowal because meanwhile another light dawned in their unhappy minds. They need not be religious to save their souls and serve God. In the world as well they can be good Christians, do their duties, and gain. their heaven. Rather than drag on an impossible life in the cloister, be happy and serve God in the world! Have they not been told: "Better be a good Christian in the world than a bad religious'"? They begin to see they must and will have the courage to face the situation and to change. Rather than cowardly hide to themselves and to others the real state of things and insincerely carry on a hypocritical staging of a religious life, they will have the courage to leave. And so they decided to leave. Disappointment Why then did they leave? If we read through the phrases they tell themselves and others to justify the step they take, their reasons will probably come down, in spite of surface differences, to one and the same: they felt disappointed with the religious life. The real, perhaps ~lmost unique, reason why some religious leave is, in the last instance, their disappointment with the religious life. They dreamed of an ideal life of service of God and of the neighbor: prayer, devotion, self-sacrifice, apostolate. They found a prosaic reality far remote, on the face of it, from the ideal of their dreams. Ordinary duties, long and at times dry prayers, painful and harassing community life, uninteresting and difficult fellow religious to live with, ungrateful and often monotonous work with little interested 89 ANONYMOUS Re~ieu~ for Religious and uninteresting people, and their best efforts and merits often, apparently, unappreciated and unrecognized. Yes, there is a difference between the ideal of the religious life, such as it is seen through the eyes of enthusiastic candidates, and the reality of the ordinary daily duties in the cloister. To young ideal-ists the religious observance looks attractive. When, in the actual practice of that life, religious stop at the surface only, the partly romantic interest soon wears off. Unless they penetrate deeper into the h~dden meaning of it all and discover in a genuine interior life nourished with prayer and silent sacrifice the hidden Treasure for whose sake they sold all their belongings, religious miss the point of their vocation. It was understood, of course, in their youthful dreams too, that a religious vocation implled many a sacrifice. But these very sacrifices wer~ made to look so attractive and interesting that they became just one more thing, somewhat unpleasant yes, which they were to carry off in their magnanimous stride towards the ideal. But in the reality of the life in the cloister once the novelty of the exterior duties has worn off and with it much of their natural charm and interest, what remains standing out above the rest is pre-cisely the painful side of uninteresting, unappreciated, ever recurring little (and at times bigger) sacrifices which these duties mean to self-love, self-esteem, self-satisfactlon. Unless then a deeper and more powerful attractiveness of the service of God and of men has replaced the former superficial charm, and has transformed the unpoetical reality of daily duties and sacrifices into the mysterious communion of divine love, human hearts are apt, if not bound, to feel disap-pointed. It is perhaps the common experience of religious that the reality of their vocation is very different from what they expected it to be. But it can be different in two ways. It is either much more beauti-ful and more worth-while than they ever dare to dream it; though this beauty is generally different than their half-worldly' minds once upon a time liked to fancy it. Or it is much less interesting and much more painful than they formerly imagined. Much better or much worse! Much better, if faithful to the grace of their vocation they succeed in unearthing the hidden greatness and happiness of a life of union with God, an anticipation of what He prepares for them in a measure surpassing all human understanding. Much worse, if unfaithful to the call of daily graces, they do not enter into the deep meaning of their vocation and stop less than half-way on their 90 March, 19 51 WHY DO THEY LEAVE ? march to the ideal. All they .find is the soon uninteresting, painful, boring, and finally unbearable burden of many meaningless duties. Can they feel otherwise than disappointed? Unseen--Unreal? If some religious lose their vocation, lose their fitness for its real life and grow disappointed, it is because they leave out of their lives the very substance of that vocation: the supernatural interior life of grace and of self-sacrifice which is the love of God. The religious life, limited to its superficial aspect only, is unable to satisfy the deepest aspirations of human hearts. For those for whom the unseen reality of the religious vocation is close to unreal, it is hardly possible not to feel deeply disappointed and soon to grow disaffected towards the religious life. Sometimes the disappointed religious unwittingly deceive "them-selves into believing that their disappointment does not lie with the ideal religious life such as it should be, but with the reality they found instead of it. Neither superiors nor fellow religious are found to be as they should. If only the institute were what its constitu-tions and laws claim it to be, they would not have been disappointed. There may be some good faith in this frame of mind. But it lacks realistic sense. Where is the human institution without short-comings? Are not these very deficiencies the matter out of which religious humility and perfection are built up? Had these religious not lacked the interior spirit, they Would have been able to see the great reality hidden under at times defective appearances. They would not have been blind to the great good that, next to the defects, is visible to every eye. That hidden reality does not disappoint. The feeling of disappointment and disaffection need not always be acute. Even when it is only partial but goes together, in rather shallow souls, with the need for a change that has been called the characteristic unsteadfastness of our war and post-war times, it may lead to the same result, the loss of the vocation. This need of a change works all the more effectively when after a considerable num-ber of years in the religious life a certain detachment from human ties has naturally followed on the actual separation from relatives and friends. If meanwhile no new higher attachment has taken the place of the old ones, as is the case in the disappointed and disaffected religious, then some sort of feeling of "being in the air" easily makes the balance of hesitation topple over. Perhaps it is the working 91 ANONYMOUS Reoieta ~:or Religious together of these different psychological factors that is actually the more frequent reason why some religious !leave. Why Do We.Sta~? They leave. We, with God's grace! stay. Perhaps we must conclude the above reflections by briefly answering another question that may have been sleeping at the back 6f our minds from the first and is by now wide awake: Why do u~e stay? We stay, because we believe in the grac! of our vocation. He who chose us knew whom He was choosing and He is faithful. We stay, because, with the help of that grace, we sincerely endeavor to make and to keep ourselves ever more fit, naturally and supernaturally, for the life and the duties to which He called us. We stay, because day by day, with the help of His grace, we work and pray and sacrifice to preserve our vocation. For in spite of passing weakness and for-getfulness, of neglect and of failing, of humbling faults, we know that He reads our hearts and sees the sin.cerity of our desires, even when they are hidden under negligence an'd human frailty. We stay, because we are happy in His service. With the help of His grace He led us to discover something of the hidden Treasure that is His love, His very Self. He helped us see and experience, at times clearly, at times in a hidden manner, through the veil of faith, the great joy and happiness of sacrifice out of love. He helped us discover Him, our Love, on the cross. He let us experience the puri-fying and deepening effects of trial and suffering which He sends in many different ways, but always as the cross-shaped sign of His love. Our love grows greater and stronger and deeper when te.mpered in the crucible of sacrifice. Even the natural joys and the natural hap-piness of the religious life--for there are these as well--are purer and nobler and more thoroughly satisfying when our hearts have shared in Christ's sorrows. Because of this great and unshakable happiness, we shall never, with the assistance of His grace, have enough of it. For unlike merely human happiness and greatness, which always bears the risk of saturation and fatigue, the spiritual joys of the Lord, experience has shown us, sharpen our hunger the more we happen to taste' of them. Even for our share in His sacrifice we shall never say: "It is enough, or too much." His grace helped us experience that the greater our actual share in His cross, the keener our hunger and thirst after justice. With the help of His grace we shall always be able to accept the small and large crosses He chooses for each one of 92 March, 1951 BOOK REVII~W$ us. Never shall we say, "We can no longer" because we know that He never asks for any sacrifice without also giving strength and happiness. We stay, because we are not disappointed with the religious life and we know that, with the help of His grace, we sha.ll never be. The Lord does not disappoint! The human realities of the religious life do and will, no doubt, remain human, that is, imperfect in many ways. We know that only too well, from ourselves to begin with, and much more from ourselves than from our fellow religious around us. But we also know that these very imperfections are not disap-pointing because we see them and at all times wish to see them in the light of His love that transforms them into the precious material out of which He builds true, unseen greatness. We are not disappointed because we love our vocation, such as it is, with the persons and the places° and the duties and the circumstances which His loving Provi-dence chose and chooses 'for ds. In the light and warmth of His love, radiating from His and our cross, we know that "it is good for us to be here." That is why we stay. With the heIp of His grace we shall stay on, and work and pray and sacrifice, till we hear another call of His; when He will invite Hi~ faithful servants into His own home. Meanwhile, in our prayers and sacrifices we shall pray that His mercy accompany the unfortunate ones who left and the more privileged ones who stay.--Quid retribuam? What shall I render in return? Book Reviews CATHOLIC SOCIAL PRINCIPLES. By John F. Cronln, S.S. Pp. xxvlll -~- 803. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 1950. $6.00. Appendix~II of this book contains a 37-page annotated reading list. The length of the list is significant. It explains why many of us have experienced an increasing hollow feeling as we looked forward through the years to the day when we might.become well-informed about the social teaching of the Church. Through these same years .we have seen books and articles on the social question follow one another with such rapid succession that we wondered whether we should ever be able even to skim the surface of this literature. Realizing the Church's desire that we know her social teaching, and 93 BOOK REVIEWS yearning to fulfill this desire, yet we had to ask ourselves with a cer-tain helplessness, "What can one do to learn even the essentials?' One thing to do is to read this book. It will counteract the hol-low feeling with at least the wholesome food of accurate general in-formation on "The Social Teaching of the Catholic Church Applied to American Economic Life" (the subtitle). , So many and such comprehensive reviews of Catholic Social Prin-ciples have already appeared that it is unnecessary for me to give a detailed picture of it. The book is divided into three parts that move logically from the general to the particular. Part I gives general principles of Catholic social teaching: explaining the foundation, rejecting unsound theories, and culminhting in an exposition of the ideal social order. Part II considers concrete aspects of the social probiem (capital, labor, wages, unions, property, functions of Church and State) in the light of generai p~inciples. Each chapter of these first two parts begins with a compilation of pertinent au-thoritative statements, espec'ially those made by Po~es and hierar-chies. Part III surveys various attempts by American Catholics to formulate a salutary social program. There are three appendices, as well as an Index of Authorities and a General Index. The method of treatment is both expository and critical. The tone is moderate. "Extremes beget extremes," writes Father Cronin, "whereas modera-tion wins adherents." He should win many adherents. Experts in various phases of Catholic teachin[l might suggest improvements in Father Cronin's book when he touches on their respective fields, but they could hardly question its general excellence. I am content to recommend it without any reservation to religious superiors, teachers, and those engaged in the social apostolate. In fact, I would recommend it to everyone, but I thinkthose I have men-tioned would profit especially by reading it. And I should like to confirm this general recommendation with a number of quotations, but I have only sufficient space to refer to the question of our dealings. with workers. On this subject, which is certainly of great interest to all of us, Father Cronin writes (p. 360): "Problems connected with a living wage and the dignity of labor should be a special concern of priests and religious who are in the position of employers. In the past, our record in this regard has not always been good. Church institutions have at times been no-torious both for low wages and arbitrary practices, such as the dis-charge of workers who have given most of their lives to an institu- 94 March, 1951 BOOK REVIEW8 tion, and who are let out either because of old age or a change of administration. Cynics have remarked that some in our midst apply vows of poverty to workers, even though Canon Law makes no pro-vision for vicarious acceptance of religious vows. Undoubtedly, such situations occur with the best of motives. Church institutions rarely have adequate funds, so that their administrators understand-ably try to economize in the attempt to have the most money for the primary purpose of the venture. This would be especially true for schools, institutions of' charity, and even some parishes. Yet charity should not be served at the expense of justice. We should give good example in regard to the social teaching of the Church as well as in matters of piety. "Many bishops now require that wages and working conditions be considered in letting construction contracts. It would be most desirable that when bids are let, the award go, not to the lowest bidder absolutely, but to the lowest bid from a reputable firm which pays decent wages and treats it workers fairly. Likewise, the Church as employer cannot afford to lag behind in other phases of industrial relations, such as proper hours, working conditions, grievance ma-chinery, seniority provisions, protection from arbitrary discharge, se-curity for old age, and such normal features of reasonable employ-ment. These are usually matters of justice, not works of superero-gation. We should be more reluctant than lay employers to seek excuse from such obligations on the grounds that we cannot afford to meet them."--G. KELLY, S:'J. THE NUN AT HER PRIE-DIEU. By Roberf Nash, S.J. Pp. 298. The New-m~ n Press, Wes÷mlnster, Md., 1950. $3.00. This meditation book for Sisters contains an introductory chap-ter and forty-six meditations. The meditations are constructed along the lines of preludes and points; but the two preludes are called "Setting" and "Fruit," and the points are simply called "parts." Each meditation has three parts; and each begins with a preparatory piayer and ends with a summary of the points and a tersely-stated (sometimes only half-stated) thought called a "tessera.'" There is no colloquy; the nun is left perfectly free to formulate her own Oh's and Ah's at the conclusion of the meditation. The meditations contain too much matter for a single hour of prayer. The author recommends making them in parts, then re-peating; hence the book should furnish food for prayer for approxi- 95 BOOK REVIEWS Reoiew for Religious mately a year. The content is solid; the subjects are diversified; the treatment is sufficiently bright to ward off sleep during the time of preparing points. The book seems particularly apt for those who fol-low the method of "reflective reading" in making their meditation. And for those who prefer other met.boris of prayer to formal medita-tion it should be an excellent spiritual reading book. --G. KELLY, S.d. RECRUITING FOR CHRIST. By Godfrey Poacje, C.P. Pp. viii ~- 193. The Bruce Pu'bllshin9 Company, Milwaukee, 1950. $3.00. I opened this book with genuine enthusiasm. I had heard of Father Poage's splendid work in the promotion of religious and priestly vocations and I had seen his excellent booklets, Follow Me and Follow Him; and I expected something superb. But I closed the book with a feeling of disappointment. There is much wheat; but there is not a little chaff that should have been carefully removed before the book was published. The Introduction describes the tremendous need for more priests, Brothers, and Sisters,. and insists that there are vast numbers of latent vocations to meet this need, but these vocations must be fostered. The author concludes the Introduction by saying that it is already too long. I should say that it is too short. It is the best part of the book, and never once in the succeeding chapters does Father Poage rise to the same height. Subsequent chapters discuss the meaning of vocation to the priesthood and the religious life, the signs of such vocations, and ways of finding them among both boys and girls. There follow chapters offering suggestions to priests, teachers, and religious supe-riors for the successful promoting of vocations. There is an appendix on vocational clubs, an 1 1-page annotated bibliography of vocational literature, and an index. The book is replete with illustrative sto-ries taken from the experience of the author and of other successful promoters of religious and priestly vocations; and its main value consists in the lessons that can be learned from these actual experi-ences, The suggestions for teachers and priests should be very helpful; but I think that much of the chapter entitled "Suggestions for Supe-riors" will hurt or embarrass superiors, especially women. For example, there is the section dealing with the apparel that girls are 96 March, 1951 BOOK REVIEWS told to bring to the postulancy. It was with "bashful, bachelor eyes" that Father Poage (who seemingly had obtained the lists by pretending to be a girl aspirant) scanned these lists; and it is unfor-tunate that bashfulness did not guide his written comments. Concluding the paragraph about ill health as a barrier to a reli-gious vocation, Father Poage states summarily, "Invalids are not wanted." Besides sounding too harsh, this statement seems to need qualification. One purpose for which St. Francis de Sales founded the Visitation Order was to give certain types of invalids an oppor-tunity of serving God in the cloister. I do not have the exact words of the constitutions at hand, but the Catholic Encyclopedia says: "He exl~ressly ordered the reception at the Visitation not only of virgins but also of widows, on condition that they were legitimately freed from the care of their children; the aged, provided they were of right mind; the crippled, provided they were sound in mind and heart; even the sick, except. those who had contagious diseases." This is not the least of the charities for which the Catholic world blesses Francis de Sales. And I,,believe there are other institutes that are willing to waive certain physical disabilities in otherwise acceptable candidates. Regarding illegitimacy, Father Poage writes: "An invalid union makes the child illegitimate. This is an impediment to the priest-hood and religious communities." This is partly an oversimplifica-tion of the canon law on illegitimacy and partly incorrect. A child is legitimate when conceived of either a valid or a putative marriage. Moreover, if one who was born illegitimate makes solemn religious profession, he is by that fact legitimated, "and this would remove the irregularity for receiving Holy Orders without the need of a dispen-sation. As for entrance into religion, canon law does not make illegitimacy an impediment. I believe this should be specially noted, because many religious seem to have an erroneous notion in this mat-ter, When illegitimacy is an impediment to entrance into a certain institute, it is so by reason of the constitutions of that institute and not by reason of the. general law of the Church. And, even when an institute makes illegitimacy an impediment, superiors in the United States can generally obtain a dispensation from the local ordinary. It is understandable that a book which offers almost innumerable practical suggestions wouId offer some that would be open to dis-agreement. Father Poage calls attention to the fact that girls often enter the novitiate with the habit of smoking and he suggests that 97 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious superiors "obligingly set aside a smoking period for those who need it." Perhaps the phrase "for those who need it" places this sugges-tion beyofid controversy; yet I am inclined to think that those who need it would be rare indeed and that they might very obligingly do their "tapering off" before they enter the postulancy. Father Poage and I would practically reverse positions regarding ,association with the opposite sex before entering religion. He believes that aspirants to the priesthood or the religious life should cease associating with the 6pposite sex. And he apparently means not merely regular company-keeping with one individual but even dances and parties that include both boys and girls, for he tells one girl: "This does not mean you are to cut out" all fun and gaiety. Have a good time-~but with the girls and not the boys!" No doubt one could give good arguments to substantiate this view from documents of the Church and from the practice in some countries of having boys in apostolic schools and seminaries from their tender years. The Church encourages this, it is true. Nevertheless, normal social life at home or in a ~boarding academy or college is not the same as life in an apostolic school or seminary. And, at least generally speaking, it is part of the normal life of our high school and college boys and girls to attend parties and dances. A prospective vocation which could not hold out through such normal and wholesome associations would hardly be a true religious vocation, it seems to me. Obviously, I am not saying that there is nothing incompatible between planning to enter religion or a seminary and at the same time continuing an exclusive companionship with an individual of the opposite sex. Nor do I sponsor the advice that a boy or girl who has not heretofore associated with the opposite sex should "have a fling at it" before going to the novitiate or the seminary. But I see no need of discontinuing wholesome and general mixed-group rela-tionships merely because one is thinking of or planning on entering religion. Others may, and very likely do, think differently. The point is worth discussion. A final comment--a"fixed idea" of mine, if one will have it that. Throughout the book and even in his generic explanation of "voca-tion," Father Poage limits the term to a call to the religious life or the priesthood. In doing this he is conforming to a very widespread and popular notion of vocation. Yet I think that this restricted use of the term is both theologically inaccurate and psychologically harm-ful. Theologically, the term should embrace all states of life: and 98 March, 1951 BOOK REVIEWS psychologically it is immensely beneficial to use it as referring not only to the priesthood and the religious life but also to marriage and the single life in the world.--G. KELLY, S.J. PATROLOGY, I: THE BEGINNINGS OF PATRISTIC: LITERATURE. By Johannes Quasten. Pp. xvlii -I- 349. The Newman Press, Westminster, Md., 1950. $S.00. Up to the present, our patrologies have usually been works pub-lished in a foreign language and then translated into English. Now it is a pleasure to welcome a patrology published in English. It is also a pleasure to welcome a patrology which is the last word in sci-entific scholarship, interestingly written, and ~vhich always keeps, to the fore the needs of English-speaki.ng leaders. This first volume covers the beginnings of patristic literature. After an introductory chapter, the author takes up the Apostles' Creed and the Didache, then the Apostolic Fathers, Apocryphal Lit-erature, Christian Poetry, the Acts of the Martyrs, the Greek Apolo-gists, Heretical Literature, 'and Anti-Heretical Literature. The opening chapter is an admirable introduction to patrology and an up-to-the-minute and scholarly guide to research in this field. Besides dealing with the concept and history of patrology, the con-cept of a Church Father, and the language ' of the Fathers, it gives bibliography on the various branches of Ancient Christian Literature and on the doctrine of the Fathers, and lists editions and translations of Patristic texts. Then in each succeeding chapter an outline is given of the respective authors; each individual work'is studied and analyzed; to this is added information dealing, with the text, trans-lations, and studies of the documents; finally the outstanding fea-tures of the theological thought of the documents are discussed. Certain aspects of the work call for special consideration. An outstanding feature is its thoroughness. There is no document, in this early period or no problem concerning these documents for which one has not now a competent guide. A feature that is most welcome is the generous coverage of the theological thought of the authors. Thus--to illustrate--the thought of Irenaeus is presented on the Trinity, Christology, Mariology, Ecclesiology, the Primacy of Rome, the Eucharist, Scripture, Anthropology, Soteriology, and Eschatology. Finally, a new feature (which has long been desired) is seen in the copious excerpts from these ancient writings. The author is not content with telling what a certain writer thought, but 99 Book REviEws Review for Religious he lets him tell us in his own words. This isa feature that partly explains the interest and readability of this volume; it is this that makes the book not merely something which we use to consult, but something which we want to read for the joy found in reading it. It is easy to see how a book of this kind can be of great help to religibus. Those engaged in teaching patrology, dogma, or liturgy have a work that will aid them in research and in preparing their classes. No longer need we despair of having a patrology text that will interest students; no longer need the patrology manual be regarded as something as dry as dust. The religious engaged in teaching college have here a book that will have to be found on their reference shelf, a book "that will be very helpful in answering ques-tions about the Ancient Church. Finally, all religious will find here background for a better understanding of works which all through the ages have been spiritual classics; e.g., the Eetters of St. Ignatius of Antioch, the Acts of the Martyrs.--ALFRED C. RUSH, C.SS.R. RELIGIOUS SISTERS. An English translation of Direcfolre des Sup.erl. eures and Les Adaptations de La Vie Religieuse. Compiled by A. .Pie, O.P. Pp. xli -~- 313. The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland. $3.s0. Superiors, spiritual directors, and retreat masters who have good eyes will welcome this helpful, inspiring work. The book grew out of two symposia to help the religious women of France meet prob-lems created by modern conditions. The papers prepared by diocesan and religious priests werd first printed in La Vie Spirituelle. In the English edition the French article on psychology was replaced by the article by R. E. Havard, an English doctor. The book has five sec-tions: the theology of religious life, the office of the superior, the knowledge required by a Superior, the vocation and training of reli-gious and adaptations in modern religious life. When ~sked what she thought of the book, a religious superior who had read it answered that she had bought three more copies, in-cluding one for her Mother Provincial. She also said: "I found Religious Sisters most helpful, excellent. It is clear, complete, yet concise, and the high spirituality makes it a real inspiration. If I do not do a better job as superior now, I will not have the excuse I had before reading it. I cannot say any of the ideas were entirely new, but the detailed application of the principles and elements of reli-gious life were, in a number of instances, so new that I do not feel I 100 BOOK NOTICE$ have absorbed them in one reading." More readable print is certainly desirable and also a book of the same calibre that grew from American conditions, but in lieu of both, the book is recommended. The benefits derived will compensate for the temporary snow-blindness that results from reading the soft, light print.--J. BREUNIG, S.J. ,~OOK NOTICES OUR CHRISTIAN DIGNITY, by L. Semp~, S.J., adapted from the French by C, Vrithoff, S.J., is a little'work, comprising nine confer-ences in the form of dialogues between a priest and two young men, which could serve as a'highly informative and inspiring introduction to the grandeurs of the supernatural life. In a way that is both popu-lar and theological it presents the principal aspects of the Christian's deification by grace, and at the same time make,~ them so many most potent motives for actu,.ally living up to the sublime dignity that it confers. Thus it would provide spiritual reading of the best kind: full of dogma for the mind and of consequent force and enthusiasm for the. will. (Catholic Press, Ranchi, India, i945. Pp. 98. Rs. i.) THE TWELVE FRUITS, by C. J. Woollen, is no mere theoretical explanation of the fruits of the Holy Ghost, but a concre.te, practical exposition of the effects which these fruits should produce in every Catholic. As a 'result, the book makes interesting and profitable spiritual reading. In dealing with the fruits a writer is faced with a real problem to distinguish patience from longanimitg and mildness or to show how continencg differs from ebastitg, but the author suc-seeds in making plausible distinctions between them. More. emphasis is placed on the fruits as effects to be produced by their possessor than on the benefits which accrue to him .from their, possession, though this second aspect is not entirely neglected. The chapter on patience is particularly well done. (New York: Joseph F. Wagner, Inc., 1950. Pp. viii ÷ 184. $2.50.) GUIDE IN MENTAL PRAYER, written 'by the Very Reverend Jo-seph Simler, fourth superior general of the Society of Mary (Marian-ists), was intended originally for use within that congregation. But others also came to know about it and to find it helpful, and now in this revised English edition it is mad~ available to all. No one 'book on mental prayer is ideal for all the very different mentalities of 101 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS men and women who cultivate that difficult art, but this one, simple, practical, and definite, should, it seems, prove very useful to many. It promises success to all who really have good will. A point that it emphasizes particularly is the importance of faith for growing in the ability to meditate. (A Grail Publication, St. Meinrad, Indiana, 1949. Pp. 167. $2.00.) In J~_SUIT BEGINNINGS IN NEW MEXICO Sister M. Lilliana Owens, in collaboration with two Jesuits, presents the first of a series entitled "Jesuit Studies--Southwest." The book is an ungarnished historical account. A hitherto unpublished diary of the mission of New, Mexico comprises half of the book. [El Paso, Texas: Revista Catolica Press, 1950. Pp. 176. $2:00 (cloth); $1.50 (paper).] A very valuable addition to .the literature on vocation is VOCA-TION TO THE PRIESTHOOD: ITS CANONICAL ~CONCEPT, A Histori-cal Synopsis and a Commentary, by .Aidan Carr, O.F.M.Conv. Dr. Cart investigates his problem from the po!.nts of view of history, theology, and canon law. His conclusions se~m to clarify and syn-thesize what was best in the pri.ncipal p.revio;is works on the subject. Directly or indirectly this study should be a precious aid to the many men and women who teach boys and thus have something to do with fostering and discerning divine calls to the holy priesthood. (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1950. Pp. viii + 124. $2.00.) , BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS [For the most part, these notices ate purely descriptive, based on a cursory exam-ination of the books listed.] BOOKMAN ASSOCIATES, New York. Like Clean Winds. By Sister Louise Agnes Morin, C.S.J. An-other convincing contrast to I Leap o~;er the Wall. "The story of a Sister who entered the convent to give herself to God and was not surprised to find what she sought--a life of renunciation." The book is illustrated by Michael Lyn Genung. Pp. 63. $2.25. Savonarola. A verse play in nine scenes by Wallace A. Bacon. This play won the Bishop Sheil Drama Award of the. National Catholic Theater Conference in 1946. Pp. 128. $2.50. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY PRESS, Washington, D. C. Orestes Brotonson's Approach to the Problem of God. A critical 102 March, 1951 BOOK ANNOUNCHMHNT$ examination in the Light of the Principles of St. Thomas Aquinas. By the Reverend Bertin Farrell, C.P. A dissertation. Pp. xiii ÷ 140. $1.75. THE GRAIL, St. Meinrad, Indiana. The Familg Rosarg for Children. By Urban Paul Martin. A Sister of Charity has significantly illustrated the purpose, history, and method of praying the Rosary, as well as each of the fifteen mysteries. This booklet will help boys and girls understand and pray the Rosary. Pp. 71. $1.00. Watchu~ords of the Saints. A Thought for Each Day of the Year from the Writings 6f the Saints. Collected by Christopher O'Brien. Pp. 73. $1.50. Our .Ladg's Slave. ;The Story. of Saint Louis Mary Grignion De Montfort. By Mary ~abyan Windeatt. Illustrafed by Paul A. Grout. Pp. 201. $2.~. B. HERDER BOOK COMPaNY,'St. Louis, Mo. Art and Beauty. By Maurice De Wulf. Translated by Sister Mary Gonzaga Udell, O.P. In this volume a philosopher of re-nown considers the basic principles of art. Pp. ix q- 213. $3.00. THE NEWMAN PRESS, Westminster, Maryland. Catechism o~: the "'Summa. Theotogica'" o~: Saint Thomas Aqui-nas. By R. P. Thomas Pegu~s, O.P. Adapted from the French and done into English by Aelred'~q'hitacre, O.P. A condensation of the Summa in catechism form. A reprint of the work first published in England in 1922. Pp. xvi + 315. $2.75.' Shepherd oF Untended Sheep. By Raoul Plus, S.J. Tia.nslated from the French by Sister James Aloysius. and Sister Mary Generosa, Sisters of Divine Providence. This is the first biography in English of a Vincent de Paul of the eighteenth century, John Martin: Moye, priest of the Society of the Foreign Missions of Paris, missionary to China, and founder of the Sisters of Divine Providence. Pp. xv 180. $2.50. ST. FRANCIS BOOK SHOP, Cincinnati 10, Ohio. Walk with the Wise. By Hyacinth Blocker, o.F.M. This book presents forty-eight storles from the live's of the saints in very pal-atable capsule form. The treatment is marked by originality, fresh-ness, and a relevance to the present day that cannot b~ missed. Pp. x + 240. $2.75. 103 COMMUNICATIONS Reuieto for Religious THE SENTINEL PRESS, 194 E. 76th St., New York. People and the Blessed Sacrament. By Martin Dempsey. Our Lord never wanted the devotion to the Blessed Sacrament to stop in the vestibule. Father Dempsey shows how the Eucharist can influ-ence the entire lives of all: the bootblack, the doctor, the housewife, the college student and so forth. Should be good material for Forty Hours talks. Pp. 95. $1.50 [cloth] : 50 cents [paper]. JOSEPH F. WAGNER, INC., New York. Make Way for Mary. By the Rev. Ja'mes J. McNally. With a foreword by the Most Rev. Christopher J. 'WeldOn, D.D. A series of talks deriving from the Gospels of the Sundays of the year and showing the place of Mary in the Catholic's life. Pp. 272. $2.75. Commun{cal:{ons Reverend Fathers: In reply to,y.o.ur note concerning information on the question of vocations from Catholic Colleges which appeared in the November issue Of R]EVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, the following is presented. The statistics are given under the headings suggested in the letter signed "A Teaching Sister" and represent, as requested, the last ten years. ~,, Education Contemplative Social WorE 1941 ~, 4 0 0 1942 6 0 I 1943 5 0 0 1944 , .6 I 0 1945 IO 0 0 1946 13 0 0 1947 9 0 3 1948 4 I I 1949 15 I I 1950 13 I I Total 85 4 7 Left II 4 0 74 0 7 Total to enter religious life 96 Number to leave IS Persevering 81 104 March, 1951 COMMUNICATIONS The facts have been listed for each year because we feel they are significant of changes made in 1940. During that summer, under the direction of our Very Reverend Mother Marie de St. ,lean Mar-tin, O.S.U., Prioress General of the Ursullnes of the Roman Union, a study of the Traditions of the Orderwas made in the light of con-temporary problems. (cf. Ursuline Method or: Education, Marie de Saint Jean Martin, O.S.U., Quinn ~3 Boden Company, Inc. 1946.) It might be well to sthte that these changes were not made all at once but gradually and not without difficulty-. Under the heading of, creating a Catbolic Atmosphere and assuming that we are striving to give a profound intellectual formation, they may be summarized thus: ~ 1. Religion Courses centered in Christ;'a course in Church His- . tory in junior year; a course in the spiritual life in senior year. 2. Liturgy: Missa Cantata and Compline sung daily by those who wish to participate; on Sundays and feast days Vespers and Compline. ~ ~3. Oppqrtunity for daily confession and spiritual direction. Daily meditations are made for those who wish to learn how to meditate; these are followed by special written 'ones and gradually, with help, many students make a daily meditation. 5. Guidance: each student is given or chooses if they wish a spiritual mother. 6. Sodality: limited to those who desire to lime an interior life and to participate in the apostolate. 7. Specialized Catholic Action.: Young Christian S~udents. It is to be noted that the statistics reveal .an increase .in religious vocations with the classes which were the first to graduate under the new policy.--MOTHER MARIE THERESE CHARLES, O.S.U. Reverend Fathers: In response to your invitation to correspondenc.e regarding the article on "The Deafened Religious" in the oNovember issue, I should like to share some good news. There is fenestration surgery now to cure the type of deafness known as otosclerosis. Any otologist can diagnose this mose prevalent kind of deafness. Nearly every large city has a surgeon trained by Doctor Julius Lempert of New York, who perfected the operation some twelve years ago. It consists in making a new window in the inner ear bone to connect with the auditory nerve. Although a most delicate operation requiring some 105 QUESTIONS AND/~NSWERS ' Ret~ie~ for Religious time to recover, it is worth all the misery of accompanying sea sick-ness, due to drilling through the equilibrium center. I was losing my hearing for twenty-three years and wore-a hearing aid for twelve years. Doctor Howard P. House, 1136 West Sixth Street, Los Angeles 14, California, performed such skillful surgery on both my ears in successive summers, that I now have normal hearing. I was able to discard the hearing aid after the first operation. Much of the success would normally be due to the condition of the nerve, hence it is important to have the surgery done as soon as otosclerosis is detected, before the. auditory, nerve begins to atrophy. I find that this operation is comp.aratively unknown, so I should like to broadcast the almost miraculous .results to your readers. I cannot be grateful enough to God, Doctor House and my community for my return to normal communication. It is a new life. --S~STER M. CATHERINE EmEEN. S.H.N. ( ues ions and Answers ~7~ May a local superior who had been appointed for one year to fill out the incomplet.ed term of his predecessor, and who was then reappolnfed local superior for. one three-year term, be now reappointed for another immediate term ~:F three years in.the same house? If not, may he be ap-pointed for an additional two years to make up a' fatal of six years? Canon 505 forbids the same religious to act as local superior of the same community for more than two terms of three years each. The emphasis in the text "term of three years" (triennfum) is not on the word term, but upon the entire phrase--term of three years. The Code does not forbid three terms of two years each, but excludes more than two terms of three years each in the same house, that is, more than six continuous years as local superior on the part of the same religious. In the case mentioned, therefore, the superior may be reappointed to a new term of two years, which will complete the six continuous years allowed him in the same house. 8 If a religious under temporary vows develops bad.health, or becomes a mentalcase, and, as a result, is refused perpetual vows, is the commun- 106 March, 1951 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ity to which he belonged bound to take care of him after sending him away.'? What if his physical or mental condition was doubtful during the novitiate and he was allowed to make his tempo'rary profession as a trial to see how he would make out? Once a novice is allowed to make his profession of~first tempo-racy vows, poor health, whether physical or mental, is no longer a reason for refusing either a renewal of temporary vows or the pro-fession of perpetual vows, much less al reason for dismissal (see can-ons 637 and 647, § 2). Hence superiors may not allow a novice t
Issue 3.1 of the Review for Religious, 1944. ; /'lfl~ No L no ecr j .I. " ~Pr~a~e~for Travelers -.Devotion ÷o the Holy Famil ¯ . Encyclical on the Mystical Body. G.~ Augustine Ellard . James A. Klelst , ~ ~UAIl~cjro . ~ ' Fr,~ncls J. McGarr!gle [ , :' Genuine~ Mysticism . Robert e. Communications. Book Reviews Oue~fic~ns Answered Decisions 6f .the H?ly See NUMBER RI::VII W :FOR :RI::LI .G,IOUS , VOLUME IIl JANUARY 15. 1944" NUMBER ! CONTENTS "IT IS NO LONGER I . . . "--G. Augustine Ellard. 8.J . 3 THE CHURCH'S PRAYER FOR TRAVELERS--James A. Kleist. S.J. 9 BOOKL~ET NOTICES~ ~: 17 THE DEVOTION TO THE HOLY FAMiLY--Francis L. Filas, S.J.18 THE FAMILY ROSARY . 24 RELIGIOUS AND THE ENCYCLICAL ON THE MYS;FICAL BODY-- Patrick M. ReRan. S.J . 25 L'ALLEGRO --- Francis 3. McGarrigle. S.J . 35 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . . 47 GENUINE MYSTICISM: WHAT SHOULD WE THINK OF IT?---: Robert B. Eiten. S.J . 48, COMMUNICATIONS (On Vocation) . SAINT TERESA OF AVILA--G. Augustine Ellard, S.2 . BOOK REVIEWS (Edited by Clement DeMuth. S.J.)-- Pius Xll on World Problems: A Book of Unlikely Saints; An American Teresa: The Best Wine; Men of Maryknoll: Maryknoll Mission Letters; Action This Day: Life with the Holy Ghost; Small Talks for Small People; God's Guests of Tomorrow . " BOOKS RECEIVED . 66, DECISIONS OF THE HOLY SEE OF INTEREST TO RELIGIOUS.,, 67 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- I. English Hymns at Benedic~io'n ¯ ,. " 68 2. Lighted Candles on,Side Altars during Benediction . ~. 68 3. Changing Constitutions of Pontifical Institute ' 68 4. Poverty and Private Stamp Collections . 69 5. A Hymn entitled "~e Matrem" . . 70 "6, Superiors and Confessors . ". " . 70 7. Use of Crucifix for Way of Cross .~. . 70, 8. Sale of Several Pieces of Property . 71 9. Posture of Faithful at Mass . 72 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, danuary, 1944. Vol. IIL No. 1. Published hi,, month'ly : January. March. May, July, September. and November at the Coliege Pre.~i~ 606 Harrison Street. Topeka, Kansas. b~' St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter 2anuary 15, 1942, at the Post Ot~ce, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3. 1879. E ttonal Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.2., G. Augustine E11ard, S.J., Gerald Kelly', 8.2. Copyright. 1944. by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby, granted forquotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dolla, rs a y.ear. Printed in U, S. A. Before writing to us. p!ease consult ~notlce on Inside back cover. / Review t:or Religious ~ ~olume III January--December, 1944 Published at THE COLLEGE PRESS Topeka, Kansas Edited by THE JESUIT FATHERS SAINT MAR~'S COLLEGE St. Marys, Kansas "1t: Is No Longer I . . " G. Augustine Ellard, S.,J. ONE of the most magnificent and highly inspiring sentences in the writings of.St. Paul is the following" "With Christ I am n~ailed to the cross" it is no'longer I that live, but Christ that liveth in me. So far as I live now ¯ in the flesh, I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved me and delivered, himself for me (Galatians 2:20),I Among the ancient Galatians in Asia Minor to whom these words were first addressed, there must have been some who wondered what in the world St. Paul meant by them. It was evident that he had not been crucified with Jesus and ' the two thieves, and that he was still among the living and very"active in fact, anything but dead. Nor was it clear how it could be Said that Christ was livi.ng in him. There are--perhaps there are many--good Christians today who could repeat this proud boast of St. Paul with respect to themselves if only they understood it. But it seems so far from the truth to them that they feel that, whatever it means, it cannot be more tlsan some farfetched , oriental~igure of speech. Not understanding it, they can-not use it or draw inspiration from it. Perhaps.a brief consideration of the text will contribute to a wider under-standing of it, and open out .some of the immense inspira-tional possibilities that it contains. Baptism involves a certain mystical death, as well as the beginning of a new life. "Know ye not', that as many of us as were baptized unto Christ Jesus, we were baptized unto his death? We were buried therefore with him through this baptism unto death, that as Christ was raised ~New Testament texts in this article are from the Westminster Version. G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review' [or Religious from the dead thro.ugh the glory of the Father, so we also should walk in newness of life . For this we know, that our old man hath been crucified with him, in order that our sinful body may be brought to naught, and our-selves no longer.be slaves to sin . Now if we have died with Christ, we believe that we.shall also live with him. Even thus do ye reckon yourselves to be dead to sin, but living to God in Christ Jesus,' (Romans 6:3-11). Suppose that one of those old Galal~ians, after being a sinner "from among the Gentiles;"' was converted midw~ay through life, and that previously his moral character had :been that of a typical.pagan of those times. Then from birth he had been infected with the taint of origina.1 sin, and presumably, as the years progressed~ he added to that many p~rsonal sins of his own. Such was his old life, at. best alienated from God, and merely natural or human; and at the worst, quite sinful and corrupt. When he ~was converted and baptized, that kind of life came to anend. It gave way to a new form of life, that char]acteristic of the regenerated, engrafted, upon the true vine and vivified by it, incorporated into the Mystical Body of Christ and vitalized by it, a'nd sharing in that participation of the divinit~y which leadsto life and bliss eternal in heaven, lD~uring his later years our ancient Galatian could say that his old moral and spiritual self had been replaced by a new one, given to him by Christ and regulated by Christ. In this minimum sense every Christian in the state of grace can say that he no longer lives his o~vn life, that is, a merely, natural and sinful one, the only life that is all his own, and that now Christ infuses into him somethi.ng of His supernatural and divine life. At least in the essentials of his moral and spiritual life,-hi~ judgments and attitudes of will agree with those of Christ. Of the circulation, so to speak, of the divine life-giving sap from the vine into 4 ~anuar~, I "'IT IS NoLoNGER I . . ." ¯ the branch, he cannot be conscious; of his deliberate assimi-lation of Christ's ways of thinking and willing he will of course be quite aware. In a much richer and more m~aningful sense the perfect Christian has ceased to live his own°old life, .and lets Christ live in him, determining, like a new vital principle, the .course of his activities. For with him "to live is Christ and to die is gain" (Philippians 1 : 21 ). In the first place, the perfect Christian lets Christ guide his thoughts and judgments as completely as possible. "As a-man thinks in his heart, so is he." .He makes Christ's out-look upon all things his own. He has "the mind of Christ" (I Corifithians 2: 16). He appropriates the sentiments of Christ Jesus: "Let that mind be in you, ,which was also in Christ Jesus" (Philippians 2:5). His ideas and views are. not those of the worldling, nor those of the mediocre Chris-tian who shows more or less of the secular mentality about him. His constantendeavor is that there be total harmony between his mind and that of Christ. His faith he makes as, full and vivid and realistic as possible, sharing thus i~ some sense in the vision, of Christ: "So far as I live now in the flesh, I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved me and delivered himself for me" (Galatians 2:20). He cultivates the intellectual virtues of Christ. In his wisdom heviews all things, persons, and extents in relation to God, and he tries to see them as God sees them. His prudence enables him promptly, and accurately to discern the divine plan and to decide practically what he should do in accordance with God's Wishes. In a word, he makes his own, as far as pos-sible, the mentality and ideology of Christ. Mindful of that supremely important practical prin-ciple of Christ, "Where thy treasure is, there shall thy heart be also" (Matthew 6:21), the perfect Christian will be careful above all about his value-judgments. He knows it G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review [or Religfous is these that the will tends to folloW. He will earnestly strive realistically to appreciate what Christ .values, and to regard all else as worthless or worse. Christ's hierarchy of values will become his. Like St. Paul, he w, ill be able to ¯ say: "But such things as were to my gain, these for Christ I have come to count as loss. Nay, more, I count all things loss by. reason of the excellence of the knowledge of Christ Jesus my Lord. For his sake I have suffered the loss of all things and count them but refuse, in order that I may gain Christ and be found in l'Jim . that so I may know him,. what the power of his resurrection, what fellowship in his sufferings, and become one with him in his death, in the hope that I may attain to the resurrection.from the dead" (Philippians 3:7-11). In accordance with the mind of Christ and in opposition to the thoUght-fashions of the world, he will rate poverty as having a certain higher value .than wealth, humiliations as being better than honors, mor-tification as superior to gratification; and suffering as pref-erable to pleasure. Where Christ.finds truth, goodness, beauty, peace, beatitude, and glory for the infinite goodness of the Blessed Trinity, there also he will find his supreme values and aims. Judging and evaluating things according tothe stand- - ards of Christ will help the pe~fgct Christian to imitate Him also in His emotional or affective life: Feetin~l like Christ is a great and, tosome extent, a necessary, aid toward willing like Christ. He will strive to reproduce in himself as far as he can that happy emotional balance, harmony, and stability which characterized the interior of Christ. "Peace I leave to you, my peace I give to you: not as the worldgiveth, do I give to you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be dismayed" (Johni27). His likes and dislikes, his fears and hopes, his joys and sorrows ' Will follow the model set by the Heart of Christ. danuar~t. 1944 "'IT IS NO LONGER I'.'" It is most of all in the attitudes and activities of his ~¢ill that the Christian in whom Christ lives fully will manifest, as fa.r as is humanly possible, assimilation to Christ, union with Him, transformation into Him, and 'mystical identification with Him. Above all, he will let Christ determine his free actions. The norm according to which Christ Himself inflexibly chose or rejected was the will and plan of the Eternal Father: "I am come down from heaven, not tb do mine own will, but the will of him who sent me" (John 6:38) ; "My food is to do the will of him that sent me, and to accomplish his work". (Ibid. 4:34) : "My Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass away from me: yet not as I will, but as thou wilt" (Matthew 26:39) : "The things that please him, I do.always" (John 8:29). The same norm will be the rule for one in whom Christ lives and whose moral and spiritual life He moderates. He lets Christ decide what he will decide: Christ's decisions he makes his own. The dominant influence in the will-life of Christ was a supreme and invincible love and charity for the Infinite Goodness. The same affection will completely absorb and control the will of one pe~:fectly identified with Christ. Christ's love extended from God to God's crea-tures, though tl~ey were little worthy of it; so will the love of one united with Christ. Charity to the Father led Christ to the most heroic obedience, "he humbled himself by obedience unto death, yea, hnto death upon .a cross" (philippians. 2:8). Complying with God's wishes, one whose life Christ informs and. guides will endeavor like-wise to show the utmost obedience. With all his interior acts thus dominated by Christ and made to resemble His, it is only natural that the exterior activity and work of the perfect Christian should also be like Christ's. "Ever we bear about in our body the dying of Jesus, so that the life, too, of Jesus may b~ made mani- ~7 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD fest in our bodies. For we who live are ever belong- deliv-ered up to deatti for Jesus'. sake, so that the life, too,. of Jesus may be made manifest in our mortal flesh" ('II Corin-thians 4:10-11). In general, Christ's work was to glorify the Father and to save men by fulfilling the task which was assigned to Him. "I have glorified.thee upon earth, having accomplished the work which' thou hast given me to do" (John 17:4) ; "I came that they may have life, and have it abundantly" (Ibid. 10:10). Christ went about teaching, helping others, and giving the noblest, example; He founded the Church; and finally He redeemed men to their super-natural destiny by.His sacrificial death on the Cross. His good disciple, whether priest or religious or layman, par-takes in that work and extends it. He carries on the teaching office of Christ, at least privately 'and by example. He eagerly seizes opportunties to give aid to hi~ neighbor. He helps with the work of the Church, perhaps nowadays in some form of Catholic action~ Daily, oil possible," he sl'iares in offering again.to God in the Mass the sacrifice by~ which all men were redeemed; through the Mass als~ he contributes toward actually applying to individual souls ¯ the merits of the sacrifice of Calvary. In a word, he co~operates wholeheartedly with Christ in all the grand purposes and achievements of the Incarnation. Thus, the good Christian who dies to sin and lives as a vital branch of the true vine, as a vigorous m~mber of the ~Mystical Body of Christ, and as a participant in the nature of God, and who lets Christ determine all his thoughts, appraisals, affections, volitions, and external activities, will be "another Christ," and will be prepared to share eter-nally with Christ in the beatific intuition and-love of the most blessed Trinity. The Church's Prayer t:or Trave-lers James A. Kleist, S.J. THE Church's prayer, or collection of prayers, for tray- " elers, known as ~he Itinerarium, was originally intended for tbe reverend clergy. This seems evic]~nt from the use of the Versicle Dorainus vobiscum and the Response .Et curn spiritu tuo. The rest, however, is so broad and elastic in its wording that any person may derive i3rofit and consolation from its recital. It may not be. amiss, therefore, if I propose, for the benefit of religious not acquainted with the Latin tongue, to present an.English rendering and follow it up with a few words of comment. " ~Text ot: The ltinerarium Antiphon: Into the way of peace. .~ The Canticle of Zacharg: St. Luke 1 : 68-79. 68 Blessed be the Lord, the God of Israel, o for He has kindly visited us." His People, and brought about Our redemption: 69 a Tower of Salvation He has raised up for us in the House of His servant David. 70 He bad promised as much through the mouth of His holy Pr.ophets of old, 71 and has sent us a Savior to deliver us from our foes and from the, hands of all that hate us. 72 He has dealt in mercy with our fathers, ¯ " mindful of .His holy covenant 73 and of the oath He had made to our father Abraham; for He bad sworn to enable us 74 --rescued from the clutches of our foes-- to worship ~im without fear, JAMES A. KLEIST /. in holiness and observance of the Law, in His presence, all our days. . 76 And for your part, my little one, you will be hailed "Prophet of'the Most High"; for you are to run before the face of the Lord to 'make ready His roads, 77 to impart to His People knowledge of salvation through forgiveness of their sins: 78 thanks to our God's sweet mercy in which He so graciously visited us, descending from Heaven-- a rising Light 79 to shine upon those settled in darkness and in the shadow of death, and to guide our steps into the path of petice.1 An.tipbon: May the omnipotent and Merciful Lord direct our st~ps into the way of 'peace and prosperity, and maythe Angel Ra-phael be our escort on the way, so that in peace, in safety, and in joy, we may return to our homes. Lord, have mercy on us. Christ, have rrfercy on us. Lord, have mercy on us. Our Father . And lead us not into temptation. ]1 But de-- liver us from evil. Versicles and Responses: Save Thy servants I that trust in Thee, my God. I I Send us help from Thy Sanctuary. O Lord. I and from Sion guardus. I! .Oh, be to us, 0 Lord, a Tower of Strength I impregnable to all our fdes. I1 Let not the enemy gain the best of us, [ nor wicked men succeed in harming us. II Blessed is the Lord from day to day. I May God, our Savior, make our journey prosperous. 11 0 Lord, show us Thy ways: I reveal to us Thy paths. I[ Oh, may our steps be directed I toward the keeping of Thy Commandments. II What is crooked-ihall be straight I and the rough roads ~mooth. I[ On His Angels God has laid a charge in thy regard: I they are to keep thee in all thy ways. }1 0 Lord, do grant my prayer, I and let my cry come up to Thee. The Lord is with thee, I and with thy spirit. 1This is Father Kldst's own translation of the Benedictus.--ED. 10 d'anuary, 1944 PRAYER FOR TRAVELERS Let us prag 0 God, who didst enable the children of Is'rael to pass, dry-shod. through the depths of the .Sea, and by a beckoning Star show the Three Magi the way to Thee: grant us, we beg, a tranquil time an.:l a prosperous.journey. With Thy holy Angel for companion, may we be able 'happily to arrive at our destinatibn, and, in the end, at the Haven of Eternal Salvation. O God, who hast led Thy servant Abraham out of Ur in Chaldea and preserved him unharmed through all his travellings in a foreign land: we beg Thee graciously to preserve us, Thy servants. Be to us, O Lord, a Support ever-ready in need, a Solace by the way, a Shade in heat, a Cover in rain and cold, a Vehicle in weariness, a Shield in adversity, a Staff on slippery ground, a Haven in shipwreck. With Thee for a Guide, may. we successfully arrive at our destination, and; in the end, return safe and sound to our' homes. A ready ear, 0 Lord, lend to our humble iprayers. Direct and speed Thy servants' course that they may reach the blessings Thou hast in'store: so that amid all the vicissitudes of this life's pilgrimage they may ever be protected by Thy help. Grant, we beg, 0 Lord, that the family of Thy Children may walk in the way of Salvation, and, by closely following the exhor-tations of Blessed John, the Precursor, securely come to Him whom he foretold, our Lord Jesus Christ, Thy Son, who lives and reigns with Thee, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God, for ages and ages to come. Amen. Let us proceed in peace, [ in the name of the Lord. Amen. II Commentary . The Antiphon, as Usual, sounds the key note of all that follows: "into the way of peace." When we go some-where, we are, in the Church's language, in via, "on the way." It matters not whether our "way", takesbut a few hours, or requires whole months to accomplist'i. Nor does it matter by What conveyance we travel, whether by bus or auto or street-caror train or ship orairplane. It may be a short trip for business, an excursion to. some point of 11 JAMES A. KLEIST ~ interest, a journey to a distant place for any purpose what-ever, a voyage across the Atlantic, a cruise in the Mediter-r~ inean, a march along Burma Road, a military expedition to North Africa, a transcontinental flight, a pilgrimage to Lourdes. We are simply "on the way," and our object in reciting the Itinerariam is to obtain the blessing of God so that our "way" may turn out "a way of peace --a phrase, by the way, in which the word pax is as elastic as t~ia. It means, of course, freedom from any kind of disturbance, physical, mental, emotional, spiritual. We want to enjoy ~all the happiness (for that is what pax means) which our friends wish us when they bid us "A happy journey!" A happy ~journey is one that is crowned with "success." That is what the Latin word prosperitas means; only, since "suc-cess" is capable Of a certain worldly connotation, I choose to render it "prosperity." The idea is developed both negatively and positively in the Canticle of Zachary;. for instance, we beg for "salvation from oui: enemies"; we want to travel ."without that sense of fear" which kills all joy. Above all, we wish to travel "in holiness and justice (that is, the observance, of the Commandments) oall our days." We can see, then, what wonders the Antiphon and the Canticle are doing for us at the very outset, even before we cross the threshold. As if by magic, we are charmed away into the region of the supernatural. The liturgy would not be true to itself if it did not lift us Off our feet, so to say, above mere worldly considerations, above those thousand and one petty purposes which so engross the minds of worldly people. The liturgy is at its best in.imparting to our humdrum life this supernatural trend. Nothing is so wholesome for us poor mortals as the Sursum corda which - comes to us from the Altar. How life could be beautified if this exhortation were always heeded! As a matter of fact, 12 Ja.rluary, 1944 PRAYEI~ ~:OR TRAVELERS ' all our life is v~orthless unless all life's doings, all-life's "ways," big or little, issue into that great superhighv,;ay that makes oflife a progressive pilgrimage to Heaven, our Holy Land. Only so considered will our "way" b~ a "way of peace and pr6sperity," a "way of salvatlon." " It is clear, then, why th~ Canticle of Zachary Was iiacor-porated in the Itinerarium. Its great centre piece is Zach-ary's words addressed to his little John, who was destined to be "great'" in the eyes of the Lord. He was to be the Precursor of Christ, to direct the steps of his contempo-raries "into the way of peace," to "prepare the way of the Lord." And we know how bluntly he spoke to the 3ews: "You vipers' brood! You need a complete change of heart and mind if you would enter into the Kingdom of God." We, too, shall take his exhortation to heart and hold our-selves convinced that the one absolutely needful prepara-tion for a "way of peace" is the state of grace. With this, we can reckon on God's help.Death and danger, it is true, lurk everywhere; and the enemy of human nature goes about roaring like a lion; but, somehow, he may be more " active When we are away from home. The Canticle is followed by the complete Antiphon, which reminds us, to our comfort, that God is Omnipo-. tent and Merciful. His Omnipotence and Mercy are our safest guides, our best travelling companions. In His Mercy He assigns to us one of the blessed Spirits, the Archangel Raphael, who proved so pleasant and helpful an escort to young Tobias. It is a delightful story, which we migh~ read from time to time in its entirety. It will beget in us-a vivid sense of God's Presence and ever-watchful P/ovi-dence-- a devotion, by the way, which is one of the Sweetest and most heartening to cultivate in this vale of tears. Since the days of Tobias, St. Raphael is the patron saint of travelers. Iia Christian devotion, he _shares this 13 JAMES A. KLEIST Re~ieto~ trot Religious honor, of course, with the holy Guardian Angels. In this. respect, the life of Blessed Peter Faber, 9f the .Society of 3esus, is particularly instructive. He felt Constantly sur-rounded by, and actually lived, in their sweet presence. They were his comfort on his numerous trips through Spain, France, Germany, and Italy. Before he entered a town or district, he would greet, the Guardian An'gels of. that locality, and put into their hands the business he had come to transact. And when the time for leaving came. he would say Good-bye to them in the most affectionate man-ner and thank them for their help. Incidentally, this .same manof God had a quite special devotion to ,John the Bap-tist, as is clear from one of the entries in his Memoriate: "On the day of 3ohn the Baptist I had and felt in my soul .a notable sense of the greatness of Saint ,John, and experi-enced profound grief because of the fact that, in this Ger-many, he was .not made so much of as in other countries." The Vei:sicles a~d Responses which follow are good illustrations of ejaculatory prayer. They are lively cries. for help, intensified by a deep trust in God. The first Collect takes us back to the story of the Chil-dren of Israel whom ~he Lord led, dry-shod, through the Red Sea, and to that of the Three Magi, whose trip across the desert to Bethlehem reads like a romance. These examples from sacred history animate our faith and trust in God. If need be, God will even work miracles to save us. The second Collect shows God's Mercy in leading, Abraham out of his heathen native land. It is rather cir-cumstantial in. its details, contrary to the usual style of the Collects; but it makes us realize that no detail on our trip escapes God's wat~hf.ul eye. The third Collect, the classic Church's Prayer for Travelers, is terse and straightfor-ward in tone. God directs and arranges our course, and is ever at hand to help. The last Collect again confronts us 14 January, 1944 PRAYER FOR TRAVELERS. with the heroic figure of John the Baptist. The Itiner-arium begins and ends with a reference to him.2 The Itinerarium closes, with this pregnant ejaculation: "Let us proceed in peace, in the Name of the Lord." Since this is a prayer, its sense can only be: "Since we are under-taking this journey in the Name of theLord, may We, assisted by the grace of God, firmly and confidently pro- - ceed so as to accomplish our purpose." Both the Latin word procedere and its English equivalent proceed con-note, a certain firmness of step.a This firmness rests upon the grace of God.Wbuld that we could, in performing. any and all our tasks, firmly "proceed in the Name of the Lord." It is obvious, also, that this Versicle and its Response will do very well as a renewal of our "good intention." If we accustom ourselves to its use in everyday life, it will naturally spring to our lips when w'e prepare for our last journey, the journey in, to Eternity: "Let us proceed in peace, in the Name of'the Lord." It is worthv o of note that, as the Itinerarium opens with "into the way of peace," so it closes with "Let us proceed in peace." -Peace, the possession of happiness, is the great goal of life's pilgrimage. To the old Hebrews "peace" meant the ful-ness of the blessings which they expected from the Messias: on the lips of our Lord (as in the words "Peace I leave you") it means the sum total of true happiness both in this life and in bliss everlasting. The opening "into the way of peace" foreshadows the gist .of the Itinerarium; the closing "Let us proceed in peace" sums it all up in retro- ¯ spect. -°I may mentio.n, in.passing, that the Missal has a special Mass for travelers (Pro peregrinantibus" et iter agentibus) and three Collect~ for Those at Sea (Pro naai- 9antibus). ~Note the vigorous sense attaching to the word in the Vulgate rendering of Psalm 44:5, Intende, i~rosloere procede, et regna: "Bend Thy bow, ride on victoriously. and conquer." 15 JAMES A. KLEIST Review for Religious" May I close,these reflections with a suggest.ion? All the prayers in the Itiner~rium are couched in the plural number. This is significant, though not at all surprising to one who knows the liturgy. We are never alone. We maynot have a travelling companion on. any particular trip; still, even. then millions of persons are, like us, "on the way" somewhere in the world. And even when we stay at home, others are journeying along the highways and byways of this" great world. The suggestion I would make, therefore, is that we accustom ourselves to say the Itinerarium as a regular part of our. daily devotions. We are all united by the strong tie of the Mystical Body. The value of such an exercise comes home to one at this time particularly when our men in the service need the special protection of God on tt2eir numerous and dangerous "ways." How .delighted they would be to know that there is some one at home .who remembers them by this special appeal to God's Providence. By a fervent recitation of the Itinerarium we.have an efficacious means of, as it were, making ourselves their travelling companions, of following them whithersoever their military commanders order them to go, of bringing down on them the very bles-sing of God which theymay stand in need of at an.y par~ ticular moment. There is another reason for adopting this salutary prac.- tice of the daily recitation of the Itinerarium. We may not be leaving home; and yet, we are "on the way" all the time. Between our private room ~nd the.chapel and the refectory and the classroom and the attic and the cellar and the gar-den and the rest 0f the premises, we are "on our feet," upstairs, downstairs, all day long, are we not.?- Eveh in the quietest community there are endless goings and comings. We are in constant" need of God's protection. Psalm 120 reads almost likd a commentary on the Itiner- 16 PRAYER FOR TRAVELERS arium: "I lift mine eyes toward the hills. ~ Whence shall help come to me? My help is from the Lord~the Maker of ¯ Heaven and earth. He'tvill not suffer m~ f~t to stumble: thy guardian will not slumber. Behold,':~He:~whb guards Israel slumbers not nor sleeps. The Lord is thy Guardian; the Lord is thy Shelter on thy right hand. The sun-shall not smite thee by day, nor the moon by night. The Lord shall protect thee from all evil. The Lord shall protect thg going and coming henceforth and for ever." The Itinerarium, deeply Understood in its significance for our spiritual life and daily uttered as a hearty cry for help, will save us many an unpleasant experience to Which we might otherwise be exposed, and will enable us tO travel through life's desert "in holiness and justice all our days." BOOKLET NOTICES Almightg Magic, by R. E. Southard, S.J. An account of some of the marvels of nature. Of interest to all; of special utility to writers, teachers, lecturers, -preachers, and retreat masters. 63 pages. 25 cents a copy. Published by: The . " Catechetical Guild, St. Paul, Miinnesota. ~ ' '" Reporter in Heaven, by R. E. Southard, S.J. An imaginary,visit to heaven. ~ ~ 5 cents a copy: Published by: St: Anthony's Guild, Paterson, N.J. "~,.~" ¯ His Favorites, a little book of reflections for the sick, by Rev. Joseph Lii~a's, P.S.M.~To Troubled Hearts, selections from the spiritual letters of Venerable Vincent Pallotti, translated from the Italian by Rev. George Timpe, P.S.M. Both pamphlets may be obtained from: The Pallottine Fathers, 5424 W~ Bluemound ¯ Road, Milwaukee,W~sc~nsin. No price given. Histo?g O~!ihe°Chu?cl~ of Christ, by Rev. Julius Grigassy, D.D., translated by ¯ Rev. Michael B. Rapach. ~ A texf book for Greek Catholic Parochial Schools. 114 pages. May be obtained from: Rev. Julius Grigassy, D.D., Braddock, Penna. No. price given. 17 The Devotion to the. Holy gamily Francis L. Filas, S.J. AMONG the major devotions of the Church one of the most recent is the devotion to the Holy Family. ~er- ¯ haps the most striking feature of its history is the fact that its growth paralleled the growth of the veneration of St. 3oseph. This phenomenon is easily understandable, for ,Jesus, Mary, and ,Joseph could not be honored together until each of them received due honor separately. We can. not here present the detailed reasons why ,Joseph's glorifica-. tion on earth was postponed; suffice it to say that after the Church firmly established in the world's consciousness the basic facts of our Lord's divinity and Our Lady's virginal motherhood, St. Joseph emerged from centuries of obscu-rity to take his place of honor as the recognized vicar of the Eternal Father on earth, the chaste husband of Mary, and the head of the Holy Family. The devotiofi to the Holy Family, as we now know it, explicitly came to the fore in the mid-seventeenth century, but its fundamentals ~had always been implicitly recognized in the Church. From the very beginning the accounts of St. Matthew and St. Luke testified that the divine Redeemer of mankind spent the greater part of His earthly life in the midst of a true family circle. The recurrence of such phrases as "the Child," "Mary His mother," "Joseph her husband," "His parents," and '.'He was subject to them," could leaqe no doubt of that. However, in the interpretation of these Gospel passages ecclesiastical writers chiefly_dwelt on the marvel of Christ's obedience rather than the parental virtues of Mary and Joseph which wel- 18 THE DEVOTION TO THE HOLY FAMILY corned the Child Jesus in the holiest atmosphere this world could provide. Thus, St. Ambrose stated, "Jesus' subjection is a lesson in human virtue, not a diminution of divine power.- Will those Who dezlare that the Son is less than the Father and unequal to Him because He is subject to Him as God, declare also that He is less than His mother because He was subject to His mother? For we read of Joseph and Mary, 'and He was subject to them.' The truth is that such obedience to parents brings no loss to any one of us but rather gain. Through it the Lord Jesus has poured faith and grace ir~to us all, that He may make us also subject to God the Father in the spirit of faith.''1 In demonstrating that the virginal union of Joseph and Mary was a true marriage St. Augustine more cl0selv approached our concept of the Holy Family, but even here .he failed to touch on that oneness of the trinity of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph which we venerate. "Every good of. marriage," he wrote, "was fulfilled in the parents of Christ --offspring, loyalty, and the sacrament. We see the off-spring in our Lord Jesus Christ Himself; the loyalty, in that no adultery occurred; and the sacrament, because no dissolution of the marriage followed.''2 ~ The first writer to join the three, holy names, appears to have been the ninth-century abbot, Walafried Strabo, who commented, "The shepherds found Mary, Joseph and the Child; t/~rougfi tl~ese tfiree the world was healed.''~ IAater, St. Bernard added more to the recognition of the dignity ot~ Mary.and Joseph as the divinely chosen intimates of Jesus on earth. "Who was s.ubject? And to whom? God to man; God, I repeat, to whom the angels are subject, whom 1Ambrose. Enarr. in Ps. 6l; 2Augustine. De Nup. et Concttp., 1, 13--ML 44, 415. 8Walafried Strabo, In Luc. Z, 16--ML 114, 896. 19 FRANCIS L. FILA$ Reoieto /:or-Re!igious principalities and powers 0.~bey, was subject to Mary, and not only to Mary, but t0~ose~h also because of Mary. Marvel, therefore, both at God and man, and choose that which gives greater wonder--whether it be the loving con-descension of the Son dr the exceedingly great dignity of His parents. Both amaze us, both are. marvellous. That God should obey man is lowliness without parallel, but that man should rule over God is elevation beyond com-parison.- 4 The first public commemoration of the Holy Family-- .far too incidental to be called "a devotion"--occurred at Nazareth in the fourth century. Here churches were built on the traditional sites of the house of St. Joseph and the house where the Angel Gabriel appeared to Our Lady. The Hidden Life was indeed honored, but never under that explicit title whereby " just as Abraham saw three persons~ and adored one, so holy mother Church ~ees three persons and honors one fact.''5 " Perhaps more noteworthy because more explicit is the .veneration which sprang up along the route of the flight .into Egypt. At Faramah on the boundary of Egypt facing Palestine a chapel was built (about 800 or earlier) in honor of the Holy Family, who supposedly entered Egypt at the spot. Traditions of a half-dozen other localities claimed that the three pilgrims tarried in each plate. Some of these traditions still live it; Coptic calendars of the eighth and ninth centurie~ which list a feast called "The Flight of the Holy Family" for November 6, and another feast that also commemorates the entire Holy Family on the 24th of the month P~isons (May 31), "The Entrance of 3esus into Egypt.''° 4Bernard, Homilia I in. Missus Est. .SMariani, De Cultu Sancti dosephi Arnplit~cando, 44. 6Nilles, Kalendariura manuale utriusque ecclesiae orientalis et occidentalis, Oeniponte, 1896, II, 693, 702, 719. " 20 ,Ianuar~, 1944 THE DEVOTION TO THE HOLY I::AMILY The great awakening otcurred in Europe .during the twelfth century and thereafter. A wave of special lov.e of 'jesus and Mary swept ovxr the faithful who sought to follow the course of these two lives down-, to the last d~tail, including, of course, their dependence on St. 'joseph. Since the canonical Gospels deliberately screened the period of the Hidden Life, the common folk fell back on the apocryphal legends to fill-the gap. The acceptance of the.se ,spurious (though well-intentioned and charming) legends was most uncritical, but it was done in a spirit of deep piety. Thus, in. the popular rhyming legends, in the por- .traits by the masters, and in the many.widespread Miracle Plays, the Gospel story of ,Jesus, MarY, and Joseph was Set forth with imaginative coloring that made the Holy Fam!ly a vivid reality for the medievals. If is from this period that we must date the tender contemplation of life at Nazareth, as instanced in the writings of St. Bernard, St. Bernardine of. Siena, and the Meditations on the Life of Jesus Christ of Pseud.o-Bonaventure. During the middle of the seventeenth century the devo-tion ~o the Holy Family appeared as we now know it. Through the~efforts of Francis de Montmorency-Laval,. first Bishop of Quebec, it was propagated in Canada after its diffusion throughout Italy, France, and Belgium. At the samb period Mine. de Miramion, a friend of St. Vincent de Paial, established (1661) a religious community, the Daughters of the Holy Family, to do charitable work in France. This was the first of the religious congregations ,to be placed under-the special patronage of the Holy Family. In 1844 a Belgian officer, Henri Belletable, founded the "]krchconfraternity of the Holy Family" in order to organ-ize working-men against socialism. At Lyons .in 1861 Father Phillip Francoz, S.J., established another group .21 FRANCIS L. FILAS Reoieu~ ~or Religious somewhat different in scope from BelletabIe's archconfra-ternity~ This was the "Association of the Holy Family," whose members were families rather than individuals. They were dedicated to the ideals of the Holy. Family. and recited special family prayers in common in their homes. It was in connection with Leo XIII's approval (i892) of this association that the .Pope issued the letters which present the nature and purpose of the devotionto the Holy Family so excellently that excerpts from these documents have been selected, by the Church as Lessons for the Second Nocturn of the pre.sent feast of the Holy Family. In 1893 Leo permitted the feast to be celebrated on the third Sunday after Epiphany and himself composed the hymns for its new office. However, owing to conflicting rubrics the Con-gr. e~ation of Sacred Rites in 1914 changed the date of the feast to January 19. Seven years later, ~Benedict XV extended the feast tothe universal Church, ordering that it be observdd on the Sunday ~ithin the Octave of the Epiphany. 7 In what does the devotion to the Holy Family con-sist? It is more than a mere combination or accumulation of the honors paid separately t6 Jesus, Mary, and Joseph; rather, in the words of Leo XIII, "in the vdneration ofthe Holy Family the faithful rightly understand that they are reverencing the mystery of the hidden life which Christ led, together with His Virgin. Mother and St. Joseph." The purpose of this joint veneration is that Catholics might be drawn "to increase the fervor of their faith, and to imitate the virtues which shone forth in the divine Master, in the Mother of God, and in her most holy spouse.''s There is no doubt, Leo affirmed, that God in His providence estab- 7Pauwels. Periodica de Re Morali et Canonica, 10, 373; decree dated October 26, 1921, AAS, 13, 543. gAuthent. Collect. Decret. S.R.C., n. 3740. 22 Januar~t, 1944 THE DEVOTION TO THE HOLY FAMILY lished the Holy Family in orderthat Christians of all walks o~f life might be' provided with attractive exemplars of absolute perfection. "In 3oseph heads of the household have an outstanding model of fatherly watchfulness and-care. In the holy Virgin Mother of God mothers possess an extraordinary example of love, modesty, submission, and perfect faith. In Jesus, who 'was subject to them.' children have the divine picture of obedience to admire, reverence, and imitate.''~ Benedict XV called attention to the striking unity of the devotion to the Holy Family. when he wrote: "With the increase of devotion to St. Joseph among th~ faithful there will necessarily result an increase in their devotion toward the Holy Family oi~ Nazareth, of which he was the august head, for these devotions spring spontaneously one from .the other. By St. Joseph we are led directly to Mary, and by Mary, to the "fountain of all. holiness, Jesus Christ, who sanctified the domestic virtues by his obedience toward St. Joseph and Ma~y. Religious communities have always been foremost .in imitating the charity, obedience, and spirit of work and of prayer that pervaded the Holy.House of Nazareth. How-ever, in addition to this method of practicing genuine devo-tion to the Holy Family, there is a most urgent need to utilize.the devotion in another respect. .The Holy Family is the exemplar and patron of the family, which is the cor-nerstone Of society, and which is today being attacked by a most destructive campaign. For the go.od of the Church and for the good of our nation, the apostolate to save the family calls for prayer and action. Probably in most cases. thi~ requirements of the state of life of religious prevent aibid., n. 3777. ldBe~ediet XV, Motu Proprio, "St. Joseph and Labor," July 25, 1920, AA$ ~2, 313. 23 FRANCIS L. FILAS direct external labors in this regard; but each and every religious can offer a life of generous prayer and fidelity to rule in order that the intercession of St. 'joseph and Our Lady will," through the merits of ,Jesus of Nazareth, bring down God's special graces to protect our families from the baneful principles of modern paganism. May they be led to imitate lovingly the family life of,Jesus, Mary, and Joseph. THE FAMILY ROSARY Father Patrick Peyton, C.S.C., who has been working zealously ~for two years to reestablish the salutary devotion of" the Family Rosary, some time ago sent usa lengthy report of the success of this work. We are giving here a brief summary of the facts in the report that seem to be especially pertinent to our readers. A nation-wide campaign to restore the Family Rosary was begun in 3anuary, 1942, to provide families with an easy but effective means of coml~atting the evils that beset the American home and. to provide the. young people of those homes with a weapon'of self-defense against the temptations with which they are faced. Ecclesi-astical authorities and lay leaders have joined enthusiastically and effectively in the campaign. Bishops, in particular, have preached on the Family Rosary: have writ-ten pastorals and editorials about it; have suggested radio programs that would make it easy for families to get,down on their knees and unite with the broadcasts: have inaugurated definite campaigns to promote the devotion in their dioceses; and have asked for and promised prayers for the success of the campaign. Two especially efficacious ways of getting the Family Rosary started in a home are: (1) to urge members of the armed forces to write home and ask that the Rosary be said for them; and (2) to get children to make the suggestion to their parents. Chaplains have the most favorable opportu.nity of ut(lizing the first method, though ~.~ey can b~ greatly aided by all who correspond with members of the armed forces: religious, no "doubt, have the best opportunity of in'spiring the children. At the time the report was issued, religious had already begun to join wholeheartedly in the campaign. A. Superior General of a congregation of men had promised to address a circular letter to his congregation on the Family Rosary. The Mother General of a congregation of women had been giving tfilks on the Family Rosary in the schools iri which her Sisters were re.aching. ~he reported that in every classroom she entered she found some children whose families had already been won over to the commbn recitation of the Rosary. The foregoing are but a few of the facts in the report. Perhaps we can publish more later. --Father Peyton's. address is: The Reverend Patrick Peyton, C.S.C., 923 Madison Avenue, Albany, New York. 24 Religious and :he I:::ncyclical on. :he h ysfical Body Patrick M. Regan, S.J. IN RECENT years Catholics have often been accused, and h~ive often accused themselves, of neglecting the papal encyclicals. Frequently. they excused themselv.es on the pretext that "the encyclicals were concerned with world problems or with ecohomic matters and like subjects which held no particular interest for ordinary individuals. Many of the faithful felt these subjects were'far beyond the grasp of their intellects and so held themselves excused. Be that as it may, in recent months a new encyclical has come from our Holy Father on the Mystical Bodyof Christ, which is the personal concern of every single member of the household ~of the faith. No examination of c~nscience can ever return the verdict: this en~ycli~cal is not for me. Its subject matter touches our whole Catholic life in practice from cradle to grave. Moreover the tenor of the papal document and, in fact, explicit statements in every para-graph of certain portions of it, almost command us: take and read, study deeply and assiduously. The Pope seems to have anticipated our usual indifferent attitude toward his pronouncements and to .have "forestalled every lame excuse. Of Such universal concern is the teaching of this encyc-lical that Plus even declares: "Moreover, we trust that the following exposition of the doctrine of the Mystical Body of Christ-will be acceptable and useful to those als0 who are without the fold of-the Church." He then a~signs as the reasons for this acceptability "not only the fact tha~ 25 PATRICK M. REGAN Review ~or Religious their gobd will toward the Church seems to grow from day - to day, but also that, while before their eyes today nation rises up against nation, .kingdom against kingdom, and discord i~'sown everywhere with the seeds of envy and hatred, if they turn their gaze to the Church,-if they con-template,. her divinely given unity--by which all men of every race are united, to Christ. in the,bond of brotherhood -:-they Will be forced to admire their fellowship in charity, and, with the guidance and assista.nce of divine grace, . will long to share in the '~same union and charity " If the encyclical concerns even tho~e outside the fold, still more .does it concern every member of the .Church1 itself. Since this is so, what shall, we say of the interest of religious in this doctrine? Surely it is not too mu~h to assert that each one should feel .personally obligated to make himself master" of the doctrine according to the tal-ents and pos!tion God has assigned him. The very opening. ~ar~graph 0f the letter seems to insinuate this: "Illus-trating, as it does, the grfind and inestimable privilege of our intimate union with a Head so exalted, this doctrine is certainly calculated by its sublime dignity to draw a.11 sPiritual-minded men to deep and serious study, andto give them, in the truths which it unfolds to the mind, a strong incentive to such Virtuous conduct as is conformable to its lessons." Religious have given up all things to follow chiist. Who, then, should have a deeper interest in what concerns intima.te union with Christ? Who more sincerely appreciates strong incentives to Virtuous conduct? Reli-gious too enjoy many more opportunities than people of the world to be spiritual-minded; in fact they should be that by the very nature of their vocation. They above all. then, should be attracted by the sublime dignity df the doctrine, and s16ould exhaust to the full the special advan-tages they enjoy for serious study of it. 26 danuarg, 1944 ENCYCLICAL ON THE MYSTICAL BODY For tbeSpiritudl-Minded A few paragraphs further on the Pontiff explains the appeal of the doctrine to the spiritual-minded.~ Remarking that in the present world crisis the faithful are of necessity drawn more to spiritual things and are ~hus in a position to draw more profit from the lessons, he voices the hope "that the~e our instructions and exhortations will be the more helpful to t~he faithful . . . For we know that, if all painful calamities of this turbulent period that cruelly tor- .ture almost countless men are accepted as from God's bands with calm and submissive spirit, they naturally lift souls above the passing things of earth to those of heaven that abide .forever and stimulate a certain thirst and keen desire forspiritu, al things." If these remarks aretru~ of the faithful in general, how much more true are they" of religious, who imitate Christ in seeking the kingdom of God~ not only in adversity, but always and everywhere, as their only call in life? Still more pertinent are the following sentencesin ¯ which the Pope notes the conditions specially favorable to the study of the do~trine: ~because of the present-day calamities "men are moved and, one might say, compelled to be more thoughtful in seeking the Kingdom of God. The m6re men are withdrawn from the vanities of this world and from the inordinate love of temporal things, certainly tl~e more likely it is that they will perceive the light of heavenly mysteries." Religious did not have to wait for World War II to see the vanity and emptiness of worldly riches. "When kingdoms and states are crumbling, when huge piles of goods and all'kinds of wealth are sunk in the measureless depths of the sea, and cities, towns, and fertile fields are strewn with massive ruins and defiled with the blood of brothers," then men will see that all is vanity; th~n they will be prepared to study the mysteries that per- 27 PATRICK M. REGAN ~ Review for ~Religious tain to life everlasting. Surely religio, us, whose one prin-ciple of life is that nothing matters but God's service, will find that the study-of God's mysteries fits into their main interest in life. Reasons/:or the Encyclical All the reasons assigned by the Sovereign Pontiff for addressing the world on the subje~t of the Mystical Body affect religious, but some of these reasons are especially perti;aent. For example, it is particularly true of religious "that many today are turning with greater, zest to a study that delights and nourishes .Christian piety. This, it would seem, is chiefly because a revived interest in the sacred .lit-urgy, the more widely spread custom of rece.iving Holy Communion, and the more fervent devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus practiced to.day have brought m.any souls to a deeperconsideration of the unsearchable riches of Christ that are preserved in the Church." ~ With this vision before him of the multitude zealou~ for a study that nc~urishes Christian piety, our.Holy Father himself assumes the task of teaching this difficult, yes, mys, terious doctrine. At the last moment, however, just before he begins his explanation of the doctrine he calls to our attention other weighty reasons. There are many errors prevalent concerning this doctrine, not only outside the Church but among the faithful also. And it might be added that many religious, too, have been affected by these errors. These are the words of the Pope: ".Nevertheless, while we can derive legitimate joy from all this, we must confess that grave errors in regard to this doctrine are being spread among those outside the true Church, and that~ among the faithful, too, inaccurate or thoroughly false ideas are entering that turn minds aside from the straight path of truth." 28 danuarg, 1944 ENCYCLICAL ON THE MYSTICAL B~)DY Setting aside the errors outside the Church as less per-tinent to our present subjecti we cannot fail to recognize in .the fol!owing the description of. some religious: "As a result of these conflicting and mutually antagonistic schools of thought, Some, through empty fear, look upon so pro-found a doctrine as something dangerous and. so they fight shy of it as of the beautiful but forbidden fruit of Para-dise." We must rather flee the danger Of the "false mgsti-cism creeping in; which, in its attempt to eliminate ~the immovable frontier that .separates creatures from their Cre-ator,, garbles the Sacred Scriptures." This false mysticism, together .with the false rationalism and popular naturalism rampant outside the Church, is the really dangerous for-bidden fruit. Pius reassures us with regard to the true d0c- .l~rine: "Mysteries revealed by God cannot be harmful to men ;. nor should they remain as treasures hidden in a field-- useless, They have been given from on high precisely to help the spiritual:progress of those who study them in' the spirit of piety." Deep and Serious Studg The Holy Father not only assigns the reasons for writing on the doctrine of the Mystical Body; he also, a's a-skilled teacher, sounds the keynote for his class. -This is not a "fresh air" course he offers, not a course to be merely audited, not a course that can be mastered with no further effort than paying strict attention in class. From the out-set. we are implicitly warned against thinking that the course might¯ be entitled: "Doctrine ot~ the Mystical Body Made Easy"; for the very second sentence of the Encyc- ¯ lical states that "this doctrine [of our intimate union with the Head] is certainly calculated by its o sublime dignity to draw all spiritual-minded men to deep and serious study. '.' 29 PATRICK M. REGAN Reoietv for Religious That the Holy Father envisions the reception of his teaching in an atmosphere of deep thought is brought out also in the outline of his plan immediately preceding the first or'explanatory part of the Encylical. Speaking of the lessons he will draw from the doctrine, he explains that these lessons "will make a deeper study of the mystery bear yet richer fruits of perfection and holiness." He seems" to ieassure us that, though we may never fully plumb the "depths of the mystery, yet the deeper our understanding, the richer will be the fruits of holiness. Surely, that is a ~trong incentive forthe religious to study the mystery. . Since deep study involves.reflectio, h, it is quite to expected that the explanation of the doctrine should begin with the words: "When one reflects on this doctrine . " Thus the Pontiff continues his lecture, punctuating it throughout with, similar observations. For example, he concludes the section on Christ, the Founder of the Body, With! ."One who reverently considers this venerable teaching will easily discover the reasons on which it is based." Perhaps the religious will take the cue and repair to the chapel to make some. reverent considerations of the Encyclical there in the presence of the Founder of the Body. Meditation Yes, the doctrine is an appropriate subject of medita-tion. Of this we are assured in the Encyclical: "Deep mys-" tery this, subject o'f inexhaustible meditation: That the salvation of many depends on the piayers and voluntary penanc.es which the members of the Mystical Body of Jesus ~Christ offer for this intention and on the assistance of pas-. tors of souls and of the faithful, especially of fathers and ¯ mothers of families, which they must offer to our Divine Savior as if they were His associates." Plus returns to this idea later when treating the topic, ' 30 January, 1944 "ENCYCLICAL ON THE MYSTICAL BODY "Christ, the Savior of the Body." Adverting to the fact that "we have already treated this subject clearly enough, when treating of the Church's birth on the cross, of Christ as the source of light and principle .of sanctity, and of Christ as support of His Mystical Body," he goes on to sfiyl "there is no reason why we should explain it further.'.' However he adds as a sort of afterthought: "but rather let us all, giving perpetual thanks to God, meditate on it with a h"umble and. attentive mind." No matter how clearly the subject has been treated, and despite the fact that there is no reason for further explanation, much still remains to be learned concerning this doctrine. But for this further mas; tery, Pius "turns us over to Christ, the Great .Teacher,. exhorting us at the sa~me time to listen to Him with humil,. ity and attention. Study o[ Mysteries Naturally many religious will be taken aback at the thought of studying quite formally a deep mystery of our faith. That is the work of skilled theologians, we reason: while our part isto share in the fruits of their labors by reading their books, or listening to their sermons or lec-tures. But no, the Holy Father would have us take up the direct study of the mystery of the Mystical Body fgr our-selves. In fact, over and over he insists on this idea of study. On the other hand he anticipates our reluctance to undertake Such a task; or, it may be, even our consterna-tion at thevery thought of facing a mystery in the hope of penetrating it. Hence he cites a declaration of the Vatican Council, which will not only allay all fears but even indi-cate a method of studying the present Mystery: "Reason illumined by faith, if it seeks earnestly, piously, and wisely, does attain, under God, to a certain knowledge and a most helpful knowledge of mysteries by considering their anal- 31 PATRICK M. REGAN Review [or Religious ogy with what it knows naturally and their mutual rela-tions and their common relation with man's last end." What an insPiring thought it is, that the very least among us may go directly to tl~e official enunciation of this doetrineby the Supreme Pontiff himself. What an encour-aging thought that we can be certain, on no less an authority than the Vatican Council itself, of attaining with God'sgrace ~o a sure and helpful knowledge,of the mys-terious doctrine of the Mystical Body. Many of us per-haps must accuse oursel~ces of being content to know only the a-b-c's of our holy Faith. One would almost suspect that.Plus had such in mind as he seems to strive to arouse us from our lethargy and get .us to study the Church, the hope of salvation. What an intellectual.and.spiritual°ban, quet a~aits the religious who approaches the study of this doctrine with eager and humble spirit! We leave the reader tO ~enjoy that banquet for him-self. Meanwhile we would exhort him to keep in mihd, as he studies, thaf foryears he himself has bedn a living mem-ber of this mystery, the Church; that all i~s mysteries, its doctrines, sacraments, hnd graces have touched his. life at every point along the way. In other words he has lived this life of mystery for many a year: surely it is high time to meditate it long and well. Exhortations Although we leave most of the work of teaching to the Encyclic.al itself, still we feel obliged to call attention to certain exhortations particularly appropriate to. religious. Outstanding among these, one that the very name ."Mysti-cal .Body" will bring to mind is this: "When, therefore, we call the body of Jesus Christ 'mystical,' we hear a solemn warning in .the very significance of the word. It is a warning. that echoes these words of St. Leo: 'Recognize, O Christian, 32 danuarv, 1944 ENCYCLICAL ON THE MYSTICAL BODY your dignity, and, being made a sharer of the divine nature, go not back to your former worthlessness along the way of unse.emly conduct. Keep. in mind of what head and of .what body you are a member.' " Again there is the paragraph exalting charity for our imitation: "Charity, then, more than any other virtue, binds us closely to Christ. On fire with this flame from .heaven, how many children of the Church have rejoiced to s~ffer insults foi Him and to face and overcome the hardest trials, though it cost their lives and the shedding of their blood. For this reason our Divine Savior earnestly exhorts us in these words: 'Remain in my love.' And as .charity, if it find no outward expression and effectiveness in ,good work, is something jejune and altogether empty, He added at once: 'If you keep .my commandments, you will remain in my love; as I also have kept my Father's com-mandments and remain in His love.' " The exhortation that follows on love of neighbor may be summed up in the. pointed question of the Holy Father: "How can we claim to love the Divine Redeemer if we hate those whom He has redeemed with His precious blood so ¯ that He might make them members of His Mystical Body?" Rejecting the "opinions of those.who assert that little importance should be given, to the frequent con~ession of venial sins," the Pope implies a special exhortaion to reli-gious in these words: "to. hasten daily progress along the path of virtue, we wish the pious practice of frequent Con- , fession to be earnestly advocated. By i.t, genuine self-knowledge is increased; Christian humility grows; bad habits are corrected; spiritual neglect and tepidity are con-quered; the conscience is purified; the will strengthened; a salutary self-control is attained; and grace is increased in virtue of the sacrament itself." Again, the following words, nothing more than a mere PATRICK M. REGAN statement of fact, are nonetheless a powerful exhortation for any religious: "Moreover, the common practice of the saints as well as ecclesiastical documents demonstrate hov~ highly everyone should esteem mental prayer." Puzzled perhaps by the teaching¯ of those who "would spread abroad the idea that prayers offered to God in private should not be considered worth very much," the religious might have wavered in his loyalty to his mental prayer: .What more encouraging ¯than to hear the foregoing words from the Holy Father himself on this subject, so dear to the heart of everyone dedicated to God. in the service of ~e.ligion! ,Fin'all,y, this whole doctrine of the Mystical Body teaches one lesson above all--love, of the Church. Nat-urally then we expect, to hear: "The vastness of Christ's love for the Church is equalled by its constant activity. With the same charity let us show our devoted active love .for Christ's Mystical Body.;' May we as'r~ligious measure ,up to the high standard of dedication attributed to us in .th~se words: "And so we desire that all who claim, the Church as their mother should seriously consider that not ¯ only the sacred' ministers and those who have consecrated themselves to God in religious life, but .the other members as well of the Mystical Body of ~lesus Christ have the obli-gation of working hard and constantly for .the upbuilding ~and increase of this Body." May our deep study and fer-vent meditation of the Encyclical help us to a deeper real-ization of our obligations as religious to the Mystical Body of, ~lesus Christ) 1For the study of the encyclical, we recommend the edition published by the Ameri-ca Press, which contains an Introductory Analysis, Study Outline. Review Questions. and a Selected Bibliography prepared by Father ylo, seph Bluett, 34 L'Allegro Francis 3. McGarrigle, S.3. AMAN'S duty of joy and cheerfulness is the state of mind, emotion, and will, that should result from his awareness of the great purpose and worth of his. existence. Man can and should be constantly cheerful only if he is convinced that "life. is worth living. '° His cheerful-ness must be essentially the "joy of living." 'joy .grows and flourishes only in the cheerful garden of belief in God's infinitely wise and good purpose for man. Consequently, sadness has its habitat in the dark and dank swamp of atheism andvice. It is ~/mephitic weed that will effectually choke out all fragrant plants of happiness and virtue, if it is allowed to grow in the soul. The best way to extirpate it is to get at its roots. ,Joy and suffering are not by any means incompatible. The one who loves is joyful to suffer f6r the beloved. The laborer who suffers in his labor has joy in the thought of a high wage. A~ surely as man has instincts that are opposite to one another, so surely his life must contain suffering: some form of frustration. For the satisfaction of any one of man's tendencies usually involves the frustration of another .tendency; and thus pleasure always casts the shadow of suffering. For instance, the fatiaer of a family may satisfy his parental instin& by bard labor in caring for his family: butby that very fact he frustrates his tendency to ease and amusement. The soul would have no rainbow Had the eyes no tears. --3. V. Cheney, "Tears." 35 FRANCIS J. MCGARRIGLE Reoie~o [or Religious Nor is cheerfulness the aloof, self-centered, touch-me-not withdrawal from sorrow-laden surroundings and' per-sons, in order to indulge in a sort of Nirvana of emotiom ¯ with studied indifference to the woesof others. Cheerful-ness is bes( fostered in sympathy and interest in others' mis.- fortunes. "Blessed are the comforters; for they shall be comforted"; and the comforters' blessedness or joy is not merely eschatological; it is this-worldly joy as well as other-worldly joy. The cheerfulness of the poor who are not envious of their more fortunate neighbor, while., sympa-thetic with their less fortunate one, isa matter of inspiring experience. Frequently both the smile and the sympathy lessen on the face of man and woman as the money increases in their swel.ling purse. ¯ The reality of life is shocking and crudeonly for those who do not know the wondrous meaning of life. The pes- .simists of humanity are not the oneswho have most to suf-fer; they are often persons in relative ease, but mentally :children who do not see the worth of the schooling of life; Especially literary and socialite professionalsufferers believe that self-knowledge and worldly wisdom consist in abnormal talent for discovering reasons for boredom, unhappiness, and criticism. -Tolstoi, a disillusioned man, quarrels bitterly with the whole scheme of the universe, and finds nothing of joy in life.but to dig the ground for" the sake of digging the ground. The reason is that he does no.t know what life is about. Two other Slavs, Poushkin and Lermontoff, sadly~labored over the reason for human, existence and in their poems and other writings found only" pessimistic replies. Poushkin, father of Russian lyric poetry, addresses life thus dolefully: Useless gift, gift of chance. What unfriendly power Has drawn me from the darkness? . . . There is no goal for me . . . ~6 Saturnine Byron, in "Euthanasia," sums hp.in two lines his lugubrious views of tlde worth Of living: 'And know! whatever thou hast been; 'Tis something better not to be. Pessimism, chronic discontent and sadness, is essentially the convicti6n that life is not worth living. Many amongst the best known German philosophers are pessimists fol-lowing the conviction of Sophocles, the Greek tragedian: "Not.to have been is past all prizing best'" (OedilOUS" Co-lonnus) . Schopenhauer calls life a sh~m, an annoying and point-less interruption of the steady calm of eternal nothingness: "The knowledge that it. is better not to be, is not only the most important of truths£ but also the oldest of wisdom,.'.~o. (Werke, ed. Deussen, III, .693). For Schilling, life is a farce, an absurd romance; for Feuerbach it is a madhouse and a jail. Eduard von Hart-rn'ann tells us that the genius sees through the" illusion of life. and finds it unendtirable, Whilst the.generality of mankind labor on in wretched contentment, slaves of the error, and delusion that they can be happy. After perceiving the ill,u.- ¯ sions of life, man sees the conclusion to be drawn: Nirvana, painless nothingness (Ausgetoal~tte Werhe, dd. Copeland, !II, 76). Most European pessimism likewise borrows its Views from the Buddhism of India, and like it, more or less logically and veiledly draws the conclusion of the blessed-ness of self-annihilation,, suicide. There have been weird societies for the promotion of suicide, on,e in Paris at the beginning of the nineteenth cen-tury. The members placed their names in an urn; and as their nameswere periodically drawn, they killed them-selves in the presence of the other members as the tetric expression of the worthlessness of living. In Italy, with other so-called thinkers, Leopardi. FRANCIS "J. McGARRIGLE laments that¯ no one can be intelligently happy. Life according tothis moping poet, by its very nature is infe-llcita, unhappiness: "I cannot imagine a use for life; nor any fruit of it" (Canto Nottttrno). In his self-pity he speaks to his heart: Be quiet forever; you ha.ve beaten enough; the earth is not ¯ worthy of your sighs. Life is nothing ~but bitterness and :. ycearzness; there is nothing else in it. The world is nothing ¯ but mire. Be quiet;.be in despair forever. Destiny holds ngthing to us but death. Despise henceforth yourself and nature, and the shan~eful hidden power which decrees the ruin of all and the infinite variety of all. (Poesies et oeuvres morales. French Transl. 1880, p. 49.) D'Alembert, amongst French pessimists, aligns himself With such "strong" men as Leopardi thinks himself to be: "Be great," he says, "and you will be unhappy." ' Disbelief" in the immortality, of man can see only dis-heartening frustration and deadening sorrow as funda-menial and final, involved in the very nature of man and his environment. Life for such disbelievers is inherently and utterly "a business that does not pay expenses," a thing far better if it were not. When the godless or materialis,tic philosopher does pro-pose optimism as a principle of life, hi does so on patently insufficient reason, in mere bravado, whistling in the dark. 'Some others are cynical, such as Oscar Wilde ("The Pic, ~ture.of Dorian Gray") saying that the basis of optimism is Sheet terror in facing life. Wrong in their valuation of living, materialists are n~c.e~sarily wrong as to the basis of optimism and joy, as is Herbert Spencer (The Data oF Etbics III) : There is on~ postulate on which pessimists and optimists agree. Both their arguments ~issume it to be self-evident '~ . that ,life is good or bad, according as it does or does not !. brinl~ a surplus of agreeable feeling. : 38 danuarg, 1944 L'ALLEGRO Optimism that ,is sound and ~pessimism that can give some. account of its source, are founded, not on feeling, but on the primary conviction that life. is, Or is not, worth living that the purpose of life is, or is not, worth the suf-fering it entails. -~. -- Quite a number df self-estemed intelligentsia: and worldly-wise hold that there is so little joy possible .in life that we must prove our right to it at all. "What fright have we to,napplness. , .(Ibsen, Ghosts I.) 3oy, they ~thinki is only for simpletons; Great and experienced minds~ among, whom they class themselves, must appear, bored, cynical, and disgruntled with life and with. everything in it. Sophocles~ however,~ says .of them in his Ant(qone: "The man for whom the joy of lif~ is gone, lives no~more~; he should be counted among the dead.~' ._" Many modern novelists, and~ssayists hav~ frankly abandone~ the possibility of happiness as a goa:l. The be~t they can offer as an ambition is. the empty shadow of piness without its soul-filling substance, the panting.quest for happiness without the possibility oL its acquisition, t.he ¢arrot dangled before the eyes of the silly donkey whom.s.ly -nature thus dupes into dragging with much labor the back~ breaking load of living. _ The deluded donkey, they tell :us, will never reach the luscious-looking carrot; and t,~here .is no welcoming manger awaiting.him at his weary journey's end. At last he will buckle under, ~ollapse and fall, the carrot still unattained. Anyway; they add.as a footnote, the carrot, agreeable as it looks; would prove disagreeable: if reached at last. Together with this defeatist attitude toward lif.e, strangely enough, there is~joined a. feverish longing forjo'~ and an amazingly mad chase after it; and all the while the~e same disillusionists assume a contemptuous superciliousne~} towards cheerfulness. They think itbefitting their elevated ':FRANCIS J. MCGARRIGLE :mentality to pQrtray on their grim countenances the cosmic boredom of living. .~ ~ It can be, too, that there are some lopsidedly pious Souls who.scent an insidious enemy of piety in every ~joy. Gaiety is to them always something .ribald. As Macaulay writes in his History of England (vol. III, c. II): "The ¯ Puritan hated bear-baiting, not because it gave pain to the bear, but.because it gave pleasu[e tO the spectators." On . the other hand, there are still simpler sduls to whom all religion and piety are repulsive because they scent in it the sworn enemy of every joy. However, one would gather from the writings of G. K. Chesterton that it was largely his sense of humor anal joy that established his belief in God and in the Church. The truth is that joy is an essential nutrition of human life, a greater necessi~ty than bread, a power of life, and an immense worth of life. The troUble with the pessimikts, philosophical or social, is that they are the simpletons, who look for hap-~ piness and joy outside their own minds, in riches, pleasure-hunting, social or political notoriety--all and any of which, by themselves, wipe off the human faceits smile of joy. Condition, circumstance, is not the thing; Bliss is the same in.subject or in king. --Pope, Essay on Man. They have not realized that to increase one's toys is not to increase one's joys. They seek joy from all sources but the true one: and finally, with Francis Thompson (in The Hound o[ Heaven), they say by the constant tedium of -their faces and the constant bitterness of their tongues: And now m'y heart is as a broken font, Wherein tear-drippings stagnate, spilt down ever From the dank thoughts that shiver Upon the sightful branches of my mind. ¯40 danuar~l, 1944 L'ALLEGRO All the bright~ lights of care-society, all the tom-tomming of jazz, all the social fir.ew0rks, all the scurrying of business, all the flitting from one place to another, .are mainly din and distraction for the stunning of joyless minds. So-called-modern art and so-called modern music-are the most joyless ever. excogitated,, because they 'iecede farthest from thought of God and His providence .for mani. More atheist than the Roman and Greek paganism, they see man and his life only with the unsmiling eyes of the animal and interpret him only in the fate and destiny of an animal. Modern art and music, are the saddest ot~ all art and music ,because they are the "most inhuman of all. They cannot smile; and the definition of man-is anirna( risible: '."the' animal that smiles." To study an exp0si; tion of modern art or tO listen tO moderri mi~sic is to dreriCh one's spirit with cold watermmuch ot~ it- dirty. ' -The joy of the theist is the only possible joy, for he alone knows wl-iere human lithe is going and has the assur~ ance that, it~ he So will it, nothing can hinder him.fr0ni reachinghis exCeedingly desirable destination. A ChriS-tian optimist sees an opportunity in every calmity; a pagan pessimist sees a calamity in every opportunity:. Successl is getting what you.want; happiness is wanting wl'iat you get. The reason is that happinessdepends on one's own outlook and dispositions. No one can make us happy or' unhappy;we do it ourselves, and we alone can do As Publius Syrus tells us in his Sententiae, "No man is happy Unless he believes he is." Enviroriment gives us the opportunity for happiness or unhappiness; but our own attitude of mind to our environ; merit constitutes our happiness or unhappiness. Humor and cheerfulness anddeep joy are by no means correlatives of comfort, riches, ease, learning or notoriety. FRANCIS J. MCGARRIGLE " Review for Religious ¯ Because nobility is not idependent on exterior things, bkcause it is an attitude of mind and will, nobility nor-mally has joy and cheerfulness as its distinguishing trait. Small souls are sad souls;.great souls are glad souls. There is no question but that one must be noble in character to be cheerful constantly; for only "out of the strong shall come the sweet." Nobility causes cheerfulness; but there is also the mutual causality of constant cheerfulness in generating and increasing real nobility, with its necessary discipline of mind. Great minds alone have lea~rned, great heart.s alone have lived, the truth that duty is the only joy and joy is a fundamental duty. Joy and cheerfulness promote social intercourse and lubricate all contacts of" family, business, and general society. Alone one can sorrow; but none can be joyful alone. The cheerful man is sought as the best promoter, seller, and leader of men. All naturally admire the man who does not show the weakness and self-centeredness of sadness. In fact, no one is interested in sad accounts of our misfortunes, but all are attracted by our joy of living, as insects are attracted by light. Hence the jingle runs: Be always as merry as ever you can, For no one delights in a sorrowful man. The cheerful gospel of joy is brought to us by Christ, .who presents Himself as the Divine Model of correct human pS~rchology. To perfect human nature He teaches that man, His brother and sister, children of God the Father, should be joyous in living. "These things I have spoken tO you that my joy may be in ~ou, and that your joy may be fu.lfilled" (John 15:11 ) "and your joy no one shall take from you" (John 16:22).1 Christianity is essentially the religion of cheerfulness. 1The New Testament texts used in this article are taken from the Westminster Version.--ED. danuar~lo 1944 L'ALLEGRO Christ's messianic coming is foretold, as the coming of joy to the human race. "Many shall rejoice in his coming" (Luke 1 : 14). He is announced on the winter hills of Beth-lehem as the arrival of joy: "Behold, I bring you glad tidings of a great joy that shall l~e to all the people" (Luke 2: 10). In His divine masterpiece of psychology, the Ser~ mon on the Mount, He explains the reasons for the peace~ ful joy of living: "Rejoice and exult, for your reward is great in .the heavens" (Matthew 5" 12). Naturally Paul of Tarsus .emphasizes 'this dominant note of joy sounded by His.Master, "joy of faith" (Philippians 1:15). Hi~ greeting and wish for his Christian flock is "pdace and joy in the Holy Spirit" (Romans 14:17); may "the God of h.ope fill you with all joy" (Roman.s 15: 13) ; even though they have much to suffer: "rejoicing in hope, bearing tribu.- lation in patience." His ~o-apostle and Primate, St. Peter, teaches the same: "Inasmuch .as ye hax~e fellowships ih the sufferings of Christ, rejoice" (I Peter 4: 13). "~ The Church of Christ inculcates through its liturgy th~ joy of living. Its "Alleluia," the exclamation of joy, rings throughout its worship of the Mass and Office. Even in the season of sorrow, the exhortation .to r~joice, "Lae-tare!," begins the Massof the Fourth Sunday of Lent. Its official prayers are those of cheerfulness: the BenediCtus) Magniiicat, and Te Deum; and prayers of rejoic!ng are heard even in its funerals. The Church celebrates the death of her most notable children as their joyful birthday. "Merry Christmas" is essentially a Christian greeting; and Christmas, or any other day, can be merry, only when it is what it says "Christ's Mass," rejoicing over the life of Christ begun in Bethlehem, continued in the Bethfehem of every heart, and to be consummated in Christ's eternal happiness. The "Prince of Peace" means the "Prince of cheerfulness." 43 FRANCIS J. MCGARKIGLE The conflict of selfishness is practically all that is wrong with the world and human life, whether socially, politi-cally, commercially, nationally, or religiously; and selfish-ness is manifested invariably by lack of joy and cheerful-ness. . . Characteristic, tber, efore,.of.those who are most Chris-tian, the saints, is constant cheerfulness; so much s-o that xhe French express it thus: "Un saint triste est .un triste . saint" (a sad saint is a sad [specimen of] saint.) The real ",Christian lives up fully t_o the tranquilizing "principle: '~God is, and all is well" .(Whittier, "My Birthday"). Father Faber observes that "Perhaps nature does not contribute a gr.eatei, help to grace than. gaiety~' In this he but paraphrases the early Christian document, "Pastor,", written before the death of St. John the Apostle, namely, thai sadness leads to sin and joy to good. The most joyful of persons are, on an average, the me.mbers of religious orders; and they have the youngest of hearts, ahhougb they have renounced .the pursuit of revel, wilfulness, honor, and possessions, in which the imbecile world thinks to find joy.~ They honor God, theoGod of their hearts, in a very special way by the alacrity and cheer- .fulness of their service. Hence, too, their magnetic power , in drawing others to the service of God, whose burden of ~"~"~"l[fe they prove by their cheerfulness to be' sweet and light. Their joy is one explanation of their perseverance; for What we do with joy, we do to the end. ¯ Wise St. Teresa of Avila instructs her Sisters: Try, my Sisters, to be affable wherever you can with-out giving displeasure to God. Behave so that all with whom you converse will be pleased with your manner and company, and may never be rendered afraidof virtue. The more holy a r~ligious is, the more simple and gracious she should be in conversation. Never must you separate.your-self from your Sisters, however much difficulty you may L'ALLEGRO~ feel with them, and however little their ¢on~rersat~o~_ may please you. We must make every, effort to be affable and ¯ to please those with whom we deal, and especially our Sisters. : The joyous mood of St. Francis of Assisi, so popularL with Catholic and non-Catholic alike., arose from his intense spirituality; and this reassuring ~haract~ri.stic" undoubtedly was most potent in the engaging attraction., which he exercised over others in leading them to enthusi~. astic Christian life. Thomas of Celano tells us of St, Fran~: cis: "The saint Constantly, endeavored to persevere; in gladness of heart . With utmost, solicitude he avoided, the great evil of ill-humor." . . Ready and steady the Christian gazes into. the hollo~. eyes of Death. Despite his instinctive revulsion fiom thi~: death of the body, the Christian's joy is strengthend by: th_.e. thought of death, not the end for him, but the beginning of life; and with thisknowledge, his joy arises from,the correct evaluation of the things of time. He does not. live. in tile uneasy dismay of. wa!kirig over life's treacherous glacier, in the dark, without a guide, at the risk of being. engulfed at every sFep. He does not undergo the bitter dis~. appointment of placi.ng all his expectan.cy of happiness-in,. creature goods, which.were not made. to last or to sail.sly; for that which makes these spectral goods is, as in the case of bubbles, that which explodes them. The Christian has shorn grisled death of its fearful,¯ hess; and eq.ually sufferjng's barb has been cleansed of its venomous poison of hopelessness, the sensethat suffering.i.s of no avail, dead loss, The Christian grasps the nettle of suffering and ddath with firm hope and its sting is gone, Chamisso writes of a peasant woman, singing:at the door of her whitewashed cottage, while .with her own hands she stitched her shroud, so that when she should die, it would be ready: 45 I~RANCIS J. MCGARRIGLE " I wouldI were as wise as she Life's cup to. empty never sighing " .And still with joy like hers to see The shroud made ready for my dying. :. ~,Joy is.indispensable to physical as well as to spiritual i~fticiency. Sadness deadens; joy quickens. "Cheerfulness keeps up a kind of daylight in the mind, and fills it with a Steady and. perpetual serenity" (Addison, The Spectator, May 17, 1712). What sunlight is tO the metabolism, of ~the. plants, joy is tO spiritual metabolism . and general health. It has a most profound effect on the ease of recov- :ery from illness and.even on the amount of inconvenience and suffering felt in sickness. Physicians know this fact weii: and an important factor of the "bedside manner" is _ the development.of a cheerful outlook in the patient. Nerve spedalis.ts make gr~at account of it in their treatments. Ancient Ecclesiasticus also knew it several millenia ago: "The joyfulness of the heart is the life of man., and the joy of a man is length of life" (30:23). It is a commonplace amongst doctors that the joyful patient, other things being equal, is the one who has the most favorable prognosis, especially in somediseases, such as tuberculosis. An English physician in his book on "The Prolongation of Life," observes that joy and hope, ¯ "-by quickening respiration, increase the flow of blood to the .brain and the supply of nourishment to the nerve cells. Psychic depression retards respiration and heart action, he says, and lessens the blood-flow to the brain, causing first ¯ .functional and then organic derangement. 3by is a sort of gymnastics of the soul whose health is always shared with the body. "The fear of the Lord shall delight the heart and shall give joy and gladness and length of days" !(Ecclesiasticus 1 : 12). The great philosopher, St. Thomas Aquinas, tells us January, 1944 L'ALLEGRO in this regard: Sadness does more harm to the bddy than the other passions ~ of the soul, because it interferes with'the.vital action of the heart. Sadness at times causes even the loss of reason, as may he seen in cases where it-has led-tO deep . o melancbqly and madness. (Summa Theolo~ica, 2a, 2ae, 28, '.'On.Joy.") And inspired writers express the same concretely and pungently: . ~ Sorrowful heart drieth up the" bones" (Proverbs 17, 21). "For sadness hath killed many and there.is no profit in it . Of sadness cometh death; and it overwhelmeth" " the strength; and sadness' of the'heart boweth do~rn the neck" (Ecclesiasticus 30; 25; 38; 19). The observance of the laws of Christianity is i.n gen~ eral the m~st conducive factor to healthy living. Especially is it t1~e best preventive and curative treatment for mental health. Chief amongst the laws of Christ in this, and'in every regard, are acquiescence to God's Will and interest in the happiness and welfare of others. An old English proverb runs: "A man Of gladness cometh not tomadness,'.' OUR. CONTRIBUTORS G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD is a member of our editorial board and Professor of Ascetical and Mystical Theology at St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. ,IAMEg A. KLEIST is the editor of The Classical Btdletin and Professor of Classical Lan, guages at St. Louis University. FRANCIS L. FILAS is a student of Theology ~t West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana, and. has written a book on tile history of the-devotion to SL ,Joseph. PATRICK M. REGAN is Professor of Apolo2 getics at St. Mary's College; St. Marys, Kansas. FRANCIS 2. MCGARRIGLE i's Graduate Dean at Seattle College, Seattle, Washington. R.OBERT B. EITEN. le.ctu~e.s in,Mathematics at the University of Detroit, and has given much special study to questions of Ascetical and Mystical Theology. 47 Genuine h yst:icism What Should We Think Robert B. Eiten, S.J. SO MUCH is written, t.oday on mysticism that it is scarcely possible for anyone interested in the spiritual life to avoid taking a stand on the subject. The stand whicb"all should begin.with ought tO be based on the common teaching df mystical theologians. Of ~ourse in mystical theology as in nearly all other sciences, we may reasonably expect to find some problems which have .not been settled to the satisfaction of all authorities. There are differences of opinion on some questions. Nevertheless there is agreement on nearly, all fundamental questions, at least in so far as they would concern either our spiritual life or spiritual direction. Let us now consider what the proper attitude, of a reli- ¯ -gious.should be toward mysticism. This proper and safe attitude, as .we said before, can be derived from mystical theologians in those points where there is agreement among them. What, then; is the common teaching of mystical " theologians in g~neral? First of all, we surely would like to know the connec= tion between mystical graces and high sanctity.' Although mystical theologians admit that mystical graces are a great aid to sanctity, still they hold that these graces do not con-stitute sanctity, be it heroic or ordinary. Sanctity is meas- 'ured by the amount of sanctifyinggrace onehas. Its further 9rowtl~ too is determined by.the perfection of the life that one leads. Ultimately,then~ mystical graces help our sanc-tity in so far as they help these bther elements. For a high degree of sanctity and perfection, mysticM 48 GI~NUINE MYSTICISM theologians agree that special graces are not only helpful but necessary. These graces must be more abundant and more stimulating than those which are required to lead an ordinary life of sanctity. Likewise they would require a greater cooperation and docility on the part of the soul receiving them. These graces thus can dominate completely the actions of the soul. This constant fidelity to grace or this proficient life of grace, mystical theologians would admit, will bring an ever greater union of mind and Will with God. Finally, over, a period of time such constant fidelity to grace will bring about a habitual union with God. ~rith a habitual union "present, supernatural truths and, in general, the mysteries-of faith, are clearly perce.ived. .- But what is this habitual union with God if not an intense prayer-life or life of r~collection? Thus all'along r~orr~ally there has been.progress ir~ prayer. Most likely in the beginning the soul passed from meditation [o affective prayer where affections are usually many and varied, and reflections few and short. After using this latter type of prayer for a while the soul gradually passed into simpff[ied affectit2e prayer or the prayerof simplicity. In this prayer the soul immediately and, as it were, intuitively grasping a supernatural truth or mystery, experienced a repose and relish in resting therein without much change or variety of. affections over some considerable period of time. Within," thislatter degree of prayer there was much opportunity for -the soul to make progress up to the very borderline of infus-ed contemplation. And if some mystical theologians place the prayer of simplicity beyond ordinary prayer and within the realm of infused prayer, at least they will agree that there has l~een a progressive prayer-life in such a soul. Mysti~a~i'' theologians do not conceive of the passing from acquired prayer into infused or mystical prayer as a necessarily sud-. 49 ROBERT B. EITEN Reoiew ~,or Religious den and great hiatus.or jump; .rather they admit some con- . tinuity between these states of prayer. " The importance, then, of a progressive prayer-life-- a life of intimacy with God--should be at once rather evi-dent. Any carelessness here normally precludes one frorn the hope of enjoying mystical graces. We said before that special graces are needed to reach high sanctity. We have also pointed out the importance .of ¯ a recollected life. Now, infused contemplation happens to fi~ in very well in this list of special graces. It is one of the most select graces. And it is certainly a big factor in leading a deeply recollected life. It is not st,range, therefore, that mys-tical theologians would further admit that mystical grace~ or infused contemplation are in themselves most desirable be, cause they can be a great .factor in tea, ching high sanctity. True, there may be-some difference of opinion among mys-tical theologians on the opportuneness of exciting such a desire in allsouls on account of certain disadvantages it ~ay ¯ bring about in some souls or in unusual circumstances. The desire can be abused. But, just as with any other means of sanctification, mystical graces can be desired and prayed for under certain conditions.1 How strange and unfortunate. then, it is to find that there are still those who on princ.iple not only fear mystical prayer, but discourage it! Perhaps . they do not realize that they are trying tO make void a great grace and an important factor in the matter of spiritual progress. Perhaps they act this way because they think of mystical contemplation only in terms of visions, revela-tions, internal locutions, ecstasies, levitations, stigmatiza, tion, and so forth. But no mystical-theologian holds lThe eminent and prudent author, Tanquerey, has the following excellent remarks on the desire for mystical prayer: "It is permissible to desire infused contemplation. since it is an excellent means of perfection, but it must be done httmblyoand condi-tionally with a hol~ abandonment to the will of .God." (The Spiritual Life. p. 665.) 50 ~lanuary, 1944 GENUINE MYSTICISM "today that these pertain to the essence of mystical,praye~. They .are merely the accidental phenomena sometimes con-nected with mystical prayeL Mystical prayer can. exist apart from them. Even those who truly desire the grace of infused prayer should not ask for, but should ratherlshuni these extraordinary external experiences. All or nearly all authorities admit that God grants the gift of infused prayer when and in the way He pleases, and even to beginners, though this latter is rare. Usually. infhsed contemplative prayer is granted primarily for. one's increase in personal holiness, after years.of earnest .striving for sanctity,-and secondarily that others may be prevailed upon to lov~ God more intensely. Authorities further agree that temperament, proper direction, envirqn-ment, vocation, and so forth, are noteworthy factors in disposing oneself to receive this gift. Although infused contemplation¯ is a precious gift,yet one w.hb desires it for its.sweets is apt to be disappointed; for usually there is much suffering connected with .it and the suffering may even outweigh the sweets. It is generally admitted that there is no high sanctity withouk a rigorou~s purification of the soul. In this regard God ordinarily intervenes personally by means of interior and exterior trials, since personal efforts, even the most generous, are hardly enough. These divine purifications are similar to the nights described by St. John of the Cross. Mystical writers also agree 6n the great means.leading to the gift of mystical graces. They are usually classed as follows: (1) an intense prayer-life, or recollection; (2) uncompromising self-abnegation, or self-renuncia-tion; (3) continual mortification of self, or the apostolate of the cr6ss.2 Other means, such as the practice of charity, '2These means seem rather obvious. Contemplation is one of the higher types of psychological union with God. But all progressive union with God consists in ROBERT B. EITEN deta~hment, and so forth, are sometimes listed, but these can readily be reduced oto-the former.° Since, then,there is in general .an agreement among mystical theologians on wl~atare the best means to be used to dispose ourselves for infused contemplation, there oug.bt not be on our part too much - concern whether there is a general or only a restricted call tb infused contemplation-- a matter on which mysticaltheologians do not. agree. Let . :us-live our lives in accordance with. these means and leave it to God to grant us this gift if He so chooses. Mystical prayer, indeed, is. a great gift, a great means of ¯ sanctification, and one worth asking for and working for by our lives of personal holiness. It is a gift that makes us in some way consdous of the divine and brings us into contact with the divine. It is in some way; at least in its ¯ higher stages, a prelude to heaven. It is, therefore, most desirable in itself, and we act wisely in dlsposing oursel.ves .and others for it by ,lives of recollection, self-effacement, and suffering. Today, the feast of the great mystic doctor, St. John of the, Cross, as I write ihese lines, I am reminded, of an inci-dent in the life of this great saint. Once when asked by Christ what reward he would seek for his many labors, St. John replied: "Lord, to suffer and be despised for you." ~"~This is. the disposition to be cultivated by those desiri'ng infused contemplation. Above all else it should be our aim to live holy, Self-effaciiag lives, realizing that if we do this ¯ God. will. take care Sf all the rest with His sweet Providence --and this includes the bestowal or refusal of infused con-templation. (1) becoming detached from all,creatures, and (2) becoming as attached as pos-sible to God. Self-abnegation and continual mortification accomplish the first ele: merit, detachment from creatures; while a life of fervent recollection takes care of the'. second element, attachment to God. 52 ommunica ions Reverend Fathers:. I am followin~ the vocation discussion with interest. Here is a suggestion based on experience. Do religious who are unfaithful in seemingly small points of rule realize how often they are to blame for the failure of girls to follow a .vocation? This is particularly true in boarding schools aad acade-~ mies. Postulants disclose how they were shocked when, as students, they were asked to mail letters, etc., for religious who.wished to avoi'd censorship by the superiol. Others tell how the worldliness of some religious, their want of reserve, and the ease with which they excuse themselves from assisting at Mass on week days during summer vaca-tion have done much to shatter their ideals and made them Wonder if ~ ¯ they should rehily embrace the religious'life. The lack of vocations . c~iTf~ten' b~ ~raced to religious themselves. Mistress of Postulants Reverend Fathers: My interest in the matter of vocations lies in the problem of per-sever~ ince rather than in the initial fostering of vbcatlons; and my suggestions are, I suppose, more applicable to religlous.men than to. religious women. I would ~uggest a better psychological handling .of young reli-gious iri regard to these two problems: restlessness and chastity/ Restlessness, ~lways largeamong the problems of active young ¯ . Americans, is a double-barrelled source of trouble during the time of war. The young religious see their brothers and sisters winning medals, piloting bombers, visiting distant places, while ~hey are told to thank God that they can continue their training-in quiet. It's not that easy. I would suggest: (a) a sane article on this matter, explaining in what this restlessness is common to all young people and .not someth_ing peculiar to the religious state; and (b) some practical work, requiring physical energy if possible, to aid in the war effort-- for example, volunteer farm labor. Secondly, there is the matter of chastity. Here, as in the foster- 53 COMMLrNICATION~ ing of vocations, the true dignity of the ~arried state should be incul-cated. Some novitiate superiors create the impression that the religious.life is the only life for a true friend of Christ; with the result that the reaction is sometimes overwhelming in young religious when, later on, they acquire a more balanced Unpsychological passages on this matter should be omitted from old-time spiritual writers in required reading for religious. Prac-~ tical spiritual reading on the subject, attuned to the findings of mod-ern .psychology should be made available for religious of various ages. A Priest Reverend Fathers: Perhaps you and the readers of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS recall the controversy that waged some time ago in the "Communications" of America, concerning the influence of the Sisters' habit on vocations. One letter asserted rather strongly that the habit is a deterrent to many American girls who might otherwise embrace the religious life. The reply was equally emphatic that if girls would be deterred by such a trifle, then it was good riddance to them. I suppose most people took this controversy as a good joke; but I was seriously interested in it, and I know a number of other priest's who were also-interested~ True, we did not favor discussing the sub-ject in a magazine for. the general public, but we did wish to know the honest opinions of Sisters and of modern girls. There may be no truth in the assertion that likely candidates are deterred by the bulki-ness of the habit. ¯ If it is not true, then it is well for us to know that. But if it should, prove to be true then we are confronted with a fur-ther problem. Can we solve the problem by simply shrugging our shoulders and saying: ."Good riddance to such candidates"; or should we conclude that there may be need today of some modifications in traditional habits or of new institutes with more simplified habits. Is it not true that many of the traditional habits are merely modifica-tions of a style of dress worn by women at the time of the found-resses? Certainly they differ radically from the clothing worn by the modern American girl. A P~iest 54 Teresa Avila' G. Augustine Ellard, S.J~ ~N ALL the long and varied history of the Church there do~s not seem to be a feminine leader who can ' outshine Teresa of Avila. Nor in the whole galaxy of Catholic saints does there appear to be one, whether man or woman, in whom the divine and human were united in a more lovely and attractive fashion. Some of those saints had a more eventful external life, and perhaps some of them had a nobler interior life and were holier inGod's sight, but there are few among them whose life, taken in both its interior and.exterior phases, was, as far as we know, conspicupusly, and demonstrably, so rich and intense. As a little child Teresa ran away from home inorder to become a martyr among the Moors. A second time she ran away from home to enter the convent. Soon her health was wrecked and she had to leave for.a time, during which she converted an unworthy priest. She became worse, seemed for a while to have died, survived a funeral service, and narrowly escaped being buried alive:, as if that was not enough, while she-was waiting to be buried, a candle set her bed afire. It pertains to her active life that during the first twenty years or so in the convent she excelled rather at entertaining in the parlor .than at conversing ~rith Almighty God. During her later years she Was busy in the extreme and was constantly battling wi~h difficulties and obstacles of every sort. She led in the reform of her order--a task far more arduous than that of founding a new order. In fifteen yea/s she established seventeen convents and several monasteries. A foun-dation usually cost her so much trouble, opposition from various sources, high and low, and 'bitter suffering, that once when she was asked how one could become a saint, she replied, "We are about to make another foundation: just watch and see!" Shd stiffered from the terrible Spanish Inquisition, and was persecuted by a visitor of her own order. She was revered as a saint, but also referred to by a Car-melite provincial as "an excommunicated apostate." She was quite. expert in dealing with men of every rank, f/om the aristocratic zSaint Teresa of Avila, a Biography. By William Thomas Walsh. Pp. xiv q- 592. Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee. $5.00. -5-5 G. AUGUSTINE EI~LARD .Philip II down to foul-mouthed muleteers. She could accor~modate herself in the palaces of princesses and duchesses, and also in cheap inns with coarse men.whom she called "infernal people." It is not surprizing thatl she knew well how to manage women. Physical vio-. lence was almost needed to install her as prioress at the Incarnation in, Avila--city .officers were .present, fearing a riot but before long .she. bad that. house of 130 nuns reformed, liking the reform, and .loving .the reformer. Teresa was also an authoress, and.one of remarkable m~rit: her .works in the critical Spanish edition fill nine large volumes; and two of her mystical treatises stand foremost among the. greatest mystical classics., . In general, few women of any walk in life have left a better record for efficiency. The interior life of St. Teresa was still more intense and exciting. She knew the misery of having fallen from a higher to a lowei con-dition of soul, In a celebrated vision she descended to the depths of hell, and during the last ten years of her life she lived amidst the sub-limities and grandeurs of the highest pinnacles of mysticism. She felt the indescribable joys and pains of a heart literally laid open' by a ~raph's dart. She was familiar with ecstasies in which "one learned mysteries." In one momentary flash she understood, as she said, "more truths about the highest things of God than jf great theo-~ ;lc~gian.s had taught her for. a thousrind years." It was no strange experience for her to enjoy a certain vision of the Blessed T~inity. HerIove of th~ Cross was so great that she could take the attitude, "the more we suffer, the bett~r it will be." For many years she Observed the seraphic vow, that is,-always to do the more perfect ~"thin~. Her love and longing for the Divine Spouse was so great tlsat it broke out into expression in a famous poem "I die because I do not die." Her prayer-life too was fertile and efficient: "this is the end of prayer: to give birth to works, always works!" A major problem of the twentieth-century religious is how to effect the right combination between the contemplative and the active elements in his life. Walsh's new and outstanding biography of the great "'Doctora'" of Avila is recommended as an aid toward solving it. 56 eviews PlUS XII ON WORLD PROBLEMS. By James W. Naughton, S.J. Pp. xxlv -I- 199. The America Press, New York, 1943~ ~ $2.00. World problems today intimately touch the life of every.indi: vidual. Hence the eager welcome to a volume that gives us the. jhdg-ment of our Holy Father on these problems, along with hi~ solu-tions. Encyclicals, radio broadcasts, addresses, Christma~ and Easter messages, sermons, peace plans, .letters to public men, totaling twenty-six in all, carried the words of Pius to the world. For most of.us this formidable array of documents is an insuperable obstacle to acquiring .knowledge of the papal teachings. .However, Father Naugh~on has made them conveniently available to all within the narrow ~ompass of this one volume. Through exhaustive study and.careful selection. he has given a compilation that contains all the .pronouncements substantially. The resul~ is a reference book that is.a real treasq~e. A glance at the table of contents .at the beginfiing .shows 'the. wide variety of.general topics treated. Another glance at the seventeen pages of index at the end makes one realize that here is a ready refer-ence to every subject treated in papal pronouncements, no matter how cursorily. ¯ ': Religious in particular, as leaders of thought, will find the book most useful. With its help they will be enabled to direct others in the modern.crucial probl~ems, whether in sermon or lecture, whether in class or study club, whether in informal talk or in. private conversa-tion. They will also be equipped to maintain their position as Cath-olics who are better informed on the struggle of Christ's Kingdom in the world today. But this is not only a reference.book. Indeed if one expects a dry-as-dust collection of ponderous papal pronouncements .0n.:ipter-national problems the ordinary mind cannot grasp, he is'doomed to a pleasant disappointment. It is not merely a compilation,.it is a work of planned order, that rivals many.in its absorbing interest. The passages directly quoted from the Holy Father 'are joined by para-phrases of his words in these same or related contexts. These para-phrases not only make for Unity and readability, but also throw ifu.r-ther light on the Pope's mind. Best of all they save tiresome repe- 57 BOOK REVIEWS .Review for Religious tition of the same idea which has been expressed several times in vari-ous utterances. The author exercised especially good taste in furnishing us many gems of thought in the exact words of the Pontiff. In these, religious will find an abundance of inspiring matter for meditation. Thus the section, "Trust in G6d" (p. 26 ft.), offers material for sublime mental prayer that may well occupy the soul for weeks, even months. From this moving passage on Trust, we select just one sentence as a sample: "However cruel may seem the hand of.the Divine Surgeon when He cuts with the lancet, into the live flesh, it is always active 'love that guides and drives it in, and only the good of men and Peoples makes Him interfere to cause such sorrow." The following section, "Meaning of Suffering," will also spontaneously lift heart and n~ind to God, saving us the customary agony of trying to stir our own train of thought in the early morning. The solemn conse-cration of the whole world to Mary Immaculate (p. 33) is another example, to which may be added: "A Prayer for Consolation" (p. 35), "Readiness for Suffering" (p. 140), "Eucharistic Union with Christ" (p. 141). These are but a few choice selections taken at random; there are many others .throughout the book, which the reader will appreciate the more for having discovered them for him-self. Finally; the religious who uses this book for meditation or 'mas-ters it for ready reference will realize in his life the following from the "encyclical Supreme Pontificate: "The Christian, if he does honor to the name he bears, is always an. apostle; it is not. permitted, to the soldier of Christ that he quit the battlefield, because only death puts an ,end to his military service."--P. REGAIq, S.J. A BOOK OF UNLIKELY SAINTS. By Margaret T. Monro. Pp. 220. Longmans, Green and Company, New York, 1943. $2.50. "No saints are really likely. But some are unlikelier than others." With these words, Margaret Monro shows us her vivid sketches of five saints. These Unlikely Saints are pictured in their relation to their fellow men. It is the author's idea that "a great public wrong lies in the background of several Unlikely Saints; their function is to restore the lost moral equilibrium for the sake of the whole commun-ity. When sin has abounded, it is only fitting that grace should more abound." St. Aloysias becomes "Machiavelli's Prince gone good." St. Rose 58. ~anuary, 1944 BOOK REVIEWS of Lima, "granddaughter of Conquistadores," washes away in her penance the cruel stains of injustice committed against (he native Indians. St. Benedict Joseph Labre, "the great unwashed," revolts "against the cult of Hygeia--'.'not, of course, that there is anything holy about the louse. But there can be something very unholy about men's attitude to the lou~y." St: Gemma Galgani, "a sign' to be spoken agaifist," is pictured as a victim offered in reparation for the comfortable mediocrity of her surroundings. It is difficult to hang the portrait of St. Th~r~se of Lisieux in the artist's G~llery of Unlikely Saints. Even .the author felt that Thir~se is there "really as a sort of appendix, not as part of the book." There is danger, in writing this sort of "life," of over-painting the background and distracting the reader's eye from the central figure of the Saint. That is es.pecially true where one is not dealing with full-length biography: The-second sketch, for instance, leaves one with the rather unsatisfactory, notion of having read a treatise on expiation illustrated by incidents taken from the life of St. Rose of Lima. The Note on Sources, in which the author ventures ~nto the field of hagiology, will seem unnecessary to the plain reader, and to the critical one unsatisfactory to a degree. The book will have a special appeal for religious women. Already ¯ in the p.reface the author copes with the problem of frustration-- a.social ill intensified by the unnatural conditions of war. Itis this feminine interest, too, th;~t makes her discover the "minx-like" quality of St. Rose of Lima's sanctity: that makes her speak under-standingly of Donna Marta, St. Aloysius' mother. Nor will the feminine interest annoy the male reader. Hewill perhaps see, in Margaret Monro's choice of two Unlike!y men Saints to three Unlikely women Saints, a sort of hint at the proportiohate unlikelihood of sanctity among men as compared with that .among women[--C. T. HUNTER, S.J. AN AMERICAN TERESA. By Margaret M. Conklln. Pp. ix + /;7. The Eastern Observer, MunhaJl, Pennsylvania, 1942. $.25 (paper). Her name, her hidden life of love and zeal, her early death are among the many similarities to the Little Flower that have caused Teresa Demjanovich (1901-1927) to be called "An American Teresa." Baptized and confirmed in the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Rite, 59 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious .-she rdceived from her parents an excellent religious education. At school in Bayonne, N. 3., she wrote prize winning .poems and essays. She was remarkable for.her attend~nce~at Mass; her exact obedience and hidden s~crifices. Teresa matriculated at the College of St. Elizabeth. Although she mixed in the full student life, her deepening spirituality cofild not escape notice. It was during her sophomore year, as we read, that she was fhvored with a vision of our Blessed Mother. Soon after graduating with highest honors, Teresa joined the Sisters of Charity of St. Elizabeth, at Convent Station, N.J. Her favorite brother was already a priest. From the very start of her novitiate she was noted for fidelity to [u!e and. charity to others. But before the full two years were com-pleted, her pure soul Went home to Christ. Because of her spiritual acumen and literary ability the spir-itual, director had commanded the young novice to write a series of conferences, which he then gave week by week to the community. Published post~umuously under the title Greater Perfection, this work was selected by the Catholic.Press Association as the best.spir-itt~ al book of the year 1928. Widely acclaimed from the start, the book has since been translated into Dutch,. French, German, and. 'Arabic. Through Greater Perfection Sister Miriam Teresa's prayer is :being fulfilled: "Oh, if I could only shake some life into souls! "If I could be heard all o,ber the earth . my whole soul would spend i~self in giving testimony to ~he Word that dwells within it." Written by an intimate friend and college classmate, An Arneri- .~can Teresa will serve to make more widely known an inspiring model for religious and laity. One would wish to find in it more quotations from Teresa herself, more about her transfer to the Roman Rite, more of the "secrets" revealed in personal letters. --J, V. SOMhERS, S.J. THE BEST WINE. By the Reverend Paul'Bussard. Pp. 64. Catechetical Guild, St. Paul, 1943. $.50; six copies, $2.40. In the words of Father Bussard, "The reason why a thing is done is as complicated as an ~atom and as far reaching as a family tree." This holds for every human choice; but to the highest degree is it true of choosing a religious vocation. Hence, this personal, inspirational, 60 Januarg, 1944 ' BOOK REVIEWS aid poetic presentaton of the motives involved in religious vocation is a very valuable aid in.drawing more laborers into the vineyard of Christ. , In faet,'the little "book's actual appeal and effectiveness in inspiring vocations to the various sisterhoods has been proved since its first publicaton in 1936 under the title, The Living Source. Thdse who knew it under that title and appreciated it will be glad to.find it still ready for the lips that thirst for The Best Wine. Others will surely find it suited to their taste.--R. E. SOUTHARD, S.J. ' MEN OF MARYKNOLL. By the Reverend ~James Keller and Meyer Berger. Pp. 191. Charles Scrlbner's Sons, New York, 194:~. $2.00. MARYKNOLL MISSION LETTERS: Volume I, 1943. Pp. viii -1- 55. Field Afar Press, New York, 1943. $.50. ~ A Ma~yknoll priest and and a feature ~vriter of the Neto.'York Times have collaborated in writing a most engaging narrative of the experiences of Maryl(noll missionaries in th~ Orient and in. South America. The small volume contains more of interest than many books three times its size. Herein are recounted the heroic deeds of young American priests who left home arid country to bring, the goo, d news of Jesus Christ. to unmindful millions. Young men from Manhattan, young men from the farms of the Midwest, . young men from our country's western shores, all fired with a common zeal, tramp across the Chinese terrain carrying the life-giving Body of Christ to starving .souls. Men oF Mar~jknotlshould hold high interest for those who peruse today's war accounts. These soldiers of 'Christ felt the tight-ening bonds of Japanese captivity. Father J6e Sweeney, a Connecti-- cut Yankee, ran a Japanese blockade to get provi.sions to his lepers. Father William Cummings, after valiant service on Bataan, is now a prisoner of the Japanese. There need be no hesitation in placing. these Men of Maryknoll alongside the military men of note when "citations for heroism are pre~ented. The new volume of Mission Letters covers, in time, slightly more than the first half of 1943. The period was one of transition; many of the letters picture, the missions in the Orient struggling for survival in the midst of war; others raise the curtain on Maryknoll activity in South America. Friends of the mission will appreciate these.!etters, and will welcome further news of never-ending spir-itual drama.---3. B. GUERIN, S.J. 61 BOOK REVIEWS ACTION THIS DAY. By Archbishop Francis J. Spellman. Pp. 255. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 194:L $2.75. During the d.ays wl~en Rommel was being cornered in Tunisia, Archbishop Spellman, Military Vicar of the U. S. armed forces. traveled 46,000 air miles through countries of Europe,. Asia, Africa, and South America to visit his chaplains on the fighting fronts. The many interesting experiences of the journey are told in this book of letters written by His Excellency to his father from various ports of call. The author tells bf the many hours he spent with Pope Plus XII, of the gracious welcome given him by Winston Churchill, of his visits with Generals Eisenhower and Clarl~, King Farouk of Egypt,. President Inonu of Turkey, General Smuts of South Africa, antl scores of others. In the course of his.trip he could say: "Wherever I roam, I see America and Americans, striving, struggling, suffering and dying, d, estroying lives to save lives, all wth the intent ahd hope of serving our country and saving our civilization." The Archbishop lived for weeks with our chaplains and soldiers at the front, going from bed to bed in military hospitals to talk with the wounded, kneeling in prayer at the graves of our valiant dead, visiting American missionaries who were blazing the trails of peace long before the advent of our armed forces. And he was convinced that "our soldiers are doing more for us than defending our land, offr lives, and our ideals. They are, inspiring us to a renewal of faith in our country." They inspired him to write an American creed that expresses the very soul of America. ¯ This important book sboulld be read by every American because iUis a specialist's diagnosis of our war-stricken world. The Arch-bishop found himself journeying through a civilization starving because it has lost its Christian heritage of faith in God. The crisis of our "one world" is summed up in these words: "Either God will be in the victory and in the minds of the peacemakers, or the peace will be a mockery; the home a shell; and all human beings, material-istic automatons, pawns and targets.'.' Yet optimism prevails in the Archbishop's Catholic patriotism and devotion to victory: "In this America, I believe; for this America, I live; for this America, I and millions of others stand ready to die:" ---G. VAN ACKEREN, S.,J. danuar~, 1944 BOOK REVIEWS LIFE WITH THE HOLY GHOST. By the Reverend Hugh Francis Blunt, LL.D. Pp. xiil -I- 130. The Bruce Publishing Company,~Mil-waukee, 1943. $1.75. This book, in general a very excellent work, treats of the Gifts 0f the Holy Ghost and the part they should have in the sanctification of every Christian. The non-technical, vocabulary, conversational style, and wealth of homely, concrete examples and comparis6ns should make it acceptable to many who would shrink from a more scholarly work, especially to teachers in search of new ways of pre-senting old truths. The very quality which is this book's greatest asset is also its greatest weakness. Departures from the technical language of the-ology and attempts to clothe dogma in the language of every-day life always involve the risk of loose and inaccurate expression and lop-sided presentation. The author does not entirely escape these pit-falls. At times, too, his efforts to be informal lead to awkward sen-tences and obscurity of thought. An example of confused thought and inexact expression is the following: "Thus the Sacred Humanity of Jesus ~ . . was filled with the Divine Life which subsists in God, that Life communicated from all eternity to the Son by the Father, and in time communicated by the Son to the humanity which He united to Himself" (pp. 14-t5). Accepted at their face value, these words seem to ignore the impas-sable gulf between creature and Creator and to attribute the uncre-ated perfection of God to the created humanity of Christ. Equally confused is the following: "And since His humanity is the humanity of God's own Son, God gives it what it has a right to, being God, every possible Divine Perfection .' . . " (p. 15). Jesus Christ, the God-Man, i~ correctly said to have all the divine perfections in as much as He is the Incarnate Word, the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, and therefore God. But not everything which may be predi-cated of the Incarnate Word may likewise be predicated of Christ's human nature. His humanity is not God bu~ a creature and, in itself, has the essential limitations of creaturehood. A creature .of abso-lutely infinite perfection is a contradiction. A theologian might objdct to calling Adam a "son of God by nature" (p. 8), a term generally restricted to the Second Person of the Holy Trinity. One wonders what the author means by calling the Holy Ghost the "ultimate Cause" of things (p. 16), or, again, 63 BOOK REVIEWS Review [or Religious by speaking of the "legal way" in which we are made the sons of God (pp. 17, 37). The reviewer finds himself in the embarrassing necessity o,f having to point out incidental defects of a book that is otherwise most excel-lent, of. calling attention to shortcomings which the superficial reader might skim over without advertence and which, often enough, have little to do with the general trend of the thought. Yet it is just such blemishes which keep this book from being an entirely satisfactory cgntribution to the popular literature on the Holy Ghost and force one to withhold one's unqualified recommendation. --A. H. BACHHUBER, S.J. SMALL TALKS FOR SMALL PEOPLE. By the Reverend Thomas J. Hosfy, M~A., S.T.B. Pp. 136. The Bruce Publishing Company, Mil-waukee, 1943. $1.7S. This book has already been reviewed by children of twelve nationalities, who live in the stockyard district of Chicago. The forty "small-but-not-little" sermons in this book are made up of material that. Father Hosty found "will work" with his best "pub-lic"~--" small people." " "The story behind this book," writes Father H'osty in his Fore-v~ ord, dates back to a "pet peeve" he had as a youngster at hearing "adult sermons at the children's Mass." He offers this book not-as "the last word in preaching to children," but as a stimulus to fellow priests to write "asermon book for children." The author is a member'of the Chicago Archdiocesan mission band and has had eight years exp.er!ence in giving retreats, days of .~rfic~llection, novenas, and sermons. During this time, not the least among his accomplishments has been to learn the language of chil-dren- while shooting marbles or playing second base. This is the language of Small Talks for Small .People. There is no attempt at literary style. "The language," admits the author, "is a far cry from the style of Lacordaire or Fulton Sheen, and at times verges on downright slang." But it is the lively, catchy, humoroias. familiar, concrete language of children, replete with their ideas and their connotations. Questions to be actually answeredmare introduced as a new. feature in preaching tO children, owing to the author's "conviction that there is no better way of getting and keeping the children's 64 danuary: 1944 BOOK REVIEWS attention during a sermon.;' This is sound child psychology and a real merit of the book. Much of Father Hosty's cbarm'is probably lost because of the inadequacy of the written word to convey the spontaneity of the spoken. " Perhaps the "moral" of the stories or illustrations is not.~always pointed enough. Priests will find these 5-m~nute ~mall Talks very handy, and an incentive as well as a challenge to expand this neglected field . --A. LEVET, S.~I. GOD'S GUESTS OF TOMORROW. 8y
Transcript of an oral history interview with Arsalan "Arsi" Namdar, conducted by Sarah Yahm on 2 April 2015, as part of the Norwich Voices oral history project of the Sullivan Museum and History Center. Arsalan Namdar was one of a number of midshipmen from the Iranian Imperial Navy to enroll at Norwich University for education and training between 1976 and 1980. His interview reflects on his experiences as an international student from Iran as well as the impact of the Iranian Revolution on his life. ; 1 Arsalan M. Namdar, Oral History Interview April 2, 2015 Interviewed by Sarah Yahm Sarah Yahm: OK. So, I'm going to turn this recorder on. Let me just check one thing. Ah, that's number one. So, you're number one. OK. So, this will probably take about an hour. Do you have about an hour? ARSI NAMDAR: Mm-hmm. OK. SY: OK. Excellent. And I'm really just looking for your stories. Your stories, and your life history, and things you remember. And so I thought I'd start from the beginning. So, if you could just introduce yourself, and say your full name and where you were born. AN: Arsi Namdar. And actually my full name is Arsalan Namdar, and I was born in the city of Abadan, which is a— southwest of Iran. At the age of seven I was— my family moved to Tehran, and left Iran until I was about 18 or 19. SY: What's your earliest memory? Do you have an earliest memory? AN: From Iran? I was— I remember in Tehran, it was a beautiful city then. It was pretty populated. I think we had about four million in population. Right now, I think it's about 16— 14 or 16 million. And Tehran was always a very big populous, modern city, and always a lot of activity, and nightlife, and day life. It was really amazing. And the closest that I can think of it now is it's something like New York City, and now— so, I was— I lived with my family in an apartment. We had— actually, eight of us living in a three bedroom apartment, and we were raised really— we were a poor family, and my father was the only bread winner, and my mom was a house— a homemaker, but it was— we were a really close family, and we enjoyed being together, and I always— when I was growing up I was very patriotic in Persian ways, and I loved my mother country, and I wanted to become a writer, so I wrote some novels, and I was pretty good in Persian literature. And then I met— I was— I knew this girl who was my neighbor, and we had a four year age difference, and we ended up befriending each other, and so, it ended up being a love relationship. And then for some reason when I was 17 or 18 I— we had a falling out, and so, I don't— I didn't tell her that I was going to join the navy. So, I joined the navy, and Imperial Navy, and so, then they shipped us out after a year, and sent us to the US. So, that was the end of my stay in Iran, and my memory from those days. SY: Did you get to say goodbye to her, or— AN: Never did. (laughter) SY: You never did? AN: Yeah. So— SY: You ever had contact with her since? AN: Yes. I did. This is probably— I know that she's still— she's doing very well, and so I know that she's been married twice. And she's got two daughters— well, two daughters and one son. So, I think she's doing well. (laughter) SY: So, what made you decide to join the navy? AN: I was— actually, I wanted to dis-- my basic reason was that I just wanted to get away from that environment, and I wanted to— 2 SY: Because you were heartbroken, or because you wanted to get out of poverty? AN: I really— I think I was heartbroken, and I just— I'm the kind of person that I need to— I feel like there are times where you need to make a physical change, environmental change, in order to really put yourself in a new situation, new atmosphere and environment. And that really does a lot of good for you. So, I went and applied for— back then the Shah of Iran was very close to the US. He was one of the greatest US allies, and they had just begun sending— recruiting a lot of young folks— young men— to become pilots, and to go to pilot schools, and to join the navy. And because the navy was— the Shah's one of— he wanted to be a super power in the region, so he wanted to strengthen the navy, and air force in particular, and so I went and applied for a pilot job, and went through all the tests and everything, and I was rejected because I didn't have the good depth perception. So, I was really disappointed, and so, then I said, "What's the next thing I can do?" So, I went and applied for helicopter pilot position, and I was accepted. And so I passed the test, and went home, and told my mother, and she just went crazy. She said, "You know how many people are getting killed as pilots?" And this was for the navy pilots, and as a navy helicopter pilot. And so she cried day and night, and she was just really upset, and so I decided— I said, "Well, what's the next safest thing I can do? So, I said, "Well, I'll go join the navy as a midshipman, and become a navy officer." So, I went in and applied for that program, and I was accepted. And after some physical tests and background checks and everything, then we officially entered the rank of midshipman in Iran, and my particular crew was there for about a year before we were given the opportunity to come to the US. So— SY: And you were— because you said you wrote a lot— so, I imagine that you had wanted to go to college and get more of an education. AN: Yes, I did. And going to college in Iran is pretty— you have to really earn— really have to be good at what you do. And in terms of academics. And I was— I wasn't really the best student, and I wasn't the worst student. I was somewhere in the middle, and I don't think I had the aspiration to become a college student or to graduate from college. I really felt that because of what I wrote, I felt like I had— I wrote very well, and I was a well-read person as well. And so I did— back then I read a lot of Persian novels, and a lot of American, European, Russian novels, so that's what really— I spent a lot of time on doing that kind of educating myself. So, I really never planned on being— going to college, because I thought that I probably wouldn't be able to enter college. So, I never applied for national tests, and they call it the Concour, which is— it's just a national test that everybody goes and takes it, and depending on the level of— the score you get, then you can become eligible for certain universities. So, when this opportunity came in the navy, and I thought, "I can go do the two year of service in the armed forces." Everybody who graduated from high school, they had to serve two years in the military. That was a mandatory thing. And so, either do that, or just join the navy, because I thought the navy is pretty sophisticated, I saw the outfits they wore, all the uniforms were all really chic, and they got to go Europe and the US, and I thought, "Oh, that's really not a bad thing. It's great." So, that was one of the main attractions to the navy, and so I was glad to be able to join, but at first like 3 any military training it's pretty hard. You don't get all the glory and everything. Glory comes later on when you become somebody or you accomplish something much more— later in your life. SY: What was the military training like in Iran? AN: It was pretty tough. It was pretty brutal, and they— we had— basically as a military student you really had no rights. They just told you what you had to do, and then you did it. And the punishments were pretty severe sometimes. I remember once or twice I didn't march the right way, and they made us put little pebbles— stones in your boots, and then you had to march like that. So, it was kind of like a torture. And so, when we came here to the US, and we started at Norwich, Rook Week here was pretty— it was piece of cake, because it was always push-ups, and sit-ups, and running, and they really were nothing to us because— SY: (sneezes) AN: Bless you. SY: Sorry. It was— you said it was nothing to you? AN: Nothing really. It wasn't that big a deal, so as a result we— at first— the first few weeks we kind of goofed off, so that really made our classmates pretty upset because we weren't taking this seriously, but we had already been through all of that. SY: And I think both Bizhan and Sussan mentioned hating having these, because you guys have been in— you were really in the navy for two years, and then there were these kids shouting in your faces. AN: Yeah. Yeah. Exactly. And in hindsight, I really think— when you think about it, I think it was pretty silly. And you're pretty— at least on average, we were two to three years older— or maybe even older— than some of these newcomers, so we felt like we had experienced more of life than these kids who had just graduated high school. And in a way we had done it, because we were away from our parents— when I was 17, 18, I joined the navy, and they shipped us off to some center to be trained in it, so it was— for us, we were used to that kind of environment. To being alone, being independent. And then they sent us here to the US, and they sent us to the Citadel, a group of us— the second group with Bizhan— I think Bizhan was on it, too. They sent us to the Citadel, and that's the military college in Charleston. And so, we had first a three month training there, and then of course they would let us do some weekends, and we just partied, because young guys, and being in the navy, and Charleston being a navy town, it was just always fun. And so, that was— so, we were used to a lot harder times than— when we came here, that military life in the beginning was not as hard. But over time, it got really hard, because of we didn't get recognized Rook Week, our group, the Rooks, didn't get recognized, I think, until February, and that was pretty, pretty long, and it was torturous in a way, and being cold, and all that stuff. It just wasn't really pleasant. SY: Did you— and I think Bizhan also said that in Irani military training you don't get shouted at in the same way, is that true? AN: Well, he— actually, Bizhan actually went to a longer training than I did. He served his— part of his two year mandatory training, and then he came back, 4 joined the navy. I didn't go to that first mandatory training. But in Iran, I mean, punishments are not— they really mean it when they punish you, and you can't say one country's better than the other— I've seen the marines, and how they train them, the special forces, and the— here, and I just feel like that— those are pretty vigorous, too. And we were just— we were not special forces. We were just navy. Just simple navy midshipmen. And— but what he was referring to was that the part of the navy that sent us— that one year, we— I guess the focus was for us just to learn English. Nothing else. We did some marching, and some military stuff. But, it wasn't like 24 hour doing all hardcore military stuff. That didn't happen until later on in the process. SY: Interesting. So, what was your first impression of Norwich? AN: Norwich? (laughter) So, as I said to you, the first group of us— they sent us to the Citadel, and it was pretty— it was a pretty hard school, and it was in the South, and beautiful weather, and it was summertime, and it just really felt for me close to Iran than any other place. So, when we— at some point, I guess, they lined us up, and— a group of us— our commanders came and said, "You go to Norwich, you go to Citadel, you go to Jacksonville, you go to this, you go to Maritime Academy." And I ended up being assigned to Norwich. And I thought, "My God, what is Norwich? It's so old. Norwich is near the capitol of Vermont." Oh, okay. Capital of Vermont. This is really great. I looked on a map, and I couldn't find Vermont. And they said, "Oh, it's near New York City." And so— and you have to just put this into perspective. We didn't have Google, we didn't have iPhones, anything easy to use. So, maps, and just simply asking people about things. So, we came— they said, "Oh, you're going to Norwich." Okay, Norwich. It's near the capitol. It's great, it's good. It's going to be like the Citadel, and like Tehran, it's going to be good. It's great. So, the last night we all went to disco, and we all had fun, and it was a great time, and the next morning we all had to get up, and they shipped us to Norwich. And we got off the plane in Burlington International Airport. Look at it, and said, "Burlington International Airport?" We saw maybe one or two planes. And again, you have to understand, we came from a very populated area, and we went to Europe, we— bigger cities, and we came here to the US, and saw Vermont. Saw only one, maybe another plane. Two planes. So, and they have one of those ladders that in the middle of the runway you all have to get off. Here we are, we all have— it was in August, we all had jackets, suit jackets and ties, and are coming down the plane, and I look, and I look, "Oh my God." In the distance I see two or three yellow buses, and just all of a sudden all of us have a heart attack. My God, what are these? I've never seen these. What kind of buses are these? So, anyway, they put us on these buses, and just, clunk, clunk, clunk, the buses are driving, and they're— we go passed all these farms. For the first time I see cows. And I'm looking, "Oh my God, so many cows. More than humans here." And so, anyway, that was the end of our journey. They brought us here to Norwich, and although it was a gorgeous, gorgeous campus, for us,— that's something I didn't expect. I expected more of a city, a lot of action, a lot of fun and stuff. Came to Norwich, and they assigned a room to me and one of my friends. I think it was in Dodge Hall, and so, we looked at each other, he was my maybe classmates, and looked at each other, and I said, "Oh my God. 5 What did we get ourselves into?" And so, that next morning the two of us took a bus to Boston, and we stayed there for two weeks, because our vacation— we had two weeks of vacation— two or three weeks of vacation before we had to go back. So, that was my first experience in Norwich, and I tell you, that was— from my perspective, that was the most depressing day of my life. And of course that changed later. And when we got to love the institution, and all the memories that it brought for us, and all the good times and bad times that we had here. Friends we had, Americans and Iranians, and the friends that really to this day I'm still good— many of them are friends with. Even the Americans as well as Iranians. SY: Can we pause for one second because I can hear the vacuum, and it's showing up on the tape. AN: Oh, it does? SY: Yeah. The microphone's really sensitive, so it picks up things— because I can barely hear the vacuum, but it audible. Okay. So, yeah. So, what were your encounters like with other students? AN: So, when we came to Norwich, and really the administration was very supportive, and they were really great to us. In particular, I had a professor by the name of Professor [Larsen?]. Fred Larsen. He was a professor of Geology, and I think he retired a few years ago. A couple few years ago. And he and his family really took myself and another friend of mine— the guy I went to Boston with— under their wings, and they invited us to the house, and really tried to make us feel good about our stay here. And of course this is August, and August going to September, and the leaves start to fall and changes, fall, it's not— it's pretty, but then it's cold. And so, when fall started, and with Rook Week and everything, that was, I think, the toughest for us, because they queued us up with an American classmates, and so, we were all together for years and years, and all of a sudden they said you room with these guys. And I had a wonderful roommates who was a very nice guy, and so I got to know him and like him and everything else. But it was pretty hard because we couldn't really— of course, we didn't have radio— again, this is back 30 something years ago. No radio, no iPhones, no TVs— no cable TVs, no internet, no nothing. So, we really had to interact with each other in certain ways that, for me, it was tough at that point, because I just— I had to really rely on my English a lot. It just— it wasn't the same as spending time with friends. And— well, initially, there was some fights between the Americans and the Iranians over different things. The most obvious one was that the navy used to give us a full salary, and that full salary— we went— all bought Trans AMs, Firebirds, Mustangs, Corvettes, and so we see all these first years students driving these expensive cars, and that really is not— thinking back on it, it just doesn't really sit well. Like, people who just came here and have really nothing, even though they came— most of them came from most prominent families, and are richer. But you just didn't have anything at that point, and so we were just driving around recklessly and having fun. Again, because we were in some ways, we were a lot older than them, and for us, we felt like we had experienced a lot of different ups and downs back home and different states. So, just for us, that was a normal thing. So, initially we had some issues, some fights, the Iranians and the Americans, and the way we dressed, that was— and of course, we were all young guys, more 6 mature, there were no girls left here in the Northfield area, or the Burlington area that we could date, or we could go out with, so I think that was a natural tendency for them to dislike us. SY: So, there are these pimply faced American kids, and you guys have sophisticated clothing. You're urban and cosmopolitan. AN: I mean, seriously, we had— we all had really tailored outfits, and nice cars. We drove everywhere. We didn't really— we didn't have cabs, we didn't have bikes, or we didn't walk. Everybody drove everywhere. And so, that naturally caused some frictions, and some frictions between us and them. But, in later years I think when they became friends, my friends, Americans and Iranians really became friends based on the values, not based on cars and things like that. They learned to like us for some of the things we offered, and we liked them for some of the things they offered. Mostly friendship and being really decent to us. And of course, you can always find some prejudiced rednecks out there who— they don't like you for whatever reasons. Just because you don't look like them. And that's not a low rank. That's a high rank. It just happens from— at every level. But we had some people that were really nice to us, and they really had— they respected us, and as a result to this day we still respect them. I mean, one example is [Keith Barrette?]. He was our classmate, and he's still around. Actually, he's still around. He's very involved in Norwich. He was one of the nicest guys. To this day, we all really like him. We all love him, and respect him, and we are happy that he was part of our history, and part of our life back then, and then we still have the ability to be friends and meet with him from time to time. But I think for me, the most painful thing was they gave us— my room was in the back of India Company, alumni, and it was— I think it was on the second floor, or third floor, and it faced— there was pine trees. And seriously, every time I looked at them I felt like I was in a prison camp. And that was really the most depressing thing for me. And that didn't feel good. And coming back to the same hall after the same building after like 20-some years a few years ago, I just saw the difference. I mean, I was just flabbergasted. How— so much difference and so much improvement. Kids nowadays have so many things that students— cadets— they just don't value. I mean, we used to march to the campus to the dining hall, and we had only one choice of meal. They would bring it to us, and most of us didn't eat pork, and so American friends, they were all waiting for us. As soon as we sat down, and we knew that, too, we never paid attention to it. So, as soon as they saw us sit down, they would say— they would come to us and ask for our portions, and we would give it to them because we just— it just— we didn't eat pork. And of course I eat everything now, you just had to get used to it. SY: Well, I mean, culturally— so, Commander [Arumi?], I was reading in the archives, he actually tried to intervene and explain to the administration about pork. Do you remember that? AN: Yes I do. And actually, he was a very sweet guy. He and his wife were very helpful to the Iranian guys, and she would cook for us every Friday. Persian meals, and they were delicious. I mean, I don't know if you've ever had (inaudible) [00:24:28]— SY: So good. 7 AN: -- they just— and so, she was cooking for us, we know where they would go. And people— Friday night a whole bunch of guys, they're not going to go to somebody older than them, to their house, and sit down and talk about this. They want to go party. So, our story with Diamond Hall was— I just wanted to pick up with that— that was our story. They would come and the days that they had pork or ham or anything like that, you just would— most of us would give up our dish, and our meal, and just— everybody would walk to the— there was a cafeteria down here that Officer Burger used to— that was our favorite. Officer Burger and then go play foosball. And that's what we did most of the time. SY: What did you say? What type of burger? AN: Officer Burger. SY: Officer Burger. What was that? AN: It was just a hamburger with a whole bunch of condiments on it. SY: So, there was something to eat if you couldn't eat in the dining hall. AN: We could not the first few months. The first year we weren't allowed. I think you either had to be recognized or upperclassmen. SY: So, did you go hungry a lot? AN: Sometimes we did, yeah. Sometimes we did. Yeah. And, you know, vending machines weren't available a lot then. And so— and of course lot of us were used to that kind, we just— it didn't matter if you had to have lunch or breakfast or whatever, because we were used to the kind of life that we could go like two meals without eating anything, and then go out at night just have a hamburger or hot dog or some-- not hot dog, just hamburger or something like that in Burlington. That's why a lot of us were very, very skinny. I'm 175 pounds now, but back then I was— when I was at Norwich I was 124 pounds. And most of my friends, if you looked at them, they were very, very skinny. Not because they were malnutrition, just because we just— that wasn't a priority to us. Priority was everything else. And everybody smoked too, so that suppresses your appetite as well. SY: Were you frustrated or angry that Norwich didn't seem to understand that culturally pork was not cool? AN: No. That didn't really bother me, and I really think that Norwich did a lot to help us. I really— I always appreciated their administration, and this has been really a great school in terms of being open and supportive, and I really think after all these years— still 35 years or so, they have not changed, and they have even gotten better. And I personally never felt that way, and what I felt was that there were cultural differences, and that's because it just— it was what it was, and it didn't really bother me. It wasn't like I would go out and say, "Oh my God these Americans are going to beat me up and kill me," or anything like that. You would make fun of them, and they would make fun of us. They would make fun of us for whatever. The way we dressed, the cars we drove. Sometimes you show up at regi balls, with girls that were not from around here who all were decked out. And we would make fun of them for doing some stupid things. We had a guy— a football player— who would get angry from time to time, pick up the soda machine, and just shake it up. To us, it was a funny thing. And so, the years I was here I really felt like it was one of the best experiences of my life. I mean, I 8 think Norwich taught me a lot in terms of quality and integrity, and really experiencing life, and trying hard, and just trying to work with others and be friendly. I learned a lot of that here. So, just because it was really encouraged by administration. SY: Did your kind of political understanding of the world change? You grew up under the Shah, not the most open of regimes. Not— I mean, and then you came to Norwich. Did you ever get to go to a town meeting? Did you sort of understand the different political system? How did you sort of understand the political differences? AN: We didn't actually— I didn't go to any town meetings, but I basically— we read a lot of newspapers, and sometimes from the TV, and watching TV, and we were really political in terms of American policies, we actually couldn't be. We were under the Shah, and we couldn't have any political affiliation. Only to the Shah. It wasn't until the year I got married to my American wife in secret— that was my last year here— that I felt like I was open to that, the idea of, "Oh, this is politics, and this is how this country is run." And by the way, I loved it. This is the greatest country. And I still do. This is the greatest country. No matter what your opinions are. And to a large degree you have freedom, and your freedom to do things and say things, and so I really— I was really fascinated by it. And I am now. It just is great. And I don't really think many countries are like this, and that's what makes the United States a unique country in itself. And— SY: What was it like growing up under the Shah? In terms of— did you experience repression or not? Were your family loyalists? How did that work? AN: So, under the Shah, we had to— if we agreed with the Shah and did not say anything against his regime, you could actually do okay. And I'm not saying well okay meaning you could become a millionaire. You could just have a normal life, and— SY: Under the radar. AN: Under the radar. But he just— exactly. He didn't want people to say things about him and about the regime. And that was really rightly controlled. And so they had this secret police called the SAVAK [Sāzemān-e Ettelā'āt va Amniyat-e Keshvar, Organization of Intelligence and National Security]. That— they were times where people would be really— and they would use that as a scare tactic. Really, if you say something that they didn't like, they could technically go after you and your family members, and really create some problems for you. There is no difference between then and now with what happens in Iran. You can't do the same thing in Iran either. This time the difference is they can't say that against the regime of Ayatollah, Khomeini, or his successors. So, to me, it's a lot more oppressed now than it was then. It just— the Shah— the thing I like about the Shah was he was very modernized. He was a great ally of the US, and unfortunately he wasn't supported when he was facing the Mullahs. When the Mullahs were taking over Iran, and that was his demise. And to this day I think everyone is realizing that they lost— I mean, look at the Middle East. There's really no one that is our ally here. There's really no one. And the Shah was undoubtedly the biggest supporter of the US and US ally. So— SY: Was there talk of the 1935 coup— right? 9 AN: Right. Yeah. The coup d'état, right. SY: -- the overthrow. Was that something that was talked about when you were in Iran? AN: I think it was in 1953, or— SY: Oh, sorry, it was '53. I was totally wrong. It was later. AN: I think it was 1953. But, no. My father, when I was in Iran, would mention it, and he would say to me, "These people, these religious factors, who come here and say death to the Shah and whatever." He said— he used to tell me they don't understand what the regime was like under— before the Shah took over because it was a kind of religious dynasty. And so he would always— was in disagreement with people who were against the Shah. And back then when I came here to the US, obviously I had to pass all sorts of background checks. They wouldn't let us into the navy unless we were completely clean. Not only us, but our families, and a good extension of our families. So, when I came to the US and things started to get bad last year of college year, then I could see that— what was happening in Iran. I just— people who were all against the Shah, all of those people who were against the Shah, they were moving towards all the religious factors, and for a time— a very brief time— things happened to be— they appeared to be OK. And as we all know, they went the other way, and went to the other end of the spectrum, and it's really— I don't think it's any good at all in terms of the economics, social, and any other way you look at Iran. SY: So, do you remember hearing about the revolution while you were here? AN: Iranian Revolution? You're talking about the— SY: I'm sorry. I'm talking about the overthrow of the Shah. AN: Overthrow of the Shah. SY: Do you remember hearing about that? AN: Oh yeah. I did. Because my family were also affected by it. My brothers— two of them— were arrested by Khomeini's regime, and because they— I think the crime was that they were trying to spread propaganda against the regime. One of my brothers was jailed for seven years, and the other one was jailed for a couple years, he had been tortured. And then my other sister, who was also arrested, and so, eventually escaped Iran all three of them. And they are living in Europe, and one in the US. So, the regime went after a lot of people for no reason at all. It just, as I said, it wasn't any better than the Shah. And the Shah was actually giving freedom to people. Women had freedom. Women had freedom to vote. They had a say in their daily life, and work, and society, and anything else. They don't have that now. They just— man in the king of the castle, and it's more of the— the regime is a more of an oppressive regime in more ways than people thought or imagined. So— SY: So, yes. Let's talk about that. So, here you are. Senior year, and you're starting to hear rumblings of what's happening in Iran. So, what filtered down to you from here. What were your— AN: Only people who would go to Iran for visits. Some of the cadets would go there, and then would come back and say this is really bad. And of course we would read the American media at that point, and we would watch things, and we would know what's going on. And I remember one year we were all— all of the navy 10 guys— were gathered here by our commanders, and rented a whole bunch of buses, and they put us all on the bus, and they said, "We're going to Washington to see because the Shah's coming, and we're going to be supportive of the Shah." So they had all of us military students on one side, then they had all the civilians on the other. Some Iranians were against the Shah, so at some point a fight broke out, and it was really nasty. It just— they ran after us. We didn't have anything to defend ourselves with. These anti-Shahs had everything in their position, so— SY: You guys had no idea that— AN: No, no idea— SY: -- you were going into that? AN: -- they didn't tell us. No. They just said to support the Shah. SY: And so how do you think— do you think that— how do you think you ended up there? What was the conversation between the Norwich administration and the Iranian ambassador? Like, how did that happen? AN: No, they just— they could just say— because technically we were their— Iranian government's possessions. Norwich really had no say in it because we weren't American. We were all Iranian and had Iranian passports. So, technically I could just be picked up during the day, in the middle of the night, put on a plane, and be taken back home. And it happened to some of our friends, and it just— they either had not done well in school, or they said something that was not favorable, so they were shipped back. So, Norwich really didn't have a say in it. They were— didn't know, because I think the commanders just told them, "They're going on a vacation. We're going to take you on vacation." SY: So, they didn't even know what you were getting into? AN: We didn't know that, no. We had no idea until we got to the hotel in D.C., and they said, "Oh, you're going out there, and this is the placards you can have," and said, "Long live the Shah." And it wasn't until later that we saw the other students running after us with sticks and— sticks with nails on them, and stone, and everything after us, and it just— it was really nasty. SY: So, how did it end? Were you terrified? AN: Oh, we ended up— someone was— some got involved in fights, some people got injured, but because we didn't have any— really any way to defend ourselves, we had casualties in terms of severe beatings, and I don't think anybody got killed, but injuries. SY: Wow. So, Norwich students got injured. AN: Oh, yes. They did. SY: Wow. Do you remember when you came back, did people ask what had happened? AN: I don't remember to be honest with you, no. SY: No? And you didn't get injured? AN: I didn't. Actually, I got beat up, but didn't get injured. It wasn't visible. But every single one of us got a piece of it. So, that was [New York?]— there in D.C. for two or three days, and that's— I think it was a good two days, and then— SY: Did you have to keep going back out? AN: Oh, yeah. The second— we went there in like the morning, and the next morning, and the next afternoon. So, it wasn't a onetime event. 11 SY: And did you— when you went back out— did you have weapons of any sort, or know what you were getting into? AN: The second time we just— we had— we brought some bottles and things like that just in case, because you don't want those guys to go after you, you need to defend yourself, so— SY: And the US police didn't touch it at all? AN: I think it was such a big crowd. It was thousands. Just imagine. And these police officers on horses— say, even 20 of them, 30 of them, 100 of them. We're talking about thousands of— it was just a mob scene, and so really, I think it was out of control. And it was out of control. SY: And were the Irani students of the Citadel and VMI, did they come up, too? AN: Oh, everybody. Everybody in the navy, air force, anybody that the navy ordered, and the military ordered— the Iranian military. We all had to go. We had no choice. We were the agents of the Iranian government. SY: Yeah. So, you weirdly went into battle in D.C. without any— without the US knowing or noticing. AN: I don't know— I'm sure people knew. I mean, you see group here and a group there. You see the potential for some interaction. It could— it's possible. But the job wasn't to protect us. The job was to protect people around the White House, and the dignitaries and everything. I mean, there's a mob scene. They're not going to go and worry about individuals like me, they're going to worry about individuals like Heads of State. So— SY: That makes sense. So, were you starting to get worried in your senior year about stuff that was going on back home? AN: Actually, I was not senior— I was junior year here. And it was— I was really worried at that point. And to be honest with you, I changed my mind about being— serving under the Shah at that point temporarily. But then I thought about it. If we go to sign allegiance to Ayatollah, then that's something that really wasn't in my dream. So, that's when I got married, said I'm not going back to Iran to serve the Ayatollah. I just really— this is not what I want to do. My allegiance is not to him. So, that's why I stayed here. SY: And so you had a secret marriage. AN: I had a secret marriage— SY: That worked. AN: Yeah. I had a secret marriage. And then came back, and told my commander that I was going to go on vacation, and I never came back. And that was Runi, and never said, so— SY: Where did you guys go? Where'd you have your secret marriage? AN: We went to my wife's— she has an aunt— back then she lived in New York in Glenn's Falls, and my father-in-law— so we got married on a Saturday, this particular Saturday, December 30th. Then we went to— he arranged with his sister to have us work— well, live with them for a few months. Ended up living with them for nine months. In the basement she had a room, I would say 5 by 10, dark, used to be a bar that had some use. So, they gave it to us. It had no toilet, it had— it was awful. Nine months my wife and I lived there. We had a couch that my father-in-law bought from Sears for 300 dollars, and that was a sofa bed, too. 12 So, that would be the couch, and then open up to sleep in. So, that's where we lived. And that was rough. And I was in the navy. I had never worked in my life. I was being paid a handsome salary a month as a midshipman, and then I had to go find a job, and so my first job was— I started as a busboy in a hotel nearby. Queensberry Hotel. And I loved it. It was really— all the waitresses were really good to me. I would help them out— I was a young guy. I was in my twenties, and they were older than me, and I would be stronger, carrying trays and things like that. And the hotel general manager really took a liking to me, and so he would order— he and his family lived in one of the rooms— so he would order food every day and want me to bring him the food. Prepare them and bring them to him. And I had no idea what these American foods were like. What does this mean? What does that mean? So, I had a tough time with that. But every time I went up he gave me a tip, and he wanted me take care of me. Really nice man. And so, then I— my wife started waitressing at a restaurant nearby, and then so we needed another job, so I went and got another job as a temporary street worker. Basically you help all the digging holes and jackhammer and things like that. And sometimes if I didn't have that I would go into the police department— it was a city job— I would go to the police department and help paint the walls, wash the cars, and things like that. So, that was my salary of two dollars and 10 cents an hour. And I was really proud of this, by the way. That was great money. So, that's how we started. I learned a lot from it, and I learned that no matter what you do, it's not what you do, it's how you do it. And I still to this day believe it. And I have a really good job now, but if I have to go lose my job for whatever reason I have to do something else, I can go to sweeping the floors and waxing the floors, but I can guarantee you it's going to be the best looking, cleanest floor you've ever seen in your life. And that's how I did it when I started as my houseman job in a hotel in Burlington. So, I started as a houseman, and within six months I became everybody's supervisor. SY: Why do you think— AN: It wasn't because I was a good looking guy and they liked me to be in the front— it was because I did such a great job. I had— they had us scheduled to do different tasks, and I did them all, and I did them all perfectly. I waxed the floors. Anybody who— any issues they had they didn't want to do, I would do it. Any time somebody called in sick, I would go in. The bathrooms— they have public bathrooms, and on the first floor of the hotel— and public bathrooms are always very dirty— I would go in and 10 minutes, I'd clean it up. I mean, that bathroom was spotless. So, people notice that. They see this guy is doing a good job. So, that's how I started— I got promotion like that. SY: So, what about— at this point you had two years of school? AN: Three years. SY: Three years of school. And so, what was your major? AN: Business. SY: Business. OK. And did you want to— I imagine you wanted to finish. AN: Yes. SY: So, how'd you go back and finish school? 13 AN: So, I went— when I got married, I wanted to come back to Norwich. Obviously, I couldn't, because the navy still had a hold of my academics, and they didn't release that until later apparently. SY: How did they set a hold on your— AN: Well, they wouldn't— I— for whatever reason, I couldn't get my credits here at Norwich. It didn't get released until later. Some years later. So, at that time I had gone to Trinity College in Burlington, and I got my Associates. SY: So, you had to redo all that. AN: Part of it, yes. And then I went to— I went another three of four years, and I went back to Trinity and got my Bachelor's. Well I got it all. My Bachelor's, I had like 12 or— no, 17 credits I had to take. No, I'm sorry. Seventeen courses I had to take, and I did them all in a year. So, I did day, night, and I had a full time job, and by the way I was cum laude. So, I just— it just proves that I really wanted to do it then, and I did it. Then, it wasn't until 2005 that Norwich granted 10 of us honorary degrees. And that was, to me, that was my most prized possession aside from my Norwich ring that— it just really— I had my other diplomas, but Norwich is bigger, and it's right in the middle of it, and it's a joy and pride for me. SY: Now did you stay in touch with any of your fellow students? So, did they know that you were going to leave and get married? AN: No, they didn't' know that until I left. Because you couldn't really trust anybody. I didn't know who was SAVAK, you couldn't— I didn't— also I didn't want to create any friction so that my family would get in trouble back home because my father cosigned me, so that if anything would be resolved, so if anything happened to me, and I left the navy, then he would pay all the expenses the navy had already put in my education. And they did. About 20 years later they went after my parents, and they wanted to take possession of the house and their belongings. So, my father called me, and said, "This is what's happening." I asked how much is it, and he said, "This much." And I just wrote a check, and they paid the government, and they were clear. So— but it was good timing then because inflation was so high that the amount I gave was almost 10 times more than it would have been up— 10 times less than I would have paid, so it just— it all worked out. SY: Yeah. And— OK. And then did you start— did you stay in touch with your family at all during that time? AN: I did, and it was pretty— we would write letters. Of course, they didn't have (inaudible) [00:48:24] or Tango and things like that— iPhone, you could talk to each other. So, from time to time we would write letters, and it would be pretty generic. No names, and no insulting the government, things like that. And sometimes I would call, and there are times that somebody— if you say something— the monitor on the other end would scold you for saying it, so— so they would do that, yeah. Because again, maybe my family— because we had three bro-- three siblings in prison by the Mullahs, and a number of family mem-- relatives who got executed by the government because they were against the government, so. SY: So, when did you get to see your family again? 14 AN: I got to see my mom about 15— 20 years ago. Eighteen years ago, I'm sorry. She came here to visit us, and then I went— my family and I went to Europe to Holland, a couple— three years after, and met with my mother and father. And they're still both of them living. My mom is in her 70s, my dad is in his 80s, so— SY: And are they in Iran, or— AN: In Iran. Tehran. SY: In Tehran. And your siblings? When did you get to see them? AN: My siblings— last time I saw my brother was about a few years ago. My sister is— oh my brother, five years ago. I went to see him, and I saw him there. SY: And it sounds like there's a period of, I don't know, 20 some odd years where you didn't see your family at all. AN: Yeah, it was. And it was one of the hardest things. And the reason is, I know my wife's family, they're really great. They love me. And really it was good to be accepted and to be part of them. But, you always feel like you don't— you— sight of it— there's something missing, and that is some of the things that have been missing for me and for my kids, because I always wanted to— I wanted to experience the love from my side of the family, because in Iran it's a lot more personable. I'm not saying— just, family is— it's— family relations are very deep. SY: And more affectionate, right? AN: More affectionate, just like— and they just— you feel like— we were talking to one of my friends, talking with how many people go see therapists here in the US, and it just really— it's hard for people to be talking to each other about— because no one's got time. In Iran, people don't go to therapists, they have family members. It's really— it's not unusual to have family members who live with you, so any problems you have you can always— you always have that support that— that support network that can always help you out. So, that's one other thing that I wish I had that for my kids, and I wish I had that for myself. I think that would have made me a lot better person in some ways for them, they would have a richer youth, and teenage years. It would be a lot better for them. SY: Do you speak Farsi with them at all? (overlapping dialogue; inaudible) [00:51:47] AN: No, I did not. I did initially, but that's one of the regrets. I should have spoken with them. I should have taught them, but I didn't. And actually, when I became a US citizen back three years after I got married. So, that was like '81, '80, '81 or so. Eighty-two. So, I was just— I was so mad at the Iranian government and all the things they do, I just didn't want to deal with it. Now, the last five, 10 years or so, I've started to pick up on strengthening my Farsi, because I was forgetting it, and I just realized— I just kind of made myself— I thought— I was thinking about, really, because I'm mad at them doesn't mean I don't— I love that language, and I just— it's really hard on me. So, I started to really read a lot of Farsi and listen to things, because you forget things, and I try always to see when I say something, how would it translate into Farsi, or the other way around. SY: Do you still dream in Farsi? AN: I dream about— yeah. I do. I mean, especially food involved. (laughter) 15 SY: That's what I was going to say. You must be homesick for food. What food do you crave that you can't get here? AN: They have these kebabs, filets, and they also have, we call them barg, which means leaf. But it's just kind of like leaf of meat. Filet. And they skewer it, and it's just unbelievably tasty. And that's served with rice and saffron. And they have this other kebab called koobideh, and that's basically kind of like hamburger, but it's on skewers this long, but it's absolutely the most delicious thing on earth. I mean, all Iranians, you don't find anybody who doesn't love chelo kebab. They call it chelo kebab. So, that's one of the things that— I mean, the smell of it, the taste of it, it's just out of this world. Seriously. SY: I believe you. (laughter) AN: Yeah. It just— it's just unbelievable. And that's one of the things I miss. And I miss the traditions. I miss the New Year. Persian New Year. It's a big deal in Iran. It was— SY: It was just last week, or two weeks ago, yeah. AN: Two weeks ago. Yeah. Twenty-first. And I know it's not a big deal here, but my wife does some prep for it, but it's just— it's not the same. So, those are the things that you feel like you wish you had. I wish for our governments— Iranian government and US government to get along, so people— SY: It looks like they're having— AN: I hope so— SY: Fear about what's going on this week, and last week. AN: Yeah, I'll see it when it's actually executed. I don't know. I don't trust these guys over there. SY: You'll believe it when you see it. AN: Yeah. I— you know what? It would be great if these two countries could get along and people could travel without the fear of getting hurt and kidnapped or whatever. SY: Bizhan's been back, have you ever gone back? AN: No, I've not gone back. He actually— when he resigned, he resigned from the navy. I did not. I just went AWOL, and because of my last name, because my brothers being anti-government, I really don't think I have a chance of going there freely. I would really— I wish I could, but I don't think so. Unless this government changes. SY: So, you're going to have to wait for news (overlapping dialogue; inaudible) [00:55:17]— AN: Yeah, to be honest with you, I don't think in my lifetime that's going to happen. I really don't think it. This is— traditionally, Iran— a regime lasts 70 to 100 years. Happened to Shah, it was 75. To these guys, it's only been 35, 40 years. I don't think I'm going to live another 30 years to see that, we'll see. SY: I don't know, you keep eating those egg white omelets, you might live another 35, 40 years. (laughter) AN: Yeah, maybe. SY: Sussan talked about how when she came back, because of the hostage crisis, there's a lot of hostility towards Iranians. Did you experience that? 16 AN: Yes, I did. Very much so. When— back in '78, or '79, I was working at this hotel called— maybe it was '80. The Radisson in Burlington. It's called Hilton now. So, I had an employee he worked for me. His name— whatever. And he was very anti-Iranian. And it was Iran this, Iran that, swear words, and— so, he didn't know I was Iranian, and finally when he found out I was Iranian, he just said, "I'm so sorry. I just didn't know you're Iranian, and I've been saying all these things." And I said, "It happens a lot. People don't know." When you talk about Americans are bad, or Iranians are bad, you just think of them in general. But you meet people, and you realize that really is not the case. And the prejudice I faced was not because of me. Once people started talking to me, they said, "Wow, you're not like that." Well, of course. I live in this country. I became a US citizen. I love this country. I'm not— it's not— I'm not the enemy. I'm like anybody else. But, my origin is Iranian. Just like you being Italian or being Irish. So, that's the way it is. But yeah. People— I mean, even after 9/11, just anybody who was dark, it was just— they were targeted. And then we learned to live with that. We learned to really put that aside. It's gotten a lot better in terms of labeling people and profiling them, I think so. So, I think, once people— and that's one of the things I love about Americans. Once they get to know you, and— first of all, I don't think many Americans are, in my experience, many Americans are not really vicious in terms of trying to put somebody down. People are very— they joke a lot in many ways. People like to be humorous about some things. That's just the way it is. And my experience has been I really haven't had people say, "You. Because of you." And once they get to know me, and say, "Hey, that's the situation. It is what it is." SY: Yeah. So, after all this, you're— you feel you— you arrive in Northfield, you arrive in the boonies, you say, "Oh my God, what is happening to me?" You end up staying in Vermont. Why'd you end up staying in Vermont? AN: Well, I stayed up in Vermont, the reason is because my wife is a Vermonter, and she wanted to be— she wanted to live here. I don't really like Vermont weather. I love the people. They're just the sweetest, most friendly, kind people. I just don't like the weather. And really, it's getting to me year after year. Just, I don't like the cold. Today's March— April. April second. I had to wear a long coat to come out. It's just— there's got to be an end to this at some point. So, my daughter lives in Florida. Southwest Florida. So, my dream is to move there someday and— but my wife is not convinced yet. That's the problem. That's the problem. SY: I don't know. You compromised. You've been here for a long time. Maybe it's your turn, huh? AN: Yeah. I don't know. We'll see. We'll see. Maybe another five or six years. We'll see. SY: Yeah. Exactly. I don't know if I have any more questions. I'm just looking through my list. Oh, yeah. So, then years later some of your classmates managed to trickle back in. So, what were those conversations like when you re-met them? AN: Oh, so coming back from Iran, or just— SY: Yeah. So, Bizhan makes his way back, Sussan makes her way back. It takes a while though. 17 AN: It does, yeah. It took a lot. For Bizhan, he almost didn't make it back here. He was stuck in [Bromford?] quite a long time. What really confirmed things for me was that I was right from the beginning that I shouldn't have gone to Iran, because a lot of my friends went, and said— and they went, and resigned, they almost didn't make it back, and they hated every minute of being in Iran. Even though it's our mother country, just because the regime made it so hard. And it was interesting to hear that people were in the same timeframe as I was in terms of thinking, and so for me it just was kind of a sweet— it's a pleasurous— pleasuring— pleasing thing to hear that I was— what I felt about Iran, not going to Iran was the right thing, and— SY: And everybody came back, and you could probably talk freely in a way that you hadn't been able to. AN: Oh yeah. Yeah. We did. And Bizhan's been to Iran several times. And even the last time that he went he said it was just really tough for him after a week. Said it was really tough. Just because we used to it— it's a part of our— we've been here more than half of our lives here in the US than we have been in Iran. So, for us in particular it's really hard. I don't think if I went to Iran, honestly I couldn't last more than a week or two. I seriously couldn't. Because A) the way of life B) all the different— the environment, the society and— SY: And the anxiety of whether or not you'd be able to leave. AN: Right. And that's a thing. And they have a different concept about things. Time is not important at all. So, you could go— when you invite Iranians over in Iran, you tell them dinner at 8:00. Dinner doesn't mean at 8:00, it means at 8:00 they start preparing the dinner. So, you end up eating dinner at 11:00 sometimes. SY: I think that's true for every people besides white Anglo-Saxons, you know what I mean? Any other country you go to it's the same. AN: And it's good to have that time concept. It's good to say, "Look, dinner's at 8:00. Be here at 7:45." Or whatever. I like the way things are more clear here what it is in the US. And people are pretty straightforward about it. In Iran, no. In Iran, say, "Hey, come here for dinner." Yeah, OK. And you can't tell people just come by yourself. You would say you come to my house, meaning you, that means the entire family. The entire family comes. So, it just— it's nice, in a way, and because everybody is together, and they love guests. That's another thing about our culture. We just love people coming and enjoying our food and being part of our lives. SY: Yeah. So, what's your job now? AN: I am the VP or Information Technology and CIO at Visiting Nurse Association in Colchester. SY: That sounds like a very good job. AN: It is actually. I started at— I went up the ranks. And I've been there 21 years. So, I really worked hard at getting here, and they just didn't give it to me because they liked— they thought they should have somebody like me. I worked hard for it. And I guess you have to prove yourself. Because again, you have in this country, again, you are given an opportunity, I feel like you people should be— they should use it to the absolute max, and if they don't use it— and that's why if they don't use it they're putting themselves at a disadvantage, and that's why it's true 18 that it's the land of opportunity. And it's true that if you want to do it you can do it. But you really have to work at it hard, and sometimes you have to work harder just because of who you are. Sometimes— different times I have to work a lot harder to prove myself because people just look at you and for whatever reason they just think you might not be able to write well, you might not be able to speak well, so those are things that kind of— they put you— you're set back, and they don't give you the opportunity. SY: Did you ever get disheartened during your sort of rise up the ranks? AN: I did. Like, you get— against what? My work, or people I work with? SY: No, just frustrated. I mean, like, yes. This is the American Dream. You can work hard and you can rise up, but there is discrimination, there are barriers, there are different things. It's frustrating. AN: No, I never did. I seriously I— again, I always thought this is such a great country. And if I can imagine myself when we had the hostage crisis here in this country, Iranians took those Americans hostage, 52 of them, for 444 days or something like that, and people still here we could live and we could get promotion. We could work hard. I mean, it doesn't happen everywhere, but I feel like I never had any backlash against me because of that. But I can't imagine being in Iran and being an American, and you take Iranians— Americans take Iranians hostage, and Americans in Iran be treated this well. And again, this is one of the greatest things about the United States, because that is— that's what makes us such a great nation. And that's what makes us so special. I mean, every day when I talk to these young people, I say to them, "You have this opportunity in this country, you have such a great country here, you have to realize it. Don't say US this, and US that, address it in a negative way. You haven't been to the other side to see what it is to live in this great country." And just have to— you just have to cherish that, and appreciate it, and you have this opportunity, you're part of this nation. SY: Yeah. One last question. How did you meet your wife? AN: Well, actually, I was— we were going to a disco called Friends in Burlington, and I had a girlfriend here one— actually, I had a live in girlfriend here, and I had a fight with her one night, and just went to disco with my friends. My male friends. So, my wife saw me at the— standing there by the cigarette machine, because they had cigarette machines inside, and she asked me to dance, and we danced for three hours. And so, that's— I think I told her I fell in love with her that night, and she said, "Oh, [I can't hear?]?" I said, "I loved you from the minute I saw you." So that's— SY: And now that's 30-- AN: Thirty six years we've been married. Yeah. Yeah. So, like any marriage, there's just like anything. You'll have ups and downs, but more ups. I really think that. More positive stuff than. SY: Absolutely. So, any last thoughts? AN: Last thought is I hope someday my kids will be able to listen to all these stories from Iranian guys, and Norwich cadets, and I hope they should— that they have an opportunity to come back and listen to some of these. 19 SY: Well, actually you're going to get a copy of this, and pretty soon the interviews I did with Bizhan and Sussan will be available online. So, that wish will be able to be granted very quickly and concretely. AN: Yeah? Great. SY: So, I'll send you— I'll send you— [01:07:09] END OF AUDIO FILE
Abstrak Patriarkiadalah salah satumasalahbesar bagisetiapwanita di dunia, masalah iniakhirnyadiwakilidengankarya sastra, dansalah satunya adalahAtiqRahimiBatuKesabaran.Terdapat Perempuan, sebagai karakter utamadiceritakandengan semuakesedihan, menikahdengan dipaksa, menikahdengan foto, sampai diaharus membuathamil dengantanpajalan dandia memilikibayi daripria laindia tidak pernahtahu. Berdasarkanfakta-fakta, ini memberikan dua pertanyaanutama sebagairespondarimasalah, adalah(1) GambaranbelenggupatriarkimelaluisuaradiamPerempuandiAtiqRahimiBatuKesabaran?(2) DampaksuaradiamPerempuandiAtiqRahimi, BatuKesabaran?Untuk mengatasi hal itudengan analisis, membutuhkanmetode yangmembaca, mengumpulkan data, dan interpretasi, teknik yang digunakanadalahinterpretasi, dan pendekatanmimesis. Sebagaihasil dariini, itu akanmenemukan sesuatu, suaradiamPerempuan, dan initerjadidi Afghanistan, oleh karena itu,dapat dikatakanbahwa sistempatriarkibisa mengambilhak-hak perempuan, dan apahal-hal yangdapat memberikanPerempuanadalahsuaradiam,suarayang dapat menjadigerakan feminisuntuk setiapsimpatiuntuknya. Ini mewakili, untukberkatadalam bisikanyang sangathalus yangmasih adaketimpanganyang disebabkan olehpatriarki, danWanitatidak dapatberbuat apa-apa. Kata Kunci: Patriarki, perempuan, suaradiam, danfeminisme. Abstract Patriarchy is one of the great problem for every women in the world, this problem finally is represented to a literary work, and one of it is AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone. There, the Woman, as the main character is told with all sorrow, marrying by being forced, marrying with a photo, until she has to make pregnant with regardless the way and she has baby from another guy she never knows. Based on the facts, it delivers two main questions as the response of problems, they are (1) Depiction of patriarchy's handcuffthrough the Woman's Silent Voicein AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone? (2) The impact ofthe Woman's Silent Voice in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone? To solve it by analysis, it requires a method that is reading, collecting data, and interpretation, the used technique is interpretation, and the approach is mimesis. As the result of this, it will find something, the silent voice of the Woman, and this is happen in Afghanistan, therefore, it can be said that patriarchy system can grab the rights of women, and what things that the Woman can deliver is the silent voice, the voice that can be a feminist movement for every sympathy to it. It represents, it says in very smooth whispers that there are still inequality caused by patriarchy, and the Woman cannot do anything. Keywords: Patriarchy, women, silent voice, and feminism. INTRODUCTION Human lives in the world are like corrosion on the ply of metal in the process of abrasion. What the core of this analogy is the way human wear their brain shell to think and find the solution of every problem they face to. Human are divided in to two genders normally, they are men and women. Men, a creature whose penis sticks strongly with dignity and power to dig every hole in front of it. Women, a creature whose vagina decorates beautifully with softness and warmness for everything that prepares for digging it. Based on the differences of the two, the conflicts arise. It starts when women begin realizing that what they think is their right, is grabbed by the creature, called men. In addition, this thought probably can be supposed as the basic thought of feminism movement. Before going further to the meant feminism, it is important to see what feminism fights to, and it is patriarchy system. Patriarchy system is a system that has been rooted in society generally. Erich From asserts that Patriarchy system is where men is fated to dictate/control women, and it rules to all part in the world. (Fromm, 2002: 177). To add it, to make the establishment of this system of men, chronologically there are some experts that give distance between men and women where men are supposed to be the better one. Classically, women are inequality creature, and it is added by Aristotle who views women as an imperfectness of nature (Beauvoir, 2003:ix). Francis Bacon comments that the more negative assertion that women are the jail of men because women give bad effect or influence to men (Arivia, 2002:40). Kant even says that women does not have any ability to use their cognitive ability therefore women should not be allowed to deliver what they think (Arivia, 2002:40). While, St. Thomas supposes women as "imperfect men", women are creature who are created not deliberately, and it is proven by the symbolic story where Eve is portrayed by Bossuet as a creature who is made of the "Adam's Rib" (Beauvoir, 2003:xi). According to Cixous, the term of men and women pinpoints to the difference of the two where the first term must posit the higher or better meaning, and it is placed by men. Therefore, men are self and women are the Liyan. Women live in men's world, therefore women are considered as the Liyan for men. (Tong, 2009: 292). Based on those facts, society finally construct a system where men dominate the whole contents of social life. J. Douglas (1976: 34) adds that many feminists use the term patriarchy as a generic term for male privilege, supremacy, and domination, referring to their current as well as past forms. The attraction of this usage is readily apparent: first, its rhetorical punch and strongly pejorative connotations; second, its reminder of the tenacity and continuity of male domination. Despite earth-shaking social changes, not the least of which are the women's Movements of the nineteenth and twentieth century, male power remains. Therefore, what the things that can be inferred into these facts are the problems between men and women. Feminism moves to throw everything that involves in men's domination because they dictate women, women seem to live in a coop. It means that what women fight is the system of men. In general, feminism is the theory of women's liberation since the intrinsic in all its approaches is the belief that women suffer injustice because of women's sex (Humm, 1989: 74). From the inequality that exists between both gender, women want to search equality in the society, they start to speak up their voices in the publicarena. Women themselves must articulate who they are and what role they play in the society. Most importantly, they must reject the patriarchal assumption that women are inferior to men. This started the feminist movement. It was started by the reality that male-female relations is a form of power structure in which men dominate women (Thebaud, 1994: 290). From this starting point the feminist believe that existing inequalities between dominant and marginalized groups can and should be removed. In the practive the feminist scholars attempt to examine beliefs and practices from the viewpoint of the "other", in this case women, treating them as subjects, not merely objects. Based on those views, it can be said that feminism simply is a thought that focuses on the equality between men and women, especially to talk about the rights of women. Therefore, what things that can be put into the main topic of this, is the all things relates to the inequality between men and women where men are supposed to be the superiority ones. Feminism itself is part of cultural studies in literature, which arises since women feel discredited and being treated unequal to men as human. Yet, what is not acceptable is the differentiation in position, that men are superior to women. That awareness prompts women to rise up and fight for their rights. Feminism deals with freedom, appreciation, and fair treatment for women. It is not women's disability to sit equal with men, but the systems in their social life discourage women to gain self-assertion to actualize themselves as well as men. Meanwhile, women want to grow as human beings who have equal role and opportunity in their own life and society. In the West and East alike, feminists were up against home-grown patriarchalist opponents who used sundry means to denigrate feminism and its supporters. In the West, detractors portrayed feminists as man-haters. In the East, enemies branded feminists as agents of cultural subversion and, ironically in so doing 'colluded' with westerners in declaring feminism western. (Kynsilehto, 2008: 26). Therefore, what can be integrated from this Islam feminism understanding is the way Islam see the equality between men and women, from the agents of truth about the equality between men and women, not creating women to hate men just to beg an equality as what west feminism says to. It is clear to see that this problem finally inspires some authors to write it down in beautiful work, and one of it is AtiqRahimi with his novel entitled The Patience Stone. The main thing that is hidden in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone is the way feminism is shown up. This novel, especially the main character, the woman, erodes the feeling of the readers to give sympathy and tears on what has happened to the woman. The woman cannot fight to the system of men he faces on, but she just can deliver it through a telling to her comate husband, which is not changing anything to her fair life. Specifically, in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone, there is told a woman sits in front of his comate husband. She tells everything she never confesses before because of some reasons. She is the wife of a soldier who is lying unconscious with a bullet in his neck, and she calls her husband withThe Patience Stone or "Sang-e Saboor," it is a mythical stone accords to Persian folklore that absorbs the pain of those who confide in it, until it eventually explodes. When the novel opens, the man has been comatose for over two weeks, and shows no signs of recovery. Frustration and despair on the woman's part gradually turns to angry rebellion and, uncertain whether or not he can hear her words, she becomes ever more talkative and outgoing as she gathers over their ten-year marriage. The thing that is important to know is that the couple didn't meet before their wedding, nor even during it, since he was away fighting. Instead a ceremony was performed between the teen bride (the Woman) and a photograph, after which she spent three years as a married virgin. She is not allowed to be out of house of seeing friends and family. When the Husband returns, she discovers that she is married to a violent, because the Husband brutally detaches sex at the first sex time. It can be seen that the woman as main character reflects "handcuff" of women life against patriarchy in the social life of the novel. The Women uses her inability to comprehend and talk back to tell him things that she will not dare to say otherwise. With his disability she has been left to feed herself, her two children and continue buying medicine to keep her husband alive. The only job available for an Afghan woman in her desperate situation it seems is prostitution. It is an interested topic to explore because AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone is part of a Persian myth about a stone that has this phenomenal strength to listen to stories of suffering and sorrow. What sorrow that is delivered is from the heart voice of a woman that lives in the unfair world. The unfair world is caused by the inequality. Thus, to respond it, the readers must have attention to give sympathy to the woman indirectly, and to call this feeling, it is not too naïve when it said as the feminist movement that calls everyone in talking the equality women should have. To classify it, this thought belongs to first wave, where women have voice to utter although it is not a fight directly. Then, the voice that is not changing anything significantly to what the Woman faces, is the silent voice. Silent voice is the voice that is not heard, listened, and sensed. However, this voice exists, and the existence gnaws sympathy to see how unequal the social system the Woman faces, the sympathy that dribbles to feminism thought indirectly to get the equal rights. Based on the reasons above, this thesis then conveys analysis on the life and some aspect of main characters thorough feminism approach accords to patriarchy concepts and understanding in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone. Finally, the planned title can be written as The Woman's Silent Voice toward Patriarchy's Handcuff Reflected in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience. For more additional support that this thesis uses credible object, it is important to see that AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone is the winner of Prix Goncourt Prize in 2008. Therefore, this thesis hopefully can be a great product and be great donation of literary critics and analysis. Indeed, the decision to select AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone rather than the other works of him is caused by the main topic of the work. AtiqRahimi's The Patience Stone delivers more complex problem between men and women, that finally grabs the problem of Patriarchy and Feminism, while the feminism that is used is based on the glasses of Islam because the setting is in Afghan. In AtiqRahimi'sEarth and Ashes is told about the patriotic father that struggle with his blind son during the Russia invasion in Afghanistan, while in AtiqRahimi'sA Thousands Room of Dream and Fear delivers a student who exiles form his life because he is chased, he loves someone saves him. Based on the two reference, AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone becomes the best one to analyze accords to men and women problem culturally. RESEARCH METHOD This study is taking one of the Atiq Rahimi's stories entitled The Patience Stone as the primary source. In case of analyzing this story, library research is used in order to find some theories, which are relevant to the topic. Finally, Mimesis approach will be used in analyzing this story because the topic that will be discussed about the main character's silent voice as a woman against patriarchy in her social life as the universal truth. In collecting data, this research focuses on analysis and citations. The first step is reading novel. In this step, novel becomes the object of the research. The novel is entitled The Patience Stone, written by Atiq Rahimi. This is to reach the understanding all contents completely with all possibilities both intrinsically and extrinsically. The second is inventorying data. This step is collecting data through noting the quotations related to the statement of the problems and objectives of the study, it is including in words, sentences, and discourse that can represent patriarchy and feminism in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone. The third is classification data. This step to classify the data based on the statement of the problems including the portrayal patriarchy and the way the Woman posits herself against it. The fourth is tabling the data. It is to simplify reading the data and classify data that is used in the analysis for the readers. Those collected data are continuosly intrepreted to react the statement of the problems. The handling of a technique is a duty to do, it is to keep the analysis not jumping out of the limitation in order to solve the statement of the problems. Furthermore, it is significant to be on familiar terms with the data that it is from the novel entitled The Patience Stone, written in 136 pages plus 4 pages of brief introduction by KhaledHossaeni. It is written by AtiqRahimi with original title of SynguéSabour. Pierre de patience, published with ISBN: 9780701184102, and by Chatto&Windus. It is addressed at Random House, 20 Vauxhall Bridge Road, in London at 7wiv 25a. The book design is created Chatto and Windus group and translated by Polly McLean. On the dark cover, there is laid a stamp of Goncourt Winner 2008. CULTURAL APPROACH The term culture is a description of a particular way of life, which expresses certain meanings and values not only in art and learning but also in institutions and ordinary behavior (Frow, 1996: 8). Frow also states that culture is the way of life and is the meanings and values in that way of life. Therefore, basically a cultural approach is a way to think about a literary text based on the ideas or customs of certain society in which the text is made. According to Stanley Fish, J. Hillis, and Michael Foucault, language helps create what we call objective reality, thus reality is a social construct since it is created from language which is a product of customs produced by certain society. (Bressler, 1999: 264) Each society or culture contains in itself a dominant cultural group which determines that culture's ideology, its dominant values it sense of right and wrong, and its sense of personal self worth. (Bressler, 1999: 264) Culrural approach is divided into some theories. Those are: Marxism, post colonialism, new historicism, and feminism (Bressler, 1999: 178). As stated above, cultural approach investigates the domination and the dominated groups. Therefore, this approach will be used to analyze Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone and since the dominated group in this novel is women, the theory of feminism will be used for further analysis. Before going deeper to the feminism, it is important to see that feminism that will be used is the feminism from the glasses of Islam. In the West and East alike, feminists were up against home-grown patriarchalist opponents who used sundry means to denigrate feminism and its supporters. In the West, detractors portrayed feminists as man-haters. In the East, enemies branded feminists as agents of cultural subversion and, ironically in so doing 'colluded' with westerners in declaring feminism western. (Kynsilehto, 2008: 26). Therefore, what can be integrated from this Islam feminism understanding is the way Islam see the equality between men and women, from the agents of truth about the equality between men and women, not creating women to hate men just to beg an equality as what west feminism says to. This thought is also influence to the way of the culture move by times, Eastern as universal truth sees, is culturally have features of moral, politeness, differences, and those all shape a unity of eastern culture that is very cultural. While, in Western, thought, rationality, and will or dreams becomes the subjects that move them to be better, and it shapes their mind and finally becomes the culture of west, therefore, the freedom of women seems to be radical rather that to grab the equality. PATRIARCHY Patriarchy system is a system that has been rooted in society generally. Erich From asserts that Patriarchy system is where men is fated to dictate/control women, and it rules to all part in the world. (Fromm, 2002: 177). Engels gives different perspective that patriarchy system is begun when human have already understood about privacy owning, and it marks the birth of system of class. (Budiman, 1981: 21). What Engels means, must reflect to the birth of system of class of men and women. To add it, to make the establishment of this system of men, chronologically there are some experts that give distance between men and women where men are supposed to be the better one.Classically, women are inequality creature, and it is added by Aristotle who views women as an imperfectness of nature (Beauvoir, 2003:ix). Francis Bacon comments that the more negative assertion that women are the jail of men because women give bad effect or influence to men (Arivia, 2002:40). Kant even says that women does not have any ability to use their cognitive ability therefore women should not be allowed to deliver what they think (Arivia, 2002:40). While, St. Thomas supposes women as "imperfect men", women are creature who are created not deliberately, and it is proven by the symbolic story where Eve is portrayed by Bossuet as a creature who is made of the "Adam's Rib" (Beauvoir, 2003:xi). According to Cixous, the term of men and women pinpoints to the difference of the two where the first term must posit the higher or better meaning, and it is placed by men. Therefore, men are self and women are the Liyan. Women live in men's world, therefore women are considered as the Liyan for men. (Tong, 2009:292). Based on those facts, society finally construct a system where men dominate the whole contents of social life. J. Douglas (1976: 34) adds that many feminists use the term patriarchy as a generic term for male privilege, supremacy, and domination, referring to their current as well as past forms. The attraction of this usage is readily apparent: first, its rhetorical punch and strongly pejorative connotations; second, its reminder of the tenacity and continuity of male domination. Despite earth-shaking social changes, not the least of which are the women's Movements of the nineteenth and twentieth century, male power remains. These all continuously give a perspective that women are really controlled, handled, and dictated by men particularly in society. The representation of society can be found in family. Family is the crucial institution in society (Millet, 1972: 33) because it can represent to what happens in the society. In a family the women mostly being the victim of oppressed by their husband or brother. Furthermore, feminist knowledge develops and becomes more sophisticated throughout the 1970s; the family comes to be an important object of analysis. In many cases, it is the crucial site of women s oppression, the space where, unheeded by the world outside, women are at the mercy of fathers or husbands; where the law of patriarchy holds its most primitive form (Pilcher&Whelehan, 2004: 44). Engels as quoted by Millet explains that the ideal type of the patriarchal family and the ancestor is the Roman family, whence come both the term and the legal forms and precedents in the west. Engels informed the word familiaas follow: signify the composite ideal of sentimentality and domestic strife in the present day philistine mind. Among the Romans it did not even apply in the beginning to the leading couple and its children, but to the slave alone. Famulus means domestic slave, and familia is the aggregate number of slaves belonging to one man the expression [familia] was invented by the Romans in order to designate a new social organism the head of which had a wife, children and a number of slaves under his paternal authority and according to Roman law, the right of life and death over all of them(Millet, 1972: 123—124). In family, Gough as quoted by Jo, mentions that men and women cooperate through a division of labor based on gender. Child care, household tasks and crafts closely connect with the household, tend to be done by women; war, hunting, and government by men. Besides that, men in general have higher status and authority over the women of their families, although older women may have influence, even some authority, over junior men (Jo, 1984: 84). Therefore, what things can be inferred to those all understandings, are the problem that is faced by women in the society, the society is like the jail of women and it is sourced by thoughts where place men in a good position to control women. This is also what things reflected on AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone that finally makes the main character, the woman, whispers something as the silent voice in the middle of patriarchy system. This reaction potentially can be said as the thing to get attention and sympathy about what happens to women in Afghanistan, and this can be said as the movement of feminism. FEMINISM In general, feminism is the theory of women's liberation since the intrinsic in all its approaches is the belief that women suffer injustice because of women's sex (Humm, 1989: 74). From the inequality that exists between both gender, women want to search equality in the society, they start to speak up their voices in the publicarena. Women themselves must articulate who they are and what role they play in the society. Most importantly, they must reject the patriarchal assumption that women are inferior to men. This started the feminist movement. It was started by the reality that male-female relations is a form of power structure in which men dominate women (Thebaud, 1994: 290). From this starting point the feminist believe that existing inequalities between dominant and marginalized groups can and should be removed. In the practive the feminist scholars attempt to examine beliefs and practices from the viewpoint of the "other", in this case women, treating them as subjects, not merely objects. Based on all general understanding, it is important to sharpen it into the good shape for not going out of the limitation and wasting buss of explanation of the theory. First of all, it is a long discussion of talking about feminism and its complex sources. To maintain the stability of this research that uses feminism as the knife to slice the discourse of patriarchy reflected in AtiqRahimi's The Patience Stone, thus the first feminism, the main slicer, continuously will be the main point of theory to discuss. The first wave of feminism appeared in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when women's suffrage was at the pole position of an industrializing world. In other word, it happened at the age of Victorian age. In 1800, women had little control over their lot in life. The average married female gave birth to seven children. Higher education was off-limits. Wealthier women could use limited authority in the domestic scope but possessed no property rights or economic autonomy. Lower-class women toiled alongside men, but the same social and legal restrictions applied to this stratum of society as well. Somewhat ironically, religion fueled some of the initial social advancements women made at the beginning of the 19th century. The Second Great Awakening, which started in 1790, emphasized emotional experience over dogma, allowing women more leadership opportunities outside of the home. Abolition and temperance movements that shared Protestant undercurrents activated women as well. It is like to what Stuurman, as quoted by Bryson, says that feminist theological arguments were further elaborated in the seventeenth century: for example, some writers used the creation story to argue that Eve was superior to Adam because she wascreated last, or because she was created out of Adam's rib rather than out of mud and slime (Bryson, 2003: 6). Thus, it can be seen, that in religion, or theologically, the inequality women have, has been rooting to put them down under the knee of men. That means, men are taking higher position in human life where men and women separate them. To talk about the theologically term about the inequality, then women want to get the equality, means that women have something different from the way theology thinks about it and the way of thought is Cartesian with all rationality to think. Bryson notes that the inspiration for these new ways of thinking (feminisms) was the revolution in western philosophy, which had been started in the first half of the seventeenth century by Descartes. According to Cartesian philosophy, all people possess reason, and true knowledge, which is based on experience and self-discovery rather than study of the classics or sacred texts, is in principle available to all. This means that traditional authority is rejected in favor of rational analysis and independent thought, and that customs and institutions which are not in accordance with reason should be rejected. (Bryson, 2003: 6). Therefore, what has been done by feminist is breaking the old thought that is sourced by the empirical way of theology. Moreover, what becomes the main point of this born is the equality that is thought as the right that has been robbed by men and their all system. The first-wave of feminism began in the United Kingdom and the United States around the nineteenth century and lasted until the early twentieth century. The focus of this movement at this time was on de jure inequalities, or officially mandated inequalities. There were many people during this time who were considered to be feminists, Mary Wollstonecraft, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, Olympia Brown, and Helen Pitts; there are countless more. The first-wave of feminism was monumental to the movement, however, without the continuing second-wave, there would be no hope for feminism in current times, for each wave is connected and dependent on the other's history. In simpler words, feminism is not some simple thing that people can generalize, like it is just an excuse for women to kick men in the balls, and not take care of themselves, or that men and women must be equal at all costs. Feminism is a movement, which has been incredibly important to the success and failures of this country and has been a necessary journey for the women in our country to travel upon so that they can discover and create their own unique place in society. First wave feminists spent hundreds of years in activism, writing, protesting and working for the betterment and equality of their sex and gender. First wave feminists worked not only for suffrage, or the right to vote, but also for the right to an education, the right to work, the right to work safely, the right to the money they earned when they worked, the right to a divorce, the right to their children and the right to themselves and their own bodies. Rights for women can be traced back to the Middle Ages in the Middle East when early reforms under Islam gave women greater rights in marriage, divorce and inheritance. Women in other cultures were not afforded such rights until centuries later. Further improvements of the status of Arab women included things such as the prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. The things mentioned above are necessary and were necessary, and in some case, came at the end of long efforts. First wave feminists had to work against this impression, and they had to work against the society that allowed an unmarried woman to be property of her father and a married woman to be property of her husband. The first wave of feminism was the longest, and it is the most taken for granted. It is common now to speak with women who do not identify as feminists who think that feminism is a dirty word, who simultaneously pursue careers and an education, who exercise their right to vote, who own property and benefit from the fruits of their labor. Understanding the history and the efforts of feminism, understanding how much progress they made and how long it took them is important both to those who think they are not feminists, and those who identify as feminists and who live life trying to better the world by the feminist ideal. (Retrieved from uic.edu and pacificu.edu). Victorian feminism is a difficult concept to analyze. On the one hand, some of the greatest reforms of women's social and legal position before those of the late twentieth century occurred in a few decades of the nineteenth century; on the other, many of those women who were active campaigners—Caroline Norton, Florence Nightingale, Emily Davies, and Barbara Bodichon—were ambivalent about the extent of their own feminism, and over-anxious to distance themselves from unconventional lifestyles and behavior. Moreover, they seemed concerned mainly with the plight of intelligent middle-class single women. Their commitment to respectability gave them something of a timorous or half-hearted allegiance to a more wide-ranging kind of feminism; in any case, their contribution to the feminist cause was often narrowly specialized as they concentrated on a particular campaign—whether for women's colleges at Cambridge or child custody rights—to the exclusion of others, and many still relied on men to help them with the legal or parliamentary part of their activism. For some, however, it was impossible to avoid being drawn into a wider examination of women's rights, as happened with Caroline Norton and Harriet Martineau, for example, and by the end of the century, most of the major journals were carrying heated debates about the unsatisfied needs of the modern woman. Beginning initially with spasmodic bursts of activism, first wave feminism gathered pace through the work of specific individuals working for specific ends, until the momentum of events made concern for women's full participation in social and political life a matter of public interest across the whole political spectrum. This in itself was no mean achievement (Gamble, 2006: 24). According to those all explanations about first wave feminism, that is majorly from west, then it is continued to see this based on the glasses of Islam feminism reflected to AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone. There is a woman that faces a fact of patriarchy system, she cannot do anything except confessing something about the inequality that indirectly getting sympathy for anyone who read to pay the pity about equality of thee Woman should have. The equality is something has been robbed by the patriarchy system, and the way the Woman acts, can be said as feminist movement. As Muslim, this thought can be clearly is seen as east feminist movement. It is like to what Kynsilheto says that it was in this context that some of us reported that Muslim women were subverting the patriarchal Islamist project through what appeared to be a new form of feminism-in-the-making which Muslim women in different parts of the world would soon call Islamic feminism. (Kynsilehto, 2008: 26). Therefore, the understanding of this feminism toward this research goes clearer to see as the relevant theory that will be used to slice the data just to become a good shape of analysis without going out of the limitation. STATUS WOMEN IN AFGHANISTAN The position of women in Afghanistan traditionally has been inferiorto that of men. This position has been continuing to age, socio-culturalnorms, and ethnicity. In fact, Afghan women, even until the beginning of 20thcentury are still being the slaves of their father, husband, father-in-law, and elder brother. Thus, it can be said that the status of women are silence and obedience. The essence of attitude towards women could be clearly seen in the relationshipof the family after the birth of a female baby.The birth of a female baby,particularly in those cases where the mother gives birth to several girls, is the main cause of contracting a second marriage, and it is still happened until nowadays. Girls areusually raised to be good mothers and tolerant housewives. Thus no one pays attention to their education, except in very rare cases in some well-to-do families. Furthermore, they are married to young and even to very old men, in most caseswealthy ones between the ages of 13 and 16, and in certain cases between the ages of 10 and 12, if their parents desire. They were exchanged for what is called "Toyana" or marriage price. Young girls had no right to choose theirfuture husbands, or question their engagement, which is arranged by theirparents. Early marriage is the main cause of suffering for girls in Afghansociety. Such marriages are both physically and psychologically unhealthy,and often resulted in sickness and psycho-neurotic diseases. Many youngmothers pass away during releasing it because of physiological reasons and earlymotherhood.Divorce is an easy act if the husband wants it. Afghan women do not have any right to ask for divorce. The man is the governor, the controller, the dictator, of every authorizing in divorcing. It is a slur for both families.Occasionally, wives were deprived of their rights and claims on their ownchildren. Traditional women refer to their husbands as "Sahib", the lord. Wives aregreatly trusted by their husbands. This great confidence rendered byhusbands has led Afghan wives towards great honesty, chastity, courage, andproper manners. Women are mainly occupied with rearing children, cooking,sewing, milking, weaving, spinning, and other similar house-works. For thosewho can pay for servants, their servants free them from the burden of home duties. Women take part in social occasions and family entertainments,but they separate from men. On all occasions where both sexes take part,they remainsto be separated. According to Scharmann (Kakar, 1971), thedivision of men and women into two separate worlds is pronounced inAfghan society. In entering the world outside their homes, women are toveil themselves. They usually try to hide their faces from men, calling them "Namahram", though the exception was for women in upper class families,the number of which was very small. Afghan women are patriotic. They love their native land. That is whyAfghan women in time of war helped Afghan warriors in the battle fields byproviding services such as carrying supplies, removing bodies, helpingwounded soldiers, etc. For example, in the second Afghan war with theBritish, Maiden Malalyis known as the symbol of courage at Maiwand war.At present, women take an active part in defending the revolution. They areorganized in committees for such defense. Based on the paraphrasing of Wali M. Rahimi in his book Status of Women: Afghanistan that is supported by UNESCO, therefore it can be accepted that what things happen to the Woman in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone, is not only a kind of play of the plots of a fiction, but it can be related to the reflection of the reality world, where women are still living in the jail, they live in the armpits of men that are very rotten. HOW AL-QURAN VIEWS PATRIARCHY As a religion that is always involved in patriarchy, Islam actually seems to be like a scapegoat religion. By the showing from the first creature of Adam, the duty of men of being a leader and women should follow their husband, until the greater rights of wealth heritage. Those all constantly strike Islam as a religion that gives privilege to men rather than to women. This all happen, potentially from the miss understanding toward the interpretation of Al Quran.In Al Quran, the holly book of all Muslim, there is told some reason of those wrong perceptions. In a verse from Surah An-NAhl. There is written, Anyone who works righteousness, male or female, while believing, we will surely grant them a happy life in this world, and we will surely pay them their full recompense (on the Day of Judgment) for their righteous works(16:97). This is what is said as the equality of Men and Women. Both men and women are treated with same treatment, and those all based on what they do in the world with regardless what sex they have. Additionally, there are some verses and Surah that show Islam give similar position between men and women, and the difference of the two is not a hierarchal system, but difference of patching each other. This is very different to what patriarchy understands about, therefore, there is no reason to call Islam as patriarchal religion. SILENT VOICE This is a new term that will be a source of question, what does it mean? How can this term raise among all problems that this thesis emerges up? And many questions follow to trace with no end. However, this term is actually taken from the basic problem of the Woman, as the main character, in AtiqRahimi'sThe Patience Stone. The Woman faces problems of patriarchy system, she cannot do anything except following that system. She is just woman, and she has no voice to demonstrate what she feels, but, when her husband comes back in comate condition, she finally can utter everything she feels. Based on this fact, it can be said that the Woman has a chance to say what she feels from the comate condition of her husband, with that moment she says. She voices something, something that is always hidden and repressed. This repressed voice, finally can be seen as the silent voice, because silent literally mean cannot be uttered directly, it exists but it is not heard and listened, even it cannot be heard nor listened. The voice symbolically shows the heart, the feel, and experience. Therefore, it is completely seen as the silent voice of the Woman, definitely. DEPICTION OF PATRIARCHY'S HANDCUFF THROUGH THE WOMAN'S SILENT VOICE IN ATIQ RAHIMI'S THE PATIENCE STONE The things become the crucial issue in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone is the problem that is faced by the Woman. The Woman here is unnamed character, she has a comate husband after taking back from the war. Here, the Woman delivers everything she has kept, hid, and buried. These feelings are blown up by what she utters to the "dead" husband. Here the conflict emerges as long she delivers it. To start it, the conflict can be rushed to the conflict where the Woman has a sex with her husband at the first night, 'Oh yes bleeding…I was lying to him, of course.' She glances keenly at the man, more mischievous than submissive. 'Just as I've lied to you…more than once!' she pulls her legs up to her chest and wedges her chin between her knees. 'But there is something I'd better tell you…' (Rahimi, 2010: 28). There is something different going wrong in this case. On the quotation, the Woman admits to her comate husband that she has been lying to him. What she lies, is the thing happens when they firstly sleep in gathering. Pulling the plot before, the man comes after homing from war. He is as nervous as the woman in facing the first having sex. Then, they finally have a sex. The Husband feels happy because he thinks that the woman is still virgin. The proof is, the blood melts down while the Husband penetrates his penis down. It is accepted because, in oriental countries, culture, women are like the special things. Therefore, the virginity of women is the crucial thing every man should have got. It can be thought carefully when it is compared with western culture. In western culture, a man and a woman can live together although they have not been married, but it is not accepted in mostly eastern culture, moreover in Afghanistan. To get it, men's culture construct a jail where women are prohibited to be out of house in order to make them saves of being not virgin. However, the blood that melts on the Woman's vagina is the blood of menstruation. The Husband does not know, and he does not want to know. The way the Husband does it, the way the Husband treats his wife with regardless the condition of the wife appears something. It is a kind of a force, the insisting seems that the Husband, as a man, has a power and right to do everything to the wife. This authority can be belonged to an action of domination of a man to his wife. Further explanation, the way these two creatures marry, is not in a proper equal right. What is meant by this statement is, the Woman marries to her husband in a condition where she has to be sit with a photo because the Husband in on process of war. That is the pity thing for every woman to marry with someone she never sees directly and physically. This marriage happens because the Woman is believed as a woman who has been already of being married. With regardless the love, the feeling, and the desire to marry, the Woman is insisted to marry. This is harsh thing, the hard thing for women to neglect it. Women are poisoned by this system, because if women try to make a move of changing it means that women have not been ruling the law, and it is considered as fighting to God's rule. As it can be mirrored directly that, this system, this marriage gives something pleasant for the men because they (men) do not have to be so serious in facing the marriage because they can represent their appearance, their existence, in the ceremony. Another fact is, when the Husband has a sex with the Woman, actually the Woman is in the period that means she has menstruation. However, what thing that can stick to every eye is the fact that the Husband firstly meet the Woman, his wife, three years after they marry.'When you and I went to bed for the first time after three years of marriage, remember! Anyway, that night, I had my period.' (Rahimi, 2010: 28).From the quotation above, it can be read unmistakably that the Woman meets her husband firstly after three years passed. This is added the explanation above that the Woman is jailed in the system of patriarchy. The Woman cannot break the rule, she has to follow the rule, she has to be laid down on the feet of a man. It can be imagined, how can a marriage is not attended by one of the couple? It is really strange and seemed not to be a fair marriage. Additionally, the Woman marries to her husband is caused by the time she has to marry. Moreover, her sister has been sold to a man because her father cannot pay the debt after being lost in his bet. After having a sex, the days after, the Husband should go to the war again. It means that he has to leave his wife again. The Woman, as a woman generally in the world, must feel sad of being left by the husband. Therefore, the Husband looks to be a pride thing for everyone in Afghanistan, because he struggles for nation, for religion, for Afghanistan. Although, what the Husband does is sacrificing the happiness of the Woman. This is the voice of the Woman in front of the comate Husband. She utters everything she feels, what she utters means that she has been keeping, holding, and defending her emotion and anger because of the relation with her husband. She marries with a man, and during the marriage, for ten years, she never speaks, she never does something husband-wife does generally such a chit-chatting, joking, giving romantically action, and other actions. The coming of the Husband is only run out by drinking, partying, and laughing with all his friend, then he wants to have sex with his husband, the Woman. Therefore, it means that the woman is only an object of sexuality, object to deliver the Husband desire of sexuality, the object that is only for satisfying his ambition of the desire. Within this context, within this culture that asks every woman to fulfill the desire of the husband, becomes the thing that can be good and bad. Generally, it is good for a normal relation that has good husband and wife. For example, the filling what husband desires can strengthen the relation of the two, between the husband and the wife. However, the context that the Woman faces is different. She is very seldom of meeting with his husband, she never speaks, talks, and make conversations. Then the Husband comes home, and wants to have sex after drinking and partying. Can it be looked as a duty for every woman in the world to fill what the husband wants? This is unfair thing. This is the thing that can slice the feel of every woman. Women are also creature, they are human being, they also have feeling and desire. They want to be felt, they want to treated humanely. If the Husband just want to throw out his desire and after that he goes off again. It makes the impression of the Woman that she just a whore of the man, she is just a slut of the Husband, she is only a harlot of his husband. This s irony, but this is what happens to the Woman in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone. Because the setting is in Afghanistan, it can be reflected that something happens to the Woman, is what the things happen to some women in Afghanistan. Talking about Afghanistan, it must relate to the system they use. Afghanistan is a complicated country. Therefore, what can be inferred from the explanation has been noted in the understanding before about the position women in Afghanistan, is the women have no freedom to move, to express something, to say something such as "Excuse me, I want to divorce you." Or something like "Um… Sorry we need to discuss it before." The fate of women seems to have been robbed out. They do not have anything in the world, everything they want to say, everything they want to deliver based on what they feel, based on what they think is unfair, is unsaid, and it is kept in heart. What else that has to be said that this system is called as patriarchy system. Indeed, it is Islam, but it is longer used as what equality in Islam has been written on the holy Koran. This is caused by the wrong interpretation of human, the wrong interpretations are finally used as the culture, and for the God's sake, it is inherited. The Quran makes it clear that Women and Men are equal in the eyes of God. This is the weakness of human, to see something they always see it by what they can accept, although God has different point of view. One of the most misunderstood areas in Islam is the position, the situation, and the condition of women in the religion. The universal view in the West is that Muslim women are subjugated and almost seen as property or the object of men. Although, not all Muslims deal with that statement that women as inferior, this is unfortunately true in some segments of the Muslim world and this treatment is supposedly reasonable thing by the religion. However, when it is looked at the basis of the religion, the Quran, it can be seen a different picture. In the Quran God makes it very clear that men and women are equal. Their Lord responded to them: "I never fail to reward any worker among you for any work you do, be you male or female - you are equal to one another. Thus, those who immigrate, and get evicted from their homes, and are persecuted because of Me, and fight and get killed, I will surely remit their sins and admit them into gardens with flowing streams." Such is the reward from GOD. GOD possesses the ultimate reward. (3: 195). The only criterion for distinguishing among the people. Based on what those show, it can be articulated that God seems to have no distinguishing, or special thing to differ between men and women. The two can have sins, the two can hbe living in the paradise, the promised place. If the God seems to say that, why men creates their own understanding to control women in their armpits, is that a kind of breaking the rule of God whereas God say that there is no difference between men and women, the two can live in paradise and have sins. If the paradise is for good human, and men try to be good by slaving women, and women try to be good women by being slaved by men, is that a kind of justice? Men can live freely by slaving women in the world, and slaving is kind of joyful action. They do not have to be pregnant, they do not have to be working at house, wiping the shits of the baby, feeding the baby, menstruation, and busy of massaging their husband. If they (women) have to do so as their duty, they should have the same result of what they have done, the same right of not being slaved. They should have similarity, because of what they do for men are rightfully consisted of rights. However, men, the culture of men, the system of men, the wrong interpretation, makes them fall to the disgusting thinking about women. How can that clear verses be ignored? Why are women treated so poorly in some Muslim communities? The answer lies in the fact that those communities take other sources besides the Quran as the basis of their religion. There are many Hadiths that degrade women. In addition, the pre-Islamic cultures of much of the Muslim world do not value women and have little use for them. The following verses demonstrate this fact: Long and complicated, the tradition that brings and leads the system of men to mostly Muslim nations, here is Afghanistan. However, it can be traced that what makes this becomes the intimate problems of Afghanistan is their condition. Their variety of religion and the territorial that is surrounded by West and East culture makes them are easy to be got down, especially in their rule. Islam, where the verses are delivered beautifully, but it is interpreted wrongly, and makes the wrong system of men. There are difference between men and women, but the difference does not mean they are not equal. They have same duty and right, the same means to the effect rather than the direct meaning of duty, so does the right. However, this right does not longer exist for many women, and it can be represented by the Woman in AtiqRahimi. Again, she has to admit that to be married with the Husband is not what she wants. 'Your mother, with her enormous bust, coming to our place to ask for the hand of my younger sister. It wasn't her turn to get married. It was my turn. So your mother simply said, "no problem, we'll take her instead!", pointing her fleshy finger at me as I poured the tea. I panicked and knocked the pot over.' She hides her face in her hands.in shame, or to dispel the image of a mocking mother in law. 'as for you, you didn't even know this was happening. My father, who wanted nothing more, accepted without the slightest hesitation. He didn't give a damn that you weren't around! Who were you, really? No one knew. To all of us, you were just a title: the hero! And, like every hero, far away. Engagement to a hero was a lovely thing, for a seventeen year old girl. I said to myself. (Rahimi, 2010: 53—54). Here is told that the Woman does not have any right to choose which man she wants to be married to, because her mother selects the man for her. It shows that the power of parents is strongly grabbing the children, and the children that gets the bigger grab is woman. Women are considered as slow, weak, and brittle. Thus, it is not right if women are given a chance to choose men. Furthermore, the Women does not love the man she marries. It is a kind of insisting. Why should be woman? This is the patriarchy system, the system that control women. The more ironical thing happens to the Woman in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone is, she marries with a man she never knows, and even in the marriage ceremony, she marries to a photo. '… they celebrated our engagement without the fiancé. Your mother said. "don't worry, victory is coming! It will soon be the end of the war, we will be free and my son will return!" Nearly a year later, your mother came back. Victory was still a long way off. "It's dangerous to leave a young, engagement woman with her parents for such a long time!" she said. And so I had to be married, despite your absence. At the ceremony, you were present in the form of photo and that wretched khanjar, which they put next to me in place of you. (Rahimi, 2010: 54). Based on the quotation above, it can be read obviously that the Woman marries to a man she never knows and during the marriage ceremony, she just sits next to a photo, not the man she marries to. This is an irony fact, the Woman must feel sad, besides the force of marrying the man she never knows, she must also feel sad of this moment. This is an unfair thing for woman, and can it be said that this is the fair thing for woman to marry with a photo? Furthermore, for years the Woman is not allowed to jostle, to join with a group, with neighbors, and friends. She has to be in home, doing everything in home. The home is like the jail of her, she is prohibited of talking to anyone. And I had to wait another three years. Three years! For three years I wasn't allowed to see my friends, or my family…it was not considered proper for a young married virgin to spend time with other married women. Such rubbish1 I had to sleep in the same room as your mother, who kept watch over me, or rather my chastity. And it all seemed so normal, so natural to everyone. To me, too! I didn't even know how lonely I was.' (Rahimi, 2010: 54). The way her mother in law treats her can be analogized that the Woman seems like a prisoner. She is forbidden to interact with the other side of the house, she has to sleep with her mother in law while the Husband is in war. The mother always keeps watching on her, and it is like a guard in the jail, and the woman is the prisoner. She is like a creature who is born to be kept watching, with no right to do, every move she makes is something her mother in law catches.When she is like a prisoner, she must be the fault one whether she is fine or doing a mistake. It is portrayed to this below quotation. Those all are what the Woman feels and it is portrayed in a conclusion where patriarchy system in Atiq Rahimi's The Patience Stone is drawn. The Woman is the representation of this portrayal, she feels in jail, she feels like a prisoner, no right and no freedom to move. She marries to a man she never knows, her sister becomes the stake of her father's bet, and she forced to be pregnant although the Husband is the unfertile one. She is insisted to meet someone like a priest to consult the pregnant, and the priest is actually a procurer. She is asked to get in a room, and a man with blindfolded penetrates her until she gets pregnant. The way her mother insists her to get pregnant with not knowing the condition of her son, makes the Woman has a baby from a man she does not know. This the cruel of the patriarchy, when women do not have any right to speak something, they are jailed, and the only one thing the Woman in the story can do is, delivering everything she feels to her comate husband. With a silent voice, she utters and posits herself. THE IMPACT OF THE WOMAN'S SILENT VOICE IN ATIQ RAHIMI'S THE PATIENCE STONE As the response of facing this problem, the Woman cannot do anything except telling the truth of what she feels, what she hides, what she wants to deliver, because she does not want to hurt anyone. Therefore, she wants to tell it to no one, besides that she must be afraid of telling what she feels because what she faces is the culture, the misunderstood religion, and social truth. This problem is delivered through this below quotation, she thinks that it is better to keep silent and to tell to no one. 'I never wanted anyone to know that. Never! Not even my sisters!' she leaves the room, upset. Her fears echo down the passage. 'He's driving me mad. Sapping my strength.Forcing me to speak.To confess my sins, my mistakes.He's listening to me. Hearing me.I'm sure of it. He wants to get to me…to destroy me!' (Rahimi, 2010: 60—61). This is what happens to the Woman's sister. Her sister is forced to marry, her father sells her sister because her father defeats in bet. However, what can the Woman do? She is just a woman, she has no voice, her voice is not to be heard or listened, she is just a creature that is created by not deliberation, therefore, woman should be in room, cooking, bearing baby, feeding baby, and doing "female" activity. She does not have to have something like man, like voicing voice. This shows that the Woman posits herself in a mute, in silence, and in the broken heart with no fight back. The culture has constructed them t be like this, silence and mute. This is the best position the Woman can replace because if she wants to break the rule, she must be destroyed, tortured, and punished by the law the men create. One of the best way, besides keeping silence, is telling the truth to God. When her husband is comate, the Woman always prays on her Husband. Her Husband is just comate, cannot respond, cannot do anything. A hand, a woman hand, is resting on his chest, rising and falling in time with his breath. The woman is seated. Knees pulled into her chest. Head sunk between her knees. In the other hand, the left, she holds a long string of black prayer beads. She moves them between her fingers, telling them. Silently.Slowly.In time with her shoulders. In time with the man's breath. Within reach, open at the flyleaf and placed on a velvet pillow, is a book, the Koran. Her plump, dry, pale lips are softly and slowly repeating the same word of prayer. (Rahimi, 2010: 2—3). This is what the Woman does, he prays for the Husband, although everyday it seems no worth, no use, and it even seems to be in vain. However, as a Good wife, she always prays, and never quits for stopping praying. This is the way the Woman posits herself, although she gets unfair life, although her life is grabbed by the system of men, although her happiness is robbed by the injustice, she just tries and keeps trying to be a good wife fro her evil Husband. The way the Husband keeps silence and receives all things the Woman tells, is analogized as the Patience Stone. It is the mythical stone for Muslim in Hajj, the stone that is very soft and can release all burden. Probably, this is why the Woman tells it to her comate Husband. There are so many internal conflicts the Woman faces, and she almost has a plan to leave her comate Husband. However, she is a god wife, and she is so sorry of having it. It is reflected on this below quotation. 'Forgive me', as she strokes his arm. 'I'm tired. At breaking point. Don't abandon me, you're all I have left.' She raises her voice : 'Without you, I have nothing. Think your daughters! What will I do with them? They're so young…' She stops stroking him. 'The Mullah won't come today,' she says with some relief (Rahimi, 2010: 14—15). In this quotation, it shown and portrayed that the Woman is almost surrendered, she almost quits, she is almost getting tiring. Her frustration is caused by the condition of the Husband that is not different days by days. However, she remembers about her daughter, and it adds something in her heart not to leave the Husband. Based on this fact it can be seen that the Woman is trying to posit herself in a god way, she is just trying to be a good wife, a good Muslim who works the rule of not leaving the Husband and doing everything for the Husband, although the Husband is in comate condition. This portrayal, is the form of faith, the Woman is really special woman, by the condition that can strike her, the situation that can make her angry, the experience that can make her has a revenge for the injustice, she keeps having a feeling to take care of her Husband. Then, the reflection of the Woman to posit herself is clearly seen b this quotation. As a good mother, the Woman also treats her children with lovely treatments. It is shown by this quotation below that shows that the children are not allowed to disturb the comate father. 'Don't be frightened, darling. I'm here.' The mother reassures her : 'I wasn't shouting. I was talking to your father.' They walk away from the door. 'Why are you calling my father Al-Qahhar? Is he cross?' 'No, but he will be if we disturb him.' The little girl falls silent (Rahimi, 2010: 17). The way the Woman asks to her children not to disturb their father who is comate shows that the Woman keeps the Husband, she does not want her Husband gets worse by the disturbing. This is showing the Woman posits herself in treating her Husband. Based on the experience when she has to marry with a photo, the experience where she has to be penetrated while she has menstruation, until her Husband's brothers who always spy the Woman while she takes a bath, she does not have any revenge. If she has, she must kill the Husband easily because the Husband is between the condition of dead and alive. He is comate, and it is very easy for everybody to kill him, no exce
KRIEGS-ALBUM DES K. U. K. INFANTERIE-REGIMENTS NO 23 / HADIALBUMA A CSÁSZ. ÉS KIR. 23. GYALOGEZRED Kriegs-Album des k. u. k. Infanterie-Regiments No 23 / HADIALBUMA A CSÁSZ. ÉS KIR. 23. GYALOGEZRED ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([2]) Titelseite ([3]) Geleitwort / Bevezetés ([5]) [Abb.]: ([5]) Vorwort / Elöszó ([7]) [Abb.]: ([7]) [4 Abb.]: DIE VERBÜNDETEN HERRSCHER. - A SZÖVETSÉGES URALKODÓK. (1)Franz Josef I. / I. Ferenc József. (2)Kaiser Wilhelm II. / II. Vilmos német császár. (3)Ferdinand Zar von Bulgarien. / Ferdinánd Bulgária cárja. (4)Sultan Mehemed V. / V. Mehemed török szultán. (9) [4 Abb.]: DIE OBERSTE HEERESLEITUNG. - A HADSEREG LEGFÖBB VEZETÖI. (1)Armeeoberkommandant [Joseph Ferdinand] / A hadsereg föparancsnoka. (2)Krobatin, k. u. k. Kriegsminister. / Krobatin, cs. és kir. hadügyminiszter. (3)Chef des k. u. k. Generalstabes. / A cs. kir. vezérkar főnöke. (4)Höfer, Stellvertreter des General-Stabchefs. / Höfer, a vezérkar főnökének helyettese. (10) [Abb.]: DAS K. U. K. ARMEEOBERKOMMANDO. - A CS. ÉS KIR. HADSEREG-FŐPARANCSNOKSÁG. (11) Unsere Heerführer / Hadvezéreink. (12) [4 Abb.]: UNSERE HEERFÜHRER. - HADVEZÉREINK. (1)Kommandant der II. Armee [Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli]. / A II. hadsereg parancsnoka. (2)Generalfeldmarschall von Hindenburg. / Hindenburg vezértábornagy. (3)Generaloberst Mackensen. / Mackensen veérezredes. (4)Kommandant der Deutschen Südarmee [Alexander von Linsingen]. / A német déli hadsereg parancsnoka. (13) Unsere höheren Kommandanten. / Magasabb parancsnokaink. (14) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalmajor Konrad Graller mit dem 64. I.-Brigadestab / Grallert Konrád verzérőnagy 64.-dandár törzsével. (2)Obstl. Alois v. Panos, Gen.-Stabschef der 32. I.-T.-D. /Panos Alajos alezredes, a 32. gy.-hadosztály vezérkari főöke. (14) [4 Abb]: UNSERE HÖHEREN KOMMANDANTEN. - MAGASABB PARANCSNOKAINK.(1)gew. Kommandant des IV. Korps Generaloberst - Terstyánszky - vezéredes, a 4. hadtest volt parancsnoka. (2)Korpskommandant General der Kv. - Marschall - lov. tábornok, hadtestparancsnok. (3)Generalmajor Rudolf Ritter Willerding, Divisionär. / Locag Willerding Rezső vezérőrnagy, hadosztályparancsnok. (4)1. Feldmarschalleutnant Heinrich Goiginger, Divisionär. / Goiginger Henrik altábornagy, hadosztályparancsnok. 2. Generalmajor Kreyčý v. Nagypolány, Artilleriebrigadier. / Nagypolányi Kreyčý Ágost, tüzér-dandárparancsnok. (15) [Abb.]: GENERALOBERST BÖHM-ERMOLLI BEI DER 32. I.-T.-D. / BÖHM-ERMOLLI VEZÉREDES LÁTOGATÓBAN A 32. GYALOGHADOSZTÁLYNÁL. (16) [Abb.]: Gerneralmajor Rudolf Obauer Edler von Bannerfeld. Kommandant der 63. I.Brigade. / Nemes Bannerfeldi Obauer Rudolf vezérőrnagy, a 63. gyalogdandár parancsnoka. (17) Das Militärkommando in Budapest. / A budapesti katonai parancsnokság. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feldmarschalleutnant Stefan Bogat v. Kostanjevac, Militärkommandant von Budapest. / Kostanjevaci Bogat István altábornagy, Budapest katonai parancsnoka. (2)Generalstabsoberst Maximilian Ritter v. Karnitschnigg, Generalstabschef des Militärkommandos in Budapest. / Lovag Karnitschnigg Miksa vezérkari ezredes, a budapesti katonai parancsnokság vezérkari főnöke. (18) Ludwig Wilhelm, Markgraf v. Baden. Aus der Vergangenheit des Regiments. / Lajos Vilmos badeni őrgróf. Az ezred multjából. (19) [Abb.]: Ludwig Wilhelm, Markgraf von Baden. / Lajos Vilmos, badeni őrgróf. (19) Unsere Regimentskommandanten. / Ezredparancsnokaink. (20) [3 Abb.]: UNSERE REGIMENTSKOMMANDANTEN. - EZREDPARANCSNOKAINK. (1)Oberst Wilhelm v. Pflanzer, gestorben im Jänner 1916. / Pflanzer Vilmos, ezredes, meghalt 1916 január havában. (2)Generalmajor Julius von Vidale, Ritter des Leopoldordens. / Vidale Gyula, vezérőrnagy, a Lipótrend lovagja. (2)Oberstleutnant Rudolf Pfalz, Ritter des Leopoldordens. /Pfalz Rudolf, alezredes, aLipótrend lovagja. (22) Oberst Karl Glöckner. / Glöckner Károly ezredes. (23) [Abb.]: Oberst Karl Glöckner. - Glöckner Károly, ezredes. (23) Ersatzbataillonskommandanten. / A pótzászlóalj parancsnokai. (25) [Abb.]: Major Josef Pieperger, Ersatzbataillonskommandant. / Pieperger József őrnagy, pótzászlóalj-parancsnok. (25) [4 Abb.]: ERSATZBATAILLONSKOMMANDANTEN. - A ZOMBORI PÓTZÁSZLÓALJ PARANCSNOKAI. (1)Oberstleutnant Viktor Nagy. / Nagy Viktor alezredes. (2)Oberst Desider v. Kelety. / Kelety Dezső ezredes. (3)Oberst Radoszlav Masits. / Masits Radoszláv ezredes. (4)=berst Julius Pössl. /Pössl Gyula ezredes. (26) [Abb.]: Oberstleutnant Karl Erhart, Kommandant des Ersatz-Bataillons No. 23. / Erhart Károly alezredes, a zombori pótzászlóalj parancsnoka. (27) Die Stabsoffiziere des Regimentes. / Az ezred törzstisztjei. (28) [Abb.]: Oberstleutnant Ludwig Krause. / Krause Lajos, alezredes. (28) [4 Abb]: STABSOFFIZIERE DES REGIMENTES. - AZ EZRED TÖRSTISZTJEI. (1)Oberstleutnant Rudolf v. Hahne. / milnói Hahne Rezső, alezredes. (2)Oberstleutnant Josef Bandat. / Bandat József, alezredes. (3)Major Ladislaus Mády. / Mády Lászlo, őrnagy. (4)Major Freiherr Emmerich v. Schönfeldt. /Báró Schönfeldt Imre, őrnagy. (29) [4 Abb]: STABSOFFIZIERE DES REGIMENTES. - AZ EZRED TÖRZSTISZTJEI (1)Major Theodor Glock. / Glock Tivadar őrnagy. (2)Major Ludwig Baligovits. / Baligovits Lajos őrnagy. (3)Major Josef Handstanger. /Handstanger Józssef, őrnagy. (4)Major Friedrich Thellmann v. Sebess. / Sebessi Thellmann Frigyes, őrnagy. (31) [5 Abb]: (1)Major Kurt Philipp. / Philipp Kurt őrnagy. (2)Major Max Raisz. / Raisz Miksa, őrnagy. (3)Major Franz Schuh. / Schuh Ferenc őrnagy. (4)Ergänzungsbezirkskommandant. Major, Behringer Károly, őrnagy, hadkiegészitő kerületi parancsnok. (4)Major Max Peternel. / Peternel Miksa őrnagy. (32) In Memoriam ([33]) [Abb.]: ([33]) Der erste Todte des Regiments. (Zur Erinnerung an Oberleutnant Klemens Prusa, gefallen bei Sabac am 18. August 1914.) / Az ezred első halottja. (Prusa Kelemen főhadnagy elesett 1914 aug. 18-án Sabácnál.) (35) [Abb.]: Oberleutnant Klemens Prusa. / Prusa Kelemen főhadnagy. (35) Trauer und Stolz. Nekrologe. / A gyász is büszkeség. Nekrológok. ([37]) [Abb.]: ([37]) Leutnant Ritter Karl von Piwonka. / Lovag Piwonka Károly hadnagy. ([37]) Leutnant i. d. Res. Philipp Politzer. Kadett i. d. Res. Ladislaus Báthory. / Politzer Fülöp hadnagy. Báthory Lajos tart. hadnagy. (38) Einjährig-Freiwilliger Eduard Feistel. Oberleutnant Ladislaus Szüs. / Feisztel Ede. Szüs László főhadnagy. (38) [9 Abb.]: (1)Leutnant Géza Grynaeus. / Grynaeus Géza hadnagy. † Sabac 1914. aug. 19. (2)Lt. i. d. R. Philipp Politzer. / Politzer Fülöp tart. hadnagy. † Sabac 1914. aug. 19. (3)Lt. i. d. R. Ludwig Báthory. / Báthory Lajos tart. hadnagy. † Sabac 1914. aug. 19. (4)Oberleutnant Ladislaus Szűcs. / Szűcs László főhadnagy. † Grodek 1914. szept 9. (5)Lt. i. d. R. Dr. Adalbert Péchy. / Dr. Péchy Béla tart. hadnagy. † Laski Murowane 1914. okt. 12. (6Leutnant Kristian Teszling. / Teszling Keresztély hadnagy. † Laski Murowane 1914. okt. 7 (7)Kadett i. d. R. Dr. Paul Csillag. / Dr. Csillag Pál tart. hadapród. † Laski Murowane 1914. okt. 21. (8)Leutnant Josef Lantos. / Lantos József hadnagy. † Chyrow 1914. okt. 28. (9)Kadett i. d. R. Ferdinand Artner. / Artner Nándor tart. Hadapród. † Wola-Jedlinski 1914. nov. 21. (39) [Abb.]: Leutnant Géza Diener. / Diener Géza hadnagy. † 1. Jänner 1915. (40) Leutnant i. d. Res. Adalbert Péchy. / Dr. Péchy Béla tart. hadnagy. (40) Leutnant Kristian Teszling. / Teszling Keresztély hadnagy. (40) Kadett i. d. Res. Ferdinand Osváth. / Osváth Ferdinánd tart. hadapród. (41) Kadet i. d. res. Dr. Paul Csillag. Kadett i. d. Res. Ferdinand Artner. Kadett i. d. Res. Emerich Józsa. / Dr. Csillig Pál tartalékos hadapród. Artner Ferdinánd tart. hadapród. Józsa Imre tartalékos hadapród. (42) Kadett i. d. Res. Eugen Koczka. / Koczka Jenő tart. hadapród. (42) [9 Abb.]: (1)Kadett i. d. R. Emerich Józsa. / Józsa Imre tart. hadapród. † Sztavek 1914. dec. 4. (2)Kadett i. d. R. Eugen Koczka. / Koczka Jenő tart. hadapród. † Sulmierzyce 1914. dec. 5. (3)Oberleutnant Ludwig Kohut. / Kohut Lajos főhadnagy. † Starzehovice 1914. dec. 19. (4)Kadett i. d. R. Ludwig Zsellér. / Zsellér Lajos tart. Hadapród. † Starzehovice 1914. dec. 19. (5)Leutnant i. d. R. Aladár Mandl. / Mandl Aladár tart. hadnagy. † Potok 1914. dec. 27. (6)Kadett i. d. R. Julius Wechsler. Wechsler Gyula tart hadapród. † Potok 1914. dec. 27. (7)Fähnrich i. d. R. Karl Steiner. / Steiner Károly tart. Zászlós. † Grudzisce 1915. febr. 6 (8)Hauptmann Wessely Oberleutnant Szűcs / százados főhadnagy † Tiskowa 1915. márc. 1. (9)Leutnant Andreas Komlós. Vermisst / Komlós Andor hadnagy. eltünt Berdo 1915. márc. 1. (43) Oberleutnant Ludwig Kohut. / Kohut Lajos főhadnagy. (44) Kadett i. d. Res. Ludwig Zsellér. / Zsellér Lajos tart. hadapród. (44) Leutnant i. d. Res. Aladár Mandl. / Mandl Aladár tart. hadnagy. (45) [Abb.]: E.-F. Korp. Eugen Abraham. / Àbrahám Jenő e.-é. önk. káplár. † Krasnojarsk, in Gefangenschaft hadifogságban. (45) Kadett i. d. Res. Julius Wechsler. / Wechsler Gyula hadapród. (45) Fähnrich i. d. Res. Karl Steiner / Steiner Károly zászlós. (46) Hauptmann Julius Wessely. / Wessely Gyula százados. (46) [9 Abb.]: (1)Kadett i. d. R. Ladislaus Pólya. / Pólya László tart. hadapród. † Tiskowa 1915. márc. 9. (2)Kdttasp. Benvenuto Armandola Edler v. Wehrfest. / Nemes wehrfesti Armandola Benvenuto hadapródjelölt. † Zsebrák-Sattel 1915. márc. 30. (3)Leutnant i. d. R. Hugo Ausch. / Ausch Hugo tart. hadnagy. † Jablonki 1915. ápr. 1. (4)Kadett i. d. R. Viktor Szendrő. / Szendrő Győző tart. hadapród. † Krukienice 1915. máj. 15. (5)Kadett i. d. R. Ladislaus Balogh. / Balogh László tart. hadapród. † krukienice 1915. máj. 20. (6)Kadettasp. Andreas Szamek. / Szamek Andor hadapródjelölt. † krukienice 1915. máj. 16. (7)Kadettasp. Alexander Raisz. / Raisz Sándor hadapródjelölt. † Krukienice 1915. máj. 24. (8)Kadettasp. Ármin Rosenzweig. / Rosenzweig Ármin hadapródj. † Krukienice 1915. máj. 24. (9)E.-F. Korp. Julius Krix. / Krixa Gyula e.-é. önk. káplár. Vermisst - eltünt Krukienice 1915 jun. 5. (47) Leutnant i. d. Res. Lorenz Wagner. / Wagner Lőrinc tart. hadnagy. (48) Leutnant i. d. Res. Andor Komlós. / Komlós Andor tart. hadnagy. (48) Kadett i. d. Res. Ladislaus Pólya. Kadettaspirant Benvenuto Armandola. Leutnant i. d. Res. Ausch. / Pólya László tart. hadapród. Wehrfesti Armandola Benvenuto hadapród. Ausch Hugó tart. hardnagy. (49) Kadett i. d. Res. Viktor Szendrő / Szendrő Győző tartalékos hadapród. (49) Kadett i. d. res. Ladislaus Balog. Kadett i. d. Res. Andor Szamek. / Balog László tart. hadapród. Szamek Andor hadapródjelölt. (50) Kadett i. d. Res. Alexander Raisz. / Raisz Sándor hadapródjelölt. (50) [9 Abb]: (1)Kdtt i. d. R. Dr. Árpád Rátkay. / Dr. Rátkay Árpad tart. hdp. † Krukienice 1915. Juni 6. (2)Kadettasp. Géza Quitt. Quitt Géza hadapródjelölt. † Krukienice 1915. Juni 6. (3)Lt. i. d. R. Andreas Urbán / Urbán András tart. hadnagy. † Zoltance 1915. Aug. 15. (4)Fähnr. i. d. R. Dr. Andreas Erdős. / Dr. Erdős Andor tart. zászlós. † Krupiec 1915. Sept. 6. (5) E.-F. Ernst Bragyova. / Bragyova Ernő e.-é. önk káplár. Vermitt - eltünt Nowoalexiniec 1915. Sept. 28. (6)Lt. i. d. R. Alfred Nobel. / Nobel Alfréd tart. hadnagy. † Worobiowka 1916 Juni 21. (7)E.-F. Gefr. Ludwig Glasz. / Glasz Lajos e.-é. önk. őrv. † Worobiowka 1916. Juni 29. (8)Kadettasp. Géza Schmiedt. / Schmiedt Géza hadapródjelölt. † Tiskowa 1915 März 8. (9)Leutnant Ladislaus Parcsetich. / Parcsetich László hadnagy. † Hlatki 1916. Juli 30. (51) Kadett i. d. Res. Armin Rosenzweig. / Rosenzweig Ármin hadapródjelölt. (52) Kadett i. d. Res. Dr. Árpád Rátkai. Kadettaspirant Géza Quitt. Leutnant i. d. Res. Nikolaus Bauer. / Dr. Rátkai Árpád tart. hadapród. Quitt Géza hadapródjelölt. Bauer Miklós tart. hadnagy. (52) Leutnant i. d. Res. Andreas Urbán. Fähnrich i. d. Res. Dr. Andor Erdös. / Urbán András tartalékos hadnagy. Dr. Erdős Andor tart. zászlós. (53) Stabsfeldwebel Michael Pauditz. Zugsführer Stefan Podoba. / Pauditz Mihály törzsőrmester. Podoba istván szakaszvezető. (54) [Abb.]: Grab des Stabsfeldwebel Pauditz. / Pauditz törzsőrmester sirja. (54) Leutnant i. d. Res. Alfred Nobel. Kadett i. d. Res. Lorenz Hack. / Nobel Alfréd tart. hadnagy. Hack Lőrinc tart. hadapród. (55) [Abb.]: Kadettaspirant Lorenz Hack. / Hack Lőrinc hadapródjelölt. † Worobijowka 1916 Juni 6. (55) Einjährig-Freiwilliger Ludwig Glasz. Kadettaspirant Andor Almási. / Glasz Lajos önkéntes őrvezető. Almási Andor hadapródjelölt. (56) [Abb.]: Kadettasp. Andreas Almási. / Almási Andor hadapródjelölt. † Monostorsziget, 1916 Juli. (56) Leutnant Ladislaus Parchetich. / Parchetich Lásló hadnagy. (56) [Abb.]: (57) "Vier Männer sind hier." (Eine Meldung an Herrn Hauptmann Mayer.) / "Négyen vannak." (Jelentés kapitány úr Mayernek.) (58) [4 Abb.]: (1)E.-F. Feldw. Ernst Ney. / Ney Ernő e.-é. önk. őrmester. † Rosenberg, 1914 dec. 10. (2)E.-F. Paul Janovitz. / Janovitz Pál e.-é. önk. káplár. † Szinna, 1914 okt. (3)E.-F. Korp. Johann Pfeiffer. / Pfeiffer János e.-é. önk. káplár. † Noworadomsk, 1914 dec. 30. (4)E.-F. Korp. Desider Laufer. / Laufer Desző e.-é. önk. káplár. † Turovice, 1914 dec. 19. (58) Leichenfeier im Schützengraben / Temetés a lövészárokban. (59) Gefallene Dreindzwanziger. / A hősi halált halt huszonhármasok. ([61]) A ([61]) B ([61]) C (62) [19 Abb]: GEFALLENE MANNSCHAFTSPERSONEN. - A LEGÉNYSÉG HALOTTAI. (1)Malmer Franz (2)Strauch Philip (3)Weiner Péter (4)Peschoff Anton (5)Müller Franz (6)Volweiter Jakob (7)Bottka Franz (8)Ugry Karl (9)Szettele Josef (10)Wolf Johann (11)Odry Michael (12)Politzer Leó (13)Majer Nikolaus (14)Damjanovich Dusan (15)Schira Abraham (16)Majer Menyhért (17)Kiefer Martin (18)Krisztián Johann (19)Guttmann Eugen ([63]) D, E (64) F (64) G (65) H (66) I, J (67) K (67) [35 Abb.]: (1)Freier Georg (2)Gerber Jakob (3)Matits Mathias (4)Andres Anton (5)Juhász Stefán (6)Hesz Anton (7)Jangvits Josef (8)Méazáros Josef (9)Roth Josef (10)März Anton (11)Szupenczki Ludwig (12)Nuszpl Martin (13)Király Alexander (14)Kungl Péter (15)Resch Blasius (16)Turi Bertalan (17)Kasziba Franz (18)Feszler Anton (19)Szakáts Josef (20) Wallner Julius (21)Oszpelt Georg (22)Amann Anton (23)Kollár Johann (24)Wölfl Johann (25)Francuz Àdám (26)Guth Johann (27)Szeidl Johann (28)Pfarr Thomas (29)Dodon Georg (30)Müller Michael (31)Tobiás Péter (32)Beiler Josef (33)Gerber Àdám (34)Pénzes Georg (35)Zwekán Josef ([69]) L (70) M (71) N (72) O (73) P (73) Q (74) R (74) [26 Abb.]: (1)Wohlfahrt Mathias (2)László Josef (3)Franzuz Adam (4)Knézy Adám (5)Eifried Michael (6)Kovács Michael (7)Persica Franz (8)Bábity Gerő (9)Högger Anton (10)Bénes Adalbert (11)Pénzes Michael (12)Keller Josef (13)Kocsis Paul (14)Kókay Ludwig (15)Weisz Vendelin (16)Eibach Johann (17)Hirn Josef (18)Tés Johann (19)Becker Stefan (20)Lehmann Paul (21)Nuszpl Josef (22)Pfeiffer Franz (23)Burger Michael (24)Kecskés Ignatz (25)Heiz Mathias (26)Somogyvarac Johann ([69]) S (76) T, U (78) V (79) W (79) Z (80) [9 Abb.]: (1)Kokusz Àdám (2)Matarits Anton (3)Kollár Anton (4)Müller Friedrich (5)Schmiedl Josef (6)Bernhardt Benedek (7)Pittelka Vendelin (8)Buzási Stefán (9)Lajdi Martin (80) Allerheiligenfest in Galizien. / Halottak napja a galiciai határon. ([81]) [Abb.]: ([81]) [Abb.]: (82) [4 Abb.]: BÁCSKAER GRÄBER AUF WEITEN SCHLACHTGEFILDEN. / BÁCSKAI SIROK MESSZE HARCMEZŐKÖN. (1)Zeltblatt als Heldensarg. / Sátorlap a hős korporsója. (2)Begräbnis hinter der Front. / temetés a front mögött. (3)Der Militärfriedhof in Zalosče. / Azalosčei katonatemető. (4)Soldatenbegräbnis in Nagypolány. / Katonatemetés Nagypolányban. (83) Kleine Holzkreuze. / Apró fakeresztek. (84) [Abb.]: AUTOGRAMMSAMMLUNG DES GENERALSTABES DER 32. INFANTERIEDIVISION UND DER INFANTERIE-BRIGADEN 63. UND 64. / A 32. GYALOGHADOSZTÁLY ÉS A 63. ÉS 64. GYALOGDANDÁROK VEZÉRKARÁNAK ALÁIRÁSGYÜJTEMÉNYE. (85) [Abb.]: AUTOGRAMMSAMMLUNG DES OFFIZIERSKORPS I. / AZ EZRED TISJEINEK ALÁIRÁSGYŰJTEMÉNYE. I. (86) [Abb.]: AUTOGRAMMSAMMLUNG DES OFFIZIERSKORPS. II. / AZ EZRED TISZTJEINEK ALÁIRÁSGYŰJTEMÉNYE. II. (87) [Abb.]: AUTOGRAMMSAMMLUNG DES OFFIZIERSKORPS. III. / AZ EZRED TISZTJEINEK ALÁIRÁSGYŰJTEMÉNYE. III. (88) [Abb.]: AUTOGRAMMSAMMLUNG VON EINJÄHRIGFREIWILLIGEN. / ÖNKÉNTESEK ALÁIRÁSGYŰJTEMÉNYE. (89) [14 Abb.]: DEKORIERTE HAUPTLEUTE. / KITÜNTETETT SZÁZADOSOK. (1)Ladislaus surányi (2)Robert Kautz (3)Heinrich Binder (4)Ludwig Fischer (5)Branko Kralj (6) Friedirch v. Tesař / Konstantin v. Tesař (7)Ludwig v. Puskás (8)Desider Füleki (9)Koloman v. Moricz (10)Fedor v. Wassilievits (11)Friedrich Toegl (12)Ignatz Krämer (13)Milan Majcen (14)Johann Kudler ([90]) Der Offizier. / A katonatiszt. ([91]) [4 Abb.]: (1)Alexander Büttner / Büttner Sándor százados. (2)Koloman v. Kőszegváry. / Kőszegváry Kálmán százados. (3)Andreas Mayer. / Mayer Andor százados. (4)Adalbert Tóth. / Tóth Béla százados. ([91]) [16 Abb.]: DEKORIERTE OFFIZIERE. / KITÜNTETETT TISZTEK. (1)Desider Bertalan (2)Moritz Sznistyák (3)Stefan Bobor (4)Desider Cziring (5)Wilhelm Kell (6)Elemér Horn (7)Dr. Andreas Biró (8)Anton Prokesch (9)Wilhelm Maros (10)Josef Parlag (11)Richard Schneider (12)Michael Haszmann (13)Rudolf Vajda (14)Dr. Samuel Szegedi (15)Paul König (16)Michael Kerescher ([93]) [16 Abb.]: DEKORIERTE OFFIZIERE. / KITÜNTETETT TISZTEK. (1)Rudolf Hammerl (2)Zoltán v. Horanszky (3)Ladislaus Vági (4)Nicolaus v. Bárczy (5)Eugen Sándor (6)Dr. Eugen Hacker (7)Franz Matheisz (8)Eugen Josef Kun (9)Josef Ferenczy (10)Julius Preisz (11)Josef Szentesi (12)Eugen Tóth (13)Stefan Karip (14)Dr. Eugen Körner (15)Stefan Szemző (16)Dr. Ludwig Győző ([94]) Der Reserveoffizier. An die Reserveoffiziere des k. u. k. I.-R. Nr. 23. / A tartalékos tiszt. A cs. és kir. 23. gy. ezred tart. tisztikarához. ([95]) [Abb.]: ([95]) [Abb.]: (96) [26 Abb.]: DEKORIERTE OFFIZIERE. / KITÜNTETETT TISZTEK. (1)Kolomann Trenovszky (2)Otto Wesselovszky (3)Anton Schak (4)Dr. Alexander Székely (5)Adalbert Schmiedt (6)Desider Balssa (7)Anton Novotny (8)Konst. v. Tesař u. Stefan Vági (9)Julius Száraz (10)Zsarko Kurjacsky (11)Ludwig Schüller (12)Alexander Szacsvay (13)Julius Sárossy (14)Franz Vidovics (15)Desider Szilágyi (16)Johann Haut (17)Adolf Barnert (18)Friedrich Weidner (19)Johann Antal (20)Ludwig Stojan (21)Karl Rainer (22)Adalbert Ofner (23)Ladislaus Parcsetich (24)Georg Windheim (25)Eduard Hammerschlag (26)Franz Blank ([97]) [14 Abb]: VERWUNDETE OFFIZIERE. / SEBESÜLT TISZTEK. (1)Dr. Andreas Gál (2)Adalbert Lengyel (3)Dr. Adalbert Székely (4)Johann Szalmásy (5)Rudolf Major (6)Ernst Ballagi (7)Ludwig Mezey (8)Martin Révész (9)Rudolf Prohaska (10)Emmerich Gombos (11)Anton Riedler (12)Eduard Faludi (13)Vendel Schächtili (14)Edmund Augenstein ([98]) Das Offizierskorps des Regiments in 1914 - 1916. In dieser Namensliste sind alle jene Offiziere, Fähnriche und Kadetten verzeichnet, die im Laufe des Krieges zum Regimente gehörten oder demselben zur Dienstleistung zugeteilt waren. / Az ezred tisztikara 1914 - 1916. Az alábbi névjegyzékben rang szerint mindazok fel vannak sorolva, kik a világháboru ideje alatt az ezred tisztjei vagy tisztjelöltjei voltak, vagy az ezrednél beosztva szogálatot teljesitettek. ([99]) [Abb.]: Hptm. Hauer Hptm. Mayer Oberst Fehér Oberst v. Pflanzer Obstlt. Seyller Hptm. Landwehr ([99]) Erklärung der Signaturen: / jelmagyarázat: ([99]) Obersten: Oberstleutnants: / Ezredesek: Alezredesek: ([99]) [16 Abb.]: OFFIZIERE DES REGIMENTS. / AZ EZRED TISZTJEI. (1)Adalbert Gál (2)Stefan Walter (3)Desider Volowits (4)Hugo Mihályi (5)Karl Tánczos (6)Karl Enkelhardt (7)Eugen Novinszky (8)Dr. Johann Kiss (9)Nikolaus Ostheimer (10)Julius Rosenzweig (11)Ernst Fiala (12)Paul Bruck (13)Tibor Fürst (14)Dr. Stefan Bogyó (15)Emmerich Vermes (16)Karl Berecz ([100]) Majore: Hauptleute: Oberleutnants: / Őrnagyok: Századosok: Főhadnagyok: (101) [15 Abb.]: OFFIZIERE IN KRIEGSGEFANGENSCHAFT. / FOGSÁGBA JUTOTT TISZTEK. (1)Richard Klemp (2)Adalbert Melles (3)Karl Stark (4)Martin Löw (5)August Vallandt (6)Eduard v. Armandola (7)Johann Popovits (8)Franz Hermecz (9)Johann Stefan (10)Paul Neufeld (11)Ferdinand Nádas (12)Ignác Erényi (13)Josef Katona (14)Elemér Farkas (15)Emerich Bartalits ([102]) Leutnants: Fähnriche: Magazinoffizier: Proviantoffiziere: Militärärzte: Truppenrechnungsführer: / Hadnagyok: Zászlósok: Èlelmezési tisztek: Katanaorvosok: Számvivőtisztek: (103) In der Reserve: / Tartalékosok: (103) Hauptleute: / Századosok: (103) Oberleutnants: / Főhadnagyok: (103) [16 Abb.]: OFFIZIERE DES REGIMENTS. / AZ EZRED TISZTJEI. (1)Ernst Novák (2)Alexander Szegő (3)Julius Csizmadia (4)Oszkar Lukács (5)Franz Preprotič (6)Georg Vjada (7)Paul Szál (8)àrpád Huber (9)Dr. Koloman Dömötör (10)Stefan Pető (11)Paul Balkányi (12)Dr. Eugen Ladányi (13)Arnold Vető (14)Adalbert Sternberg (15)Alexander Takács (16)Ernst Neurad ([104]) Leutnants: / Hadnagyok: (105) [16 Abb.]: OFFIZIERE DES REGIMENTS. / AZ EZRED TISZTJEI. (1)Wilhelm Ausseneck (2)Andreas Ernst (3)Ladislaus Kukity (4)Desider Forrai (5)Johann Mérey (6)Andreas Csillag (7)Stefan Schwob (8)Elemér Berényi (9)àrmin Holländer (10)Adolf trutzl (11)Stefan Mikus (12)Géza Náthán (13)Ernst Halmos (14)Ludwig Tarr (15)Konstantin Sarič (16)Emmerich Vass ([106]) Fähnriche: / Zászlósok: (107) Kadetten: / Hadapródok: (107) [11 Abb.]: DEKORIERTE OFFIZIERE. / KITÜNTETETT TISZTEK. (1)Seidl Johann u. Vajda Marcell (2)Mihanovic Géza (3)Kurjacski Zsarkó u. Trinkl Adalbert (4)Anton Spreitzer (5)Paica Leo (6)Pennersdorfer Oskar (7)Lázár Desider (8)Dr. Vlah franz (9)Vas Stefan (10)Gellért Eugen OFFIZIERSKORPS DES ERS.-BAONS IM NOV. 1914. / A PÓTZÁSZLÓALJ TISZTIKARA 1914 NOVEMBERBEN. (11)Voncze, Lollok, Bleiszer, Novinszky, Dr. Polányi, Martin, Somogyi, Rudas, Oláh, Hoffmann, reiner, Kazinczy, Révész, Schüller, Arnoul, Hajnal, Németh, Neufeld, Szalmássy, Binder, Sternberg, Landwehr, Swraka, Puskás, Piperger, Krämer J., Kautz, Zádor, Vaszits, Horn, Szele, Herritz. ([108]) Landstürmer: / Népfölkelök: (109) Oberleutnants: Leutnants: Fähnriche: Kadetten: / Főhadnagyok: Hadnagyok: Zászlósok: Hadapródok: (109) Militärärzte i. d. res. / Tartalékos katonaorvosok. (109) Regimentsärzte: Oberärzte: / Ezredorvosok: Főorvosok: (109) [23 Abb.]: OFFIZIERE DES REGIMENTS. / AZ EZRED TISZTJEI. (1Josef Majoros (2)Nikolaus Devich (3)Ludwig Hirsch (4)Alexander Igmándi (5)Dr. Adalbert Szilvásy (6)Desiderius Matuschek (7)Alexius Breitner (8)Mathias Eventovics (9)Greguričevič Franz (10)Hajnal Dénes (11)Guttmann Sigmund (12)Zima Eugen (13)Rudas Edmund (14)Pogány Stefan (15)Gyurosevits Andreas (16)Sztoikovič Ferdinand (17)Jäger Karl (18)Drubina Kolomann (19)Bleissner August (20)Cseuz Ladislaus (21)Seidl Johann (22)Okolicsányi Adalbert (23)Bruck Emanuel ([110]) [22 Abb.]: OFFIZIERE UND EINJÄHRIG-FREIWILLIGE. / TISZTEK ÉS ÖNKÉNTESEK. (1)Földes Franz (2)Karsay Stefan (3)Rafaeli Alfred (4)Szarvas Géza (5)Radó Wilhelm (6)Dr. Hausz Eduard (7)Servo Philipp (8)Effenberger Anton (9)Dr. Sternberg / Dr. Kunitzer (10)Asztalos Julius (11)Barberič Emil (12)Doge Adalbert (13)Parcsetics Adalbert (14)Földes Eugen (15)Aratszky Eugen (16)Dr. Friedmann Franz (17)Schmidt Konrad (18)Gyulai Nagy Tihamér (19)Tiprovatz Julius (20)Inhoff Josef (21)Blum Samuel (22)Friedmann Franz ([111]) [15 Abb]: MILITÄRÄRZTE UND FELDGEISTLICHE. / ORVOSOK ÉS TÁBORILELKÉSZEK. (1)Géza Preisach (2)Tibor Tóth (3)Robert Markus (4)Koloman Grochmann (5)Dr. Ludiwg Sajó (6)Dr. Wilhelm Benedikt (7)Dr. Eugen Fischer (8)Dr. Johann Iberer (9)Dr. Alexander Bánóczy (10)Dr. Georg Hjnal (11)Dr. Tibor Kern (12)Herda Rajmund (13)Kandid Ludwig Novák (14)Nikolaus Hirmann (15)Hippolyt J. Nagy. ([112]) Assistenzärzte: Ass.-A. Stellvertreter: Sanitätsfähnriche i. d. R.: / Segédorvosok: Segédorvoshelyettesek: Tart. egészségügyi zászlósok: (113) [11 Abb]: OFFIZIERE DES REGIMENTS. / AZ EZRED TISZTJEI. (1)Adalbert Subáky (2)Aug. Vanek (3)Desider Szalay (4)Hugo Mihályi (5)Emerich Réczey (6)Edmund Baum (7)Julius Horváth (8)Géza Dach (9)Julius Mihály (10)Emil Radics (11)Theodor Schwarz (113) [3 Abb.]: EINJÄHRIG-FREIWILLIGEN DES REGIMENTES. / AZ EZRED ÖNKÉNTESEI. (1)1. Die letzte Einjährig-Freiwilligen-Schule im Frieden. / Az utolsó önkéntes-iskola békében. (2)2. Einjährig-Freiwilligen-Abteilung im September 1915. / Az 1915 szeptemberi önkéntes-osztag. (3)3. Einfährig-Freiwilligen-Schule 1911-12. / Az 1911-12. évi önkéntes-iskola. ([114]) [Abb.]: DIE ERSTE RESERVEOFFIZIERSSCHULE IN ZOMBOR. OKTOBER-DEZEMBER 1914. Kommandant: Hauptmann Karl Enckelhardt. / AZ ELSŐ ZOMBORI TART. TISZTI ISKOLA 1914 OKTÓBER-DECEMBER. Parancsnoka: Enckelhardt Károly százados. ([115]) Aus denen Offiziere werden. Einjährige Freiwillige und deren Professoren. / Akikből tisztek lesznek. Az önkéntesek és tanáraik. (116) [4 Abb.]: OFFIZIERE UND EINJ.-FREIWILLIGEN AN DER FRONT. / TISZTEK ÉS ÖNKÉNTESEK A FRONTON (1)Sonnebad zwischen den Drahthindernissen. / Sütkérezés a drótakadály között. (2)Sonnenbad auf der Deckung. / Sütkérezés a fedezék tetején. (3)Die moderne Troglodyten. / Modern barlanglakók. (4)Die Einj.-Freiw. der 12. Feldk. in der Kirche von Žarudže. / A 12. század önkéntesei a žarudžei templomban. (117) [2 Abb.]: VEREINIGTE EINJÄHRIG-FREIWILLIGENSCHULEN IN ZOMBOR. / ZOMBORI EGYESITETT EGYÉVI ÖNKÉNTES ISKOLÁK. (1)1. April 1916 Kommandant: Hauptmann Ignatz Krämer. / 1916 áprilisában. Parancsnoka: Krämer Ignác százados. (2)2. Juni-Aug. 1915. Kommandant: Hauptmann Franz Zauner. / 1915 juni-aug.-ban. Parancsnoka: Zauner Ferenc százados. ([118]) [3 Abb.]: RESERVEOFFIZIERSSCHULEN. / KÉPEK A TART. TISZTIISKOLÁKBÓL. (1)Instruktionsoffiziere der Res. Offiziersschule / 1. Az 1916 március-májusi iskola tanári kara. (2)2. Die Einj.-Freiw.-Abteilung des Monat März / 2. Az 1916 márciusi önkétesosztag kiképző tisztjeivel. (3)3. Die Einj.-Freiw. Schule März-Mai 1916 / 3. Az 1916 március-májusi iskola önkéntesei. ([119]) [2 Abb.]: VEREINIGTE EINJÄHRIG-FREIWILLIGEN-ABTEILUNG IN ZOMBOR IM AUGUST-SEPTEMBER 1916. / A ZOMBORI EGYESITETT ÖNKÉNTES-OSZTAG 1916 AUGUSZTUS - SZEPTEMBER. ([120]) Bácskaer Jungen. / Bácskai legények. ([121]) [Abb.]: ([121]) [24 Abb.]: VERMISSTE MANNSCHAFTSPERSONEN. / ELTÜNT LEGÉNYSÉG. (1)Tobias Johann (2)Puin Dusan (3)Schultz Anton (4)Dobos Elias (5)Kovács Stefan (6)Hordósy Nikolaus (7)Müller Mathias (8)Dsula Anton (9)Stöckl Nikolaus (10)Klein Michael (11)Sábián Andreas (12)Dudás Josef (13)Kuluncsics Paul (14)Àgoston Johann (15)Budanovits Dániel (16)Hőger Jakob (17)Veréb Ludwig (18)Ujvári Anton (19)Keller Stefan (20)Jung Menyhért (21)Reismann Josef (22)Gyipanov Mark (23)Vakos Stefan (24)Bischof Adam ([122]) [Abb.]: Die Familie Benyák aus Zombor. Sieben Söhne des zomborer Gewerbetreibenden Stefan benyák kämpfen am Kriegsschauplatze. Seine Majestät hat dem Vater dieser tapferen Soldaten 500 Kronen und eine wertvolle Uhr gespendet. / A zombori Benyák-család. Benyák István zombori iparosnak hét fia küzd az azredben. A hét vitéz katona apját Őfelsége 500 koronával és egy értékes órával ajándékozta meg. (123) [Abb.] (124) [20 Abb.]: VERMISSTE MANNSCHAFTSPERSONEN. / ELTÜNT LEGÉNYSÉG. (1)Mundweil Franz (2)Mikor Anton (3)Forgity Adam (4)Vidakovics Jeromos (5)Paitz Johann (6)Nagy Benedikt (7)Oláh Georg (8)Wolf Johann (9)Gyurin Marin (10)Schira Johann (11)Barasovich Johann (12)Varga Emmerich (13)Valko Alexander (14)Dragity Anton (15)Farkas Johann (16)Drum Heinrich (17)Makk Jakob (18)Hoffmann Josef (19)Spreitzer Johann (20)Drobina Anton ([125]) [20 Abb.]: DEKORIERTE UNTEROFFIZIERE. / KITÜNTETETT ALTISZTEK. (1)Müller Johann (2)Koch Anton (3)Weszelits Emerich (4)Angeli Peter (5)Kovács Adalbert (6)Bahl Kaspar (7)Garai Michael (8)Sugár Franz (9)Moró Alois (10)Acsánszky Johann (11)Brunner Anton (12)Kucsera Mathias (13)Schnell Richard (14)Kara Josef (15)Hemelich Mathias (16)Huber Franz (17)Bobor Johann (18)Gurka Stefan (19)Raits Michael (20)Rill Peter ([126]) DEKORIERTE HELDEN / KITÜNTETETT HŐSEINK. ([127]) Erklärung der Abkürzungen und Signaturen. / A röviditések és jelek magyarázata. ([127]) A ([127]) B ([127]) [19 Abb.]: DEKORIERTE UNTEROFFIZIERE. / KITÜNTETETT ALTISZTEK. (1)Matarits Josef (2)Beicht Franz (3)Psztoka Krisztian (4)Heffner Stefan (5)Pfeiffer Johann (6)Dömsity Johann (7)Schoblocher Stefan, Memhölzer Peter, Schoblocher Adam (8)Biletzky Wolfg. (9)Buzgó Johann (10)Aladzsits Ludwig (11)Bittner Michael (12)Ronai Ladislaus (13)Keszei Josef (14)Pintér Martin (15)Mandity Ludwig (16)Hoffmann Johann (17)Pintz Karl (18)Nagyvinsky Johann (19)Katona Johann ([128]) C - F (129) G (129) [30 Abb.]: IN GEFANGENSCHAFT GERATENE UND VERMISSTE MANNSCHAFT. / FOGSÁGBA ESETT ÉS ELTÜNT LEGÉNYSÉG. (1)Bruckner Anton (2)Albert Josef (3)Schnitzer Anton (4)Vollweiter Krisztian (5)Pasalik Johann (6)Spreitzer Anton (7)Kurz Konrád (8)Rieszbeck Stefan (9)Müller Josef (10)Hettesheimer Josef (11)Silberhorn Johann (12)Becker Michael (13)Rohr Anton (14)Bálint Paul (15)Mathias Mathias (16)Andrasew Márk (17)Csöke Johann (18)Pleilinger Max (19)Burghardt Adam (20)Kern Stefan (21)Bischof Joachim (22)Vollweiter Péter (23)Uszleber Anton (24)Kohlenberger Johann (25)Szelinger Andreas (26)Bruder Sebastian (27)Weinberger Ignác (28)Ságodi Alexander (29)Bauer Krisztian (30)Nuszpl Adam (31)Slezák Josef (32)Schneider Mathias (33)Rendl Paul (34)Jäger Friedrich (35)Kurcz Jakob ([130]) H - J (131) K (131) [24 Abb.]: IN GEFANGENSCHAFT GERATENE UND VERMISSTE MANNSCHAFT. / FOGSÁGBA ESETT ÉS ELTÜNT LEGÉNYSÉG. (1)Mesch Martin (2)Paor Ludwig (3)Nagy Andreas (4)Kretz Josef (5)Krisztmann Johann (6)Varga Michael (7)Szalai Michael (8)Hunczinger Heinrich (9)Schweitzer Friedrich (10)Halász Johann (11)Aubenback Johann (12)Madarász Vendelin (13)Striegel Péter (14)Schoblocher Jakob (15)Kiss Stefan (16)Luscalow Marko (17)Gasz Stefan (18)Karajkov Mark (19)Ritter Josef (20)Vacsko Anton (21)Skribanek Lorenz (22)Jerkovity Paul (23)Jano Kolomann (24)Kling Franz. ([132]) L - O (133) P (133) R, S (134) T (134) U - Z (135) [7 Abb.]: DEKORIERTE MANNSCHAFTSPERSONEN. / KITÜNTETETT LEGÉNYSÉG. (1)Kubatow Johann (2)Harjung Jakob (3)Pestality Josef (4)Ospelt Adam (5)Lakatos Michael (6)Kutsch Franz, Hutflusz Stefan, Eberhardt Josef (7)Scheffer Josef (135) [29 Abb.]: MANNSCHAFTSBILDER. / LEGÉNYSÉGI ARCKÉPEK. Gefallene: / Hősi halált haltak: (1)Hermann Josef (2)Mészáros Georg (3)Peits Blazius (4)Szikkinger Anton (5)Tóth Vincens (6)Opancsár Vlado Dekorierte: / Kitüntetettek: (7)Buchrog Josef (8)Hausz Vendel (9)Zetthofer Eduard (10)Katzenberger Michael (11)Repko Johann (12)Gurka Josef Invaliede: / Rokkantak: (13)Mandlich Mathias (14)Platz Josef (15)Weisz Adam (16)Hückl Koloman (17)Schlesinger Desider Verwundete: / Sebsültek: (18)Kirschenmayer Georg (19)Komáromi Johann (20)Kutza Friedrich (21)Schneider Gaspar (22)Madarász Géza (23)Koppinger Josef (24)Schank Heinrich (25)Dági Adalbert (26)Grisgruber Franz (27)Schneider Stefan (28)Bilbert Johann (29)Balász Johann ([136]) Zur Geschichte der Auszeichnungen. / A kitüntetések történetéhez. ([137]) Hauptmann Alexander Büttner. Hauptmann Franz Danzinger. / Büttner Sándor százados. Danzinger Ferenc százados. ([137]) Hauptmann Rudolf Hauer. Hauptmann Johann Haut. Hauptmann Branko Kralj. /Hauer Rudolf százados. Haut János százados. Kralj Branko százados. (138) Hauptmann Regimentsadjutant Alexander Krämer. Hauptmann Ignaz Krämer. /Krämer Sándor százados, ezredsegédtiszt. krämer Ignácz százados. (138) Hauptmann Koloman Kőszegváry. Hauptmann Andreas Mayer. Hauptmann Leo Paica. / Kőszegváry Kálmán százados. Mayer Endre százados. Paica Leo százados. (139) [Abb.]: Ein eroberter russischer Stützpunkt an der Sereth. / Elfoglat orosz támaszpont a Sereth mellett. (139) [35 Abb.]: IN GEFANGENSCHAFT GERATENE MANNSCHAFT. / FOGSÁGBA ESETT LEGÉNYSÉG. (1)Kamerer Johann (2)Horváth Franz (3)Bábity Adalbert (4)Czindel Georg (5)Imhof Michael (6)Mojzes Josef (7)Zsebi Paul (8)Gauder Martin (9)Hambalko Jakob (10)Jakobi Wilhelm (11)Berger Wilhelm (12)Brandecker Anton (13)Domonkos Alexander (14)Spaltenberger Stefan (15)Klein Josef (16)Gossein Géza (17)Barasevich Jakob (18)Suhajda Josef (19)Odry Stefan (20)Hetteszheimer Peter (21)Tóth Georg (22)Schihl Johann (23)Sallai Anton (24)Kiss Paul (25)Goszfé Josef (26)Szokoly Paul (27)Zundl Josef (28)Müller Josef (29)Heller Stefan (30)Kerschner Philip (31)Klepács Peter (32)Eichhorn Heinrich (33)Loboda Gabriel (34)Nop Michael (35)Schulteisz Adam ([140]) Hauptmann Ludwig Schüller. Hauptmann Friedrich Tesař. Hauptmann Konstantin Tesař. / Schüller Lajos százados. Eiberhorsti Tesař frigyes százados. Eiberhorsti Tesař Konstantin százados. (141) Hauptmann Armand Vorner. / Vorner Armand százados. (141) Hauptmann Julius Weszely. Hauptmann Zauner. Oberleutnant Otto Abt. / Weszely Gyula százados. Zauner Ferenc százados. Abt Otto főhadnagy. (142) Oberleutnant Stefan Bobor. Oberleutnant in der Reserve Desider Cziring. Oberleutnant in der Reserve Rudolf Hammerl. / Bobor István főhadnagy. Cziring Desző tart. főhadnagy. Hammerl Resző tart. főhadnagy. (142) Oberleutnant Zoltán Horánszky von Hóra. / Hórai Horánszky Zoltán főhadnagy. (143) [Abb.]: Dekorierte 23-er im Schützengraben. / Kitüntetett 23-asok a Lövészárokban. (143) Oberleutnant in der Reserve Franz Hermecz. Oberleutnant Hubert Kohut. / Hermecz Ferenc tart. főhadnagy. Kohut Hubert Főhadnagy. (143) [30 Abb.]: IN GEFANGENSCHAFT GERATENE MANNSCHAFT. / FOGSÁGBA ESETT LEGÉNYSÉG. (1)Matheisz Domonkos (2)Stökl Josef (3)Freier Georg (4)Seremcsity Anton (5)Rickert Johann (6)Müller Franz (7)Molnár Paul (8)Imhof Anton (9)Periszkity Marin (10)Faddi Josef (11)Puhl Nikolaus (12)Vink Michael (13)Antoni Peter (14)Kasziba Anton (15)Wieland Anton (16)Gärtner Heinrich (17)Schwendemann Paul (18)Horváth Andreas (19)Strangár Josef (20)Schrank Philip (21)Szarvas Emerich (22)Dobos Michael (23)Patarity Marin (24)Müller Jakob (25)Mesch Michael (26)Bauer Franz (27)Réz Martin (28)Molnár Michael (29)Pfeiffer Johann (30)Vajstanac Ivan ([144]) Oberleutnant Ludwig Kohut. / Kohut Lajos főhadnagy. (145) Oberleutnant Franz Matheisz. Oberleutnant Alois Paravdic. / Matheisz Ferenc főhadnagy. Pravdić Alajos főhadnagy. (145) Oberleutnant Ludwig Stojan. Oberleutnant Ladislaus Vági. Oberleutnant in der Reserve Otto Weszelowszky. / Stojan Lajos főhadnahy. Vági László főhadnagy. Weszelowszky Ottó főhadnagy. (146) Oberleutnant in der Reserve Franz Vlach. Leutnant in der Reserve Johann Antal. / Dr. Vlach Ferenc tart. Főhadnagy. Antal János tart. hadnagy. (146) Leutnant in der Reserve Alexander Eisenberg. Leutnant in der Reserve Eugen Kröner. / Eisenberg Sándor tart. hadnagy. Körner Jenő tart. hadnagy. (147) [Abb.]: Eine Auszeichnung unserer allegrössten Helden. / A legnagyobb hősök érdemkeresztje. (147) Leutnant Bogdan Kralj. / Kralj Bogdán hadnagy. (147) [35 Abb.]: IN GEFANGENSCHAFT GERATENE MANNSCHAFT. / FOGSÁGBA ESETT LEGÉNYSÉG. (1)Fábián Johann (2)Andrek Emerich (3)Heffner Johann (4)König Josef (5)Réz Michael (6)Schmidt Anton (7)Barasevich Simon (8)Steger Georg (9)Tüske Franz (10)Hajnal Anton (11)Ott Adam (12)Vukovits Johann (13)Spreitzer Georg (14)Höbl Johann (15)Bátyity Michael jun. (16)Leincz Ignaz (17)Kungl Michael (18)Hunszinger Philip (19)Englein Franz (20)Walter Josef (21)Szakál Josef (22)Novoth Josef (23)Müller Johann (24)Eichhorn Mathias (25)Pálity Lorenz (26)Dörner Josef (27)Vukovits Johann (28)Gärtner Mathias (29)Odry Lukas (30)Molnár Franz (31)Farkas Franz (32)Farkas Josef (33)Gyurisics Johann (34)Suvák Martin (35)Amstadt Mathias. ([148]) [Abb.]: Erbeutete russische Maschinengewehre. In der Mitte Generalmajor v. Willerding. / Zsákmányolt orosz gépfegyverek. Középen Willerding tábornok áll. (149) Leutnant Žarko Kurjački. Lautnant in der Reserve Ferdinand Nádas. / Kurjaćki Žarko hadnagy. Nádas Nándor tart. hadnagy. (149) Leutnant in der Reserve Stefan Nagy. / Nagy István tart. hadnagy. (149) Leutnant in der Reserve Herbert Pollack. Leutnant in der Reserve Alfred Rafaeli. / Pollack Herbert tart. hadnagy. Rafaeli Alfréd tart. hadnagy. (150) Leutnant in der Reserve Julius Száraz. Leutnant in der Reserve Josef Szentesi. / Száraz Gyula tart. hadnagy. Szentesi József tart. hadnagy. (150) Leutnant in der Reserve Adalbert Schmidt. Leutnant Christian Teszling. / Schmidt Béla tart. hadnagy. Teszling Keresztély hadnagy. (151) [Abb.]: Dekorierung des Rgmts-Arzt Dr. Iberer in Zombor. / Dr. Iberer ezredorvos kitüntetése Zomborban. (151) [Abb.]: OFFIZIERSKORPS DES VIII. MARSCHBATAILLONS. / A VIII. MENETZÁSZLÓALJ TISZTIKARA. Városi Theodor, Szelinkó Viktor, † Andor Kolomann, Weiss Martin, Erényi Ignác, † v. Armandola Benvenuto, Tatár Franz, Nasinszky Adalbert, Dr. Szegedy Samuel, Körmendy Karl, Strisch Eberhard Géza, Dr. Scheff-Dabis Ladislaus, T Bobor Stefan, Rainer Karl, Julius Wassitsch, Horn Elemér, Trinkl Adalbert, Arnoul Karl. ([152]) [Abb.]: Eine Strasse der abgebrannten Čišna. / Utarészlet az oroszoktól felégetett Čišnán. (153) Leutnant in der Reserve Johann Trenovszky. / Trenovszky János tart. hadnagy. (153) Leutnant in der Reserve Josef Vidovich. Leutnant in der Reserve Stefan Vági. / Vidovich Ferenc tart. hadnagy. Vági István tart. hadnagy. (153) Fähnrich in der Reserve Elemér Farkas. / Farkas Elemér tart. Zászlós. (154) [Abb.]: Feldpost No. 105 Zborow. / A 105. számu tábori posta Zborowban. (154) Kadett in der Reserve Andreas Erdős. / Dr. Erdős Andor tart. hadapród. (154) Kadett in der Reserve Adalbert Melles. / Melles Béla tart. hadapród. (155) Kadett in der Reserve Julius Wechsler. / Wechsler Gyula tart. kadett. (155) [18 Abb.]: VERMISSTE MANNSCHAFTSPERSONEN. / ELTÜNT LEGÉNYSÉG. (1)Somogyi johann (2)Bor Michael (3)Mészáros Mathias (4)Kemmer Franz (5)Baron Adam (6)Madarász Benedikt (7)Zsebi Andreas (8)Lovrics Michael (9)Mezák Stefan (10)Horváth Josef (11)Szetele Josef (12)Zsigmond Franz (13)Horváth Emerich (14)Eberhardt Jakob (15)Drobina Paul (16)Csőke Stefan (17)Sarus Alexander (18)Csorba Stefan (155) [4 Abb.]: (1)Kovács Alexander (2)Devich Nikolaus (3)Pauditz Michael (4)Kárász Jakob ([156]) Feldwebel Alexander Kovács / Kovács Sándor őrmester. ([156]) Stabsfeldwebel Michael Pauditz / Pauditz Mihály törzsőrmester. ([156]) Zugsführer Jakob Kárász. Fähnrich Nikolaus Devich, / Kárász Jakab szakaszvezető. Devich Miklós tart. zászlós, (157) [2 Abb.]: Unterhaltung in den Schützengraben. / A lövészárok mulatságaiból. (157) [5 Abb.]: MARSCHBILDER. / HARCTÉRRE MENŐ HUSZONHÁRMASOK.(1)Offizierskorps der IV/2 Marschkompagnie. / A IV/2 meteszázad tisztikara. (2)2. Das Einrücken des XII. Marschbaons in Stary-Mylotin. / A XII. menetzászlóalj az ezrednél Stary-Mylotinban. (3)3. Offizierskorps des XVI. Marschbaons in Zločow. / A XVI. menetzászlóalj tisztikara Zločowban. (4)4. Die XIV/2 Marschkompagnie. / A XIV. menetzászlóalj 2. százada. (5)5. Die Marsch-Maschinengewehrabteilung im Mai 1916. / Az 1916 májusi géppuskás-menetosztag. ([158]) Stabsfeldwebel Johann Acsánszky. Stabsfeldwebel Franz Beicht. Stabsfeldwebel Anton Brunner. / Acsánszky János törzsőrmester. Beicht Ferenc törzsőrmester. Brunner Antal törzsőrmester. (159) [Abb.]: Ein Schützengraben bei Milno. / Lövészárok Milno mellett. (159) Einjährig-Freiwilliger Zugsführer Alexander Ernst. Gefreiter Michael Berkes. / Ernst Sándor egyéves önkéntes szakaszvezető. Berkes Mihály őrvezető. (159) Infanterist Paul Gajdocsi. Zugsführer Michael Gruber. Infanterist Franz Gebert. Stabsfeldwebel Stefan Heffner. / Gajdocsi Pál közvitéz. Gruber Mihály szakaszvezető. Gebert Ferenc közvitéz. Heffner István törzsőrmester. (160) Zugsführer Ludwig Karagity. / Karagits Lajos szakaszvezető. (160) Zugsführer Johann Kindla. Stabsfeldwebel Johann Lorenz. Korporal Sebők Merlók. / Kindla János szakaszvezető. Lorenc János törzsőrmester. Merlók Sebők tizedes. (161) Stabsfeldwebel Josef Matarits. / Matarits József törzsőrmester. (161) [4 Abb.]: DIE DREIUNDZWANZIGER IM FELDE. / HUSZONHÁRMASOK A HARCTÉREN. (1)1. Infanterie-Geschützabteilung No 23. / Az ezred gyalogsági ágyús osztaga. (2)2. Maschinengewehr im Kampfe. / Gépfegyver harcközben. (3)3. Beobachtungsstand der Maschinengewehrabt. No III. / A III. gépfegyverosztag megfigyelőállása. (4)4. Beobachtung des Feindes. / Figyelik az ellenséget. ([162]) Feldwebel Josef Mayer. Gefreiter Stefan Mojzes. Zugsführer Georg Molnár. / Mayer Jozsef őrmester. Mojzes István őrvezető. Molnár György szakaszvezető. (163) [Abb.]: Strassenreinigung in Korsylow. Monat Feber 1916 / Utat tisztit a 23-as. Korsylow, 1916 február. (163) Stabsfeldwebel Johann Müller. Infanterist Franz Német. / Müller János törzsőrmester. Német Ferenc közvitéz. (163) Zugsführer Nikolaus Raab. Feldwebel Peter Rill. Infanterist Mathias Sauer. Gefreiter Michael Szilágyi. / Raab Miklós szakaszvezető. Rill Péter őrmester. Sauer Mátyás közvitéz. Szilágyi Mihály őrvezető. (164) Infanterist Michael Takács. / Takács Mihály közvitéz. (164) Statistik der Dekorationen bis inklusive 1. November 1916. / A kitüntetések statisztikája 1916 november 1-ig. (165) [6 Abb.]: DREIUNDZWANZIGER VOR DEM THRONFOLGER. / HUSZONHÁRMASOK A TRÓNÖRÖKÖS ELŐT. (1)1. Erzherzog Karl Franz Josef, Thronfolger. / Károly Ferenc József főherceg, trónörökös. (2)-(4)2-4-5. Der Thronfolger in Blich am 13. Okt. 1915. / A trónörökös Blichben 1915 okt. 13-án. (5)3. Dekorierung der 23-er durch den Generalmajor v. Willerding. / Willerding tábornok 23-asokat dekorál. (6)6. Dekorierung der 23-er durch den Obersten Karl Glöckner. / Glöckner ezredes 23-asokat dekorál. ([166]) Die Dreiundzwanziger vor dem Thronfolger. / Huszonhármasok a trónörökös erlőtt. (167) [2 Abb.]: (1)1. DER STURM BEI RUMO. 1. A RUMNÓI ROHAM. (2)2. VORWÄRTS IM SCHNEE DER KARPATHEN. / ELŐRE A KÁRPÁTI HÓBAN. ([168]) Die Fahne. / A zászlo. (169) [Abb.]: Die Regimentsfahne passiert die ungarische Grenze. / A mi zászlónk a magyar határon, 1915 február 27-én. (169) [5 Abb.]: UNSERE BEFESTIGUNGEN. / A MI ERŐDITMÉNYEINK. (1)1. Deckungen bei Kamionka. / Fedezékek Kamionkánál. (2)2. Deckungen in den Karpathen. / Kárpáti fedezékek. (3), (4)3-4. Reservestellung bei Milno. / A milnói tartalékállások. (5)5. Schützengraben bei Hladky. / Lövészárok Hladky mellett. (6)6. Aufbau einer deckung Épül a fedezék. ([170]) Das Regiment im Weltkriege. Kurzgefasste Geschichte. / Az ezred a világháborúban. Egy kis történelem dóhéjban. ([171]) [Abb.]: Am Marsche zur Front. / Útban a front felé. ([171]) I. Die erste serbische Offensive. / I. Az első szerbiai offenziva. ([171]) II. Die zwei Offensiven in Galizien. / II. A két galiciai offenziva. ([171]) III. In Russisch-Polen. IV. Die Kämpfe in den Karpathen. / III. Oroszlengyelországban. IV. Kárpáti harcok. (172) V. Nach dem Durchbruch bei Gorlice. / V. A gorlicei áttörés után. (172) VI. Der zweite Winter. / VI A második tél. (173) [Abb.]: Bau einer Deckung. / Készül a fedezék. (173) [9 Abb.]: ZERSTÖRUNGSWERK DES KRIEGES. / A HÁBORÚ PUSZTITÁSAI. (1)1. Eine gesprengte Brücke. / Egy felrobbantott hid. (2)2. Die brennende Eisenbahnstation in Szadowa-Wisznya. / Az égő szadowa-wisznyai állomás. (3)3. Jarycow-Nowy nach dem Rückzug der Russen. / Jarycow-Nowy az oroszok pusztitása után. (4)4. Die Kirche von Pakosč. / A pakosči templom. (5)5. Die Trümmer der Mühle in Zalosce. / A zaloscei malom romjai. (6)6. Die von den Russen angezündete Chyrower Brücke. / Az oroszoktól felgyújtott chyrowi hid. (7)7. Die Trümmer von Jarycow-Nowy. / Jarycow-Nowy romjai. (8)Wiederaufbau der Pluchower Brücke. / A pluchowi hid újraépitése. (9)Eisenbahnstation in Szadowa-Wisznya. / A szadowa-wisznyai vasútállomás. ([174]) VII. Die grosse russische Offensive im Monat Juni 1916. / VII. Oroszok 1916 júniusi nagy offenzivája. (175) [12 Abb.]: GRUPPE VON EINJÄHRIG-FREIWILLIGEN DES REGIMENTS. / EZREDBELI ÖNKÉNTESEK. (1)Székács Emerich (2)Peischl Emil (3)Szemlits Mathias (4)Utry Adalbert (5)Keszler Josef (6)Polgár Desider (7)Schuller Eugen (8)Szücs Johann (9)Bikiczky Milán (10)Robitsek Eugen (11)Guttmann Josef (12)Oppenheim Eugen. (175) [4 Abb.]: Bilder aus Zborow. / Zborowi képek. [Holzschnitte] ([176]) Das Regimentstagebuch. Vom 26. Juli 1914 bis 31. März 1916. Chronologische Tabelle. / Az ezred naplója. 1914 julius 26-1916 márczius 31-ig. Chronologiai táblázat. ([177]) [Abb.]: Stellungen werden ausgehoben. / Fedezéket ásnak. ([177]) [7 Abb.]: ZERSTÖRUNGSWERK DES KRIEGES. / A HÁBORÚ PUSZTITÁSAI. (1)1. Die Pluchower Brücke nach der Sprengung. / A pluchowi hid a robbantás után. (2)2. Die Kirche von Kamionka-Strumilowa. / A kamionka-strumilowai templom. (3)3. Ein Haus in Kamionka-Strumilowa. / Egy kamionka-strumilowai ház. (4)4. Die Eisentrümmer der Pluchower-Brücke. / A felrobbantott pluchowi hid vasroncsai. (5)5. Der Dom von Krisovice. / A krisovicei dóm. (6)6. Fabriksinterieur in Kamionka-Strumilowa. / Egy gyár Kamionka-Strumilowán. (7)7. Die Kirche von Nagypolány. / A nagypolányi templom. ([178]) [6 Abb.]: DIE SOLDATEN IM KAMPFE. / HARCBAN A BAKA. (1)1. Im Patrouillenkampfe. / Az előörs harcban. (2)2. Ein Blick auf den Feind. / / Egy pillantás az orosz felé. (3)3. Abfeuern einer Gewehrgranate. / A fegyvergranát kilövése. (4)4. Ein Maschinengewehr ein Flugzeug beschiessend. / A repülőgép ellen irányitott géppuska. (5)5. Die Stellungen bei Takcsány. / A takcsányi fedezékek. (6)6. Es tobt der Kampf. / Mikor áll harc. ([180]) [3. Abb.]: DIE WEITERAUSBILDUNG DER MANNSCHAFT HINTER DER FRONT: / A LEGÉNYSÉG TOVÁBBKÉPZÉSE A FRONT MÖGÖTT: (1)1. Ein Zug während der Frontausbildung. / 1. Egy szakasz a frontkiképzés közben. (2), (3)2-3. Eine Maschinengewehrabteilung während der Frontausbildung. / 2-3. Egy géppuskásosztag frontkiképzés közben. ([184]) [3 Abb.]: MANNSCHAFTSSCHULEN IM SCHÜTZENGRABEN: / LEGÉNYSÉGI ISKOLÁK A LÖVÉSZÁROKBAN: (1)Bei der 14. Feldkompanie. / 1. A 14. századnál. (2)2. Bei der 1. Feldkompanie. / 2. Az alső századnál. (3)3. Bei der 16. Feldkompanie. / 3. A 16. századnál. ([188]) [5 Abb.]: UNSERE BEFESTIGUNGEN. / A MI ERŐDITMÉNYEINK. (1)1. Eine stille Gasse der unterirdischen Stadt. / Egy csendes utca a földalatto városból. (2)2. Drahthindernis bei Siestratin an der russischen Grenze. / Drótakadály az crosz határon Siestratin mellett. (3)3. Der Brückenkopf bei Zalosce. / A zaloscei hidfő. (4)4. Drahthindernis an der Strypa. / Drótakadály a Strypánál. (5)5. Deckungen bei Nagypolány. / Feldzékek Nagypolány mellett. ([192]) [3 Abb.]: DREIUNDZWANZIGER IN DER RESERVE: / HUSZONHÁRMASOK TARTALÉKBAN: (1)1. Die 4. Feldkompanie. / 1. A 4. század. (2)2. Die 2. Feldkompanie. / 2. A 2. század. (3)3. Die 10. Feldkompanie. / 3. A 10. század. ([196]) [6 Abb.]: DIE DREIUNDZWANZIGER IM FLEDE. / A HUSZONHÁRMASOK A HARCTÉREN. (1), (2)1-2. Im Sprengtrichter bei Hladky. / A hladkyi robbantott tölcsérben. (3)3. Komp.-Kanzlei in den Karpathen. / Századiroda a Kárpátokban. (4)4. Stützpunkt der 13. Feldkompagnie. / A 13. század támaszpontja. (5)Oberst Glöckner in der Stellung der 9. Komp. bei Hladky. / Glöckner ezredes a 9. század állásában Hladkynál. (6)6. Schneeverwehte Stellungen bei Zagorče. / A zagorčei állások hófuvás után. ([200]) [10 Abb.]: WENN DER DREIUNDZWANZIGER NICHT KÄMPFT. / A HUSZONHÁRMAS, MIKOR NEM HARCOL. (1)1. Schneeschaufeln bei Zborow. / Hóeltakaritás Zborownál. (2)2. Kartoffelgraben. / Krumplikapálás. (3)3. Erntearbeiten bei Nowy-Staw. / Aratás Nowy-Stawnál. (4)4. Die Instandsetzung der Zborower Strasse. / A zborowi utat igazitják. (5)5. Strassenbau an der Grenze. / Dorongfából utat csinálnak. (6)6. Der 23-er ackert. / Szánt a huszonhármas. (7)7. Nachmittagsschlummer im Schützengraben. / Álom a lövészárokban. (8)8. Ein Brief an die Lieben. / Levél hazafelé. (9)9. Menage im Laufgraben. / Menázsi a futóárokban. (10)10. Wer sucht der findet. / Aki keres az tatál. ([203]) Den Dreiundzwanzigern. Gedenkzeilen. ([205]) [2 Briefe]: (1)Im wilden Kriegsgetümmel. (2)Der Bürger als Soldat. ([205]) [Brief]: Nun sind es bereits zwei Jahre, dass die Kriegsfurie wütet. ([205]) [2 Briefe]: (1)Neben dem Weizen der Bácska. (2)Das teure Blut,. (206) [Brief]: Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori! (207) [Brief]: Es war eine Zeit der Mobilisation,. (207) [Brief]: Mit Dank und Anerkennung begrüsse ich die Aktion der 23-er,. (208) [5 Abb.]: UNSER DIVISIONSKOMMANDO. GENERAL BOTHMER BEI UNS. / HADOSZTÁLYPARANCSNOKSÁGUNK. BOTHMER TÁBORNOK NÁLUNK. (1)-(3)1, 2, 3. Inspizierung durch General Bothmer. / 1, 2, 3. Bothmer tábornok szemlét tart. (4)4. Defilierung vor General Bothmer. / 4. Diszfelvonulás Bothmer tábornok előtt. (5)5. Der Stab der 32. I. T. D. / A 32-es gyaloghadosztálytörzs. ([209]) [2 Briefe]: (1)Trockene Zahlen bergen heute hohe Begriffe in sich. (2)Wir schöpfen aus den Heldentaten. (210) [3 Briefe]: (1)Nachdem es in ein paar Zeilen möglich ist,. (2)Das Andenken der Helden zu verewigen. (3)Denen zu helfen, die auf unsere Menschenliebe angewiesen,. (211) [5 Briefe]: (1)Die Bácskaer haben immer. (2)Bei den Söhnen der Bácska. (3)Tu fac officium; cetera causa Dei. (4)All jene, die ihr junges Leben,. (5)Es sei Gottes Willen, dass der Ertrag des Kriegsalbums. (212) [7 Abb.]: DAS LEBEN AN DER FRONT BEI DEN DREIUNDZWANZIGERN. / HOGY ÉL A HUSZONHÁRMAS A FRONTON. (1)1. In der Stellung bei Kamionka. / A kamionkai állásból. (2)2. Im Unterstandseingang. / A fedezék ajtajában. (3)3. Menagekosten. / Jó-e a menázsi? (4)4. Defilierung der Dreiundzwanziger in Zborow. / A huszonhármasok zenével masiroznak Zborowon át. (5)5. Das Lager des XII. Marschbaons in Barszerovice. / A XII. menetzászlóalj Barszerovicén táboroz. (6)6. Vor der Deckung. / A fedezék előtt. (7)7. Offizierskorps der 13. Feldkomp. / A 13. század tisztikara. ([213]) Huszonhármasokról a huszonhármasoknak. Emléksorok. ([214]) [2 Briefe]: (1)A nemzetek. (2)Ob polgár mint mérheti. ([214]) [Brief]: Immár két év óta tombol. ([214]) [2 Briefe]: (1)Bácska buzája után Bácska katonája. (2)Hőseinknek a harctéren ahazáért (215) [Brief]: Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori! (216) [Brief]: Még a mozgósitáskor történt,. (216) [Brief]: Hálával és elismeréssel köszöntöm a huszonhármasok vállalkozását,. (217) [2 Briefe]. (1)A máskor rideg számok ma nagyszerü fogalmakat rejtenek magukban. (2)A varos háziezzedének,. (218) [8 Abb.]: DIE TECHNISCHE KUNST DES KRIEGES. / A HÁBURÚ MŰVÉSZI TECHNIKÁJA. (1)1. Eine Fliegerabwehr-Maschinengewehrabteilung. / Légijárművek ellen beállitott gépfegyverosztag. (2)2. Die Fliegerabwehrkanone. / Ágyú a gépmadarak ellen. (3)3. Ein 22.5 cm. Minenwerfer. / A 22 és feles aknavető. (4)4. Beim Gebirgsgeschütz. / A hegyi üteg egyik ágyúja. (5)5. Start eines Fliegers / Startol a repülőgép. (6)6. Die Telephonabteilung in den Karpathen. / Telefonosztag a Kárpátokban. (7)7. Eine Scheinwerferabteilung. / Fényszóróosztag. (8)Abfahrt zur Fassung. / Utrakészen a század trénje. ([219]) [3 Briefe]: (1)Mivel két-három sorban egy csaknem. (2)Ugy mondják, hogy a hősök emlékét. (3)A könyörületre szoruló szánandókon lelkünk. (220) [5 Briefe]: (1)A bácskaiak mindig és mindenütt. (2)Bácska fiainál a haza és a föld szeretete. (3)Tu fac officium; cetera causa Dei. (4)Mindazok, akik értünk áldozták fiatal életüket,. (5)Adja a Mindenható, hogy a szeretett hazánk. (221) Unser Kommandant. ([222]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberst Glöckner geht aus Zalosce auf Urlaub. / Glöckner ezredes Zalosceből szabadságra megy. (2)Deckung des Oberst Glöckner bei Cote 292 am 1. VI. 1915. / Glöckner ezredes fedezéke a 292-es magaslaton 1915 VI. 1-én. ([222]) [7 Abb.]: UNSER REGIMENTSKOMMANDANT. / A MI EZREDESÜNK. (1)1. Weihnachtsabend beim Rgmtskommando in Zagorce 1915. / Karácsony este az ezredparancsnokságnál 1915-ben Zagorcen. (2)2. Ein deutscher Gast. / Glöckner ezredes a "némettel" komiázik. (3)3. Oberst Glöckner als Brigadir. / Glöckner ezredes, mint brigadéros. (4)4. Vor der Rgmtskantine in Presovce. / Az ezredkantin előtt Presovcén. (5)5. Offiziersversammlung in Seretec. / Tiszti összejövetel Seretecen. (6)6. In der Stellung bei krukienice 11/VI. 1915. / A Krukienicei állásokban 1915 junius 11. (7)7. Gäste beim Regimentskommando in Presovce. / Vendégek az ezredparancsnokságnál Presovcén. ([223]) Die Seele des Kämpfers. / A sbáci temetőig. ([224]) [Abb.]: Auf Brückenwacht. / Hid-őrségen. ([224]) [Abb.]: Die ersten Kriegsgefangenen bei Sabac. / Az első hadifoglyok Sbácnál. (226) Kezdetben. Naplótöredék. ([227]) [Abb.]: Die ersten Verwundeten in Klenák. / Az első sebesültek Klenákon. ([227]) [Abb.]: Vorbereitung zur Überschiffung der Save. / Előkészület a Száván való átkeléshez. (228) [Abb.]: Gefangene serbische Komitatschis. / Fogoly szerb komitácsik. (229) [8 Abb.]: LAGERLEBEN BEI DEN 23-ERN. / TÁBORI ÉLET A HUSZONHÁRMASOKNÁL. (1)1. Baracken bei Crókaófalu. / Barakkok Cirókaófaluban. (2)2. Erzeugung von "spanischen Reitern". / Spanyollovast fon a baka. (3)3. Ein ungefährliches Arsenal. / Egy ártatlan arzenál. (4)4. Im Lager bei Tamanovice. / A tamanovicei táborból. (5)5. Die Schnitter bei Nowy-Staw. / A nowy-stawi aratók. (6)6. Der "Baka" schreibt nach Hause. / Levelet ir a baka. (7)7. die 12. Kompanie vor der menagenverteilung. / A 12. század menázsi előtt. (8)8. Nach schwerem Gefechte. / Nehéz ütközet után. ([230]) [Abb.]: Im zwanzigsten Monate der Kriegsleiden. / A szenvedések huszadik hónapjában. (231) [Abb.]: OFFIZIERSKORPS DER I/X. MARSCHKOMPAGNIE. / A X. MENETZÁSZLÓALJ ELSŐ SZÁDÁNAK TISZTIKARA. Samuel Gellért, Andor Ernst, Emerich Treer, Adalbert Lengyel, Adalbert Gál, Eugen Martin, Samuel Berliner (232) Der Krieg und der Aberglaube. / Mikor az ember "sabáci hős". ([233]) [Abb.]: ([233]) [7 Abb.]: NACH AUSGETOBTEN KÄMPFEN. / DULÓ CSATÁK UTÁN. (1)1. Schwerverwundete in einer Scheune. / Nehéz sbesültek egy félszerben. (2)-(4)2.-4. "Stilleben" auf der Wahlstatt. / "Csendélet" a harctéren. (5), (6)Verwundetentransport. / Sebesültszállitás. (7)7. Beerdigung russischer Gefallener. / Orosz holttestek eltakaritása. ([236]) [3 Abb.]: DAS ERSTE MARSCHBATAILLON. / AZ ELSŐ MENETZÁSZLÓALJ. (1)1. Offiziere der 3. Kompanie. / A 3. század tisztikara. (2)2. Die Offiziere und Chargen der 4. Kompanie. / A 4. század tisztjei és altisztjei. (3)3. Die Offiziere der 4. Kompanie. / A 4. század tisztikara. ([238]) Das Erste Marschbataillon. / Az első menetzászlóalj. ([239]) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehrabteilung am Vormarsche. / Utban a gépfegyverosztag. ([239]) [Abb.]: Das Schloss in Liškó nach dem russischen Einbruch. / A liškói kastély az orosz látogatás után. (240) [Abb.]: Die 23-er als Wäscherinnen. / Nagymosás a front megett. (241) [2 Abb.]: (1)I. OFFIZIERSKORPS DER 2/II. MARSCHKOMPANIE. / I. A II. MENETZÁSZLÓALJ MÁSODIK SZÁZADÁNAK TISZTIKARA. Aladár Biró, Adalbert Sternlicht, Bogdán Kralj, Philipp Servo, Julius Wessely, Neumann (2)2. OFFIZIERSKORPS DER I./II. MARSCHKOMPANIE. / 2. A II. MENETZÁSZLÓALJ ELSŐ SZÁZADÁNAK TISZTIKARA. Béla Trinkl, Max Prager, Stefan v. Moldovány, Ladislaus v. Surányi, Ernst Freund ([242]) [Abb.]: OFFIZIERSKORPS DES IV. MARSCHBATAILLONS. / A IV. MENETZÁSZLÓALJ TISZTIKARA. Várady Zoltán, Biró Aladár, Schleicher Géza, Jánosy Dénes, Winter Filipp, Nádas Ferdinand, Koczián Karl, Černy Jaroslav, Trinkl Adalbert, Horn Elemér, † Artner Ferdinand, Gyöngyi Ladislaus, Berend Ladislaus, Barberič Emil, Jasper Johann, Keleti Desider, Wallandt August, Bertalan Desiderius, Arnoul Karl, Alexander Lollok, Grubacsky Gabriel, Pető Stefan. ([244]) Meine 23-er. / Az én huszonhármasaim. ([245]) [Abb.]: ([245]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feldmesse bei Kanonendonner / Istentisztelet ágyúk zúgása közt. (2)Russische Gefangene vor dem Abtransport. / Orosz foglyok elszálltásuk előtt. (246) A harminckettősöknél. A IV. menetzászlóalj történetéhez. ([247]) [Abb.]: Lastenauto im Kriegsdienst. / Teherauo a harctéren. ([247]) [4 Abb.]: IV. MARSCHBATAILLON, 3. KOMPANIE. / IV. MENETZÁSZLÓALJ, 3. SZÁZAD. ([248]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Brand in Trosčianeč nach einer Bombadierung. / Légibomba gyujtogatása Trosčianečen. (2)Die Feldbahn bei Nagypolány. / A nagypolányi tábori vasut. (249) Laszki-Murowane. Reminiszenzen. / Laszki-Murowane. Emlékezés. ([250]) [Abb.]: Kurze Rast. / Rövid pihenő. ([250]) [6 Abb.]: BILDER AUS LASZKI-MUROWANE. Aufnahmen des Generalmajor von Vidale. / LASZKI-MUROWANEI KÉPEK. Vidale vezérőrnagy fényképfelvételei. (1)1. Übergang über Hočewka am 5. Okt. 1914. / Áteklés a Hočewkán 1914 oktober 5-én. (2)2. Die Kulturarbeit der Kosaken im Schlosse zu Laszi-Murowane. / Kozáknyomok a laszki-murowanei kastélyban. (3)3. Sprengtrichter einer russischen 15 cm. Granate. / Egy orosz 15-ös gránátyluk. (4)4. Die Kirche in Laszki-Murowane. / A laszki-murowanei templom. (5)5. Im Hohlweg bei Laszki-Murowane. / A laszki-murowanei útszorosban. (6)6. Strasse Berežow-Szumina. / A berežow-szuminai országútról. ([251]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aussicht durch die Schiesscharte. / Kilátás a lőrésen át. (2)Der Scheinwerferkegel. / A fényszóró sugár kévéje. (253) Turovice. 19. Dezember 1914. / Turovice. 1914 december 19. ([254]) [Abb.]: Sie ruhen in fremder Erde. / Nyugosznak messze idegenben. ([254]) [Abb.]: Horst Bandat. Josef Bandat. (256) [Abb.]: OFFIZIERSKORPS DES II. FELDBATAILLONS IM NOVEMBER 1914. / A II. ZÁSZLÓALJ TISZTIKARA 1914 NOVEMBERBEN. Gombos, Bolár, Wagner, Payka, Göndör, Kun, Mayer, Bandat, Hermecz, Krevenka (258) Dalolnak a huszonhármasok. Bácskai katonanótak. ([259]) [Abb.]: Tombola an der Front. / Tombola a fronton. ([259]) [4 Abb.]: XXI. MARSCHBATAILLON, 2. KOMPANIE. / XXI. MENETZÁSZLÓALJ, 2. SZÁZAD. ([260]) Potok. Zu den Zeichnungen des Gm. Julius v. Vidale. / Potok San Martinói Vidale Gyula vezérőrnagy rajzaihoz. ([262]) [Abb.]: Bauen der Stellungen. / Készül a fedezék. ([262]) [2 Abb.]: ZEICHNUNGEN DES GENERALMAJOR JULIUS VIDALE VON SAN-MARTINO. / SAN-MARTINÓI VIDALE GYULA VEZÉRŐRNAGY RAJZAI. (1)Angriff auf Potok am 26. Dezember 1914. / 1. A potoki támadás 1914 december 26. (2)2. Major Hahne im Laufgraben. / 2. Hahne őrnagy a futóárokban. ([263]) [2 Abb.]: ZEICHNUNGEN DES GENERALMAJOR JULIUS VIDALE VON SAN-MARTINO. / SAN-MARTINÓI VIDALE GYULA VEZÉRŐRNAGY RAJZAI. (1)1. Die drei Kreuze von Potok. / 1. A potoki három kereszt. (2)2. Heim des Rgmts-Kommandos in Potok. / 2. Az ezredparancsnokság palotája Potokon. ([265]) [Abb.]: (267) Als der Russe noch in Ungarn war. Abenteuer des Infanteristen Szilágyi. / Mikor a muszka még Magyarországon volt. Infanteriszt Szilágyi vitézi esete. ([268]) [Abb.]: Die Russen in Ungarn. / Muszkák Magyarországon. ([268]) [6 Abb.]: DIE RUSSISCHE "DAMPFWALZE". / AZ OROSZ "GŐZHENGER". (1)1. In der Kirche von Adamowka. / Az oroszországi adamowakai templomban. (2)2. Hore Ruke! Hände hoch! / Kezet föl! (3)3. Gefangenenbeute von drei 23-er. / Három 23-as fogolyzsákmánya. (4)4. Gefangeneneskorte. / Kisérik a foglyokat. (5)Moskoviten in Ungarn. / Muszkák Magyarországon. (6)Russen unterwegs nach Budapest. / Muszkák útban Budapest felé. ([269]) [6 Abb.]: KARPATHENBILDER. / A KÁRPÁTOKBÓL. (1)1. Die Feldmesse / Tábori mise. (2)2. Soldatenfriedhof. / Katonatemető. (3)3. Magere Weide. / Sovány legelő. (4)4. Eine schwere Batterie-Stellung im Schnee. / Egy nehéz üteg állása a hóban. (5)5. Das Pferdespital in Čišna. / A čišnai lókórház. (6)6. Schneeverwehung. / Havat hánynak a 23-asok. ([271]) Krukienice. 1915 március 19. ([273]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Flüchtlingslager bei Krukienice. / Menekültek tábora Krukienice mellett. (2)Ein Trümmerhaufen in Krukienice. / Krukienice romjai. ([273]) [6 Abb.]: AUS SCHWEREN TAGEN. / NEHÉZ NAPOKBÓL. (1)1. Am Vorabend des blutigen Sturmes bei Krukieniče. / A krukieniče véres roham előtt. (2)2. Wenn der 23-er nicht fesch ist. / Mikor a 23-as nem fess. (3)3. Nach der Schlacht. / Dúló harc után. (4)4. Übergang über die Hočewka. / Átkelés a Hočewkán. (5)5. Das brennende Žabuže. / Az égő Žabuže. (6)6. Beerdigung russischer Toten. / Orosz holtak temetése. ([274]) Hideg szél fúj. Bakanóta. (275) Anerkennung für die erfolgreiche Bugforcierung. / Elismerő irások a sikeres Bug-átkelésért. ([276]) Die Übersetzung des Bugflusses. 26. Juli 1915. / A Bug-átkelés. 1915 július 26. ([277]) [Abb.]: ([277]) [Abb.]: Ein zerschossenes Haus in Kamionka. / Kamionkai romok. (278) [Abb.]: Brückenbau über den Bug bei Kamionka. / Hidat vernek a Bugon, Kamionka mellett. (279) [8 Abb.]: DIE TECHNISCHE KUNST DES KRIEGES. / A HÁBORÚ MŰVESZI TECHNIKÁJA. (1)1. Pferdevisite beim Train. / Lóviziz a trénnél. (2)2. Ein 30.5-er Mörser in Stellung. / Egy 30 és feles maskirozott állásban. (3)3. Divisionsbäckerei No. 32. / A 32. hadosztály tábori kenyérgyára. (4)4. Brückenschlag über den Bug bei Kamionka. / Hidverés a Bugon Kamionka mellett. (5)5. Eine "schwere" Batterie in der Karpathenstellung. / Nehéz üteg a Kárpátokban. (6)6. Der Waffenmeister im Felde. / A fegyverkovács a táborban. (7)Ein abgestürzter Aeroplan. / Egy lezuhant repülőgép. (8)8. Eine Fliegerabwehrkanone in Zalošče. / Ágyú a repülők ellen Zaloščében. ([281]) Négy hónapig az oroszoknál. Egy szökés története. ([283]) [Abb.]: Verhör von Gefangenen. / Foglyok kihallgatása. ([283]) [Abb.]: Fähnrich Sigmund Árgay. / Árgay Zsigmond zászlós. (284) [Gedicht]: Éljen. (284) [7 Abb.]: FRÖHLICHES LEBEN AN DER FRONT. / VIDÁM ÉLET A FRONTON. (1)Uns kann man nicht aushungern. / Nem halunk éhen. (2)2. Idyll. / Idill a "panyinkával". (3)3. Auf 30 Schritte von den Russen. / Harminc lépésre a muszkáktól. (4)4. Offiziere und Unteroffiziere der 9-ten Kompanie. / A 9. zázad tisztjei és altisztjei. (5)5. Beim Mittagessen. / Izlik a menázsi. (6)6. Der Stab des II-ten Bataillons menagiert. / A II. zászlóalj törzse ebédel. (7)7. Anklang unserer Bakas bei den Liskoer Frauen. / Sirnak utánunk a liskói asszonyok. ([285]) A fünfte sturmja. Milno, 1915 november 2. ([286]) [Abb.]: ([286]) [Gedicht]: A harang. (287) Trichtersprengung. 18. April 1916. / Tölcsérrobbantás. 1916 április 18. ([288]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aussicht aus dem Trichter. / Kilátás a tölcsérből. (2)Nordrand des Trichters. / A tölcser északi része. ([288]) [3 Abb.]: DAS REGIMENT IM FELDE. / AZ EZRED A HARCTÉREN. (1)1. Die 15. Feldkompanie in der Reserve. / A 15. század tartalékban. (2)2. Der Hilfsplatz des III. Feldbataillons. / A III. zászlóalj sgélyhelye. (3)3. Die 9. Feldkompanie in der Stellung. / A 9. század a tűzvonalban. ([289]) [Abb.]: Technische Verstärkung des Trichters. / A megerősitett tölcsér. (290) Der 4. und 6. Juni 1916. / A nagy orosz offenziva első napja. ([291]) [Abb.]: ([291]) [6 Abb.]: AUS DEN KÄMPFEN DER DREIUNDZWANZIGER. / HARCBAN A HUSZONHÁRMAS. (1)1. Am Marsche zu den Stellungen bei Jablonki. / A jablonkii állásokba vonulunk. (2)2. Kampf im Walde. / Ütközet az erdőben. (3)3. Ein Horchposten im Winter. / Őrszem a hóban. (4)4. Die II. Maschinengewehrabt. im Gefechte bei Hladky. / A II. gépfegyverosztag a Hladky melletti ütközetben. (5)5. Die Heimkehr der verwundeten 23-er. / Sebesült 23-asok útban hazafelé. (6)Der Sprengtrichter bei Hladky. / A Hladky melletti robbantási tölcsér. ([293]) [7 Abb.]: BILDER AUS GALIZIEN. / GALICIA KÉPEK. (1)1. Eine Evakuirung. / Egy kiüritett falu lakossága. (2)2. Ein zalosceer Bürger / Egy zaloscei polgár. (3)Eine russische Familie. / Egy orosz család. (4)4. Der Gemeindevorstand. / A község feje. (5)5. Ein Trümmelhaufen. / Tünődés a romokon. (6)6. Stilleben hinter der Front. / Csendélet a front mögöt. (7)7. Ein Laden in Zalosce. / Egy zahloscei bolt. ([295]) Wenn der Infanterist Husaren fängt. / Huszárt fogott a baka. ([297]) [Abb.]: Flüchtlinge. / Menekülők. ([297]) [5 Abb.]: BILDER VON DEM XXI. MARSCHBATAILLON. / KÉPEK A XXI: MENETZÁSZLÓALJBÓL. ([299]) [Abb.]: (300) Die Photographie im Kriege. Eine Plauderei aus der Kriegserfahrung. ([301]) [Abb.]: Ein Trainstaffel. / Kocsitábor. ([301]) [10 Abb.]: KRIEGSAUFNAHMEN DES GENERALSTABSOBERSTEN RITTER VON KARNITSCHNIGG. / LOVAG KARNITSCHNIGG VEZÉRKARI EZREDES HARCTÉRI FELVÉTELEI. (1)1. Rauhreifmorgen in der Stellung. / Rügyfakadás a fedezékben. (2)2. Waldstellung. / Fedezék az erdőben. (3)3. Kriegsbrücke an der Weichsel. / Hadihid a Visztulán. (4)4. Sumpfstellung. / Fedezék a mocsárban. (5)5. Russische Vorstellung. / Orosz előállások. (6)6. Starke russische Stellung. / Erős orosz fedezék. (7)Erbeutete Kosakenpferde. / Zsákmányolt kozáklovak. (8)8. Winter in der Stellung. / Tél a fedezékben. (9)9. Quartier des Regimentskommandos. / Az ezredparancsnok palotája. (10)Ewiger Frieden. / Ahol már béke van. ([302]) [8 Abb.]: KRIEGSAUFNAHMEN DES OBERSTEN RITTER VON KARNITSCHNIGG. / LOVAG KARNITSCHNIGG EZREDES FELVÉTELEI. (1)1. Die Dorfschöne. / A falu szépe. (2)2. Eine Windmühle an der russischen Grenze. / Szélmalom az orosz határon. (3)3. Läuseplage bei einer polnischen Familie. / Tetüritás lengyel családnál. (4)4. Beim Handeln. / Az üzletkötés. (5)5. Ein Militärfriedhof bei Brody. / Katonatemető Brodban. (6)6. Studienkopf aus Galicien. / Galiciai tanulmányfej. (7)7. Nach der Plünderung der Kosaken. / A kozákok fosztogatása után. (8)Generalstabsoberst Maximilian Ritter v. Karnitschnigg. / Lovag Karnitschnigg Miksa vezérkari ezredes. ([303]) Die Tätigkeit des Militärgerichtes im Felde. ([305]) [3 Abb.]: (3)Der Lohn eines Spions. / Egy kém jutalma. ([305]) [7 Abb.]: DAS FELDGERICHT UND DIE FELDPOST. / A HADIRÓSÁG ÉS A TÁBORI POSTA. (1)1. Sanitätswagen mit Krankentransport. / Betegszállitó-kocsi. (2)2. Oberstabsarzt Dr. Alexander Reichenberg, Sanitätschef der 32. I. T. D. / Dr. Reichenberg Sándor főtörzsorvos, a 32-ik gyaloghadosztály egészségügyi főnöke. (3)3. Sezieren an der Front beim Feldgericht der 32. I. T. D. / Hadbirósági bonczolás a harctéren. (4)4. Protokollaufnahme über das Sezierungsergebnis. / A boncolási jegyzőkönyv elkészitése. (5)5. Divisions-Sanitätsanstalt 32 in Nesterowce. / A 32-ik hadosztály kórháza Nesterowce-n. (6), (7)6-7. Die Feldpost 632. / A 632-es tábori posta. ([306]) Háború a front mögött. A 23-asok gazdasági berendezkedése a harctéren. ([307]) [Abb.]: Erntearbeit der Dreiundzwanziger. / Arat a huszonhármas. ([307]) [6 Abb.]: HINTER DER FRONT. / A FRONT MÖGÖTT. (1)1. Drescharbeiten beim Prov.-Train. / Cséplési munkák a trénnél. (2)2. Die Haferfassung. / A zab kiosztása. (3)3. Der Gefechtstrain im Walde bei Blich. / Az ezred trénje a blichi erdőben. (4)4. Die Regimentskantine in Kokutkovče. / Az ezredkantin Kokutkovčén. (6)6. Ein Trainstall bei Blich. / A trén istállója Blich mellett. ([308]) [Abb.]: Bei der Proviantur. / Az ezred provianturájánál. (309) [Abb.]: DIE RECHNUNGSUNTEROFFIZIERE DES REGIMENTS IM FELDE BEI EINER REGIMENTSKOMMANDOABFERTIGUNG IM MAI 1916. / AZ EZRED SZÁMVIVŐALTISZTJEI A HARCTÉREN AZ EZREDPARANCS KIADÁSÁNÁL 1916 MÁJUSBAN. (310) [5 Abb.]: HINTER DER FRONT. / A FRONT MÖGÖTT. (1)1. Kompaniekanzlei im Felde. / Századiroda a táborban. (2)2. Im Spitalszuge. / A kórhazvonaton. (3)3. Eine Feldmesse in Lopuszany. / Tábori mise Lopuszanyban. (4)4. Feldmesse in Blich. / Tábori mise Blichben. (5)5. Wasserweihe an der Strypa. / Vizkeresztelés a Strypán. (310) Akik nem fegyverrel harcolnak. Mozaik a frontmögöttiekről. ([312]) [Abb.]: Die Fahrküche in Bewegung. / Útban a tábori konyha. ([312]) [Abb.]: Errichtung einer Küche. / Épül a konyha. (313) [5 Abb.]: INTERESSANTE BILDER. / ÉRDEKES KÉPEK. (1)Soldaten mit Gasschutzmasken. / Katonák gázvédő-álarccal. (2)Zusammentreffen nach 20 Monaten im Felde. Hptm. Kralj und sein Bruder. / Találkozás a harctéren 20 hónap után Kralj százados és fivére. (3)Ein Granatvolltreffer beim Brigadirkommando. / Gránát telitalálat a dandárparancsnokságnál. (4)Offiziersbad beim Brigadierkommando. / Tisztifürdő a brigádparancsnokságnál. (5)Leutnant Schneider mit der "Mici". Das Rehlein des Regiments. Nach langer "Frontdienstleistung", wurde es dem Budapester Tiergarten geschenkt. / Schneider hadnagy a "Mici"-vel, az ezred őzikéjével, melyet hosszú "frontszolgálat" után a budapesti állatkertnek ajándékoztak. ([314]) [Abb.]: An der Front geborene Füllen. / A fronton született csikók. (315) [6 Abb.]: SANITÄTSDIENST IM FELDE. / SZANITÉCSZOLGÁLAT A HARCTÉREN. (1)1. Verwundetenpflege. / Orosz sbesülteket kötöznek. (2)2. Ein deutscher Sanitätssoldat mit dem Sanitätshund. / Német szantiéc a szanitéckutyával. (3)3. Die Kirche als Hilfsplatz. / A templom, mint kötözőhely. (4)4. Der Hilfsplatz in voller Arbeit. / A segélyhely munkában. (5)5. Eine Sanitäts-Patrouille in den Karpathen. / Szanitécjárőr a Kárpátokban. (6)6. Die Auto-Sanitätskolonne. / Sanitécautomobilok. ([316]) A kokutkowcei 23-as katonatemető. ([317]) [Abb.]: 23-er Heldenfriedhof. / A hol a mi hőseink nyugosznak. ([317]) [4 Abb.]: AUS UNSEREM HELDENFRIEDHOF. / HŐSEINK TEMETŐJÉBŐL. (1)Ein Heldengrab in Galizien. / Katonasir Galiciában. (2)Am Grabe des deutschen Kameraden. / A német bajtárs sirjánál. (3)Neue Gräber im alten Friedhof. / Új sirok a régi temetőben. (4)Heldenbegräbnis bei Kokutkovce. / Katonatemetés Kokutkovcén. ([318]) Die Feldpost 632. ([319]) [Abb.]: Ankunft der Feldpost nach Tvarda. / A tábori posta megérkezése Tvardára. ([319]) [4 Abb.]: WINDSTILLE HINTER DER FRONT. / SZÉLCSEND S FRONT MÖGÖTT. (1)1. Das Kloster Podkamien. / A podkamieni kolostor. (2)2. Die Sereth-Brücke bei Zalosče. / A zalosčei Sereth-hid. (3)3. Wiederaufbau einer Brücke. / Hidat vernek a pionnirok. (4)4. Ansicht von Stary-Zalosče. / Stary-Zalosčei részlet. ([320]) [2 Abb.]: (1)1. DIE MUSIK DES ERSATZBATAILLONS. / A PÓTZÁSZLÓALJ ZENEKARA. (2)2. DIE REGIMENTSMUSIK IM FELDE. / AZ EZRED ZENEKARA A TÁBORBAN. ([321]) Die Rolle des ersatzbataillons im Weltkriege. / A pótzászlóalj szerepe a világ-háborúban. ([322]) [Abb.]: ([322]) [2 Abb.]: (1)1. EIDESLEISTUNG DES XX. MARSCHBATAILLONS. / 1. A XX. MENETZÁSZLÓALJ ESKÜTÉTELE. (2)2. FELDMESSE VOR DER EIDESLEISTUNG. / 2. TÁBORI MISE AZ ESKÜTÉTEL ELŐTT. ([324]) A káderirodában. ([325]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Versammlung rekonvaleszenter Offiziere in Budapest. / Üdülő tisztjeink Budapesten. (2)Generalmajor Otto von Gössmann eingeteilt beim Militärkommando in Budapest. Inspiziert die Ers.-Baone und kontrolliert auf Grund seiner Fronterfahrung die Ausbildung. / Gössmann Otto vezérőrnagy a budapesti katonai parancsnokságnál beosztva. A pótzászlóaljak szemléjét teljesiti s harctéri tapasztalatai alapján ellenőrzi a kiképzést. ([325]) [Abb.]: DAS OFFIZIERSKORPS DES RESERVEBATAILLONS IM MAI 1916. / A TARTALÉKZÁSZLÓALJ TIRZTIKARA 1916 MÁJUSBAN. Leipnik, Mérai, Schartner, Zoltán, Dr. Simon, Lieblich, Dr. Futó, Földes, Beyer, Jakab, Balkányi, Császár, Schmiedt, Dr. Balthes, Seehofer, Radó, Fodor, Zimmerhackl (326) [3 Abb.]: K . U. K. ERSATZBATAILLONSKOMMANDO N° 23. / A ZOMBORI PÓTZÁSZLÓALJPARANCSNOKSÁG. (1)1. Tätigkeit im Augmentationsmagazin des Ers.-Baons. / Munka a pótkeret felszerelési raktárában. (2)2. Offiziere und Hilfspersonal beim Ers.-Baonskader. / A pótkeret tisztikara és irodaszemélyzete. (3)3. K. u. K. Ergänzungsbezirkskommando No 23. / A cs. és kir. 23. sz. hadkriegészitőparancsnokság. ([327]) Beim Kader. / A káder életéből. ([328]) [Abb.]: Im Hofe der Franz Josef Kaserne. / A zombori Ferenc József laktanya udvarán. ([328]) [Abb.]: Detailansicht von Zborow. / Zborowi utcarésztlet. (329) [3 Abb.]: BILDER VOM ERSATZBATAILLON. / A PÓTZÁSZLÓALJ KÉPEI. (1)1. Offizierskorps der I. Ersatzkompanie im Aug. 1914. / Az első pótszázad tisztikara 1914 aug.-ban. (2)2. Ein Telephonkurs beim Ersatzbataillon. / A pótzászlóalj egyik telefon tanfolyama. (3)3. Landsturmleute (48 - 50. Jahrgang) in Zombor. / A 48 - 50 éves jó öreg népfölkelők Zomborban. ([330]) Der Krieg und das Ersatzbataillon. / A háború és a Pótkeretzászlóalj. ([331]) [Abb.]: Löhnungsauszahlung. / Zsoldfizetés. ([331]) [3 Abb.]: BILDER AUS DEM RESERVESPITAL IN ZOMBOR. / KÉPEK A ZOMBORI TARTALÉK-KÓRHÁZBÓL. ([333]) Der Militär-Sanitätsdienst in Zombor während des Weltkrieges. / A zombori katonai egészségügyi szolgálat a világháború alatt. ([334]) [Abb.]: Ärztestab des Res.-Spitales in Zombor. / A zombori tartelék-kórház orvosi kara. ([334]) [2 Abb.]: (1)1. ÄRZTESTAB DES K. U. K. RESERVESPITALS IN ZOMBOR. / 1. A ZOMBORI CS. ÉS KIR. TARTALÉKKÓRHÁZ ORVOSI KARA. (2)2. KANZLEIPERSONAL DES K. U. K. RESERVESPITALS IN ZOMBOR. / 2. A ZOMBORI CS. ÉS KIR. TART. KÓRHÁZ IRODAI SZEMÉLYZETE. ([335]) [Abb.]: Das bakteriologische Laboratorium des Zomborer Res.-Spitals. / A zombori tart. kórház bakteriologiai laboratoriuma. (338) [Abb.]: Sterilisator des Zomborer Res.-Spitals. / A zombori tart. kórház fertőtlenitő intézete. (339) [3 Abb.]: SANITÄTSDIENST IN ZOMBOR. / A ZOMBORI EGÉSZSÉGÜGYI SZOLGÁLAT. (1)1. Das Marodenzimmer des Ersatzbataillons in Zombor. / A pótzászlóalj zombori maródiszobája. (2)2. Das Kanzleipersonal des k. u. k. Reserve-Spitals in Zombor. / A zombori tartalékkórház irodai személyzete. (3)3. Ärzte und Pflegerinnen des Reserve-Spitals im Aug. 1914. / A tartalékkórház orvosai és ápolónői 1914 aug.-ban. ([340]) [Gedicht]: Das rote Kreuz. ([341]) [Abb.]: ([341]) Erholungsheim der 23-er. (Die Rekonvaleszentenabteilung des Regiments.) / A zombori üdülőtelep. Az ezred lábadozó osztaga. (342) [4 Abb.]: DIE 23-ER REKONVALESZENTENABTEILUNG. / A 23-ASOK ZOMBORI ÜDÜLŐTELEPÉRŐL. (1)1. Oberst Johann Puttnik, Kommandant. Puttnik János ezredes, parancsnok. (2)2. Dr. Johann Duchon Abteilungschefarzt. / Dr. Duchon János, a telep főorvosa. (3)3. Zanderinstitut der Rek.-Abteilung. / A telep Zanderintézete. (4)4. Mannschaft der Rek.-Abt. im Mai 1916. / A telep legénysége 1916 májusában. ([343]) Das Soldatenmaterial des k. u. k. Inf.-Reg. No 23. / A cs. és kir. 23. gyalogezred katonaanyaga. ([344]) [Abb.]: Schneeschaufeln auf der Zborower Strasse. / Hólapátolás a Zborow felé vezető úton. ([344]) [2 Abb.]: DAS KOMMANDO UND DIE MANNSCHAFT DER PFERDESAMMELSTATION IN ZOMBOR. / A ZOMBORI LOGYŰJTŐÁLLOMÁS PARANCSNOKSÁGA ÉS LEGÉNYSÉGE. ([345]) Die Zomborer Pferdesammel-Station. / A zombori lógyűjtő-állomás. (346) [Abb.]: Rittm. Baron Hugó Gudenus. (346) [3 Abb.]: MANNSCHAFT DER ZOMBORER PFERDESAMMELSTATION. / A ZOMBORI LÓGYÜJTŐÁLLOMÁS LEGÉNYSÉGE. ([347]) Harcteri noteszemből. ([348]) [Abb.]: ZBOROW ([348]) [Abb.]: Frohe Stunden während des Presowceer Reservelebens. / Vidám élet a presowcei tartalékban. (349) Az én csendes szomszédom. Kárpáti emlék. ([350]) [2 Abb.]: (2)Heldengräber in den Karpaten / Kárpáti sir. ([350]) [Abb.]: Skipatrouille in den Karpaten. / Skijárőr a Kárpátokban. (351) [6 Abb.]: INTERESSANTE BILDER. / ÉRDEKES KÉPEK. (1)Wohnaus der 32. I.-T.-D. in Nowy-Staw im August 1915. / A 32. gyaloghadosztálytörzs kaása Nowy-Stawban 1915 augusztusában (2)Seine Majestät als Thronfolger beim 32. I.-T.-Divisionskommando an der Syred-Höhe. / A király trónörökös korában a 32. gyaloghadosztály-parancsnokságnál a Syred-magaslaton. (3)Eine Gewehrvisite. / Fegyvervizit. (4)Am Hilsplatze. / A segélyhelyen. (5)Die 9. Kompanie. / A 9. század. (6)Die II. M. G. Abteilung. / A II. géppuskás osztag. ([352]) [2 Gedichte]: (1)Mutters Bild. (2)Pardon / privátügy. (353) [Gedicht]: Valahol messze. (354) A régi Bácskáról. (354) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kommunion an der Front. / Áldozás a harctéren. (2)Strasse in Turka. / Tirkai utcarésztlet. (354) A huszonhármas árvákért. (355) [Abb.]: Redaktion des Kriegsalbums. / A Hadialbum szerkesztősége. (355) [7 Abb.]: INTERESSANTE BILDER. / ÉRDEKES KÉPEK. (1)Inft. Karl Belosevits. Gefallen am 30. März 1915. / Belosevits Károly közlegény. Volt Szt-Ferencrendi növendék. Önként jelentkezett. Elesett 1915 március 30-án. (2)Die moderne Troglodyten. / A modern barlanglakók. (3)Der älteste 23.-er Feldw. Johann Repits. Hat sich mit 76 Jahren freiwillig gemeldet und ist während des Krieges gestorben. / A legöregebb 23-as. Repits János őrmester 76 éves korában önkent jelentkezett s a háború alatt, szolgálantának teljesitése közben elhalt. (4)Oberst Wilhelm v. Dominič. / Dominič Vilmos ezredes. (5)Das Gruppengewehr. Konstruirt vom Obst. Dominič. / Dominič ezredes által feltalált csoportfegyver. (6)Während der Rast. / Pihenés közben. (7)Einjährig-Freiwillige im Menage-Saal. / Az önkéntes iskola ebéd közben. ([356]) Die Geschichte der Wohltätigkeitsaktion des Regiments. / Az ezred jótékony-mozgalmának története. (357) [Abb.]: Ein Los der Kriegswohltätigkeits-Lotterie des II/23. Feldbataillons. / A II/23. zászlóalj táborban rendezett jótékony sorsjatékának sorsjegye. (357) [Abb.]: Ein Los der Regiments-Wohltätigkeits-Lotterie. / Az ezred jótékony sorsjátékának sorsjegye. (359) [Abb.]: Eine Verschlussmarke zu Gunsten des Rgmts-Witwen- u. Waisenfonds. / Záróbélyeg az ezred özvegy-, árva- és rokkant- alapja javára. (360) [Abb.]: PLAKATE DER KRIEGSALBUMAKTION. / A HADIALBUM MOZGALOM PLAKÁTJAIBÓL. ([361]) Die Wohltätigkeitsaktion des Regiments in der Zukunft. Anregung des Lt. i. d. Res. Josef Eugen Kun zur endgültigen Lösung der Kriegshilfefrage. / Az ezred jótékony-mozgalma a jövőben. Kun József Jenő tart. hadnagy javaslata a hadsegélyezés kérdésének végleges megoldására. ([362]) I. Die Geschäftszweige der Aktiengesellschaft. / I. A részvénytársaság üzletágai. (364) 1. Lebensversicherung der Regimentsangehörigen für Invaliditäts- oder Todesfall. / 1. Ezredbeliek életbiztositása rokkantság vagy halál esetére. (364) 2. Landwirtschaftliche Motoren-Lohnarbeit. / 2. Motoros mezőgazdasági gépeknek bérmunka utján való nagymérvű üzembehelyezése. (365) 3. Errichtung einer Lebensmittelzentrale. / 3. Élelmiszerközpont létesitése. (366) 4. Import- und Exportgeschäft. Produktenverwertung. / 4. Behozatali és kiviteli üzlet és terményértékesités. (366) 5. Lieferungen. / 5. Szállitások. (367) 6. Andere Geschäftszweige. / 6. Egyéb üzletágak. (367) II. Das soziale Programm der Aktiengesellschaft. / II. A részvénytársaság szociális programja. (368) 1. Ausbildung und Beschäftigung der Invaliden. / 1. A rokkantak kiképzése és foglakoztatása. (368) 2. Versorgung und Unterstützung der Witwen und Waisen. / 2. Az árvák és özvegyek ellátása és segélyezése. (369) 3. Stellengewährung und Vermittlung für Regimentsangehörige. / 3. Állások nyujtása és közvetitése ezredbeliek számára. (370) III. Anerkennende Aufnahme des Projektes. / III. A tervezet elismerő fogadtatása. (371) Grosse Spender und Förderer des Hilfsfonds. Ein goldenes Kapitel der Wohltätigkeit. / A nagyobb adakozók és az alap támogatói. A jótékonyság aranyfejezete. (377) [Abb.]: (381) [19 Abb.]: MITARBEITER DES KRIEGSALBUMS. / A HADIALBUM MUNKATÁRSAI. (1)Ludwig v. Mezey, (2)Eduard May, (3)Karl Erhart, (4)Alexander Székely, (5)Robert Kautz, (6)Ludwig Baligovics, (7)Friedrich v. Thellman, (8)Branko Kralj, (9)Desider Kelety, (10)Julius v. Vidale, (11)Karl Glöckner, (12)Maximilian v. Karnitschnigg, (13)Desider Füleki, (14)Eugen Nowinsky, (15)Zoltán v. Horánszky, (16)Friedrich v. Tesař, (17)Ernst Kovacsits Denkmayer, (18)Wilhelm Benedikt, (19)Adalbert Sternberg ([382]) [18 Abb.]: MITARBEITER DES KRIEGSALBUMS. / A HADIALBUM MUNKATÁRSAI. (1)Ladislaus Czebe (2)Heinrich Obláth (3)Karl Denk (4)Richard Schneider (5)Georg Hajnal (6)Emerich Szeitz (7)Georg Vjda (8)Alexander Bánóczy (9)Josef Eugen Kun (10)Ernst Ballagi (11)Nikolaus Biber (12)Moritz Grochmann (13)Johann Antal (14)Wilhelm Alpár (15)Eugen Strisch-Eberhard (16)Alexander Ernst (17)Theodor Schwartz (18)Alexander Alpár (Engelmann) ([383]) Die Mitarbeiter des Kriegsalbums. / A hadialbum munkatársai. ([383]) An unsere Nachkommen. Epilog. / Az utódokhoz. Epilogus. ([385]) [Abb.]: Erntefest in Horpin. / Aratási hálaadás Horpinban. ([385]) [Abb.]: (386) Illustrierte Kriegszeitung der k. u. k. 32. Infanterie-Truppendivision. 24. Dezember 1916 / KÉPES HADIUJSÁG A 32. gyaloghadosztály tábori lapja. December 24 ([387]) [Abb.]: Kaiser und König Karl / Károly Király ([387]) [Briefe]: Illustrierte Kriegszeitung. / Képes Hadiujság. (388) Aus unserer Division / A hadosztály köreből (389) Belobigung. Vom Divisionskommando: / Dicséretek. A hadosztályparancsnokságtól: Regimentszusammenkunft. / Ötéves találkozó. (389) [Tabelle]: Übersicht der Dekorationen bei den Regimentern der 32. Division. / A 32. hadosztálybeli ezredek kitüntetéseinek statisztikája. (389) [Todesanzeige]: Franczem Ilija, Komáromi Jakob, Salomon Franz, Klucska Anton, Raits Alexander, Willand Josef, (390) Aus dem goldenen Buche der Division. I. R. 23. Fähnrich Julius Faragó. / A hadosztály aranykönyvéből. 23. gyalogezred. Fargó Gyula zászlós (390) Militärische Nachrichten. / Katonai hirek. (391) Aufruf des Kriegspressequartiers. Billige Beschaffung des Montur- und Ausrüstungsbedarfes für Offiziere. Das Brot der reisenden Soldaten. / A sajtóhadiszállás felhivása. A tisztek ruházati és felszerelési szük´segleteinek olcsó beszerzése. Úton levő legénységi egyének kenyere. (391) [Gedicht]: A zombori 23-as. (391) Wohltätigkeitswesen bei der Division. / A hadosztály jótékony mozgalmai. Aus der Bácska. / Cácskai hirek. (392) Belletristisches. / Tárcák. (393) [2 Gedichte]: (1)Es war einmal. (2)Levél. (393) Ein wahres Geschichtchen. (393) Feldgrauer Humor. / Vidámságok a táborból. (394) Liebesgabe. Klassischer Stosseufzer eines Einjährigen beim Schanzen. In der Stellung. Im Schützengraben. Wandlung. / A vizsgálóbiró nótája. A század cégjegyzője. Malachistória. (394) Die richtige Antwort. Der Ernst der Zeit. Granatsplitter. Sprichwörter. Soldatenwunsch. / A háboru vége. A műkincs. Bakanyelven. (395) Zerstreuungsecke. / Szórakozás. (396) [Noten]: Slankamen-Marsch / Az ezred indulója. (397) Aufruf an die 23-er Regimentsangehörigen und deren Verwandten. / Felhivás a 23-as ezredbeliekhez és azok rokonaihoz. (398) Inhaltsverzeichnis / Tartalomjegyzék. ([399]) Einband (404) Einband (405)
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"Wenn über das Grundsätzliche keine Einigkeit besteht, ist es sinnlos, miteinander Pläne zu schmieden." – Konfuzius (551-479 v.Chr.).Der grundsätzliche universelle Geltungsanspruch der Menschenrechte besagt, dass die Menschenrechte jedem Menschen auf der Welt zustehen. Die Allgemeine Erklärung der Menschenrechte aus dem Jahr 1948 drückt das folgendermaßen aus: "Jeder hat Anspruch auf alle in dieser Erklärung verkündeten Rechte und Freiheiten, ohne irgendeinen Unterschied, etwa nach Rasse, Hautfarbe, Geschlecht, Sprache, Religion, politischer oder sonstiger Anschauung, nationaler oder sozialer Herkunft, Vermögen, Geburt oder sonstigem Stand […]" (UN-Vollversammlung 1948, Artikel 2). Jedoch ist dieser universelle Geltungsanspruch der Menschenrechte in der Realität häufig noch ein Ideal. Mit der Deklaration von Bangkok, die einige südostasiatische Staaten Anfang der 1990er Jahre unterzeichneten, wurde er sogar explizit in Frage gestellt. Was ist die Sichtweise dieser südostasiatischen Staaten auf die Universalität der Menschenrechte und wie begründen sie diese? Wie könnten Perspektiven für einen interkulturellen Menschenrechtsdialog aussehen? In diesem Beitrag werden die Menschenrechte durch eine Definition und einen Abschnitt zur Geschichte kurz vorgestellt. Anschließend wird die Debatte um Universalität und (Kultur-)Relativismus erläutert, welche überleitet zur "asiatischen Perspektive" auf die Menschenrechte und zu den "asiatischen Werten". Abschließend werden die Kritik und Perspektiven für einen interkulturellen Dialog aufgegriffen.Menschenrechte – eine Definition
Zerstörung, Elend, menschliches Leid und der Völkermord an den europäischen Juden führten in "dramatischer Weise die Notwendigkeit eines wirksamen Schutzes grundlegender Menschenrechte durch verbindliche internationale Normen und kollektive Mechanismen" vor Augen (Gareis/Varwick 2014, S. 179).
Die Idee, dass jedem Menschen, "unabhängig seines Geschlechts, Alters, seiner Religion oder seiner ethnischen, nationalen, regionalen oder sozialen Herkunft, angeborene und unveräußerliche Rechte zu eigen sind, die sich aus seinem Menschsein ableiten", verfestigte sich und führte am 10. Dezember 1948 zur Allgemeinen Erklärung der Menschenrechte (Gareis/Varwick 2014, S. 179).
Erstmals wurde in einem internationalen Dokument festgehalten, dass jedem Menschen wegen "grundlegender Aspekte der menschlichen Person" grundlegende Rechte zugesprochen werden. Diese Rechte sind unveräußerlich und vorstaatlich, was bedeutet, dass der Staat sie nicht vergeben kann, denn jeder Mensch hat sie aufgrund der "biologischen Zugehörigkeit zur menschlichen Gattung" inne (Human Rights 2018). Dem Staat obliegt es, diese Rechte zu schützen.
Menschenrechte besitzen demnach vier Merkmale: Sie sind universell (alle Menschen sind Träger dieser Rechte), egalitär (eine ungleiche Verteilung dieser Rechte ist ausgeschlossen), individuell (der Träger der Menschenrechte ist ein individueller Mensch, keine Gruppe) und kategorial (wer der menschlichen Gattung angehört, besitzt sie automatisch) (vgl. Lohmann 2010, S. 36).
Die Erklärung der Menschenrechte aus dem Jahr 1948 ist keine rechtlich bindende Resolution. Doch auch wenn sie rechtlich nicht bindend ist, hat sie "moralische Wichtigkeit bekommen" (Human Rights 2012). Sie wird dem Gewohnheitsrecht zugeordnet, was bedeutet, dass sie sowohl allgemein anerkannt als auch angewendet und deswegen als verbindlich angesehen wird (vgl.: Human Rights 2012). Sie ist das "weltweit am meisten verbreitete und am meisten übersetzte internationale Dokument" (Gareis/Varwick 2014, S. 179) und dient als Grundlage für zahlreiche Abkommen (vgl. Maier 1997, S. 39).
Juristisch können die Menschenrechte wie folgt definiert werden: "Internationale Menschenrechte sind die durch das internationale Recht garantierten Rechtsansprüche von Personen gegen den Staat oder staatsähnliche Gebilde, die dem Schutz grundlegender Aspekte der menschlichen Person und ihrer Würde in Friedenszeiten und im Krieg dienen" (Human Rights 2012).
Seit 1948 haben sich die Menschenrechte weiterentwickelt, und es hat sich etabliert, von den Menschenrechten in drei Generationen zu sprechen. Zur ersten Generation gehören "die klassischen bürgerlichen und politischen Freiheits- und Beteiligungsrechte" wie das Recht auf Leben, Freiheit und Sicherheit oder das Verbot von Folter (Krennerich 2009). Die zweite Generation der Menschenrechte umfasst wirtschaftliche, soziale und kulturelle Menschenrechte, so beispielsweise das Recht auf Bildung, Teilhabe, aber auch auf Freizeit und Erholung. Die dritte Generation der Menschenrechte "bezeichnen allgemeine, noch kaum in Vertragswerken konkretisierte Rechte wie etwa das Recht auf Entwicklung, Frieden oder saubere Umwelt" (Krennerich 2009). Alle drei Generationen "sollten gleichberechtigt nebeneinander bestehen" (Barthel, zitiert nach Hamm 1999, S. 23).
Der Gedanke der angeborenen Rechte, die ein Mensch qua Menschsein besitzt, ist jedoch älter als die Erklärung der Menschenrechte aus dem Jahr 1948 und die Vereinten Nationen selbst.
Eine kurze Geschichte der Menschenrechte
Der Ursprung der Menschenrechte geht auf das antike Griechenland zurück. Der "revolutionäre Gedanke der Stoiker, der beschreibt, dass alle Menschen gleich sind", wurde durch die im 18. Jahrhundert entstandene Naturrechtslehre weiter gefestigt (vgl.: Müller 2017, 03:06-03:20). Die "überlieferten konkreten Freiheiten der Ständegesellschaft wurden dort in eine allgemeine Freiheit des Menschen umgedacht" (Maier 1997, S. 11). Wegweisend war, dass diese Rechte nun allen Menschen zugesprochen wurden und diese Rechte Ansprüche an den Staat stellten (vgl. Maier, 1997 S. 11f). Denn "[er sollte] nicht tun dürfen, was ihm beliebt, [und] in substantielle Bezirke individueller Freiheit nicht […] eingreifen dürfen" (Maier 1997, S. 12). Als vorstaatliche Rechte kann der Staat diese nur akzeptieren, nicht aber verleihen.
Die Idee der unveräußerlichen Menschenrechte kulminierte schließlich in der Unabhängigkeitserklärung der 13 britischen Kolonien 1776 in Nordamerika (zentrales Dokument: Virginia Bill of Rights) und fand schließlich 1789 in der Französischen Revolution (zentrales Dokument: Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen) in Europa ihren Durchbruch. Diese Dokumente legten den Grundstein für die modernen Menschenrechte, die nun als Grundrechte in zahlreichen Verfassungen verankert sind. Schließlich, im Jahr 1966, wurden die ersten völkerrechtlich bindenden Menschenrechtsabkommen durch die Vereinten Nationen verabschiedet (vgl.: Wagner 2016).
Besonders eindrücklich zeigt die Geschichte der Menschenrechte, dass ihre Idee auf "konkrete Unrechtserfahrungen der Menschen des Okzidents zurückgehen" (Tetzlaff 1998, S. 60). Darauf, nämlich dass die Menschenrechte 'im Westen' ihren Ursprung haben und individualistisch geprägt seien, bezieht sich im Wesentlichen die Kritik an ihnen. Diese Kritik zieht auch in Zweifel, ob die Menschenrechte universell sind. (Kultur-)Relativismus vs. Universalismus
Verfechter des Universalismus verstehen die Menschenrechte als unveräußerliche, angeborene Rechte eines jeden Menschen. "Niemand kann, mit Bezug auf welche Eigenschaft auch immer, von der Trägerschaft ausgeschlossen werden" (Lohmann 2010, S. 37). Ausgeschlossen ist hierbei auch die "ungleiche Verteilung" der Rechte (vgl. Lohmann 2010, S. 37). So muss der Staat seinen Pflichten nachkommen und für die Einhaltung, Wahrung und Durchsetzung der Menschenrechte sorgen.
Jedoch werden die Menschenrechte, wie sie 1948 verabschiedet wurden, in ihrem universellen Gültigkeitsanspruch von vielen Ländern und Kulturen auf der Welt nicht akzeptiert. Der (Kultur-) Relativismus in seiner extremen Form sieht die Menschenrechte als nicht vollständig übertragbar und "nur relativ zu einem bestimmten Kultursystem 'begründbar'" (Lohmann 2009). Manche Staaten gehen sogar so weit und verstehen die Menschenrechte als ein westliches Produkt, das "dem Osten" aufoktroyiert wurde. Auch seien die Menschenrechte nicht, wie der universalistische Anspruch behauptet, unabhängig von Zeit, Raum und kulturellem Hintergrund gültig. Sie seien aus der europäisch-nordamerikanischen Aufklärung entstanden, abendländisch geprägt und somit nicht in dieser Form in anderen Kulturkreisen anwendbar. Zudem sei ihre "weltweite Propagierung Ausdruck einer Mentalität der Einmischung, welche die Tradition des Kolonialismus mit anderen Mitteln fortsetze" (Hilpert 2019, S. 230). Tatsächlich sei "das Menschenrechtsverständnis in erster Linie abhängig von dem Menschenbild in einer spezifischen Kultur […], wonach es keinen Standard gibt, der unabhängig von bestimmten sozialen Lebensformen wäre" (Pohl 2002, S. 7).
Von (Kultur-)Relativisten konkret kritisiert werden häufig die "individuelle Selbstbestimmung, die körperliche Unversehrtheit, das Vorrangverhältnis zwischen Individuum zur Gemeinschaft, die Gleichheit von Männern und Frauen, die religiöse Toleranz und die Einschätzung demokratischer Mitbestimmung" (Lohmann 2010, S. 41).
Zum anderen wird bemängelt, dass bei der Verabschiedung der Allgemeinen Erklärung der Menschenrechte im Jahr 1948 die westlichen Länder dominierten, während die meisten Länder des Globalen Südens noch unter kolonialer Herrschaft standen. Viele Staaten werfen dem Westen sogar "moralischen Chauvinismus" (Pollis/Schwab 2006, S. 68), "Ideologismus" und eine "quasi-religiöse" Auslegung der Menschenrechte vor (Pohl 2002, S. 7).
Genau an diese Dichotomie, Universalismus und (Kultur-)Relativismus, knüpfte die 1993 vorgelegte Deklaration von Bangkok an, welche von vielen (süd-)ostasiatischen Ländern unterzeichnet wurde. Bevor die Wiener Menschenrechtskonferenz im Jahr 1993 begann, zweifelten diese Länder die Universalität der Menschenrechte an und legten eine "asiatische Perspektive" auf die Menschenrechte und sogenannte "asiatische Werte" vor.
Die asiatische Perspektive auf die (Universalität der) Menschenrechte und 'asiatische Werte'
Die ,asiatische Sicht' auf die Menschenrechte und die 'asiatischen Werte' werden im Grunde kulturrelativistisch begründet. Im folgenden Abschnitt werden die 'asiatischen Werte' zeitgeschichtlich eingeordnet und näher erläutert.
Die zeitgeschichtliche Einordnung der 'asiatischen Werte'
Die Kontroverse, dass sich die Menschenrechte in (Südost-)Asien anders entwickelt hätten, spitzte sich Anfang der 1990er Jahre zu und erlangte mit der Verabschiedung der Deklaration von Bangkok weltumspannende Beachtung. Die Gründe für den Ausbruch dieser Debatte sind vielfältig. Zum einen genoss 'der Westen', vor allem die Europäische Union und die Vereinigten Staaten, zu dieser Zeit beispielloses politisches und ökonomisches Selbstbewusstsein. Der Ost-West-Konflikt war beendet, die Demokratie und der Kapitalismus schienen 'die' Erfolgsmodelle zu sein, die "das Ende der Geschichte" einläuteten (Fukuyama 1992). Die Globalisierung schritt unaufhaltsam voran, während der Kommunismus in vielen osteuropäischen Ländern in sich zusammenbrach. Zudem gewann die Idee des politischen und wirtschaftlichen Liberalismus mehr und mehr an Bedeutung.
In dieser Zeit gingen die Vereinigten Staaten und viele Mitgliedsstaaten der EU auf die Forderung vieler Menschenrechtsorganisationen ein, die Menschenrechte und die Demokratie in anderen Ländern zu verbreiten. Die Regierung unter Präsident Bill Clinton ging sogar so weit und erklärte sowohl die Verbreitung der Menschenrechte als auch der Demokratie zu einer der drei Säulen der US-amerikanischen Außenpolitik (vgl.: Barr 2000, S. 313). Allerdings missbilligte insbesondere China den menschenrechtlichen Druck vieler westlicher Staaten, der durch das Massaker von Tiananmen im Jahr 1989 und Chinas Tibet-Politik stetig zunahm.
Hinzu kam, dass viele ostasiatische Staaten, allen voran China, Malaysia, Japan, Hongkong, Taiwan, Singapur und Südkorea, als 'ostasiatische Wirtschaftswunder' bezeichnet wurden (vgl.: Ernst 2009). Diese wirtschaftliche Prosperität ließ ein "neues Selbstbewusstsein und eine neue politische Elite entstehen, die vom 'Westen' das Recht auf einen eigenen entwicklungspolitischen Weg einforderte und die Vormachtstellung der alten Industriestaaten Europas und Nordamerikas herausforderte" (Ernst 2009). Darüber hinaus sahen sie in der Rolle des starken Staates eine wichtige "Erklärungsvariable" für den wirtschaftlichen Erfolg (Heinz 1995, S. 11).
Die Bestimmtheit, mit der die Europäische Union und die Vereinigten Staaten um die Durchsetzung der Menschenrechte in Asien rangen, wurde von (ost-)asiatischen Ländern als Versuch verstanden, ,Asien' ,dem Westen' unterwürfig zu halten. Zudem wurde die Kritik als "Einmischung, irrelevant und kulturfremd abgewehrt" (Heinz 1995, S. 12).Schließlich, im Vorfeld der Wiener Menschenrechtskonferenz im Jahr 1993, "bestritten [unter anderem] die Regierungen Indonesiens, Singapurs und Chinas die Universalität der Menschenrechte" (Heinz 1995, S. 16). Stattdessen müssten die jeweiligen wirtschaftlichen, sozialen und politischen Bedingungen betrachtet werden, weil sie nur anhand derer verwirklicht werden könnten (vgl.: Heinz 1995, S. 15f). Deshalb wurden sogenannte 'asiatische Werte' vorgestellt. Was sind 'asiatische Werte'?
'Asiatische Werte' beschreiben eine (kultur-)relative Sicht auf die Menschenrechte, die in den frühen 1990er Jahren von asiatischen Politiker*innen und Wissenschaftler*innen vorgestellt und von 34 Staaten verabschiedet wurden. Sie umfassen im Groben die Bereiche Politik, Wirtschaft und Kultur (vgl.: Tai 2005, S. 34). Federführend bei der Debatte waren Lee Kuan Yew, der damalige Premierminister von Singapur, und Mahathir bin Mohamad, der damalige Premierminister von Malaysia. Sie, die 'asiatischen Werte', sollen eine Anpassung zum aus asiatischer Sicht "westlichen Modell der Menschenrechte" darstellen (Henders 2017). Die regionale Bezeichnung 'Asien/asiatisch' bezieht sich in diesem Zusammenhang eher auf (Süd-) Ostasien beziehungsweise pazifisch-Asien als auf den Nahen oder Mittleren Osten. Das bedeutet auch, dass sich die 'asiatischen Werte' hauptsächlich auf die "konfuzianische Kultur" stützen und weniger vom Islam oder dem Hinduismus geprägt sind (Ernst 2009).
Allerdings lehnen die ostasiatischen Länder die Menschenrechte nicht grundsätzlich ab. Schließlich haben einige dieser Länder, darunter China, die Allgemeine Erklärung der Menschenrechte 1948 verabschiedet und bekräftigten 1993 in Wien nochmals ihren Einsatz für Prinzipien, die in der Erklärung enthalten sind (vgl.: Tay 1996, S. 751). Sie plädierten mit der Deklaration von Bangkok stattdessen für nationale und regionale Unterschiede in der Schwerpunktsetzung und auch in der praktischen Umsetzung der Menschenrechte (vgl.: Tay 1996 S. 751f).
Befürworter der 'asiatischen Werte' bestanden zudem darauf, dass sie nicht nur durch den wirtschaftlichen Erfolg, den die ostasiatischen Staaten in den Jahrzehnten vor der Wiener Menschenrechtskonvention 1993 erlebt hatten, legitimiert würden, sondern auch maßgeblich für diesen Erfolg verantwortlich seien. Darüber hinaus müsse die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung bei ökonomisch aufstrebenden Ländern über allem stehen; bürgerliche und politische Rechte sollten den ökonomischen und sozialen Rechten deswegen untergeordnet sein (vgl.: Henders 2017).
Bisher wurde keine offizielle "umfassende, verbindliche Liste" vorgestellt (Heinz 1995, S. 25), aber häufig genannte 'asiatische Werte', die bei der Wiener Menschenrechtskonvention 1993 vorgelegt wurden, waren: "Disziplin, harte Arbeit, eine starke Führungskraft" (Tai 2005, S. 34ff), "Sparsamkeit, akademischer Erfolg, die Balance zwischen individuellen und gemeinschaftlichen Bedürfnissen, Respekt vor Autorität" (Henders 2017) und ein starker, stabiler Staat (Barr 2000, S. 310). Darüber hinaus wird "nationales Teamwork", die Erhaltung einer "moralisch sauberen Umwelt" (das Magazin 'Playboy' wird in Singapur beispielsweise nicht verkauft) und keine absolute Pressefreiheit für zentral erachtet (Heinz 1995, S. 26).
Die asiatische Perspektive auf die Universalität der Menschenrechte
Im Diskurs um die ,asiatische Perspektive' haben sich mehrere häufig genannte Argumente herausgebildet. Einige davon sollen näher beschrieben werden, nämlich die Behauptungen, dass Rechte kulturspezifisch seien, die Gemeinschaft in Asien über dem Individuum stehe, dass Rechte ausschließlich den jeweiligen Staaten oblägen und dass soziale und ökonomische Rechte über zivilen und politischen Rechten ständen.
Rechte sind kulturspezifisch
Die Idee der Menschenrechte entstand bereits in der Antike auf dem europäischen Kontinent und entwickelte sich schließlich unter bestimmten sozialen, ökonomischen, kulturellen und politischen Bedingungen ebendort und in Nordamerika (vgl.: Li 1996, S. 19). Die Umstände, die die Umsetzung der Menschenrechte voranbrachten, könnten aber nicht auf diese Art auf Südostasien übertragen werden. So beschreibt China in seinem 1991 veröffentlichten Weißbuch, dass sich aufgrund des eigenen historischen Hintergrunds, des Sozialsystems und der jeweiligen ökonomischen Entwicklung die Länder in ihrem Verständnis und ihrer Auslegung der Menschenrechte unterscheiden würden (vgl.: Weißbuch 1991, Vorwort). Das ist eine Haltung, welche auch 1993 auf der Menschenrechtskonferenz in Wien nochmals bekräftigt wurde (vgl.: Li 1996, S.19).
Die Gemeinschaft steht über dem Individuum
Die südostasiatischen Länder insistierten, dass die Bedeutung der Gemeinschaft in asiatischen Ländern nicht mit dem Primat des Individuums vereinbar sei, worauf die Vorstellung der Menschenrechte beruht (Li 1996, S. 19). Zudem stünden Pflichten über Rechten (vgl.: Nghia 2009, S. 21). Dies seien auch die entscheidenden Faktoren, die 'Asien' fundamental vom 'Westen' unterschieden. Die Menschenrechte seien von Natur aus individualistisch geprägt, was nach (süd-)ostasiatischer Auffassung eine Bedrohung für den (süd-)ostasiatischen sozial-gemeinschaftlichen Gesellschaftsmechanismus darstellen könnte. Als Begründung für diese Behauptung führten die (süd-)ostasiatischen Staaten den Zusammenbruch vieler Familien, die Drogenabhängigkeit und die hohe Zahl an Obdachlosen im 'Westen' an (vgl.: Li 1996, S. 20).
Soziale und ökonomische Rechte stehen über zivilen und politischen Rechten
Zentral bei der ,asiatischen Auslegung' der Menschenrechte waren die Priorisierung der Gemeinschaft gegenüber der Individuen und die Suche nach dem Konsens im Gegensatz zum Konflikt. Dominanz und Autorität würden nicht limitiert oder gar als suspekt betrachtet, sondern gälten im Gegenteil als vertrauens- und förderungswürdig (vgl.: Tay 1996, S. 753ff). Die asiatische Auslegung, so wurde argumentiert, lege den Fokus auf ökonomische und soziale Rechte, die durch ein starkes wirtschaftliches Wachstum und Wohlstand legitimiert würden, worauf Asiat*innen Wert legten und was ihnen wichtig sei. So proklamiert das Weißbuch der chinesischen Regierung aus dem Jahr 1991, dass "sich sattessen und warm kleiden die fundamentalen Bedürfnisse der chinesischen Bevölkerung seien, die lange unter Hunger und Kälte leiden mussten" (Weißbuch 1991, Kapitel I). Wohlstand könne nur effizient erreicht werden, wenn die Regierenden autorisiert seien, die politischen Rechte ihrer Bürger*innen zu limitieren, um wirtschaftlichen Wohlstand zu garantieren (Li 1996, S. 20). Die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung müsse deswegen bei ökonomisch aufstrebenden Ländern über allem stehen; zivile und politische Rechte sollten den ökonomischen und sozialen Rechten untergeordnet sein (vgl.: Henders, 2017). Implizit schwingt bei dieser Behauptung mit, dass erst alle basalen Bedürfnisse und eine stabile politische Ordnung sichergestellt werden müssten, um politische und bürgerliche Rechte zu implementieren (vgl.: Li 1996, S. 20f). Befürworter der Idee der asiatischen Perspektive erachten es somit für wichtig, den Staat als Oberhoheit zu sehen (vgl.: Henders 2017).
Rechte sind die Angelegenheit der jeweiligen Staaten
Das Recht eines Staates zur Selbstbestimmung schließe den Zuständigkeitsbereich der Menschenrechte mit ein. So seien Menschenrechte innenpolitische Angelegenheiten, in die sich andere Staaten oder Organisationen nicht einzumischen hätten (vgl.: Li 1996, S. 20). "Die Bestrebung des Westens, auch bei Entwicklungsländern einen universellen Geltungsanspruch der Menschenrechte durchzusetzen, sei versteckter kultureller Imperialismus und ein Versuch, die Entwicklung [wirtschaftlich aufstrebender Länder] zu behindern" (Li 1996, S. 20).
Kritik an der asiatischen Perspektive Generell wurde bemängelt, dass nicht einfach über 'asiatische' Werte geredet werden könne, weil es die einzelnen asiatischen Länder simplifiziere, stereotypisiere und sie um ihre Vielfalt bringe (vgl.: Henders 2017). Des Weiteren seien die genannten Werte nicht alleinig in Asien zu finden, sondern hätten auch in anderen Teilen der Welt Gültigkeit (vgl.: Tai 2005, S. 35). Tatsächlich, so wurde argumentiert, gebe es keine ,asiatischen Werte', denn der Begriff sei mit "seiner Allgemeinheit und Undifferenziertheit ein Konstrukt, das ganz bestimmten Zielen dienen soll" (Schreiner 1996, S. 57). Außerdem seien nur mächtige Politiker*innen leitender Teil der Debatte gewesen; die Argumente seien weder in die Gesellschaft getragen noch philosophisch (fort-)geführt worden. Die einzelnen 'asiatischen' Argumente gegen die Universalität der Menschenrechte wurden jedoch auch einzeln kritisiert. Einige Kritiker*innen stellten die Ansicht der Kulturspezifizität in Frage. Das Argument impliziere, dass soziale Normen, die in anderen Ländern und Kulturkreisen ihren Ursprung hatten, in der asiatischen Kultur keine Anwendung finden sollten oder könnten. Kapitalistische Märkte und die Konsumkultur, welche ebenfalls außerhalb der asiatischen Länder entstanden sind, konnten jedoch sehr wohl von asiatischen Kulturen aufgenommen werden (vgl.: Li 1996, S. 20). Die schwerfällige Akzeptanz und Umsetzung der Universalität der Menschenrechte könne somit nicht ausschließlich auf ihre kulturelle Herkunft zurückgeführt werden.
Die zweite Behauptung, dass Asiat*innen die Gemeinschaft über das Individuum stellten, würde als kulturelles Argument missbraucht werden, um aufzuzeigen, dass unveräußerliche Rechte eines Einzelnen sich nicht mit der Idee von asiatischen Gesellschaften verstünden. Kritiker*innen der ,asiatischen Perspektive' sahen hier die Gefahr der generellen Verdammung der Rechte des Einzelnen. Dabei würden individuelle Freiheiten den asiatischen Gemeinschaftswerten nicht generell oppositionell gegenüberstehen. Vielmehr seien grundlegende Rechte, wie eine Versammlungs- und Meinungsfreiheit sowie Toleranz, wichtig für eine Gemeinschaft (vgl.: Li 1996, S. 21).
Beim dritten Argument, welches die südostasiatischen Länder vorlegten, kritisierten viele Verfechter*innen der Universalität der Menschenrechte, dass die nationale ökonomische Entwicklung nicht gleichzusetzen sei mit der ökonomischen Absicherung (sozio-)ökonomisch benachteiligter Gruppen einer Gesellschaft. Nationales ökonomisches Wachstum garantiere schließlich nicht automatisch Rechte für ökonomisch benachteiligte Mitglieder einer Gesellschaft. Stattdessen würden sich politisch-zivile und sozial-ökonomische Rechte bedingen und nur effektiv wirken, wenn alle vier Ebenen garantiert werden könnten (vgl.: Li 1996, S. 22).
Abschließend wurde kritisiert, dass die vorgebrachten Argumente, insbesondere die Forderung der Nichteinmischung in innerstaatliche Angelegenheiten, als Vorwand für einen illiberalen und autoritären Regierungsstil verwendet werden würden. Zudem sollten diese Argumente die Schwäche des wirtschaftlichen Entwicklungsmodells der asiatischen Länder verschleiern (vgl.: Henders 2017). Das sind beides Kritikpunkte, die während der asiatischen Wirtschaftskrise 1997/1998 weitgehend bestätigt wurden und zur Verabschiedung der asiatischen Erklärung der Menschenrechte im Jahr 1998 führten.
Was ist mit 'asiatischen Werten' passiert?
Der Dialog über die in der Deklaration von Bangkok vorgestellten 'asiatischen Werte' begleitete staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure sowie Wissenschaftler*innen bis in die 1990er Jahre hinein. Als im Jahr 1997 eine Wirtschafts- und Finanzkrise Asien ereilte, wurde es jedoch nicht nur still um die 'asiatischen Werte', sie wurden nun sogar "als Ursache der Krise gedeutet" (Ernst 2009). Insbesondere die staatliche Intervention und die starken Familienwerte wurden als Verursacher genannt (vgl.: Ernst 2009). Um den wirtschaftlichen Anschluss an den industriellen 'Westen' nicht zu verlieren, waren Menschenrechtsorganisationen in Südostasien bemüht, den Menschenrechtsschutz bottom-up durchzusetzen. Die Asiatische Menschenrechtscharta, die die 'asiatischen Werte' ablehnt, wurde 1998 von Menschenrechtsorganisationen in Kwangju, Südkorea, verabschiedet. Sie ist auch ein Versuch, asiatische Regierungen bei Menschenrechtsverstößen zukünftig in die Verantwortung nehmen zu können.
Seit dem Ausbruch der asiatischen Wirtschaftskrise ist die Debatte um 'asiatische Werte' nahezu versiegt. Gleichwohl werden interkulturelle Dialoge über die Menschenrechte weiter geführt. Zwischen Kulturrelativismus und Universalismus – Perspektiven für einen Dialog
Eine globale Durchsetzung der Menschenrechte bleibt nach wie vor ein Ideal, ebenso wie deren uneingeschränkte Einhaltung. Die ostasiatischen Länder sind nur ein Beispiel von vielen, denn Kritik an der Universalität der Menschenrechte kommt auch aus anderen Ländern und von anderen Religionen. Dabei hat die Forderung nach weltweiter Umsetzung der Menschenrechte nicht an Dringlichkeit verloren. Wie kann aber ein Dialog über die Menschenrechte oder gar ein Konsens vorangebracht werden?
Bei dieser Problematik ist es wichtig zu bedenken, dass die Menschenrechte kein starres System sind, sondern auch nach ihrer Verabschiedung im Jahr 1948 weiterentwickelt wurden. Zudem hat die Idee der Menschenrechte zwar primär in der Zeit der europäisch-amerikanischen Aufklärung ihre Wurzeln, konnte ihre volle Durchsetzungskraft jedoch erst in der Moderne entfalten (vgl.: Bielefeldt 1999, S. 59f). Insbesondere im Hinblick auf das Argument der Nichtumsetzbarkeit der Menschenrechte in kulturell anders geprägten Regionen "wäre es verfehlt, den Begriff der 'Aufklärung' auf eine bestimmte Epoche der europäischen Geschichte zu verkürzen" (Bielefeldt 1999, S. 60). Schließlich muss es auch für andere Kulturen möglich sein, "humane Anliegen der eigenen Tradition in moderner Gestalt in den Menschenrechten wiederzuerkennen" (Bielefeldt 1999, S. 61).
Aufgrund dessen sprechen sich viele Wissenschaftler*innen für eine Adaption der Menschenrechte aus. Die US-amerikanische Politikwissenschaftlerin Alison Dundes Renteln, beispielsweise, "möchte am Begriff universaler Menschenrechte durchaus festhalten, ihn zugleich aber auf interkultureller Basis inhaltlich neu bestimmen […], indem sie nach einem weltweit gemeinsamen Nenner in den Wertorientierungen unterschiedlicher Kulturen sucht" (Bielefeldt 1999, S. 45f). Der kanadische Philosoph Charles Taylor spricht sich für einen "ungezwungenen Konsens" aus, der anderen kulturellen Normen Verständnis entgegenbringt (Taylor 1999, S. 124). Der Dialog über die Menschenrechte zwischen Asien und 'dem Westen' solle sich global ausweiten und eine Auseinandersetzung über eine Übereinstimmung an Normen, die menschliches Verhalten und politisches Handeln leiten sollten, starten. Dieser Grundkonsens auf der Basis der Menschenrechte soll bindend sein, darf sich aber in seiner Begründung unterscheiden (vgl.: Carnegie Council 1996). Der deutsche Philosoph Georg Lohmann vertritt wiederum die Position, dass der "Universalismus" nicht zwingend eine "Einheitskultur darstellt oder in einer solchen resultiert" (Lohmann 2009). Für ihn sind Universalismus und Relativismus auch keine Gegensätze; er sieht im Partikularismus das Gegenteil zum Universalismus. Deshalb ist er der Ansicht, dass ein "verwirklichter und rechtlich wie politisch konkretisierter universeller Menschenrechtsschutz die Möglichkeiten einer kulturellen Vielfalt der Menschen erweitern wird" (Lohmann 2009). Kulturelle Vielfalt ist hier aber nicht mit Willkür gleichzusetzen. Unterscheiden muss man zwischen "Besonderheiten, die mit dem Universalismus der Menschenrechte kompatibel sind und solchen, die ihm widersprechen" (Lohmann 2009). "Strikter" soll der Universalismus bei negativen Pflichten agieren, so zum Beispiel beim Verbot von Folter (Lohmann 2009). Bei positiven Pflichten, wie beispielsweise bei Leistungsrechten, kann der Universalismus lockerer angewendet werden und mehrere, kulturell unterschiedliche Auslegungen zulassen (vgl.: Lohmann 2009). Ein interkultureller Dialog und die Suche nach einem Konsens bedeuten jedoch nicht, dass "die Menschenrechte [völlig neu überdacht und] bereits bestehende international vereinbarte Standards und Konventionen […] abgetan werden sollen. Das wäre gefährlich" (Utrecht 1995, S. 11). Für eine strikte Durchsetzung ideal, so konkludiert Lohmann, "wäre ein gut etabliertes Rechtssystem, in dem die Menschenrechte individuell eingeklagt und mit Hilfe staatlicher Gewalten auch durchgesetzt werden können" (Lohmann 2013, S. 19). Fazit
Viele (süd-)ostasiatische Länder brachten im Jahr 1993 mit der Deklaration von Bangkok kulturrelativistische Argumente hervor, mit denen sie ihre Sichtweise auf die Universalität der Menschenrechte aufzeigten und rechtfertigten. Eine zentrale Begründung war hier, dass das "individualistische Rechtsverständnis" der Menschenrechte nicht mit dem asiatischen Gemeinschaftsverständnis vereinbar sei (Tetzlaff 2002, S. 5). Ebenso waren die Kulturspezifität von Rechten und das Primat des wirtschaftlichen Wohlstands Teil der Begründung. Auseinandersetzungen darüber fanden bis weit in die 1990er Jahre hinein viel Gehör und Gegenrede. Erst mit der asiatischen Wirtschafts- und Finanzkrise 1997/1998 wurde es still um die 'asiatischen Werte'. Was von der Debatte allerdings bleibt, ist die Diskussion über den Universalismus und den (Kultur-) Relativismus, für die der Menschenrechtsrat (MRR) der Vereinten Nationen in Genf eine Plattform bietet.
Bei allen Vorschlägen und Denkanstößen, die eine kulturelle Sensibilität und Variabilität ermöglichen sollen, ist der interkulturelle Dialog zentral. Fraglich bleibt jedoch, wie gut sich eine Diskussion über Normen auf der Basis der Menschenrechte und deren anschließende Durchsetzung in autoritär geführten Staaten durchsetzen lässt (vgl.: Carnegie Council 1996). Denn schließlich sagte schon Konfuzius (551 v. Chr. bis 479 v. Chr.), dass es sinnlos sei, miteinander Pläne zu schmieden, wenn über das Grundsätzliche keine Einigkeit bestehe.
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