Mit den in Österreich 1990 beschlossenen und in vergleichbaren Ländern zur Beschlußfassung anstehenden Gesetzen wird Psychotherapie als eigenständige Profession im Gesundheitssystem anerkannt. Um eine optimale und effiziente Versorgung sicherzustellen, gibt es immer wieder Forderungen und Vorschläge zur Verbesserung der Zusammenarbeit zwischen den im Gesundheitsbereich tätigen Berufsgruppen. Vor dem Hintergrund dieser Entwicklung interessierte uns, welche Aspekte professioneller Kooperation für Psychotherapeuten bedeutsam sind und welche Einstellungen sie dazu haben. Sieben Psychotherapeuten mit langer Berufserfahrung wurden dazu ausführlich interviewt. Auf Grundlage dieser Interviews wurde ein Fragebogen mit 78 Items entwickelt und an 79 Psychotherapeuten erprobt. Die Items des Fragebogens werden zu Themenbereichen zusammengefaßt und interpretiert. Die Analyse der Antworten führte zu einer vorläufigen Typologie von Therapeuten hinsichtlich ihrer Einstellung zu professioneller Kooperation.Schlüsselwörter: Psychotherapeutische Kooperation, Einstellungen, Professionalisierung. ; With the law for psychotherapeutic practice in 1990 psychotherapy entered the health-care system as a new profession. To provide a better and more efficient service politicians and professionals again and again made proposals for an enhancement of co-operation between the different professional groups in this system. On this background the present pilot study examines the opinions of psychotherapists towards cooperation with other professionals outside institutional settings. The study consists of two parts. In a first step seven experienced psychotherapists were interviewed about cooperation and the importance of this topic for their professional work. In a second step a 78-item questionnaire informed by the result of the interviews was administered to 79 psychotherapists in Austria. The result supports a multi-faceted concept of co-operation. The items are grouped according to certain domains and interpreted. An explorative factor analysis of the questionnaire indicates a provisional typology of therapists in regard to their attitudes towards professional co-operation.Keywords: Psychotherapeutic co-operation, attitudes, professionalization. ; La psychothérapie est en passe de devenir profession indépendante au sein du système de santé: des lois ont été approuvées en Autriche en 1990 et sont prêt de l'être dans d'autres pays. Ceci fait que les praticiens de ce métier appartiennent désormais à un domaine professionnel dans lequel se manifeste constamment un besoin d'améliorer la coordination des prestations et la coopération entre leurs fournisseurs.La réforme de la psychiatrie a permis de satisfaire - au moins au niveau régional - l'exigence d'une offre ambulatoire tenant compte de toute la complexité des troubles psycho-sociaux et du fait qu'ils sont indissociables de différents domaines du quotidien des patients; ce but est atteint grâce à une offre de traitements intégrés et multidisciplinaires. Hans Strotzka a proposé que l'on utilise ce même modèle de traitement au niveau de l'offre en psychothérapie: dans le cas idéal, cette dernière ne doit être pratiquée que dans le contexte de groupes interdisciplinaires appliquant une pluralité de méthodes; en effet, ce n'est qu'en procédant ainsi qu'on peut travailler dans des conditions adaptées aux patients et superviser le travail. Le législateur a satisfait jusque dans certaines limites à l'exigence d'une collaboration entre professionnels. Compte tenu des exigences venues soit du sein de la profession, soit de l'extérieur (à savoir surtout des milieux politiques) et demandant que les spécialistes coopèrent en fonction de chaque cas, nous avons voulu savoir quels sont les facteurs que les psychothérapeutes eux-mêmes considèrent comme importants par rapport à cette démarche. L'étude devait être menée en deux étapes: (1) examen préliminaire de l'objet et (2) observation de la collaboration pratique. Notre objectif scientifique était pragmatique: nous voulions savoir quant la collaboration professionnelle est indiquée et quand elle est plus efficace que des méthodes moins exigeantes en rapport avec la coordination des prestations (ex.: adresser le patient à d'autres). Dans la partie de l'étude qui est actuellement terminée (attitudes des psychothérapeutes envers la coopération entre professionnels) nous nous sommes concentrés sur un type de collaboration volontaire pratiquée hors des équipes et institutions existantes; il s'agit là d'un aspect qui a été peu étudié. Des démarches de coopération se trouvent dans tous les domaines du quotidien. Nous coopérons, par exemple, au niveau de la coordination de la vie familiale et du ménage; la forme dominante dans ces domaines est une simple répartition des tâches en fonction du sexe et de l'âge des participants et elle est organisée par le biais d'une démarche ouverte et continue de communication. D'autres types de coopération se trouvent dans les jardins d'enfants, les écoles, etc., bref, collaborer est un élément central du quotidien, qui n'est pas toujours enregistré consciemment et que l'on ne thématise qu'à partir du moment où il ne fonctionne pas. Se référant aux théories du jeu et de l'échange, les spécialistes de la psychologie sociale ont largement étudié la coopération en tant que forme d'interaction humaine. Une des questions centrales de leurs travaux fut: quand faut-il qu'en cours d'interaction une personne coopère avec d'autres, et quand est-il préférable qu'elle se comporte de manière égocentrique ? Un modèle du type de situation correspondant à ce problème a été utilisé dans de nombreuses expériences: celui du "dilemme itératif du prisonnier". Dans ce type de relations sociales une collaboration est élaborée sur des bases rationnelles mais aussi en fonction d'un aspect émotionnel. Les travaux de Winfried Bion présentent une description détaillée de ces phénomènes. L'auteur entend par coopération la formation d'équipes dont l'efficacité dépend de facteurs relevant de la dynamique des groupes. Selon sa thèse centrale, tout groupe social va se subdiviser toujours en deux - un "groupe actif" et un "groupe affectif" - et être influencé par cette division. Ces mêmes phénomènes de dynamique des groupes sont présents lorsque les participants ne se rencontrent pas concrètement; ils se trouvent donc même dans des "groupes virtuels". En fonction des objectifs que nous avions fixés à notre étude, nous avons élaboré une stratégie de recherche en deux étapes. Dans le but de cerner les manières subjectives dont la coopération est considérée, nous avons d'abord mené des interviews semi-structurées avec sept thérapeutes disposant d'une longue pratique professionnelle, considérés comme "coopératifs" et exerçant leur métier dans différents contextes. Les renseignements acquis par le biais de ces interviews, complétés d'informations tirées de la littérature, ont servi à construire un questionnaire comportant 78 items en rapport avec l'attitude des sujets. En tout 79 psychothérapeutes ont rempli ce questionnaire. Les résultats de l'étude montrent que les psychothérapeutes manifestent une attitude positive envers une coopération volontaire pratiquée en fonction de chaque cas et la considèrent comme avantageuse. Ceci fait qu'il y a de bonnes chances pour qu'ils répondent de manière "ouverte" à une offre dans ce sens et qu'un processus de coopération soit mis en marche. Si l'on passe du niveau d'une adhésion globale — que nous avons appelée "représentation idéologique" du concept de coopération - à celui d'attitudes plus étroitement liées à des comportements concrets, il devient utile de différencier plus avant. Une proportion considérable des réponses présente un large degré de variance, ce qui implique qu'il faut accepter que le consensus entre psychothérapeutes n'est pas très marqué. Un grand nombre de personnes interrogées considèrent qu'une coopération entre professionnels permet d'éviter des dommages éventuels. Ceci s'applique autant au préjudice que pourraient souffrir les clients en conséquence de stratégies thérapeutiques qui se bloqueraient mutuellement qu'aux problèmes posés au travail thérapeutique par des clients qui cherchent à mettre en conflit leurs différents thérapeutes. Seule un peu moins de la moitié des personnes interrogées ont une attitude positive envers l'application en psychothérapie du "modèle du case management" pratiqué avec succès dans d'autres domaines du système de santé pour organiser les démarches de coopération. Les attitudes varient également par rapport à une éventuelle collaboration entre spécialistes, telle qu'elle est pratiquée de manière routinière en médecine. Une majorité considère que les coûts indirects occasionnés par le fait que d'autres thérapeutes sont difficilement atteignables ne nuit pas forcément à la collaboration. Pourtant les coûts directs résultant du fait que le travail de coopération n'est pas rémunéré sont perçus par la moitié des thérapeutes interrogés comme un obstacle à la démarche. Alors que nous avions formulé l'hypothèse contraire, une grande majorité ne pense pas que la réussite de cette dernière dépende du sexe des spécialistes concernés. Selon une première classification des psychothérapeutes en fonction de leur attitude envers la collaboration entre professionnels, ceux-ci se répartissent en trois types présumés: (1) le thérapeute est ouvert à une coopération à différents niveaux; (2) le thérapeute a une attitude généralement positive, mais ne collabore que de manière très sélective; (3) le thérapeute ne s'intéresse pas à une coopération ou même rejette cette possibilité. A notre avis les résultats de l'étude permettent de conclure que lorsqu'il s'agit de coopérer, les psychothérapeutes ne disposent pas de routines établies et élaborent leurs propres stratégies en cours de carrière. Cet aspect s'est manifesté clairement dans les interviews menées dès le début du projet; il se confirme en outre par le fait qu'on n'enregistre pas de différences statistiques entre les trois indices lorsqu'on subdivise l'échantillon en fonction de la profession d'origine des thérapeutes, de leur situation professionnelle, de leur orientation thérapeutique et de la durée de leur activité professionnelle. Nous n'acceptons toutefois pas l'idée qu'en ce qui concerne la collaboration entre psychothérapeutes, des solutions simples existent, qui seraient applicables à tous les cas. L'un des objectifs de notre étude était de cerner une "atmosphère", au-delà de la manière subjective dont l'individu perçoit la situation. Il s'agira de compléter les résultats présentés ici - et concernant des attitudes - d'une étude de la pratique "vécue" de la collaboration entre professionnels. Ceci devrait permettre de répondre aux questions suivantes: Dans quelles conditions et avec quelle fréquence une collaboration est-elle vraiment pratiquée ? Quelles sont les alternatives à cette forme très complexe d'interaction sociale ? Quels sont les rapports entre "attitude envers la coopération" et "comportement coopératif" ? Ce n'est qu'une fois qu'une étude auprès d'un échantillon représentatif de psychothérapeutes aura été menée et aura fourni des réponses à ces questions qu'on pourra, par exemple, exiger des responsables qu'ils intègrent à la formation (continue) un apprentissage de la coopération en tant que "skill" professionnel.
Las nuevas tendencias globalizadoras de la economia y la apertura a nivel internacional de numerosos países en el mundo con la formación de grandes bloques, como por ejemplo, la Unión Europea han propiciado la aparición de una nueva generación de sistemas de comunicación móvil que integra los operadores de diferentes países y que permite el uso de satélites para una mayor cobertura mundial. Este tipo de comunicaciones, basadas en sistemas móviles de tercera generación permitirán en el futuro dar soporte a abonados para realizar cualquier tipo de comunicación sin restricciones en el área de servicio, la forma, ni instante de tiempo elegido. Estos sistemas, se denominan Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) y Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication System (FPLMTS) y tienen prevista su entrada en funcionamiento a partir del año 2000. En este tipo de entornos se plantea el estudio del handover como uno de los procedimientos de movilidad con requerimientos de prestaciones más fuertes. Se especifica sobre diversas clases de celdas (macroceldas, microceldas y picoceldas) y sobre diferentes tipos de dominios de gestión y seguridad en los que está estructurado el sistema UMTS. Como consecuencia del análisis de requerimientos de esta nueva red, se propone una gestión inteligente del handover. Para ello, y en base a determinados parámetros de la red y a mediciones realizadas en el radioenlace, se evalua un algoritmo de selección de la celda más óptima. Entre los parámetros y mediciones considerados directamente relacionados con la gestión de tráfico en la red, se encuentran la probabilidad de bloqueo en el handover y en el establecimiento de una llamada. Entre las mediciones realizadas a partir del radioenlace a tener en cuenta por el terminal móvil, se encuentra el nivel de señal, calidad en la transmisión ( por efecto de atenuaciones, desvanecimientos, etc ). Otros parámetros a considerar se refieren a la movilidad del terminal móvil (tales como velocidad, distancia del terminal móvil a cada una de las estaciones base, tiempo de duración de la llamada, etc). Éstos estarán relacionados con el período de obtención de las muestras y/o parámetros, necesarios para la evaluación del algoritmo propuesto. El algoritmo de handover descrito se aplica a un escenario formado con clusters de microceldas integrados en celdas mayores denominadas macroceldas paraguas. Se utilizan canales prioritarios en las microceldas, con asignación de buffers para procesar determinado tipo de peticiones cuando exista un elevado índice de congestión. Además se utilizan las celdas paraguas para procesar el tráfico de desbordamiento de las microceldas. Como resultado, se plantea una función que permite determinar óptimamente una serie de celdas candidatas en la fase de decisión de entre las celdas monitorizadas por el terminal móvil a las que puede invocarse un handover. Se plantea la función para diversos escenarios de redes posibles constatando un resultado óptimo tanto para las prestaciones en la ejecución del handover como para su integración en la gestión del sistema. Adicionalmente, y a modo de aplicación, se estudia el handover desde un punto de vista de las implicaciones en seguridad que plantea. Ya desde los años ochenta, las comunicaciones móviles analógicas tuvieron aplicación en entornos donde se transmitia información sensible (p.e. policia, gobierno, militares.) sin embargo, la red no proporcionaba medidas especiales de seguridad para proteger la información. Hubo que esperar a la entrada de los sistemas digitales de segunda generación a finales de los años ochenta (p.e. GSM ó DECT) para que se adoptaran servicios de protección a la información del usuario. Dada la gran cobertura de estas redes, se requiere de una adecuada arquitectura de seguridad para proteger la información tanto de los usuarios como del mismo sistema. El aspecto más característico y principal foco de amenazas en este tipo de redes es el radioenlace, por ser un medio abierto a cualquier intruso. De los procedimientos de movilidad que afectan al radioenlace, el handover es el que más requerimientos de prestaciones y dificultades plantea para la adecuada provisión de servicios de seguridad al usuario. En general, se exigen retardos muy pequeños para afectar lo menos posible la comunicación entre la estación base y el terminal móvil. Se plantean diversos servicios de seguridad como confidencialidad e integridad de la señalización o de la información de usuario, o bien autentificación y control de acceso en el cambio de dominios con la consiguiente gestión de claves para su integración en el handover. Por tanto, se pueden plantear handovers con distintos grados de seguridad, entre entornos con distintas celdas dentro de una misma entidad de control o bien entre dominios de seguridad y/o entornos administrativos distintos. Dentro del handover, se hace énfasis en dos fases, decisión y ejecución. Se propone un algoritmo de decisión inteligente que integra una gestión de claves (clave pública de la nueva estación base, NBTS) y que permite la confidencialidad e integridad, mediante algoritmos de clave pública, de la información de señalización a partir de ese instante de tiempo. En la tesis, se parte del trabajo que se ha realizado previamente dentro de proyectos europeos como MONET y ATDMA del RACE. Se ha trabajado en los requerimientos que debía satisfacer UMTS, se han especificado una serie de amenazas al sistema y se han planteado unos servicios que lo protegen de los riesgos detectados en seguridad. El estudio de los mecanismos disponibles para la puesta en funcionamiento de los servicios de seguridad propició el desarrollo de una arquitectura de seguridad basada en el uso de algoritmos de clave pública y de certificados, inspirada en la recomendación X.509. La propuesta surge debido a la similitud de funcionamiento y distribución de las bases de datos en la red fija UMTS y la especificada por X.500. Después de un pormenorizado análisis de funciones y protocolos, se propone el uso de los certificados y algoritmos de clave pública para la protección de la señalización en la red de acceso a UMTS. Para su validación, se analiza el procedimiento más representativo y más crítico en cuanto a prestaciones, el handover. En la fase de ejecución, se distribuye la clave pública del terminal, así como las claves secretas para la confidencialidad e integridad de información de usuario (uso de algoritmo de clave secreta). En el caso de cambios de dominios de seguridad y/o red, la política de seguridad del operador de red decide sobre la necesidad de invocación de autentificación y control de acceso. Como resultado, se han planteado protocolos de ejecución en el handover, se han configurado unos modelos y hecho simulaciones donde se han evaluado los diferentes tipos de protocolos sobre redes avanzadas de comunicaciones móviles en entornos de macroceldas y microceldas. Dada una arquitectura UMTS con unos determinados requerimientos de prestaciones en el handover, se ha analizado una variante de protocolo de ejecución de handover con la gestión de claves adecuada para proporcionar los servicios de confidencialidad e integridad de información de usuario así como las necesidades de autentificación según el cambio de entidades y entornos efectuado. Se analizan prestaciones relacionadas con el retardo (debido a diversas causas: tráfico, bit-rate del radioenlace, velocidad de procesado en el cifrado (descifrado), longitud de paquetes, etc ) de los protocolos mediante programas constatando que se cumplen los requerimientos especificados por el sistema UMTS. Se observa, sin embargo, que la mayor dificultad estriba en los handover entre picoceldas, por ser entornos de reducidas dimensiones y con mayor densidad de usuarios llamantes. Por tanto, se constata la necesidad de diseñar una arquitectura con enlaces mucho más rápidos entre estaciones base para soportar las grandes cantidades de información de señalización con los retardos especificados para picoceldas. Después de un detallado estudio comparativo sobre una arquitectura de bases de datos distribuida, se ha escogido una arquitectura de seguridad basada en X.509. Se utilizan certificados para la gestión de claves y el uso de algoritmos criptográficos de clave pública (como RSA) para confidencialidad e integridad de la información de señalización. La confidencialidad e integridad de la información de usuario se realiza con algoritmos de flujo de clave secreta dado el elevado bit - rate ( < 2 Mbps ) especificado en UMTS. Los programas se han realizado tomando como base el uso del algoritmo RSA con la posibilidad de trabajar a 64 Kbps. Se han estudiado diferentes velocidades de cifrado así como la posibilidad de uso de otros tipos de firmas digitales. Se observa que uno de los principales inconvenientes del uso de certificados en la gestión de claves en el handover es la longitud de éstos. Dado que el bit - rate sobre el radioenlace es limitado, el retardo en el envío de estos certificados puede llegar a ser excesivo para los requerimientos de calidad de servicio exigidos. Por ello se ha empezado a plantear el uso de curvas elípticas para la realización de las firmas digitales en los certificados por requerir claves con menos bits si bien esta evolución no se contempla en la presente tesis. ; Postprint (published version)
Las nuevas tendencias globalizadoras de la economia y la apertura a nivel internacional de numerosos países en el mundo con la formación de grandes bloques, como por ejemplo, la Unión Europea han propiciado la aparición de una nueva generación de sistemas de comunicación móvil que integra los operadores de diferentes países y que permite el uso de satélites para una mayor cobertura mundial. Este tipo de comunicaciones, basadas en sistemas móviles de tercera generación permitirán en el futuro dar soporte a abonados para realizar cualquier tipo de comunicación sin restricciones en el área de servicio, la forma, ni instante de tiempo elegido. Estos sistemas, se denominan Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) y Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication System (FPLMTS) y tienen prevista su entrada en funcionamiento a partir del año 2000. En este tipo de entornos se plantea el estudio del handover como uno de los procedimientos de movilidad con requerimientos de prestaciones más fuertes. Se especifica sobre diversas clases de celdas (macroceldas, microceldas y picoceldas) y sobre diferentes tipos de dominios de gestión y seguridad en los que está estructurado el sistema UMTS. Como consecuencia del análisis de requerimientos de esta nueva red, se propone una gestión inteligente del handover. Para ello, y en base a determinados parámetros de la red y a mediciones realizadas en el radioenlace, se evalua un algoritmo de selección de la celda más óptima. Entre los parámetros y mediciones considerados directamente relacionados con la gestión de tráfico en la red, se encuentran la probabilidad de bloqueo en el handover y en el establecimiento de una llamada. Entre las mediciones realizadas a partir del radioenlace a tener en cuenta por el terminal móvil, se encuentra el nivel de señal, calidad en la transmisión ( por efecto de atenuaciones, desvanecimientos, etc ). Otros parámetros a considerar se refieren a la movilidad del terminal móvil (tales como velocidad, distancia del terminal móvil a cada una de las estaciones base, tiempo de duración de la llamada, etc). Éstos estarán relacionados con el período de obtención de las muestras y/o parámetros, necesarios para la evaluación del algoritmo propuesto. El algoritmo de handover descrito se aplica a un escenario formado con clusters de microceldas integrados en celdas mayores denominadas macroceldas paraguas. Se utilizan canales prioritarios en las microceldas, con asignación de buffers para procesar determinado tipo de peticiones cuando exista un elevado índice de congestión. Además se utilizan las celdas paraguas para procesar el tráfico de desbordamiento de las microceldas. Como resultado, se plantea una función que permite determinar óptimamente una serie de celdas candidatas en la fase de decisión de entre las celdas monitorizadas por el terminal móvil a las que puede invocarse un handover. Se plantea la función para diversos escenarios de redes posibles constatando un resultado óptimo tanto para las prestaciones en la ejecución del handover como para su integración en la gestión del sistema. Adicionalmente, y a modo de aplicación, se estudia el handover desde un punto de vista de las implicaciones en seguridad que plantea. Ya desde los años ochenta, las comunicaciones móviles analógicas tuvieron aplicación en entornos donde se transmitia información sensible (p.e. policia, gobierno, militares.) sin embargo, la red no proporcionaba medidas especiales de seguridad para proteger la información. Hubo que esperar a la entrada de los sistemas digitales de segunda generación a finales de los años ochenta (p.e. GSM ó DECT) para que se adoptaran servicios de protección a la información del usuario. Dada la gran cobertura de estas redes, se requiere de una adecuada arquitectura de seguridad para proteger la información tanto de los usuarios como del mismo sistema. El aspecto más característico y principal foco de amenazas en este tipo de redes es el radioenlace, por ser un medio abierto a cualquier intruso. De los procedimientos de movilidad que afectan al radioenlace, el handover es el que más requerimientos de prestaciones y dificultades plantea para la adecuada provisión de servicios de seguridad al usuario. En general, se exigen retardos muy pequeños para afectar lo menos posible la comunicación entre la estación base y el terminal móvil. Se plantean diversos servicios de seguridad como confidencialidad e integridad de la señalización o de la información de usuario, o bien autentificación y control de acceso en el cambio de dominios con la consiguiente gestión de claves para su integración en el handover. Por tanto, se pueden plantear handovers con distintos grados de seguridad, entre entornos con distintas celdas dentro de una misma entidad de control o bien entre dominios de seguridad y/o entornos administrativos distintos. Dentro del handover, se hace énfasis en dos fases, decisión y ejecución. Se propone un algoritmo de decisión inteligente que integra una gestión de claves (clave pública de la nueva estación base, NBTS) y que permite la confidencialidad e integridad, mediante algoritmos de clave pública, de la información de señalización a partir de ese instante de tiempo. En la tesis, se parte del trabajo que se ha realizado previamente dentro de proyectos europeos como MONET y ATDMA del RACE. Se ha trabajado en los requerimientos que debía satisfacer UMTS, se han especificado una serie de amenazas al sistema y se han planteado unos servicios que lo protegen de los riesgos detectados en seguridad. El estudio de los mecanismos disponibles para la puesta en funcionamiento de los servicios de seguridad propició el desarrollo de una arquitectura de seguridad basada en el uso de algoritmos de clave pública y de certificados, inspirada en la recomendación X.509. La propuesta surge debido a la similitud de funcionamiento y distribución de las bases de datos en la red fija UMTS y la especificada por X.500. Después de un pormenorizado análisis de funciones y protocolos, se propone el uso de los certificados y algoritmos de clave pública para la protección de la señalización en la red de acceso a UMTS. Para su validación, se analiza el procedimiento más representativo y más crítico en cuanto a prestaciones, el handover. En la fase de ejecución, se distribuye la clave pública del terminal, así como las claves secretas para la confidencialidad e integridad de información de usuario (uso de algoritmo de clave secreta). En el caso de cambios de dominios de seguridad y/o red, la política de seguridad del operador de red decide sobre la necesidad de invocación de autentificación y control de acceso. Como resultado, se han planteado protocolos de ejecución en el handover, se han configurado unos modelos y hecho simulaciones donde se han evaluado los diferentes tipos de protocolos sobre redes avanzadas de comunicaciones móviles en entornos de macroceldas y microceldas. Dada una arquitectura UMTS con unos determinados requerimientos de prestaciones en el handover, se ha analizado una variante de protocolo de ejecución de handover con la gestión de claves adecuada para proporcionar los servicios de confidencialidad e integridad de información de usuario así como las necesidades de autentificación según el cambio de entidades y entornos efectuado. Se analizan prestaciones relacionadas con el retardo (debido a diversas causas: tráfico, bit-rate del radioenlace, velocidad de procesado en el cifrado (descifrado), longitud de paquetes, etc ) de los protocolos mediante programas constatando que se cumplen los requerimientos especificados por el sistema UMTS. Se observa, sin embargo, que la mayor dificultad estriba en los handover entre picoceldas, por ser entornos de reducidas dimensiones y con mayor densidad de usuarios llamantes. Por tanto, se constata la necesidad de diseñar una arquitectura con enlaces mucho más rápidos entre estaciones base para soportar las grandes cantidades de información de señalización con los retardos especificados para picoceldas. Después de un detallado estudio comparativo sobre una arquitectura de bases de datos distribuida, se ha escogido una arquitectura de seguridad basada en X.509. Se utilizan certificados para la gestión de claves y el uso de algoritmos criptográficos de clave pública (como RSA) para confidencialidad e integridad de la información de señalización. La confidencialidad e integridad de la información de usuario se realiza con algoritmos de flujo de clave secreta dado el elevado bit - rate ( < 2 Mbps ) especificado en UMTS. Los programas se han realizado tomando como base el uso del algoritmo RSA con la posibilidad de trabajar a 64 Kbps. Se han estudiado diferentes velocidades de cifrado así como la posibilidad de uso de otros tipos de firmas digitales. Se observa que uno de los principales inconvenientes del uso de certificados en la gestión de claves en el handover es la longitud de éstos. Dado que el bit - rate sobre el radioenlace es limitado, el retardo en el envío de estos certificados puede llegar a ser excesivo para los requerimientos de calidad de servicio exigidos. Por ello se ha empezado a plantear el uso de curvas elípticas para la realización de las firmas digitales en los certificados por requerir claves con menos bits si bien esta evolución no se contempla en la presente tesis. ; Postprint (published version)
This article provides an overview of case law that had developed in 1993 relating to computers, summarizing cases in the following fourteen areas of the law: 1. Administrative - This section briefs a case holding that the Bush Administration's e-mail records fell within the scope of the Federal Records Act. 2. Anti-trust - This section includes: an overview of a case defining "sham" lawsuits and a summary of a case holding that a large software firm's supplier requirements may define a relevant market for an anti-trust analysis. 3. Civil Procedure - This section gives a brief summary of a case where a computer chip manufacturer withheld documents relating to its licensing agreements in a copyright infringement case, as well as a summary of a case holding that trade secrets must be defined with specificity in court orders. 4. Contracts - This section provides overviews of cases holding that: work stoppage by a software manufacturer may not constitute willful misconduct; a trademark infringement suit is not an "advertising injury' as used in general liability insurance policies; licensing provisions should be unambiguous; a failure to complain about malfunctioning software may estop a later suit; failure to pay a computer programmer is unlikely to be a "pattern of racketeering" under RICO. 5. Copyrights - The cases reviewed in this section hold that: a copyright owner's inability to produce the source code of which it asserts rights does not preclude a finding of copyright infringement and trade secret misappropriation; a computer program's use of unnecessary features is strong evidence of copying; where a user interface includes mostly uncopyrightable elements, infringement requires both access and "virtual identity"; not all "work-for-hire" factors are of equal importance; the creation of a basic video game is evidence of at least some creativity; reverse engineering of a video game console to develop a compatible cartridge may be fair use; reverse engineering of a computer chip, while condoned by statute, requires thorough documentation. 6. Criminal - This section's cases hold that: insufficient jury verdicts are insufficient to overturn a conviction; with a search warrant designating only computer hardware, the government may also search a computer's hard drive; unauthorized reception of cable television violates U.S. wiretap law; the felony status of infringement of a copyright on software relates to the retail value of the software; a longer term of imprisonment may be imposed where a computer programmer betrays a position of trust. 7. Employment relations - The cases in this section hold that: there is no action for age discrimination where the terminated employee had refused to utilize a new computer system; an ex-employee's covenant not to compete in the computer industry must be no broader than reasonably necessary for the protection of a legitimate business interest. 8. Foreign law - This section describes a United Kingdom high court decision that found copyright infringement of a computer program based on organizational similarities. 9. Patents - The cases described in this section hold that: technical information given by an inventor to a patent attorney my be privileged; patent rights may belong to an employer, pursuant to an employment agreement, even if the employee resigns before seeking a patent; the disclosure of a microprocessor, without the firmware used by the microprocessor, may be a sufficient description. 10. Privacy law - This section describes a Clinton administration proposal for voluntary encoding of telephone and computer transmissions. 11. Tax law - The cases the author cites in this section hold that a municipal sales tax may apply, even where computer equipment is both delivered to a common carrier and assembled outside of the relevant state; modified software may be considered "intangible property." 12. Trademarks - The cases described in this section hold that: prior sale, rather than prior sales activities, may give a user superior trademark rights; an application to register numerical marks based on an intent to use them is proper and may not be opposed as being descriptive unless a statement of use has been filed. This section also describes the U.S. Trademark Office's denial of a petition by Microsoft to register "Windows." 13. Trade regulation - The case in this section holds that the Lanham Act may empower a court to exert control over foreign subsidiaries of a party before the court. 14. Trade secrets - The cases in this section hold that: unless the owner of alleged trade secrets can identify valuable information that was not publicly available, there can be no claim for trade secret theft; a software licensee may be liable for misappropriation of trade secrets if it should have known that the licensor's software included the proprietary information of others.This article provides an overview of case law that had developed in 1993 relating to computers, summarizing cases in the following fourteen areas of the law: 1. Administrative - This section briefs a case holding that the Bush Administration's e-mail records fell within the scope of the Federal Records Act. 2. Anti-trust - This section includes: an overview of a case defining "sham" lawsuits and a summary of a case holding that a large software firm's supplier requirements may define a relevant market for an anti-trust analysis. 3. Civil Procedure - This section gives a brief summary of a case where a computer chip manufacturer withheld documents relating to its licensing agreements in a copyright infringement case, as well as a summary of a case holding that trade secrets must be defined with specificity in court orders. 4. Contracts - This section provides overviews of cases holding that: work stoppage by a software manufacturer may not constitute willful misconduct; a trademark infringement suit is not an "advertising injury' as used in general liability insurance policies; licensing provisions should be unambiguous; a failure to complain about malfunctioning software may estop a later suit; failure to pay a computer programmer is unlikely to be a "pattern of racketeering" under RICO. 5. Copyrights - The cases reviewed in this section hold that: a copyright owner's inability to produce the source code of which it asserts rights does not preclude a finding of copyright infringement and trade secret misappropriation; a computer program's use of unnecessary features is strong evidence of copying; where a user interface includes mostly uncopyrightable elements, infringement requires both access and "virtual identity"; not all "work-for-hire" factors are of equal importance; the creation of a basic video game is evidence of at least some creativity; reverse engineering of a video game console to develop a compatible cartridge may be fair use; reverse engineering of a computer chip, while condoned by statute, requires thorough documentation. 6. Criminal - This section's cases hold that: insufficient jury verdicts are insufficient to overturn a conviction; with a search warrant designating only computer hardware, the government may also search a computer's hard drive; unauthorized reception of cable television violates U.S. wiretap law; the felony status of infringement of a copyright on software relates to the retail value of the software; a longer term of imprisonment may be imposed where a computer programmer betrays a position of trust. 7. Employment relations - The cases in this section hold that: there is no action for age discrimination where the terminated employee had refused to utilize a new computer system; an ex-employee's covenant not to compete in the computer industry must be no broader than reasonably necessary for the protection of a legitimate business interest. 8. Foreign law - This section describes a United Kingdom high court decision that found copyright infringement of a computer program based on organizational similarities. 9. Patents - The cases described in this section hold that: technical information given by an inventor to a patent attorney my be privileged; patent rights may belong to an employer, pursuant to an employment agreement, even if the employee resigns before seeking a patent; the disclosure of a microprocessor, without the firmware used by the microprocessor, may be a sufficient description. 10. Privacy law - This section describes a Clinton administration proposal for voluntary encoding of telephone and computer transmissions. 11. Tax law - The cases the author cites in this section hold that a municipal sales tax may apply, even where computer equipment is both delivered to a common carrier and assembled outside of the relevant state; modified software may be considered "intangible property." 12. Trademarks - The cases described in this section hold that: prior sale, rather than prior sales activities, may give a user superior trademark rights; an application to register numerical marks based on an intent to use them is proper and may not be opposed as being descriptive unless a statement of use has been filed. This section also describes the U.S. Trademark Office's denial of a petition by Microsoft to register "Windows." 13. Trade regulation - The case in this section holds that the Lanham Act may empower a court to exert control over foreign subsidiaries of a party before the court. 14. Trade secrets - The cases in this section hold that: unless the owner of alleged trade secrets can identify valuable information that was not publicly available, there can be no claim for trade secret theft; a software licensee may be liable for misappropriation of trade secrets if it should have known that the licensor's software included the proprietary information of others.
This article provides an overview of case law that had developed in 1993 relating to computers, summarizing cases in the following fourteen areas of the law: 1. Administrative - This section briefs a case holding that the Bush Administration's e-mail records fell within the scope of the Federal Records Act. 2. Anti-trust - This section includes: an overview of a case defining "sham" lawsuits and a summary of a case holding that a large software firm's supplier requirements may define a relevant market for an anti-trust analysis. 3. Civil Procedure - This section gives a brief summary of a case where a computer chip manufacturer withheld documents relating to its licensing agreements in a copyright infringement case, as well as a summary of a case holding that trade secrets must be defined with specificity in court orders. 4. Contracts - This section provides overviews of cases holding that: work stoppage by a software manufacturer may not constitute willful misconduct; a trademark infringement suit is not an "advertising injury' as used in general liability insurance policies; licensing provisions should be unambiguous; a failure to complain about malfunctioning software may estop a later suit; failure to pay a computer programmer is unlikely to be a "pattern of racketeering" under RICO. 5. Copyrights - The cases reviewed in this section hold that: a copyright owner's inability to produce the source code of which it asserts rights does not preclude a finding of copyright infringement and trade secret misappropriation; a computer program's use of unnecessary features is strong evidence of copying; where a user interface includes mostly uncopyrightable elements, infringement requires both access and "virtual identity"; not all "work-for-hire" factors are of equal importance; the creation of a basic video game is evidence of at least some creativity; reverse engineering of a video game console to develop a compatible cartridge may be fair use; reverse engineering of a computer chip, while condoned by statute, requires thorough documentation. 6. Criminal - This section's cases hold that: insufficient jury verdicts are insufficient to overturn a conviction; with a search warrant designating only computer hardware, the government may also search a computer's hard drive; unauthorized reception of cable television violates U.S. wiretap law; the felony status of infringement of a copyright on software relates to the retail value of the software; a longer term of imprisonment may be imposed where a computer programmer betrays a position of trust. 7. Employment relations - The cases in this section hold that: there is no action for age discrimination where the terminated employee had refused to utilize a new computer system; an ex-employee's covenant not to compete in the computer industry must be no broader than reasonably necessary for the protection of a legitimate business interest. 8. Foreign law - This section describes a United Kingdom high court decision that found copyright infringement of a computer program based on organizational similarities. 9. Patents - The cases described in this section hold that: technical information given by an inventor to a patent attorney my be privileged; patent rights may belong to an employer, pursuant to an employment agreement, even if the employee resigns before seeking a patent; the disclosure of a microprocessor, without the firmware used by the microprocessor, may be a sufficient description. 10. Privacy law - This section describes a Clinton administration proposal for voluntary encoding of telephone and computer transmissions. 11. Tax law - The cases the author cites in this section hold that a municipal sales tax may apply, even where computer equipment is both delivered to a common carrier and assembled outside of the relevant state; modified software may be considered "intangible property." 12. Trademarks - The cases described in this section hold that: prior sale, rather than prior sales activities, may give a user superior trademark rights; an application to register numerical marks based on an intent to use them is proper and may not be opposed as being descriptive unless a statement of use has been filed. This section also describes the U.S. Trademark Office's denial of a petition by Microsoft to register "Windows." 13. Trade regulation - The case in this section holds that the Lanham Act may empower a court to exert control over foreign subsidiaries of a party before the court. 14. Trade secrets - The cases in this section hold that: unless the owner of alleged trade secrets can identify valuable information that was not publicly available, there can be no claim for trade secret theft; a software licensee may be liable for misappropriation of trade secrets if it should have known that the licensor's software included the proprietary information of others.This article provides an overview of case law that had developed in 1993 relating to computers, summarizing cases in the following fourteen areas of the law: 1. Administrative - This section briefs a case holding that the Bush Administration's e-mail records fell within the scope of the Federal Records Act. 2. Anti-trust - This section includes: an overview of a case defining "sham" lawsuits and a summary of a case holding that a large software firm's supplier requirements may define a relevant market for an anti-trust analysis. 3. Civil Procedure - This section gives a brief summary of a case where a computer chip manufacturer withheld documents relating to its licensing agreements in a copyright infringement case, as well as a summary of a case holding that trade secrets must be defined with specificity in court orders. 4. Contracts - This section provides overviews of cases holding that: work stoppage by a software manufacturer may not constitute willful misconduct; a trademark infringement suit is not an "advertising injury' as used in general liability insurance policies; licensing provisions should be unambiguous; a failure to complain about malfunctioning software may estop a later suit; failure to pay a computer programmer is unlikely to be a "pattern of racketeering" under RICO. 5. Copyrights - The cases reviewed in this section hold that: a copyright owner's inability to produce the source code of which it asserts rights does not preclude a finding of copyright infringement and trade secret misappropriation; a computer program's use of unnecessary features is strong evidence of copying; where a user interface includes mostly uncopyrightable elements, infringement requires both access and "virtual identity"; not all "work-for-hire" factors are of equal importance; the creation of a basic video game is evidence of at least some creativity; reverse engineering of a video game console to develop a compatible cartridge may be fair use; reverse engineering of a computer chip, while condoned by statute, requires thorough documentation. 6. Criminal - This section's cases hold that: insufficient jury verdicts are insufficient to overturn a conviction; with a search warrant designating only computer hardware, the government may also search a computer's hard drive; unauthorized reception of cable television violates U.S. wiretap law; the felony status of infringement of a copyright on software relates to the retail value of the software; a longer term of imprisonment may be imposed where a computer programmer betrays a position of trust. 7. Employment relations - The cases in this section hold that: there is no action for age discrimination where the terminated employee had refused to utilize a new computer system; an ex-employee's covenant not to compete in the computer industry must be no broader than reasonably necessary for the protection of a legitimate business interest. 8. Foreign law - This section describes a United Kingdom high court decision that found copyright infringement of a computer program based on organizational similarities. 9. Patents - The cases described in this section hold that: technical information given by an inventor to a patent attorney my be privileged; patent rights may belong to an employer, pursuant to an employment agreement, even if the employee resigns before seeking a patent; the disclosure of a microprocessor, without the firmware used by the microprocessor, may be a sufficient description. 10. Privacy law - This section describes a Clinton administration proposal for voluntary encoding of telephone and computer transmissions. 11. Tax law - The cases the author cites in this section hold that a municipal sales tax may apply, even where computer equipment is both delivered to a common carrier and assembled outside of the relevant state; modified software may be considered "intangible property." 12. Trademarks - The cases described in this section hold that: prior sale, rather than prior sales activities, may give a user superior trademark rights; an application to register numerical marks based on an intent to use them is proper and may not be opposed as being descriptive unless a statement of use has been filed. This section also describes the U.S. Trademark Office's denial of a petition by Microsoft to register "Windows." 13. Trade regulation - The case in this section holds that the Lanham Act may empower a court to exert control over foreign subsidiaries of a party before the court. 14. Trade secrets - The cases in this section hold that: unless the owner of alleged trade secrets can identify valuable information that was not publicly available, there can be no claim for trade secret theft; a software licensee may be liable for misappropriation of trade secrets if it should have known that the licensor's software included the proprietary information of others.
El objetivo general de esta tesis es describir los modos de participación de los hogares en la estructura económico-ocupacional y en los sistemas de política social, y evaluar sus cambios durante el ciclo de políticas heterodoxas en la Argentina (2003-2014). A partir del estudio articulado de la participación en los mecanismos de distribución primaria y secundaria del ingreso, la tesis se propone contribuir al estudio de las transformaciones en los modos de reproducción socioeconómica de las unidades domésticas y aportar nuevas evidencias acerca de las rearticulaciones verificadas en la relación entre la heterogeneidad estructural y las formas de intervención social del Estado en la Argentina. En contraste con el ciclo de ajuste estructural de los noventa, durante la primera década de los años 2000 se verificó un giro hacia políticas macroeconómicas heterodoxas y políticas sociolaborales de corte redistributivo. A su vez, el período estuvo jalonado por la presencia de rasgos estructurales del régimen social de acumulación (alta concentración económica, especialización productiva y restricción externa). En este contexto, el caso argentino es relevante para evaluar la capacidad del crecimiento bajo políticas heterodoxas para promover cambios sustantivos en los patrones de desigualdad emergentes de la heterogeneidad estructural de los mercados de trabajo y para examinar el rol de las políticas sociales sobre las condiciones de vida de los hogares en el contexto de una economía capitalista periférica. El estudio articula tres líneas conceptuales. En primer lugar, la cuestión de las condiciones de vida es abordada a partir de aportes teóricos (en especial, de la sociología latinoamericana) que tematizaron la reproducción de la fuerza de trabajo y de las unidades domésticas. Estos aportes señalan que la reproducción socioeconómica de los hogares se asocia con la satisfacción de necesidades y se desenvuelve en una articulación de planos macro y microsociales. En segundo lugar, el marco teórico estructuralista, la tesis de la marginalidad económica y los enfoques de la segmentación laboral son claves para comprender las dinámicas de desigualdad de la estructura económico-ocupacional en la que participa la fuerza laboral de los hogares. En tercer lugar, recogemos una lectura en clave de economía política de la política social que permite reponer su papel con respecto a la regulación de la reproducción de la fuerza de trabajo y del conflicto social. La hipótesis general es que la heterogeneidad estructural del régimen de acumulación –y su correlato en la incapacidad de los sectores más dinámicos de la economía para absorber al conjunto de la fuerza de trabajo– habría dado lugar a dinámicas persistentes de desigualdad económico-ocupacional y de exclusión o marginalidad, con amplias consecuencias sobre las capacidades de reproducción económica y el bienestar material de los hogares, restringiendo los procesos de convergencia socioeconómica entre el 2003 y el 2014. Sin embargo, estas dinámicas no habrían impactado de forma directa sobre las condiciones de vida debido a una mediación, de relevancia variable según el momento político-económico del ciclo, de la política social y de los propios comportamientos microsociales de los hogares. Tales elementos habrían desempeñado un papel compensador –aunque limitado, dadas las condiciones estructurales prevalecientes– sobre las capacidades de reproducción económica de las unidades domésticas. En la investigación seguimos un abordaje metodológico cuantitativo con un diseño de estática comparada. En términos analíticos, se recurrió a técnicas de análisis multivariado, de descomposición y de microsimulación. La principal fuente son los microdatos de la Encuesta Permanente de Hogares (EPH), relevada trimestralmente por el Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INDEC). Empleamos las bases correspondientes al cuarto trimestre de 2003 a 2014 para una serie de años ventana. La tesis reúne evidencias que indican que la heterogeneidad de la estructura económicoocupacional, los procesos de segmentación del mercado de trabajo y la dinámica de la marginalidad económica constituyen instancias estrechamente asociadas con una pauta relativamente rígida de desigualdad sociolaboral. Esta pauta condiciona las capacidades de reproducción de los hogares e inhibe la convergencia socioeconómica: mientras que una parte de las unidades domésticas participa de sectores económicos dinámicos mediante sus integrantes, otra amplia franja permanece ligada a ocupaciones en microunidades, sin protección laboral y con ingresos que, o bien no garantizan la satisfacción de necesidades, o bien los dejan expuestos al riesgo de no hacerlo. Los comportamientos laborales de los integrantes de los hogares mediatizan esta pauta de desigualdad, pero su efecto agregado, en términos cuantitativos, resulta limitado. Por su parte, la política social adquiere creciente relevancia en la cobertura de los hogares peor posicionados en la estructura económico-ocupacional y los ingresos por transferencias constituyen un nuevo componente de su balance reproductivo. En este sentido, la tesis da indicios de algunas modificaciones en los patrones de reproducción socioeconómica de los hogares, al menos durante el ciclo histórico examinado. Sin embargo, exhibe que, en condiciones de baja integración económica sistémica (derivada de la heterogeneidad estructural), la política social no es suficiente para garantizar la convergencia en las condiciones de vida. ; The general objective of this thesis is to describe the modes of households' participation in the labour structure and in the system of social policies, and to evaluate its changes during the period of heterodox policies in Argentina (2003-2014). By binding households' participation in the primary and in the secondary income distribution together, the thesis aims to analyse changes in their socioeconomic reproduction patterns, and to provide new evidences about the existence of transformations in the relationship between the structural heterogeneity and the State social intervention in Argentina. In contrast to the phase of structural adjustment (in the 1990s), a turn to heterodox macroeconomic policies and redistributive labour and social policies took place during the 2000s. This period was also characterised by the presence of some long-term features of the social accumulation regime (such as a high economic concentration, the productive specialization in raw materials exports and the external restriction). Thus, Argentina offers a proper scenario to evaluate the ability of the economic growth under heterodox policies to change the inequality patterns derived from the structural heterogeneity of labour markets, as well as to examine how social policies shape living conditions in a peripherical country. This thesis is underpinned by three theoretical perspectives. Firstly, living conditions are tackled from a conceptual framework (mainly based on Latin American sociology) that emphasizes both labour power and households' reproduction. According to these conceptual contributions, socioeconomic reproduction is related to needs satisfaction and thus to income distribution and based on the interaction of micro and macrosocial processes. Secondly, the structuralist approach, the thesis of economic marginality and the theories of labour market segmentation are crucial to comprehend the inequality dynamics that underlie socioeconomic structure in which the members of the households participate. Thirdly, we take a political economy interpretation of social policy, recovering its role in terms of the regulation of labour power reproduction and in the regulation of social conflict. The general hypothesis is that the structural heterogeneity of the social regime of accumulation –and the insufficient labour demand of the most dynamic sectors of the economy– would have led to a persistent labour inequality pattern, with several consequences on households' economic reproduction conditions and material wellbeing, thus restricting socioeconomic convergence during the period 2003-2014. However, we suggest that this pattern would not have impacted directly on living conditions due to the intervention –of variable relevance according to the moment of the period– of social policy benefits and households' microsocial behaviours. These factors would have played a compensation role –even if limited, due to the structural conditions– on households' economic reproduction conditions. The research has followed a quantitative methodological design, based on cross-section data approach. Several multivariate analysis techniques were applied, as well as decomposition and microsimulation techniques. The main data source was the Permanent Household Survey (Encuesta Permanente de Hogares) carried out quarterly by the National Institute of Statistic and Censuses. We used microdata corresponding to fourth quarters of several years from 2003 to 2014. The evidences gathered in this thesis reveal that the labour structure's heterogeneity, the labour market segmentation and the economic marginality are processes strongly related to a rigid inequality pattern. This pattern affects households' living conditions and inhibits socioeconomic convergence: whereas a part of the households has members working in dynamic, modern and productive economic sectors, another fraction remains linked to employment in micro enterprises without labour protection and with low incomes, thus particularly exposed to the risk of not satisfying their reproductive needs. Households' members labour behaviours intervene on this inequality pattern. However, in aggregated terms, their effect is quantitatively limited. With respect to social policy, the thesis shows that it increases its relevance upon those households that are vulnerable in terms of the occupational position of its members. In this vein, social benefits are a new part of those households' reproductive balance. To sum up, the thesis suggests the existence of some changes in households' socioeconomic reproduction patterns, at least during the considered period. However, it also reveals that in a context of a low economic "system integration" (derived from structural heterogeneity), social policy is not enough to guarantee living conditions' convergence. ; Fil: Poy Piñeiro, Santiago. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina
The World Bank legal review gathers this input from around the world and compiles it into a useful resource for all development practitioners and scholars. The subtitle of this volume, legal innovation and empowerment for development, highlights how the law can respond to the chal-lenges posed to development objectives in a world slowly emerging from an economic crisis. The focus on innovation is a call for new, imaginative strategies and ways of thinking about what the law can do in the development realm. The focus on empowerment is a deliberate attempt to place the law into the hands of the poor; to give them another tool with which to resist poverty. This volume shows some of the ways that the law can make an innovative and empowering difference in development scenarios. Development problems are complex and varied, and the theme of innovation and empowerment naturally has a broad scope. Consequently, this volume reaches far and wide. It considers the nature, promise, and limitations of legal innovation and legal empowerment. It looks at concrete examples in places such as Africa, the Asia-Pacific region, and Latin America. It considers developments in issues with universal application, such as the rights of the disabled and the effectiveness of asset recovery measures. The theme of legal innovation and empowerment for development complements substantive and institutional sensibilities in current development policy. Substantively, development policy discourse seems to have moved away from tacking hard toward statist policy or neoliberal policy. Although this brief introduction cannot do justice to the richness and complexity of these contributions, it does consider each focal point in turn.
This study simulates the sector impacts of demand-side perturbations on air transport sectors due to the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on ASEAN members plus Australia, China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and New Zealand. This study involves (i) the generation of a multiregional input–output table from the latest Global Trade Analysis Project data, (ii) a network analysis to determine the importance of the air transport industry in each country, (iii) multiplier and linkages analyses, (iv) determinations of sector impacts from demand-side perturbations on air transport sectors due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and (v) simulation of the effect of fiscal and monetary measures to mitigate the pandemic's impact. This study demonstrates that the aviation industry is a key sector in domestic and regional economic activities, and the reduction in air transport consumer demand due to the pandemic is estimated to cause gross domestic product (GDP) reductions from 0.4% to 2.1%. Government intervention, through fiscal and monetary policies, has, however, mitigated severe impact, moderating GDP and value-added losses. Thus, a viable policy prescription for the aviation industry is of utmost importance.
This report is a synthesis of fieldwork findings and recommendations developed since October 2012 under this Technical Assistance (TA) carried out by the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program (WSP). The recommendations have been developed through on-going consultations and meetings with the Directorate of Environmental Sanitation and Directorate General of Human Settlements, Ministry of Health, and Government of Indonesia. This report describes and assesses the performance of technical assistance TA-P143167, 'rural sanitation market expansion of domestic private sector in Indonesia,' provided by the World Bank through the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) carried out from October 2, 2012 to March 31, 2015 to support the development of a rural sanitation market in Indonesia. This technical assistance (TA) was implemented as parts of a larger effort to assist the Government of Indonesia achieve at-scale results in rural sanitation through its National Strategy for Community-Based Total Sanitation (Sanitasi Total Berbasis Masyarakat - STBM).
Tajikistan is one of the world's most remittance-dependent economies, receiving net remittance inflows equivalent to approximately 40 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Falling remittance inflows was one of the main transmission channels through which the 2008-09 global economic crisis adversely impacted the economy. Conversely, the pickup in growth since 2009 can also be traced to the rebound in remittance inflows (primarily from Russia, where more than 90 percent of Tajik migrants work), which reached 42 percent of GDP in 2010 and an estimated 40 percent of GDP in 2011. As the World Bank's 2011 country economic memorandum has argued, future growth in Tajikistan will depend crucially on increasing efficiency and raising private investment rates. Remittances are likely to grow more slowly than the earlier trend over the last 5-6 years, but could nonetheless be a major contributor to future growth if more go into private investment than in the past.
This report provides a gender review of a decade and a half of World Bank infrastructure lending for 1,246 projects. The objective of this review is to assess the status of and trends in gender integration in the World Bank infrastructure portfolio, and to establish a baseline for monitoring and enhancing gender integration in line with commitments made for the 2006 gender action plan. The portfolio review reveals important progress on gender integration in infrastructure operations. While an average of 14 percent of infrastructure projects in 1995 applied some attention to gender concerns in 1995, this climbed to 36 percent by 2009. The global average, moreover, hides large strides made over time in four regions. In 2009, East Asia and the Pacific, Middle East and North Africa, South Asia, and Africa all included gender concerns in the design of at least 50 percent of their infrastructure projects. Hard work remains in consolidating and extending the gains in gender coverage across the infrastructure portfolio. This will require stronger management commitment, concerted efforts, a plan with targets to achieve sustainable results, resources, specialist staffing, and capacity enhancement of staff. The portfolio review repeatedly found that supporting gender equality and women's empowerment in infrastructure operations have large benefits for the communities; the actions not only increased women's opportunities but also enhanced project effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability.
This Action Plan is based on the World Bank's Technical Note on Consumer Protection and Financial Literacy in Azerbaijan published in June 2009. The Action Plan focuses on the Legal and Regulatory Issues of the Technical Note's Key Findings and Recommendations, proposing specific actions for Azerbaijani authorities, financial institutions and consumer organizations so that consumer protection is strengthened and made more effective and efficient. The Action Plan should be the base upon which specific legal changes should be drafted and against which their implementation should be evaluated. Beside the Technical Note itself, the Action Plan draws on best international practices and experiences of regulators and supervisors that have tried to introduce improved consumer protection in their countries. It should also be noted that a well-balanced consumer protection regime serves also the interest of financial institutions as it provides them with better informed clients and also makes sure that clients understand their obligations under the contracts they signed. The Action Plan is divided into five parts that cover the key areas based on the recommendations of the Technical Note: (a) Legal Mandate, (b) Effective Supervision and Regulation, (c) Disclosure of Information, (d) Business Practices, and (e) Dispute Resolution.
Issue 20.4 of the Review for Religious, 1961. ; JOSEPH F.~ GALLEN, s.J. Femininity and Spirituality A female insight of Gertrud von le Fort~ is the theme of this article. She writes: "L~on Bloy's words, 'The holier a woman, the more she .is a woman,' are valid also in re-verse; for the truly feminine role in every situation is i(retrievably bound to her religious character.''1 There-fore, it is likewise true that the more she is a woman, the holier she is. This principle extends also to the i:eligious state, and our topic.is that the holiness of the "sister must be built on her feminine nature and thus be distinctively feminine. Woman in the Gospel The women close to our Lord ir~ the CO, spel were femi-nine women. This is evidently true of the Blessed Virgin. She was the mother of mothers. Divine motherhood ele-vated her above all other mothers not "only in grace and sanctity but also naturally. "We often fail to re-member to what extent Mary is the most perfectly developed of all creatures, not only on the supernatural but also on the human level. Yet, it is a fact. There has been no other human being whose personality was de-veloped to such a pitch, to such a fullness of harmony and strength. In her, every power was fully cultivated and brought to the highest degree of accomplisliment. In her heart, all the delicacy of a virgin and all the ardor of a bride's love are joined to all the tenderness and gentleness of a mother. Purity, fervor, kindness, the strength to persevere, merciful understanding, the, power to forgive, a source of continual renewal and of refound enthusiasm . the heart of our Lady draws this unique treasure from her participation in the mystery of the Re-demption. In the Redemption were revealed all the potentialities' of her being. God Himself allowed this de- 1 Gertrud von le Fort, The Eternal Woman (Milwaukee: Bruce, 1954), 57. + 4- + Jose~ph F. Gallen, S.J. is pr0tessor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland. VOLUME 20, 1961" 4" 4. 4.~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 238 sire for sacrifice and the gift of self, which is in the heart of every woman and mo.ther, and which was in Mary to a supreme degree, to be realized to the full.''2 M6ther-hood, physical or spiritu.al, is the full development of the female personality, and in Mary this development reached its perfection. She is not only the saint of saints; she is the woman of women and the supernatural and natural ideal of all women. A devoted band of women disciples, with feminine spontaneity and. generosity, followed our Lord from Gali-lee and ministered to Him.8 A sinful woman bathed His feet with her tears, wiped them with her hair, kissed them, and anointed them.4 Martha and Mary had the faith of the heart in our Lord: "Lord, if thou hadst been here, my brother would not have died.''5 The femininity of Mary, who sat in such confidence at His feet,e in no way repelled ou~ Lord: "Now J~sus loved Martha and her sister Mary, and Lazarus.''7 Women com[ort'ed our Lord on the way to Calvary,8 stood at the foot of the cross,9 and would not depart from the cross.10 When the tomb was sealed, Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Joseph Could not leave it.11 They left fin.a, lly onl~ to think. of Him~and to prepare spices and ointments for His body~12 At the earliest moment after the Sabbath rest, at dawn on the third day, they returned to the tombA8 When the risen Christ appeared to them, they embraced His feet and worshipped Him.x4 Our faith is founded on the. Resurrection of our Lord. According to the Gospel story, He appeared first to Mary Magdalene; by His commigsion, this feminine ~oman became the hei'ald of the Resurred: tion to the ~pogtle~ a'nd, in the liturgy of the Church, the apostle to the apostles,x5 Woman in 'the Litu.rgy The same feminine tone is found throughout the liturgy ~and in the approved prayer of the Church. We have only to recall the titles in the Litany of Loretto: Mother most amiable, Virgin most merciful, Cause of ~ Paul-Marie de la Croix, O.C.D. ~hastity (Westminster: Newman; 1955), 145. tMt 27:55; Mk 15:.41; Lk 23:55. ~Lk 7:38. ~ Jn 11:21, 32. eLk 10:39. ~Jn 11:5. s Lk 23 : 27. OJn 19:25. ~o Mk 15= 40; Lk 23:49. ~a Mt 27 : 61 ; Mk 15 : 47; Lk 23 : 55. ~Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1. ~ Mt 28: 1; Mk 16: I-2; Lk 24: 1/ t' Mt 28:9. ~Mt 28:!0; Jn 20:17-18. our joy, Mystical rose, Health of the sick, Refuge of sinners, Comforter of the afflicted. We know that in the liturgy the Christian virgin is the bride of Christ and the bridal theme is: found frequently in Masses of the Blessed Mother and :of virgins,. In one,of the prayers from the common office of a virgin, we ask the grace to learn loving devotion to God from the virgin. In the third responsoryo of the feast of the Maternity of the Blessed Mother, we read: "Thou art made :beautiful and gentle in thy delights, O holy mother of,God,, and in the same responsory of the feast of St. Agnes:. "When I love Him, I am chaste; when I touch Him, I am pure; when I possess Him, I am :a virginY The hymn of Vespers of the feast of St. Mary Magdalene reads: "Source .and giver of heavenly light, with a glance You lit a fire o[ love in Magdalene and thawed the icy coldness of ~her heart. Wounded by love of You, she ran to anoint Your sacred feet, wash them~,with her ~tears, wipe ~hem With her hair and kiss them with her lips. She was not afraid to stand by the cross; in anguish of'soul she, stayed near Your tomb with-out any fear of the cruel soldiers, for love casts out fear. Lord Christ; love most true, cleanse us from our sins, fill our heart with grace and grant uvthereward of heaven/'16 Finally, the woman, in the office for holy women is a motherly woman. Woman in the .Doctrine ol the Church Doctrinally, the Church proclaims the distinctively feminine temperament in declaring that the mutual as-sistance or complementing of the sexes is an end of marriage. A fundamental reason for the " Church's re-strictions on coeducation is the specific feminine psy-chology. Pius XI stated in the Encyclical on Catholic education: "There is not in nature itself, which fashions the two quite different in organism, in temperament, in abilities, anything to suggest that there,can be or ought. to be intermingling, much less equality in the training of the two sexes."17 Plus XII reaffirmed the same principle: "Education proper to the sex of the young girl, and not rarely also of'the grown woman, is therefore a necessary condition of her preparation and formation for a life worthy of her.''Is Nature and Grace Sanctity, and also apostolic sanctity, can be defined as God giving me His grace and my c6rrespondence with 1BTranslation of the Reverend Joseph Connelly, H~mns'ot the Roman Liturgy (London: Longmans, Green, !~957), 214. x~ Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 22 (1930), 72. ~S Allocution to the Women Delegates oI the Christian Societies o! Italy, October 21, 1945, Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 37 (1945), 293-94. + + Femininity spirituality VOLUME 20, 1961 ~9 ÷ ÷ ÷ Jowph F. Ga//en, $4. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 240 that grace. In our present context, God gives the grace to a human being, but to a woman, not to an angel nor to a man. It is evidently true that grace builds on nature and on the whole nature of the individual. Grace does not destroy but elevates and helps nature. Christian spiritu-ality does not annihilate our natural tendencies but orientates them properly, directs them to their proper end, turns them to God. It follows that grace does not destroy the feminine nature, that the more fully de-veloped the feminine nature the more effective grace will ordinarily be, and that the saintly woman is not an un-sexed woman but a feminine woman dominated by grace. Bainvel says of the saints: "Grace extinguished nothing of the light of their-intelligence, did not deprive~.them of .any strength of will, nor of their tenderness of heart, norof the delicacy of their sentiments.''19 There can be an obstacle, and a serious obstacle, to the sanctity of sisters by a spiritual formation, direction, and a concept of spirituality that tend to defeminize them. An antecedent possibility of this error exists. In-stitutes of religious women are based, and some of them very directly and immediately, on those of men; men have been the founders or cofounders of many institutes of women; men write the spiritual books that sisters read; and they instruct and direct sisters. The general observa-tion of Fitzsimons can be applicable here: ". and I noted how often, both in the secular and religious sphere, in small matters as in great, women had to be content with an adaptation of something masculine.''a0 The re-ligious life has to be essentially the same for both men and women; but that of women should have a feminine soul, atmosphere, and tone. In this matter, man can be a sound observer; he can point out defects, show the gen-eral direction, but he cannot be a master. Only women can fully understand and create this feminine atmosphere. Gina Lombroso tells women: "If we suffer, it is not be-cause we are different from him but because man does not realize in what way we are different.''21 Priests are not exempt from this common male ignorance of the female temperament. We exhort them to be Christian soldiers despite the fact that their destiny is physical or spiritual motherhood and that "woman attains her fullness as a mother whenever she holds our her hands to the weak and abandoned, to those who have need of care and pro- ~j. v. Bainvel, Nature et surnaturel (Paris: Beauchesne, 1920), 160. ~" John Fitzsimons, Woman Today (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1952), vii. aa Gina Lombroso, The Soul oI Woman (New York: Dutton, 1923), 94-95. tection."~z Moralists have sound reasons for counseling brevity in hearing the confessions of women, but it can be that they and we other priests are unaware of the fact that woman often dislikes to speak of her interior and that her diffuseness can frequently be merely the'inability to express her interior. "Furthermore, the feminine in-stinct is to hide deep emotions, and as woman can divine other people's sentiments she cannot understand that man cannot divine hers but demands that she put her most sacred feelings into words.''z3 We can and often do instruct and guide women with no attention to their distinctive temperament and thereby fall at least 'partially into the error underscored by Leclercq: "Every system, every institution, every social practice, every 'legal meas-ure that ignores what is specifically feminine in woman's make-up denatures the personality of the woman under the false pretense of developing it.''~4 Differences Between Man and Woman A detailed study of this subject must begin from the basic fact, evident objectively but ignored too much in practice, of the differences between man and woman. Plus XII instructed us: "'it is true that man and woman are, with regard to their personality, of equal dignity, honor, merit, and esteem. But they do not~ compare equally in everything. Definite abilities, inclinations, and natural dispositions belong solely to the man or the woman.''2~ Alexis Carrel, whom all quote on this topic, emphasizes the same principle in greater detail: "The differences ex-isting between man and woman do not come from the particular form of the sexual organs, the presence of the uterus, from gestation, or from the mode of education. They are of a more fundamental nature. They are caused by the very structure of the tissues and by the impregna-tion of the entire organism with specific chemical sub-stances secreted by the ovary. Ignorance of these funda-mental facts has led promoters of feminism to believe that both sexes should have the same education, the same powers, and the same responsibilities. In reality, woman differs profoundly from man. Every one of the cells of her body bears the mark of her sex. The same is true of her organs and, above, all, of her nervous system. Physio-logical laws are as inexorable as those of the sidereal world. They cannot be replaced by human wishes. We ~Fitzsimons, op. cit., I00. ~Lombroso, op. cit., 89. ~'Eugene Duthoit, quoted by Jacques Leclercq, Marriage and the Fam:si lAy l(lNoecwut iYoonr kto: Pthuset eGt,i 1rl9s4 o9)!, C29a2th-9o3l.ic Action, April 24, 1945, Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 35 (1943), 137. + + + Femininit~ and Spirituality VOLUME 20, 1961 241 4. + Joseph F. Gallen, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS are obliged to accept them just as they are. Women should develop their aptitudes in accordance with their own nature, without trying to imitate the males. Their part in the progress of civilization is higher than that of men. They should not abandon their specific functions.''26 Two other doctors, Strecker and Lathbury, are equally force-ful: "Will it never be learned that men and women can-not be reduced to a test-tube level? There are immense differences, including chemical ones and profound psy-~ chological differences which persist to the end of life.''27 These profound psychological differences evidently de-mand that the spiritual education, training, formation, direction, and government of religious women be dis-tinctively feminine. To ignore this principle is to re-tard and distort woman's spiritual growth.The sister is to develop herself, to sanctify herself, but in a dif-ferent and feminine way. "Like the man, the woman is.a human person, with all the dignity of a human being. But she is a human person in another manner than the man. She has, therefore, the same right as the man to unfold her personality, the same right to seek. after her perfection. Yet she is different, and as a consequence. her personality unfolds itself under other conditions. The rule of equality between man and woman is a rule of differentiated equality. The woman not only has an equal right with the man to the full development of her being; she has an equal right to develop herself in .a different way. To impose man's manner of life upon the woman, or to give her the same status, is to violate her right, which is to be different from him.''2s Man is Egocentric; Woman is "Alterocentric" Students of this question inform us that man is ego-centric, is centered on his own activities and pleasures, is interested in and devotes himself to things. But a very fundamental fact about woman is that she is "altero-centric"; she centers her attention, feelings, ambition, and enjoyment in other persons; she is not interested in things but in persons; her satisfaction is in other persons whom she can love and from whom she can receive love. A distinctive property of this attribute is that of great generosityl a woman has the capacity of giving and de-voting herself completely to other persons. "A woman is much more likely to become emotional about somebody: Her greater affectivity is towards persons; she is a more social person. She is interested in the living human being; ~eAlexis Carrel, Man the Unknown (New York: Halcyon House, 1938), 89-90. ~ Edward A. Strecker,. M.D., and Vincent T. Lathbury, M.D., Their Mother's Daughters (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1956), 26. ~ ts Leclercq, op. cit., 292. not in things, actions, accomplishments, theories, sta-tistics, or impersonal plans as such.'~29~:"~To be religiously alive needs precisely those qualities~with which woman is so richly endowed, the .gift of personal' relationship, instinct for vita]ovalues, and :the capacity for giving one-self completely to another, ,to The Other.''30 If this personal relation is'so~ deewin the nature of~ woman, why is it that God is not-more prominent in the spirituality of sisters? If woman is~not interested in things, why.are rule, regulatibn, custom, practice, and observance so characteristic ~of her spirituality? Why do~s she look on a thing~ the.Holy Rule, as,the ultimate norm of her conduct and not merely as a means to s6mething per-sonal, identification with Christ? Why does she consider herfoundress as a lawmaker, dot 'asa spiritual mother, a giver of spiritual life? .Why does she narrow her vision to the details of the rule of the foundress .and forget the rule as the~path to the distinctive virtues of~the fouhdress? Why does she place so much of her spirituality iri ex-ternals and not in the _Persons of the Trinity; Who dwell ~¢ithin her,° and in Jesus ,Christ? Doesn't the womanly-aatfire, of a sister, her spirituality, apostolic efficacy, and aappiness demand that we decrease the insistence on ex- :ernals and. emphasize much more the~interior life? Isn:v , theological training necessary.so,that she will have the- ;olid truth that nourishes such a li~e?~ Doesn't that same ;enerous nature require that we abandon the spirituality ff uiere morality, sin a;ad no sin, of the mere practice of ~irtue; and that we emphasize the personal truths of the firitual life, the fatherhood of God, the love ofGod° "or each one of us, the indwelling of the Trinity, the~ ~erson of Christ, the Mystical'Body, the life of grace, and he motherhood of Mary? The spirituality of the sister hould be distinctively a person-to-person relation to God. ~piritual Motherhood The great ~characteristic of wom~n is motherliness. P~us' (II affirmed.~ "Every woman is destined to be a m(~ther, notl~er in the physical s~n~e o~ 'the word, or in a rriore p.iritual and elevated but no less true sense.''31 On an- )ther occasion, he stated: "But with you We see around J~ today a gathering q~ religious ~omen, teachers and thers engaged in ihe work0f Christian education. They re. m~thers, too, not by.{aaiure nor by blood but by the ~Lucius F. Cervantes, S.J., And God" Made Man and Woman 2hicago:-Regnery, 1959), 88. ~Eva Firkel, Woman in the Modern W~'rl~l (Chicago: Fides0~1957), a~Allocution to the Women Delegates o! the Christian Societies Italy, October 21, 1945, Acta ~postolicae.$edis, $7 (19~5), 287: Femininity an~ Spirituality VoLuME 20, 1961 ÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph "F~. Gallen, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 244 love that they bear to the young.''32 Gertrud von le Fort expresses the same truth in womanly fashion: "Whereso-ever woman is most profoundly herself, she is not as her-self but as surrendered; and wherever she is surrendered, there she is also bride and mother. The nun dedicated to adoration, to works of mercy, to the mission field, carries the title of mother; she bears it as virgin mother.''a3 Eva Firkel asserts the same principle: "All feminine ac-tivity is shot through with protective motherly qualities, These emanate from every healthy woman, no matter whether she be married or single, whether she has children or not.''34 Here we touch the apostolic field more immediately. The sister teacher, nurse, social worker is not.a professional woman; for her these are a form and exercise of spiritual motherhood~3a If she does not under-take and perform them with the instinctive and spon-taneous devotion and.love of mother; if her relation to others in her work is not a complete motherly "other-ness," total and instinctive lack of self-interest and self-~ regard; if it is lacking in motherly generosity, tact, sensi-tivity ~to others and their 'sufferings and weaknesses, delicacy, sympathy, and compassion, she is not carrying out her apostolate according to the mind of the Church. The reason is that her.spirituality is not fused with a great endowment of her feminine nature. A mother is attractive and lovable. Even the very accurate and sharp-edged arrows against "Momism" have failed ,to lessen the truth that all the world loves a mother. It follows that the sister apostle should be attractive and lovable. As Mary, her own mother arid ideal, the sister should primarily attractoothers to God, not to herself nor for herself. The apostolic life also is a complete com-mitment and detachment; we are not in it for ourselves but only for God and souls. It is tobe remembered that' there is no imperfection in liking others and being liked by them when this is no obstacle to the greater sanctifica-tion of either, and much less if thereby we lead souls to God.' A sister can fail here. She can be unattractive in her. personality, conduct,, and manner to those for whom she is laboring, and especially to girls. The apostle sym bolizes the things of God; we cannot expect others be drawn to the things 'of God if they dislike the apostle. This apostolic loss is the primary.consideration. There is a secondary aspect but one that is Of great importanc.e. Isn't the attractive or unattractive Sister apostle a highly important, factor in the vocation problem with school ~Allocution to the Women o] Catholic Action of the Dioceses oJ Italy, ~October 21, 1941, Acta ApostolicaeSedis, 33 (1941), 457. =Von le Fort, op. cir., 7. ~Firkel, op. cir., 22. ==Von le Fort, op, cit., 87. girls and even more so with' nurses? I believe it is an incontrovertible fact that ~irls and young women will be drawn to a particular institute, generally speaking, in direct proportion to their liking for the sisters of that institute. There will be no profitand less sense in fight-ing this fact. We can state the present truth harshly but briefly: an unloved apostle very frequently at least means an unloved God; and we can add a second axiom: there is nothing in the love of God that ~should make us um loved by man. "Look at~Jesus, the :supernatural in-carnatedl Is he not,the ineffably beautiful and attractive ideal of human nature, isn't He, ag it~were, a living invitation to elevate ourselves to the supreme perfection of humanity?''s~'''Or Mary, is she not, after Jesus, the ideal of humanity,.and .should we not say, with due proportion, of her what we say of Him?''3~ If dislike, opposition, hos-tility, and enmity arise, the fault should not be in the apostle. The world hated Christ, our Lord, but the fault was not His. Woman is Made to Love and to be Loved A third characteristic of woman is that she is made to love and to be loved. Psychology and poetry emphasize this pervasive quality of the 'life of woman. "She is im-pelled by her very nature to share the joys and sorrows of others, she is made to love and to' be loved, and she can-not find her~ sufficiency in herself. That is' why a woman who is selfish in a self-centered kin~l of way is an anomal~, more distressing to encounter than a selfish man. She ha~ denied her nature f6r she :liag ceased to exist for 3thers, and in so doing she'has dried up at its source the possibility of those emotion~il experiences which ~are'vital _o her femininity.''as Man's spirituality may be founded :,n mere principle, supernatural truth, obligation, and _-luty; the spirituality of ~ womaff should be characterized ¯ y love of God. Man can work for others in an objectiye, letached, and impersonal manner; the apostolic woman nust work for others with love. Otherwise, she is Untrue o her feminine nature and is not utilizing that nature ully for God. As a woman, Janet Kalven, sums it up: 'Woman's essential mission in the world is to be for nankind a living example of the spirit of total dedication o God. To love God with her whole .heart, her whole hind, her whole strength, and to radiate that love to the ;,orldthis is the universal task ofwoman."s~ If woman's spirituality is to b'e dominated by love of ~ Bainvel, op. cir., 158. ¯ ~ Bainvel, op. cit., 159. ~s Fitzsimons, op. cir., 89. ~ ° ~Janet Kaiven, quoted b~ William B. Flaheity, S.J., The Destiny I Modern Woman (Westminster: Newman, 1950), 189-90. ÷ 4. Femininity and Spirituality VOLUME 20~ 1961 Joseph F. Gallen, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 246 God, if through her "otherness," generosity, motherliness, and loving nature, she. is more capable than man of un-selfish and disinterested love of 'God, why should the mental prayer of a sister be an abstract discursive prayer, not affective prayer? a prayer of the mind and not of the affections? a mere abstract study of virtue and examina tion of conscience? Why shouldn't her feminine nature, which dislikes the abstract and is endowed with a livelie imagination, her logic, which is more of the heart than o reason, lead her naturallyr to affective .prayer? If he thought and speech are infused and even permeate with emotion in ordinary life, why should they be coldl intellectual and lifeless with God? "Even at the highes levels of the spiritual life this distinction is clear. In th writings of St. John of the Cross and of St. Teresa of Avil one can sense the two approaches: St. John in his writing remains always ~he philosopher, having made a complet gift.of himself in the abyss of faith, whereas St. Teres loves God tenderly and has made her love of Him as he heavenly spouse into a second nature.''40 Why shoul the sister's examination of conscience be a mere countin of defects and reading of an act of contrition? Why ar rule and observance so marked a note of her spirituality not consecration to God and .generosity? How many re ligious women undeista_nd that there is nothing purel negative in the spiritual life, that abnegation, self-denial mortification, and purification are only means to some thing positive, to the love of God? "For in Christianit there is no place for a love of death; death occurs to liv more fully. From the spiritual point of view, asceticis is not unlike what the. wrong.side~ of. a material is to it right side. There is no right-side without a wrong side but the wrong side is inseparable from the right sid and only subsists through it."~, ~ It has been aptly ren~arked that all schools of spiritu ality are distinguished by the emphasis they place on th love of God or on mortification and detachment as lea i.ng to~ the love of God. In the former, the love of Go draws the soul away from affections that would imped this love; in the latter schools, the. affections are turne away from other things to attain and increase the love o God. Both approaches should be used throughout lif but it seems to me that the affective nature of woma should more frequently incline to and follow the fir approach. Mortification and detachment are an essenti part of both systems.In the first, the love of God dra the soul to mortification and detachment; in the secbn ~ Fitzsimons, op. cir., 115. "tFran~ois de Saint-Marie, O.C.D., Chastity (Westminster: Ne man, 1955), 239. mortification and detachment are the means of attaining and perfecting love of God. Woman is Emotional Doctors Strecker and Lathhury mfiintain: "L'ife ~is lived largely not by the intellect but by maturely motivated emotions.''42 Emotion can not only be immature; it can also be wholly unreasonable, even though the first law of a human being is~to be guided by reason. This ir-rational characteris'tic is particularly true of fear in woman, and there is a danger that the spiritual life of the religious woman will be tyrannized and weakened by countless unreasonable and persistent fears. She can fail to distinguish between a fearful thought and a fear that has foundation, can allow the mere presence or recur-rence of a fearful thought to endow it automatically with objective validity, omit all reflection on whether the fear-ful thought 1.s supported by any tea_son ,n fact, pray for release from fear but fail to advert to the obvious fact that God cannot ordinarily be expected to do for us what we can do for ourselves. God not only gives us grace; He has also given us a mind that can ascertain whether a tear is unreasonable and~ a will that enables us to ignore the unreasonable fear. When it exists, this paralysis of fear proves that woman has not built her spirituality on her feminine nature. Love drives out or attenuates fear, and the spiritual life of a woman should be preeminently love of God. An incomplete and misguided spiritual forma-tion is a serious cqntributory factor to the habit of fear. Fear will readily and forcefully fill up the vacuum of an interior life in the externalist and devotionalist. The emotional nature of woman tends also to senti-mentality and to a shallow and superficial spirituality~ This is the cause of the widespread externalism and de-votionalism, of the endless non-liturgic~il vocal prayer, the prevalence of "novena" spirituality, 'the scurrying ~bout for additional Masses, and the sufficiently excessive ,ddiction to articles of devotion. An interior soul is one a, hose growing love of God, living of the participation of .he divine nature, divine adoption, and of the indwelling )f the Trinity have led to identification with Christ in hought, will, desire, and affection. Such a soul has little :apacity and less desire for devotionalism. Devotionalism s a symptom and proof of the lack of a true interior life. Fhe cure is a~ solid education at the beginning of the eligious life, a solid spiritual formation, and theological raining. An emotional nature is also impressionable, unstable, ,ariable. A formation and direction that are aware of "~ Strecker-Lathbury. op. cir., 1 I. 4- 4- ÷ Femininity and Spirituality VOLIJME ~0~ 1961. ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Gallen, ~gVIEW I:OR RELIGIOUS 248 these facts will strive to give the sister the strength and constancy of will that are more proper to man. A solid education at the beginning of the .religious life will again be a most effective auxiliary. Woman is Compassionate The next characteristic of woman is her love of the afflicted. She loves the weak, the sick, the suffering, the wretched, the oppressed, the disgraced, the victims of ill fortune; and her love does not distinguish between the worthy and unworthy. In the thought of Gina Lombroso, to woman whatever causes suffering and is avoidable is unjust, whatever causes happiness is just,4a Gertrud von le Fort concurs: "As the motherly woman feeds the hungry, so also does she console the afflicted. The weak and the guilty, the neglected and the persecuted, even the justly punished, all those whom a judicial world no longer wishes to support and protect, find their ultimate rights vindicated in the consolation and the compassion that the maternal woman gives.''44 Eva Firkel repeats the same thought: "A mother knows how helpless creature., can be; she will support, give and care, without troubling too much whether the objects of her love are worthy of it She will not constantly rub up against the defects ot others, but hide and mitigate them. One might also say it the other way round: wherever there is need for help motherly women will be found.''4~ Certainly an intui tively compassionate religious woman is a most attractiv~ apostle of the good news of God. She is a born shepherd of souls, the natural comforter of the least of Christ'., brethren. Nature has endowed her with a fundamenta! trait of the apostle of Christ, to comfort the suffering and her intuition leads her to seek them out and discerr them instinctively. There should be no limit to the degre~ of learning that sisters are to seek and attain; but, if the] are to be true to their womanly nature and to use it f01 God and God's Church, the apostolate of their institute. should always be characterized by works for the poor, tht working class, the lowly, the unfortunate, the handi capped, suffering, and despised. The gift of compassior should also tend to facility in affective mental prayer. Woman Wishes to be Appreciated for Herself Fitzsimons states: ". men are more concerned to shin, and be noticed for their achievements, for the things the. have made, the result of their creative effort, wherea women wish to be appreciated for themselves, for thei a Lombroso, op. cit., 256. "Von le Fort, op. cir., 80. ~ Firkelo op. cit., 148. own personality.''46 Woman also needs support and di-rection and she is highly, even fiercely, individual. "Al-though one often hears the contrary and in spite of the fact that there is more apparent monotony in women's lives than in men's, woman is.much more individual than man.''4r We certainly should not satisfy mere vanity, childishness, nor make the sister an immature weakling, However, the attributes described above evidently de-mand a greater care in the formation and government of a sister as an individual, a greater attention to persons rather than things in government, and a manner of government that tends more to recognition, enc0iarage-ment, and praise than to criticism and correction. Gertrud yon le Fort says of the maternal woman and thus of the maternal superior: "It belongs to the ominous errors'of the world, to the fundamental reason of its lack of peace, to believe that it must always uncover and condemn all that is wrong. Every wise and kindly mother knows that sometimes it is right to do exactly the opposite.''4s Correction is necessary, and too many superiors of both men and women neglect this obligation; 'but I am con-vinced .that very many superiors of sisters are too quick in their corrections and entirely too prone~ to correct publicly. A delay will usually render the correction calmer and more effective, and relatively very few defects de, mand a public correction. No superior has to correct im-mediately and publicly every defect that she observes in the refectory or community room. A sister should always be conscious that she is an .in-dividual in the mind of the superior and of the com-munity. A male religious can be left in great part to himself and his work; one of the most fervent desires of many religious men is to be left alone. This is not true of women. A greater recognition and esteem of the religious as an individual person is one of the ,purposes of renova-tion and adaptation. The spirituality of the sister is to be built on her individualized feminine nature. All spir-itual authorities warn that it is dangerous ,to try to di-rect all souls by exactly the same path. Woman as. a per-son is highly individual, but woman in authority is more prone than man to regimentation. God mad~ us inde-structibly as individuals; let us build on His handiwork, not attempt to destroy it. Woman has a Capability [or Details All students of woman proclaim her great capability for details. Nature has endowed her with this talent to ,e Fitzsimons, op. cir., 92. '~ Lombroso, op. cir., 86. ~ Von le Fort, op; cir., 81. + + + Femininity and Spirituality VOLUME 20, 1961 249 4" 4" 4" Joseph F. Gailen~ S,]~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 250 enable her to take care of a family and home. All also affirm that woman gets lost in details, that she dislikes the abstract and cannot analyze and reduce details to their principles; she occupies herself with the details and does not perceive the essential, and consequently .has difficulty in orienting her life~ The preoccupation with details tends also to a narrowness of outlook and a lack of breadth in ideas. "The foundress of a congregation said one day: 'Sisters often attribute the greatest importance things that are silly and no importance to things that truly great.'-49 The talent for details is undoubtedly asset to the sister in her apostolate, especially in works such as those of hospitals and institutions. However, is~also the cause of the excessive details in the religious. life of women, the hundreds of customs, observances, and practices, the spiritual dusting, the ascetical fussing, religious "redding up." Here woman is to be comple-mented by man~s logiC. Those observances are to be re-tained and chosen that are most efficacious in producing interior virtue, especially the virtues more necessary the religious life; and such observances are not to be un-reasonable either in number or detail. Woman's proneness to imitation multiplies these details. The individual sister takes them unthinkingly from other sisters, and one stitute copies them from another. Once they are accepted, the natural conservatism of woman opposes and resents any change. Esther E. Brooke rightly admires the ef-ficiency of woman: "Woman is the only creature on earth able to multiply nothing by nothing and get something out of it. She is inherently a bookkeeper with an ac-countant's delight in the profit column and a determined broom oto sweep away the loss.''50 It is at least impolite to spoil a well.turned sentence, but woman is also the on!y creature on earth who can multiply something something and get nothing out of it. The multiplication of details is an unproductive approach to an interior life. The bookkeeper may be good at figures but this does not necessarily nor ordinarily imply the ability to enrich Allied to her talent for detail~ is the tendency of woman to be busy for the sake of being busy. Simone de Beauvoir aptly observes: "The worst of it all is that this labor does not even tend toward the creation of anything durable. Woman is tempted--and the more so the greater pains she takes--to regard her work as an end in itself. She sighs as she contemplates the perfect cake just out the oven: 'It's a shame to eat itl' It is really too bad ~A. Ehl, Direction spirituelle des religieuses (Brussels: L'edition universelle, 1948), 79. ~Esther E. Brooke in The Spiritual Woman, Trustee of the Future edited by Marion T. Sheehan (New York: Harper, 1955), 17. have husband and children tramping with their muddy feet all over her waxed hardwood floorslTM This ten-dency seems to explain the over-emphasis on domestic work in convents, the chronic fever of housecleaning, and the innumerable woman hours~wasted in polishing0and re-polishing floors and furniture. It is also the reason why sisters cannot perceive-the contradiction-of a religious habit that demands a disproportionate amount of time to launder and of the~excessive emplbyment of novices and postulants in domestic work. ' ~ A similar defect is the literalness-of,religious women. They interpret a minor observance as rigidly and ab-solutely as if it were the prohibition of hating, God; it admits of no excuse or exception. In h~r meditation, the sister.may observe every step of a'method~of prayer but be unmoved by the fact~ that she is not praying: All her life she may mechanically recite twice a day the'acts ~f thanksgiving.and contrition in' the examen book but never think of giving thanks to'God, of being sorry for her sins, imperfections, and r6jections,. 0f grace-bbcause of motives that appeal to her individually. She may. be fiercely individual but she is~also a passionate routinist. The same concentration onlittle things'can b~ true.~of the apostolate. Our own spirituality conditions our ap-proach to the apostolate; if our spirituality is dominated by trifles, we shall preach and insist on ~trifles: in the apostolate. The life of the religious apostle is ~obviously to be dominated by. God, Who is infinite, and 'the,eternal value,-of a human soul,-not by ,trifles. Woman has ~ids in overcoming this addiction to detail. She .is more objective than man, she sees reality more clearly,~and she .is mor~ practical. If something does not work, she g~ves itup, even though she does not see the reason why it does not work. It is amplifying the obvious to state~that~a re-ligious life or an ,apostolate dominated by. detail does not work. It is a proper e~phasis,of important and prac-tical truth to add that a petty life,will not be. a happy life. Woman ~s Spi'ritUal ~nd her ~nlSuence~ is~ SpjrituaJ Marion T. Sheehan writes: "Man in his leadership oi society has a basic protectiveness and a supportive attitude toward life. His special prerogatives are.strength and ag-gressiveness. Woman has a sense of trusteeship of life in both the spiritual and physical meaning. The spiritual qualities in woman--her reserv~e, refinement, and com-passion- complement man's characteristics by modera-tion. The source of these complementary qua, lities is in her spiritu~al life. For centuries, man has publicly ackn.0wl- *~ Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (New York: KnopL 1955), 454. + 4. 4. Femininity and, spirituality voLUME 20," ÷ ÷ ÷ Joseph F. Gallon, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 252 edged this spiritual influence of woman by his expressions in art, poetry, and literature.''52 Woman is therefore more spiritual than man and her influence is spiritual. She should consequently be more prominent than man in her contribution to the note of sanctity in the" Church. W~e can readily admit that we have enough good re-ligious women; we may question whether we have a sufficient number of outstanding holiness. Learning and other gifts can be helpful, but only sanctity is true great-ness in the Mystical Body of Christ. Several authors state that woman geniuses are almost non-existent in history. Women are not found among the great theologians, phi-losophe~ s, writers, poets, composers, sculptors, painters, or scientists. Acompletely satisfactory .answer has yet to be found for this fact. No one merits the title of great and genius more than the saint. He has the talents of mind, will, and heart that conquer the measureless distance be-tween heaven and earth. He possesses the daring and originality to leap over reason into divine love. Can it be that the spiritual nature of woman is retarded because she is also too pedestrian? too restricted in her vision to the average,, the ordinary, the routine, the good? lacking in the vision and constancy demanded for greatness? Woman is likewise naturally more cultured and her in-fluence is more cultural than that of man. The Church may also ar.d justifiably look to religious women for a notable cultural influence. This is a wide field, and the cultural influence of the sister has been admittedly handi-capped by the lack of a proper education at the beginning of her religious life. To arouse sisters to reflection on this important matter, ,we .can be content with inquiring whether the statues in convents generally manifest the taste of a cultured person and whether the articles of de-votion made and used by sisters reveal the same taste. Must the inexpensive be tawdry and loud? Aren't Catholic repugnance and Protestant prejudice readily created and confirmed by some of the~se articles of devotion? "While he is still a child, woman.leads man to an understanding of art, to the integrity and power that goes into its crea-tion. She shows him that beauty is not only pleasing to the eye, but that through the eye it reaches every corner of the human soul. We may well ask ourselves.where we have failed in this sacred trust. Would so many of our churches be filled with the horrors they contain, the painted mon-strosities called statues which distract instead of embel-lish, which sicken instead of elevate, if the mothers of our priests and ministers had made the art gallery, the mu-seum, the concert hall as intimately part of their chil-~ Sheehan, op. cir., 155256. dren,s early training as the movies, the radio, the corn, ics?"53 Woman ancl Other Women One of the outstanding defects o~ woman, emphasized by practically all students of the subject, is the difficulty she has.in getting along with other women and'in friend-ship with other Women. Gina Lombroso again enlightens us: "Individually the.mani~ to be first prevents .the ~form-ing of real friendship among women, and hinders the'es-tablishment of that current of expansion and confidence among young girls and bider'women 6~hich would b~ of so much use and comfort in life: Woman does not-trust woman, because each one wants to be first and knowg that her best friend is ready to march'over her in-ordei" to be first, when her turn. comes.TM "Wom~n's inordinate self-confidence is, I believe, the Cause of w6men's lack of'con-fidence ir~ each other, as it is the reason for their failure to respect each other. :. This distiust is~the cause of the cordial animosity that reigns between women, and of the discredit which any woman in particular thr6ws,on-all~ women in general."5~ Woman is also more sociable than man, a more dependent', being; and more dependent on her environ~ment.These facts make common'life at once a necessity and a difficulty. ~The remedy is instruction and formation from the beginning of the religious life; to point out the difficulty to the young, to instruct them that their gifts of unselfishness, spofitaneous generosity, intui: rive perception of the difficulties~of others, iSf seeking the happiness of others are to be~ turned and devoted pri-marily to their own sisters. A happy community life is far more indispensable to a religious woman than to-a re-ligious man. It must have the climate that her nature de-mands and give her affection, satisfactory personal rela-tionships, sympathy, underst.anding, recognition, support, and help. The more she is a woman, the holier she is; but the more she walks alone, the less she is a woman. The current of resistance from woman to woman is also a basic reason for the relative unwillihgness and. slowness of sis-ters to talk about spiritual matters with their superiors. Spiritual direction presupposes mutual trust, and a su-perior of sisters will not attract confidences unless she~has given an almost bverwhelming and sustained proof of her spirituality, unselfishness, and trustworthiness. This mat-ter '6f~woman to woman also has deep apostolic implica-tions. In Christian education according to the mind of the Church, sisters are destined at least primarily as educators r~ Eloise $paeth" in $heehan, op. cir., 5. ~ Lombroso, op. cir., 57. ~ Lombroso, op. cir., $2-33. ÷ ÷ Femininity and , spirituality VOLUME 20, 1961 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS £54 of girls.A liking for our work and for those for whom we work is an important factor for success, and we do not in-fluence too many people that we dislike or who dislike us. Woraa.n. and Chastity ChastitLis a r~6c~e.~sity for the state of complete Christian per~fection:, It is also highly necessary for the apostolate of the nun. She is destined to be the spiritual mother of re. any "souls. In-.woman, chastity is a most extensive re-nunclauon. She re.nounces not only physical love but also the love of a husband and children. Because of her na-ture, these last two renunciations are~much deeper in woman than in man. They are the sacrifice of an affective life that is almost her very n.ature, almost herself. This re-nunciation must be complete anti absolute; she sacrifices forever.any affecti~)n that would impede the greater love of God and not merely the affection that would lead her into sin. The postulant, novice, and junior professed are to be pr~operly instructed on chastity. This is necessary from a physical and moral standpoint; .it is evoen more necessary from the spiritual aspect. Our consecration to God is, not to be blur~'d, confused, and diminished by artificial a_.n~puritanica! ignorance. The vow,, of_chastity is not merely to give up~marri.age; it is to give UP marriage, which is good and holy, for a greater_ good, .~the love of God_ and the virgi~nal love of s.o.uls.I.n his Encyclical o.n~ sacred, virgi.nity, Pius XII re-itera_ t~ed the traditional teaching of the Church the mo-t. ivg .t, hat leads a girl to the,religious life is love of God; her purpose is. to attain a, greater love of God in her own soul; and this greater and pure love is the source of her apostol~c.leal. Chastity is. not mere~ renuncia, tion, mere sacrifice; it is not mere.ly a moralistic and defensive virtue, not a mere exercise of vigilance. C.ha~s(ity is all of these things and demands all of them. Here~passion is strong and affections wayward and blind. Common-sense dic-tates constant vigilan.ce. The difficulty is that- chastity has been too much merely a negative and defensive virtue, the avoidance of sin and fidelity to the .precautions against sin. This is not in .agreement with the Pope's description~ that the motive of religious chastity is the love of God and its purpose the attainment of a greater love of God. Chastity must be made much more positive. Its purpose is union with G6d and a constantly increasing love oo~ God. This lov~ i~ spiritual. It is not in the same order as human lov.e, much less is ,it a disguised sexual love. The attainment of such a union demands that the spirituality of a sister be centered far more on the Person of Christ than in rule, ._regulation, and observance; that her mental prayer be centered on Him, not merely on abstract prin- ciplesl and that: it be distinctly affective. She. is to: e~.tehd this same approach to all other religious~exercises~ e.g,, .the examen, liturgical and other vocal prayer, and ~spir.itual reading. The close and intimate doctrines of our faith, such as the Mystical Body, the indwelling of the~Trg~nity, and the life of grace are to be made prominent in her life. She is to be drawn away from a concentration on the [earsome doctrines and is to base herspirituality primar, ily on the goodness and attractiveness of God, Whether or not a sister is attainihg the purpose o.[ ~haStiiy will be proved not by a mere absence of sin but by the Correlative virtues and signs that manifest an increased love of God. Is her prayer and life more familiar, closer to God? Is she less materialistic, less inclined to sensual indulgence, more mortified, more detached, of a more delicate conscience, nstinctively but not ~scrupulously apprehending sin and anything that could lessen her love of God? Is she a more ,piritually agreeable person? Although love of God is not ~n the same level as human love, by fidelity it becomes 3rogressively closer, more intimate, more real. It is the rue love of religious chastity only if it becomes increas-ngly less selfish, if its tendency is to give to God, not to ¯ eceive. This positive chastity produces the really apostolic woman, the sincere spiritual mother of mankind. A sister, )y the perception of the heart more than of the mind, will aave attained a knowledge and participation of God's ore for man; she will long to give to God and this she an do only by bringing herself and souls to a knowledge tnd love of Him; her peace and joy in the possession of god within her own soul will lead. her to the love of God n others who possess Him and to bring this possession to hose who are deprived of it; true love of God will urge ~er constantly to give to God; and her apostolate will hereby be maternal, because it will be distinguished by mselfishness, generosity, dedication, universality, and ~urity of intention. "Noble-mimled women, those in chom the spirit preponderates, succeed somehow in spir-tualizing the physical and in developing within them-elves an intensity and purity of spfritual love which pro-uces types of mystics, wives, and mothers who are the dmiration of: mankind."~ ?oncIusion Personal and apostolic sanctity are one. Our theme has een that the sanctity of the sister must be developed on er feminine nature and that sanctity implies no maim-ag or distortion of this nature bu.t its perfect develop- ~ent. Father Valentine, by a concentration on his main ~ Leclercq, op. cit., 296-97. Femininity and Spirituality VOLUME 201 1961 thought, may be underestimating learning and efficiency, but his words sum up and can aptly close this article: "One of the greatest needs in the apostolate is the woman. It matters little comparatively speaking whether she is learned or even efficient: but she must be a woman, as ma-ture, unpretentious, work-a-day, self-forgetful as the mother of many children, if she is to be worthy of the privilege of caring for souls in Christ's name.''57 m Ferdinand Valentine, O. P., The Apostolate o! Chasity (~ est-minster: Newman, 1954), 45. 4. ÷ 4. ANASTASIO GUTIERREZ, C.M.F. Teaching Brothers in the Church What I propose to say about the subject on which I was asked to speak by the presiding body1 can be summed up in the simple words: lay, teaching, religious. Anyone's rights and duties toward the Church constitute his juri-dical statug. The juridical pers¢.nality of these brothers can be no better defined than by the terms: religious, laymen, apostles. Religious The lay teaching brother is above all a religious. His rights and his'duties and at the same time his dignity flow especially from this character. First of all, there is no opposition between layman in its canonical sense and religious. Canon 107 teaches that there are in the Church by divine institution clerics and lay-men, and that both may be religious. This is why canon 488, 7°, defines the religious as one who has pronounced vows in a religious institute; and religious institutes~ may be, according to 4° of the canon, clerical or lay. Strictly, the religious state is no other than the means, perfect in itself, of professing socially and juridically the integral morality of Christ, His precepts and counsels, that is, evangelical perfection, the Gospel in its full integrity. It is obvious that this high duty of tending toward perfec-tion cannot be exclusively reserved for clerics, but that it must as well remain open to laymen. The religious state both considers itself as existing outside of the priesthood and actually does exist outside of the priesthood. In this connection it is proper to note that the .organization of the state of perfection arose in the Church as a lay state and that clerical religious congregations are not to be found before the latter part of the Middle Ages. Even the x This article is a translation of a talk given at the Second Congress of Major Superiors of Religious Orders and Congregations, October 29, 1957. Anastasio Guti~rrez, C.M.F., is a consultor of the Sacred Congrega-tion of the Council and an official of the Sacred Congregation of Relig-gious. vOLUME 20, 1961 257 ÷ ÷ ÷ A. Gugffrreg, C,.M.F. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 258 mendicant orders, not to speak of the Benedictines, did not at first imply the priesthood. St. Francis of Assisi him-self never received the priesthood. Not only is there no opposition between the lay state and the religious state, but one may with good reason add that the elements proper to the religious state are found to be distinguished and delineated more clearly among lay religious, because if these elements are common to both lay and clerical religious, they are then more pure unmixed among lay religious. As a matter of fact, priesthood imposes numerous obligations of its own which coincide, at least partially, with those of the religious state: celibacy, canonical obedience, apostolic obligations, abstention from secular affairs that are formally for profit. The same thing may be said of its rights: the person of priest is sacred, protected by the privilege of canon 119; he enjoys as his full right the privileges of the clergy; is owed special honor aside from whether or not he pro-fesses the religious state. Religious priests share these rights and these obligations independently of their religious character. Actually, with respect to his rights, the lay religious a person worthy of honor in the Church, for, "the religious state., is to be held in honor by all" (c. 487); and this respect is due to religious as well as to clerics (c. 614). The person of the lay religious is sacred because of the public consecration of his life and person exclusively to the service. Even if his profession acts in many ways contract between the religious and his congregation, it cannot be reduced to the category of business contracts, private, voluntary relationships binding in commutative justice. Profession, theologically and also juridically is seen from its effects) is the consecration of a person and a human life to the exclusive service of God and to practice of the integral moral code of Jesus: ". besides the common precepts, the evangelical counsels are also be kept" (all of them, none excepted) ',by the vows obedience, chastity and poverty." (c. 487). Of course, the individual makes this consecration; but it is ratified by the Church. Such a profession is the religious' holo-caust, but a holocaust which the Church accepts officially and which she offers in turn to God in her own name. The profound and consoling meaning of the public nature the vows is in this, that public vows are vows accepted the Church. The immediate juridical effect of this public and official consecration, this public holocaust, is the sacredness of the person. The consequence of this character of sacredness is immunity, in virtue of which the violation of such a by exterior sin against chastity or by a real injury -119) constitutes a sacrilege. Moreover, this': sacrilege im-plies, on the part of the subject, a new sin against the virtue of religion; and for the other party, in the case of a real injury, brings with it excommunication (c. 2343, § 4). Under another aspect .the dignity of lay brotherd, pri-marily because they are religious, demands consideration by reason of the public nature of their state, in. the exact and strict sense of public. In the Church the religious state is a public state because religious constitute the sec-ond category of canonical persons (cc., 107, 487). Iri other words, by her public and organic constitution, the Church today is constitutionally composed of clerics, laymen, and religious (c. 107). All the faithful belong necessarily to one or other of these specifically distinct categories. It ought also to be noted here that the public character of the religious state does not come from the priesthood which is often joined to religious profession. It comes from the religious character, itself, in so far as there is question of a social and constitutionally organized profession of the evangelical counsels. That is why the:religious 'state even among laymen is a public state. What is called the "domi-native power" of superiors is supernatural, canonical (c. 101, § 1) and public. Also, this power is exercised in the same way as jurisdiction, according to a,declaration of the interpretative Commission of the Code and, recently, of the, Oriental Code of Canon Law. Religious superi6rs are ecclesiastical superiors (c. 1308, § 1; coll. 572, § 1, 6c) in those affairs which concern the state of perfection as such, and for many which relate merel~ to the simple Christian life of the religious. Among the rights and privileges of lay religious;finally, may be counted those of clerics themselves.The Church does not wish to treat religious differently frbm clerics, so in many respects: she puts'the consecration" conferred by religious profession and the consecration-of Holy Orders upon an equal ~footing. Moreover, this similarity~, of treat-ment is only right. Finally, let us consider only the duties of the lay re-ligious: To the obligations, of all the faithful ("besides those precepts common to all") and to those which are proper to all religious ("ev~angelical counsels, canonical religious discipline"), lay religious add the obligations common to clerics, according to the tenor of canon 592. This completes, in its fundamental outlines, the jurid-ical picture of the lay brother as a religious. Layman . . Let us now examine themeaning of the word layman. When we apply this designation both "to a.religious and to a person in the world," it is clear that we are using the + + + Teach~ng Brothers in the Church VOLUME 20, 1961 4. 4. 4. A. Guti~,rre~, C.M.F. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 260 word in equivocal senses with very great difference in con-tent. It is terminology which certain authors, perhaps, are justified in criticizing. Applied to people in the worl'd the term layman in-cludes, canonically, a two-fold meaning, one negative and one positive. Negatively and in the unrestricted sense lay-men are those who are neither clerics nor religious. In a more restricted, but still canonical sense, they are those who are not clerics. This real but negative aspect is per-haps the one which first strikes anyone considering the or-ganic ~nd,constitutional structure of the Church. The lay-man as such can exercise no power, either of orders or of jurisdiction, these being ireserved to clerics, as stated in canon 118. With respect to the power of orders~ he cannot celebrate Mass~ consecrate or offer the sacrifice ',ex off~cio" (c. 802), nor perform any acts of public worship' (c. ,1256); he cannot administer the sacrament of penance (c. 871), nor confirmation (c. 951), nor" extreme unction (c, 938), nor in general the other sacraments (c. 1146). With respect to jurisdiction, the layman can have no share in it, neither in its teaching authority, nor in any of its governing au-thority, whether legislative, judicial, penal, or .executive, so long as these functions are free and discretionary. As a consequence, he is incapable of having an ecclesiastical office in the strict sense of the term (c. 145). This is the negative side of being a layman in the Church, a real as-pect which is fully applicable to the lay religious in'the more restricted sense of the word layman. This negative idea, which has prevailed down to our time, is incomplete, Postitively, the layman is characterized by a public juridical condition resulting from his own set of canonical rights and duties. But as a matter of fact this juridical con-dition is of little relevance here since in so far as rights and duties arise from this condition, they suppose a life in the world, which is the negation or the absence of the religious character. Neither are the relations between lay-men in the world and religious of interest here, nor matri-monial rights and family relationships, the rights of lay-men in a canonical process ,and in the admisistration of ecclesiastical non-religious goods, the whole section in the code "On Lay.Persons'~ (Book II, Part $), and right of lay association and so on. Here rather there arises spontaneously the idea of the constitutional character of the religious state in canon law. As baptism transforms man from citizen to Christian; and sacred orders, the Christian into the cleric; so profession transforms a member of the faithful into a religious. In, spite of its superiority, the religious state maintains itsi canonical,genus as a lay state. But the specific elementi religious, profoundly affects this generic element, as the species man is profoundly set off from the genus animal. Nevertheless, the following points, common to laymen in religion and laymen in the world, merit a particular emphasis. In relations with the hierarchy, "laymen have the right of receiving spiritual goods from a cleric accord-ing to the discipline of the Ctiurch, especially ~hos~ helps which are necessary for salvation" (c. 682).These are in particular apostolic preaching, divine worship, and the sacraments. Laymen can participate in the exercise of functions in the area of liturgy and ritual, such as active participation in the Eucharistic Sacrifice, serving Mass, acting as sacristan, choir member, organist; sexton, and so on important responsibilities which women ought not to exercise and upon which depend, in great measure, the full dignity of di~cine worship. They can also'participate in the domain of the apostolate. Here we approach the area of the third point of our triplet:' brothers, laymen, teachers; that is, religious as apogtles. Apostle The vocation of teaching lay religious is a canor~ical vo-cation that is essentially apostolic. Teaching constitutes their specific end, and it is clear that a specific end cannot be separated logically, psychologically, or juridically from the generic end. This is why it is that as their state of perfection, the re-ligious state, is public, so also their apostolic activity is not simply private activity which is praised and com-mended as private by the Church. It is certainly an apos-tolate that is in some sense official in the Church. Teach-ing religious have as it were a mission or a mandate of the Church, even of the Holy See if they are of pontifical status. The Roman Pontiff, writing to the Cardinal Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of Religious on March 31, 1954, about lay teaching religious expressed himself in this way: "Let them form in Christian virtue the students given into their care as the office entrusted to them by the .Church certainly demands." Evidently the apostolate of those who teach is reducible to the authority of the magisterium of the Church. The Roman Pontiff affirmed this in a recent address to the Second World Congress of the Lay Apostolate (October 5, 1957) in defining the nature of this apostolate and of the mandate of the Church. "In the present case there is no question of the power of orders, but of that of teaching. The depositaries of this power are only those who possess ecclesiastical authority. Others, priests or laymen, collabo-rate with them in proportion as this power has been con-fided to them for the faithful teaching and directing of the ~aithful (cf. cc. 1327, 1328). Priests and also laymen can receive such a mandate, which may be, according to the situation, the same for one as for the other. Nevertheless ÷ ÷ ÷ Teaching Brothers in the Church VOLUME 20, 19~1 261 4- A. Guti~rre~', REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 262 such mandates are distinguished by the fact that one group is of priests, the other of laymen. As a consequence, the apostolate of the first group is priestly, and that of the second is a lay apostolate" (Civilt~ Cattolica~ 1957, p. 183, n. 9). And again:, "We are explaining here the concept: of the lay apostolate in its strict sense, according ,to what we have :explained above about the hierarchical apostolate. It consists, then, in this fact, that laymen assume tasks which flow from the mission confided by Christ to his Church. We have seen that this apostolate remains always an apostolate of laymen and that it never becomes a 'hier-archical apostolate,' even when it is exercised by a man-date of the hierarchy" (ibid. p. 186, n. 22); This directly includes laymen living in the world, not clerics or reli-gious; but it may be understood of teaching religious. The Pope speaks clearly of a mandate, but the qualified sense which he gives to this concept is clear,,even for the designa-tion of a task that is very noble. This.power. to teach, received by a mandate from the hierarchy, is rooted in the authority of the magisterium. It is not strictly jurisdiction, and :consequently laymen do not become clerics by virtue of participating in ecclesiasti-cal power, because they. are incapable of jurisdiction (c. 118) as the Sovereign Pontiff has eneregetically affirmed. This is why the teaching office of laymen is not authorita-tive and cannot of itself oblige one either to intellectual submission or to moral practice, except in so far as this office faithfully reproduces the authentic rriagisterium of the hierarchy. Moreover, the Roman Pontiff adds: "As far as the value and efficacy of the apostolate that has been developed,by teaching religious is Eoncerned, it depends on the capacity of each one and his own supernatural gifts. The words of our Lord may well be applied to lay teachers, to religious, and to all those whom the Church has charged with;, the teaching-of the.truths of the faith: 'You are the salt of the earth, you are the light of the world' (Mt 5:13~14)" (ibid. p. 183, n. 9). In conclusion, the .mandate to teach religion confers upon the layman, an ecclesiastical power, but this power is not that of jurisdiction. Rather it must be said that it is a purely executive power, not a discretionary one~ a "mere mission to.execute" which laymen are capable of having: Since it is socially and publicly organized, this aposto~ late, even though it is simply executive, cannot escape be-ing one of the Church's broad commitments; for she is to a great extent responsible to the world for the accomplish-ment of' her mandate. So it is that .teaching laymen have a great responsibility. It is necessary to add that besides the efficacy of their mandate, religious have an intrinsic union with the Church and her interest, a perpetual, necessary, and in-tegral union, They are fully united to her in virtue of their state of life, even in virtue of religion or of the vow of obedience (c. 499; § 1). This is why the religious apostolate, apart from its public organization, is in itself superior by its nature to Catholic Action. Catholic Action groups turn over their cooperation and their activity to the Church, but these are always freely given and for the most part temporarily and partially. The Church, while she tends to hold Catholic Action within proper limits, actually places more confidence in religious in all areas of the apostolate. The object of this vocation is related to the nature of the apostolate of teaching, Concerning this object, the Church certainly commissions her religious to teach pro-fane disciplines in proportion as human progress fulfills the providence of God for the world and for man elevated to the supernatural order. As a matter of fact, she claims as her own the right of erecting schools of all kinds (c. 1375). And let us note that this is a deep and very extensive area in which the mission of lay religious coincides with that of lay Christians living in the world, one which we cannot develop here. But the principal object of the Church's mandate is the teaching of religion: the Church wishes religious to be her collaborators in her specifically divine and supernatural mission. Allow me to single out here three matters or conclusions of a practical nature: First, there is need for a demanding preparation in the teaching of religion. This is demanded by the Church and by the spread of the kingdom of God, both of which are very much bound up with the teaching of religion. It is also demanded by the current of the times. Superiors of teaching religious are much preoccupied with all this; and the Holy See has wished to put herself in the lead in this solicitude by creating recently at Rome the pontifical institute, Jesus Magister, for the higher scien-tific and religious formation of lay brothers, as she did three years ago in creating the institute, Regina Mundi, for religious women. Second, the schools of religious, even lay religious, are, rigorously speaking, "Church schools." If other schools can receive a mandate from the bishops, those of religious, especially, if they are of pontifical rank, have a mission from the Holy See. Thirdly, teaching lay brothers have the duty and the mandate to teach religion; but they have also a certain right. This is why it is that, under the supposition that they are well prepared, they cannot without injustice be deprived of this right and hin-dered from exercising it. According to canon 1373, § 2, the ordinary of the place must take care that religion be taught in secondary schools and places of higher education by zealous and learned priests. This does not apply to the colleges of religious, but to the schools of secular laymen + + + Teaching Brothers in the Church VOLUME 20, 196i about which the same canon, is speaking (cf. c. 1379, § 1). In each case it is incumbent on the ordinary of the place: to approve of the teachers (when they are not already ap-proved by institutes of pontifical rank) and of the religion books; to exercise vigilance for the faith and good morals; to make a visitation of the college in connection with the teaching of religion and of morals (c. 1373, § 2; 1381; 1382; 336; 618, § 2, 2°). In general he can examine teachers and forbid one or another to teach religion; but he cannot ab-solutely deprive a college of religious of the right to teach religion in order to confide this task to a priest. In this matter, for religious of pontifical rank, it is possible to bor-row a good practical juridical criterion from canon 880, § 3: "But in the case of a formal religious house, a bishop is not permitted, without consulting the Apostolic See, to take away at one and the same time the jurisdiction of all the confessors of the religious house." Conclusion From what we have said, we may conclude that the lay teaching brother represents an altogether special type of person in the Church. He is a person who, without be-longing to the class of clerics, enjoys its generic rights, ob-serves obligations common to clerics, and participates, in a certain measure, in the power of the magisterium of the hierarchy, in this way becoming a powerful and very effi-cient collaborator with the priesthood. This is said of re-ligious as such, that is, those entirely vowed to the state of total evangelical perfection and to the discipline of this state as the Church has organized it. Nevertheless, he has points in common with laymen living in the world in what pertains to the concept of a layman in the restricted sense of the word. In the Church, the lay religious represents, then, a special vocation, divine and canonical, tenderly defended and protected by the Holy See. A. ~,~l~rre~, (~.~.~. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 264 MICHAEL NOVAK The Priest in the "Modern World Part of tl~e difficulty in establishing the role of the priest in the modern world is due to the historical changes in society: the separation of Church and State, pluralism, popular education, and the like.~ Part is also due '~o the spiritual, inheritance of the American C~ttholicisrh. What happens to the priest in America ;is important for the world because it is in America that the new forms of civilization are being nurtured and that a new Christian humanism is taking root, as both Christ.0ph~r Dawson and Jacques Maritain have noticed. But many things in our land conspire to confuse the role of the priest. The recent~ presidential campaign showed .that in many ~areas of our country the words "ecclesiastical pressures" conjured up an ominous and ugly image and that "priesthood" is still a word of super-stition. On the other hand, the Hollywood image, as in Going My Way, seems intent on proving that the priest is a "regul-.,- guy";: even in Pollyanna the fearsome min-ister had to be converted and become a friend of all. It is as though the psyche.of America, deeply scarred by its experiences with theocratic Protestantism in its early history and with the more or less autocratic clerical types which it knew in Europe, is engaged in a struggle to as-similate a difficult figure in its world view. Early propa-ganda explicitly described America as a new world and as a p.aradise; and perhaps implicitly as an es,cape from the sinful and tangled past of Europe. It was as- though America would be the land without original sin, the land of a new humanism built by reason in the high flood of the Enlightenment. In this view, expressed in the writings of Thomas Paine and the good but secular life of Benjamin Franklin and preserved in many of our academic environments, today, a role for the priest is difficult to find. He is a relic of the past, a past that is not admired. The modern Protestant, Michael Novak, who is studying at Harvard University, is living at William James Hall 109A, Harvard Univer-sity, ~Cambridge 38, Massachusetts. VOLUME 20, 1961 265 Michael Novak REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 266 proud of the influenc~ his congregationalist and indi-vidualist theory have had upon the formation of Ameri-can democracy, has more and more democratized his own clergy. The transition in Pollyanna from fire-and-brim-stone to friendliness seems to symbolize quite well spiritual and social ~volution of the Protestant clergy. But in Italy too ~he American priest and seminarian probably distinguishable from his European counter-parts by a humanness and humor of view that is quite As Father Ong has pointed out, the American pastor is also a building pastor, who knows the language of builders and fund raisers; he has thus kept himself the everyday world of men. His European counterpart often far more aloof, even austere. It is even likely that younger American priests inherit the congenial, friendly attitudes more markedly than their elders who are closer to Europe. But at what point can the young priest draw the line in being a regular guy? Where does his identification with the laity begin and where does it end? The modern emphasis upon the apostolate of the laity has also, like the [actors mentioned above, helped confuse the_role the priest. Externally, the expectations of people° around him, within the flock and without, have ,changed. his own spiritual development is pulled in way and that: to silence and to action, to human develop-ment and denial, to affability and'restraint. It is diffi-cult [or the priest to find himself. In nearly every culture but our own, the social sig-nificance of the priesthood was not only great but central. Whether by special talent of mind or imagination, physical appearance, or early consecration, a priest was chosen to stand apart~ from and above other men. His counsels were important if not crucial; often he was highest leader; if not, his knowledge about the past, opinions about the future, and symbolic power over unknown forces of life were essential to the man who was. The early priest seemed to have combined in his person the.roles of priest, prophet,~and king; in fact, it was into this pattern b[ symbolism that Christ Himself was born, though the three functions had by that time been separated in practice. The splitting of these [unc-tions began early, but the social symbolism remained in the days of Greece and Rffme the power of the priest in civic matters was very great. Only in early Christian culture did ecclesiastical affairs begin to stoutl y defended as independent of secular affairs, and historical process~o[ distinction begin. In the Nestorian councils, the Church fought bitterly for the right to her own doctrine and her own line of bishops, independently of questions of empire and political peace. In later times, emperors and kings grew restive under clerical power, and the people grew restive under the kings. A thousand years of political evolution have given .us democracies and republics in which the role of the priest has changed often and'nearly always in a .fashion that has delimited his functions more :and more narrowly. Still, even today, the stature of a priest as "another Christ" and as a man of education and authority is carried over to some extent into social and~civic matters. Thus the priest of today has behind him a long histo.ry in which he has possessed at least a twofold status.He has repre-sented not only the -spiritual authority of Christ (which extends to some temporal:spiritual or "mixed:' matters like marriage) but also the social authority of secular prestige and influence. ,Modern times, however, have marked a decline in this second status, for widespread higher education and the maturing of the modern fields of specialization have produced many other leaders than the priest: lawyers, .doctors, business and labor leaders, intellectuals and artists, the ministers of many religions, and even many from~among the ordinary public. The priest, then, can no longer take for granted his place of prestige in secular society; he is one among many and will have little more influence than his energy and talents .earn. Given the tradition of anti-clericalism, which lives on in its, own forms even in America, he will ha,~e even less. . Moreover, the leadership in education which the priest once held has gradually been lost since the Enlighten-ment. Modern education no longer follows the curricula of the medieval universities; most men seem to feel that our civilization, with whatever loss, owes many of its ad-vances, political, and humane as well as material, to the shift~ At any rate, the priest is no longer among the few who are educated; he is among the many; and the main-stream of education does not parallel his own but diverges [rom it. His education is now seen as specialized, with its own jargon and viewpoints. It is no longer a classical education, "universal" or "liberal" in Cardinal Newman's sense; rare is the seminary in which, the classes in Greek and in Latin are not simply a gesture towards a dying or dead tradition and in which classes in modern literature, history, and social studies have taken up the slack. The seminary is isolated; it is not ordinarily in a university milieu. The professors in the nonecclesiastical subjects are not ordinarily specialis~ts, producing and creative in their fields; sometimes they are teaching merely because as-signed to teach. The seminary library is ordinarily thin in literature, sociology, politics, psychology, economics; the periodicals are mainly religious, Catholic, and popu-lar. In the isolation of the seminary, the professors of 4- 4. Th~ Priest in th~ Modern World VOLUME 20, 1961 267 4. 4. 4. Michael No~ak REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 268 philosophy and theology rarely have an opportunity take an active contemporary part in modern political, literary, scientific, and even religious discussions. Their fields no longer represent leadership in modern intel-lectual circles; and even within their fields, Catholic work is, not without some justice, in poor repute. There are exceptions to these strictures, of course; but I be-lieve it will be found that they are exceptions in great part because they fulfill the criteria mentioned and have grown strong in swimming against the stream. The facul-ties of many seminaries are small, ingrown, overworked, and not contemporary in their outlook. A seminary stu-dent once said a professor of his had "one of the best minds of the fifteenth century"; and the humor of the lay in the ingenuity of expressing the professor,s com-petence together with his liability. Another change in modern civilization is that art longer looks to the Church for patronage; young artists, in fact, are often among the most anti-clerical, while priests are among the least appreciative of the arts, clas-sical and especially modern. Of course, ordinary people in general have lost touch with the arts, and it is to be expected that the priest rise always above his origins. Many of the difficulties in the matter of censor-ship arise from this alienation of artist from people, and artist from priest; where there is little sympathy, is blocked. In politics, too, the priest plays lesser part than he was wont to do; when he does try use influence by swaying others, even through non-violent picketing or letter-writing, it is resented. Perhaps springs from memories of the past, perhaps part from the ambiguities of role still inherent in situation. At any rate, in most lands the priest plays greater part in politics than other professional men other men in general, exception'made perhaps for influence and kind of his opposition to Communism. Just as men today are more educated than before, so the social arrangement is more sensitive. ~Powers are better defined, and organized pressures are more quickly felt and more deeply resented. Even on religious and theological subjects, the ordinary people hear many speakers, gain many ideas and in-sights, see many varied forms of worship, apart from what they learn from their own priest. The result is that our pluralistic civilization, the people are free in priest's presence in a way never experienced before. When they submit to him in doctrinal and moral matters, not because they are overawed by his social stature greater learning or because they have nothing else against, which to compare what he tells them. It is because they make an act of faith that his authority comes from Christ. It is because they possess the simplicity of free and willing obedience, precisely one of the notes most proper to the Gospels. The attitude of the laity towards the priest can perhaps be more definite and single-minded now than befqre. Western culture is perhaps losing the layers of non-essential clerical authority. It is true that in some lands the transition to this new freedom has at first been tragic. New freedom tends to be intoxicating; the old confusion of spiritual and social status is slow.to clarify. For a whole generation or two or more, the transition can wreak disastrous gaps in the prac-tice of the love that should be shown to God and neigh-bor. On the other hand, for those persons and those lands who do mature to such obedience in faith, the obedience of free men standing erect as Charles P~guy used to say, there is a great gain in clarity of motive and relationship. The priest does not rule the flock as a tyrant does his subject peoples, or even as a paterfamilias used to rule his slaves, but as a father does his grown and free sons~ "not as the rulers of the gentiles . " And perhaps it is true that the good father puts himself in second place. The peasant classes of Europe were wont to invest the priest with much more authority than this, perhaps a little as the rulers of the gentiles. In Italy it is still the custom .to kiss the priest's hand, while kneeling be-fore him, as it was once the custom to greet a liege lord; the respect of the Irish for the priest and, perhaps similarly, of the peopl~ of the Tyrol for their priests (the cultural leaders in the enduring attempt to maintain independence from England and Italy) is quite well known. But the descendants of these peasants, in America now, may well be beginning to deny to the ,priest some of the attributes, like quasi-infallibility, they once im-plicitly seemed to grant-him. They may reason that if the Popes have recently had to call for liturgical reform, for a revival of Thomism, and for several other new currents of activity, then things have not been all they should. When they see priests disagreeing among them-selves, they begin to understand the freedom that is al-lowed to prudential judgment of concrete situations, on which differences are bound to thrive. Thus, due to the social changes of the last centuries, not yet at their culmination in the civilization that is to take shape from our own, the role of the priest in a pluralistic land is trying. A vast range of excellences is required of him. His every fault grates on sophisticated, and specialized, nerves. The freedom of the layman is a heady freedom; habits of anti-clericalism persist, espe-cially where they are stimulated by habits of clericalism that have not yet disappeared. In a transition period genial equilibirum is hard to maintain. Only the sim~- 4. The Priest in Mo~ World VOLUME 20, 1961 269 4" Michael Novak REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 270 plicity of freely yielded intelligence, in faith, gives the priest effective authority, and even then not in his own name, but in Christ's. And yet this yielding is at the heart of Christianity, a splendid ever-renewed miracle. Priest and people take up mature relationship, as fallibl~ human beings, at this font. If the priest's relations with others were the only diffi-culty with the pressure of modern change, his lot would be easier than it is. His most painful' task is in the orienta-tion of his own inner life. It is often, though, it must be stressed, not always observable that the spiritual forma-tion given in the seminary has its roots in cultures far different from our own, ones whose obstacles to Chris-tian life and advantages for Christian life were different from our own. In such cases much of seminary spiritual formation is irrelevant and could not in fact be con-tinued except in the hothouse isolation of ithe seminary; in priestly practice it wilts away. Where the public prayers, rules, and mental attitudes inculcated in the seminary derive from the European piety of the last few centuries, they are not simple, in touch with contem-porary reality, or directly reminiscent of the Gospels. To the American of our day, they seem overlaid with un-congenial sentiment, a strange legalistic attitude toward God, and narrow suspicion. Not a few books on the seminary rule and on growth in spiritual perfection seem to delight in driving the soul to more and more precise observance; there is in them little sense of enlargement, wholesomeness, freedom, and love, such as one gets~in reading'the Gospels. They !cad away from the experience of God to the observance of discipline; yet they are not so demanding and deep-searching as the works of St. John of the Cross and St. Teresa, which may not be read with near the frequency or attention. It might even be said that by their dwelling on the observance of discipline they conduce to a comfortable mediocrity and the easy appea~:ance of platitudes on the lips. The young priest has to make'up his own mind on each of these questions, but the difficulty is that the more in-tent on spiritual growth he is, the more he may, have given himself to uncritical docility. His spirituality, there-fore, may end up being a borrowed light, never seized by his owri independent judgment and rooted perma-nently and pei~sonally in his own intellect and will. The danger 'is great that the Jansenist strain so deeply rooted in most of the national stocks from which Our priests spring will be passed on uncritically from generation 'to generation and that .some young American clerics will strain every nerve during their seminary days to convince themselves of last century European attitudes which they do not share. It*is a shame When afterwards, as priests, they scuttle much of what they spent years trying to learn because it is unrealistic. Then,. Comes the tempta-tion to throw out everything that they learned. The task of the seminarian to grow up into the stature of a full human being of the late twentieth century and to grow up into the stature of Christ, is terribly difficult, because, for the most part, it must be done without guides. The riches of spirituality in the American spirit have hardly been noticed, let alone tapped; often the typically American virtues are stifled or at least warned against, perhaps because of the misunderstandings about "Ameri-canism" a half-century ago. The. young American priest, when he is faithful to his own best insights and spirit, is a new kind of priest and is working out a new image of spirituality. Perhaps some day one of them will set the new way d~wn in writing, and tl~e man~ will not feel so much alone. As the external social events of the c'enturie~ have served to strip down the ~ole of the pries~t t9 its priestly, Christlike essentials, so perhaps the new kind of. holiness will be only "the more excellent way" of which St. Paul speaks,'less legalist, more fully hum~in because divine, rddolent of freedom and love. To mfi'int~iin such holiness in the complexities of our age will be witness indeed to Christ. It will reach to the heart of our civilizati~6n. 4. 4. 4. The Priest in the Modern World VOLUME 20, 1961 - JOHN C. SCHWARZ, S,J. Journey into God ÷ ÷ John C. Schwarz, $.J., writes from 899 West Boston Boulevard, De: troit 2, Michigan. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 272 The Christian heart has always taken reverent inspira-tion from pilgrimage. But, in a certain real sense, the most sacred pilgrimage of all is traveled daily without a step taken or a sea crossed. This pilgrimage occurs i.n the Mass, a pilgrimage with vast practical significance for the dail,y life of the religious. Each morning at Mass the religious (and any partici-pant in the Holy Sacrifice, of course) travels a four-stage journey into God, a pilgrimage culminating in a renewal of abiding union wiih Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This journey's firslt stage begins with the introductory psalm and succeeding prayers at the foot of the altar, at a respectful distance from God. God is truly present, but priest and peop, le stand off, as at the entrance of a sacred shrine. God is present, but somewhat remote. The Mass moves on. The Consecration ushers man into the second stage of his journey, for now the once remote Lord becomes close at hand, warm and near, yet remain-ing exterior. God has drawn near, but union with Him remains incomplete. In the reception of Holy Communion the Lord dra-matically enters the human body and soul, _establishing a profoundly intimate union. So long as the sacred species remain, the humanity of the Word Incarnate abides. This union, though no longer exterior, remains temporary. This has brought the pilgrim to stage three. The final stage of the journey toward and even into God begins at last when the humanity of Christ Jesus departs with the Eucharist. The divine Persons remain-- in a union both interior and permanent. Only rejection by serious, wilful 'sin severs this union. Father, His eternal Son, and Spirit now reside within in a deeper, greater way. And thus a silent journey terminates in God. Significantly t,his renewal of union with the Triune God will occur for most religious as they conclude the time of Mass and meditation, setting forth into another' apostolic day. In God's designs Ithe Eucharist daily provides a visible, tangible reminder of the Christian's personal union with the indwelling God. This sacred symbol of grace and indwelling Love is held by the celebrant °above the ciborium, with the words "Ecce Agnus Dei . " Moments later, Christ Himself 'enters the body of those who re-ceive. Sensibly seen by the eyes and felt upon the tongue, the host is the living symbol and reminder of what the eyes can not see nor the tongue feel: sanctifying grace and union with the indwelling Lord. So "Communion is both a symbol and a cause of the inner'union which is aimed at.~'1 Nor is this profound union a fixed, static relationship. "The Eucharist is a food and presupposes the existence of life,''-~ and all life implies growth. The life of grace, so intimately linked to the indwelling, is.no exception. In fact, as Canon Cuttaz notes in his excellent study of grace? "The purpose and effect of Communion are to intensify God's presence in the soul by increasing grace." The Holy Spirit, sent initially in Baptism, is sent anew to the .soul with every increase of sanctifying grace. Hence wholehearted selfgiving in the Mass and Communion is the basis for a new sending 6f the Spirit and a deepening of the Trinitarian life within us. At this point a word of caution is appropriate. The heart of the Mass lies, of course, in the sacrifice of Christ and our privileged participation in that Godward act, not in Holy Communion. For Holy Communion derives its full meaning from its function in the sacrifice (and not vice versa), and it leads to divine fulfillment in the souls of those who have offered themselves to God "through Him, with Him, and in Him." God's indwelling fulfillment of His own desire to live in the human soul expresses the final perfection of His love. ~Nhat further can even God do while man remains in his time of growth and probation? Raoul Plus ob-serves that "This is the last word in the great secret of the Christian life." One often hears a certain school, automobile, book, or church structure praised, as "the last word, the finest, the ultimate perfection, superior to all others. The revealed fact of God indwelling stands as the "last word in the great secret," the ultimate gift. Even the stigmata of a St. Francis or the appearances granted to a Berna-dette ranked far below the Presence in their souls. But man's capacity for dull insensitivity in the presence of divine generosity rates high on the list of earth's won- ~"Sanctifying Grace" by E. Towers in The Teaching o] the Catholic Church (New York: Macmillan, 1954), v. 1, p. 564. 2 What is the Eucharist? by Marie-Joseph Nicolas, O.P. (New York: Hawthorn, 1960), p. 91. s Our Lile o] Grace (Chicago: Fides, 1958), p. 167. The essay on the indwelling, Chapter 6, is of particular value. ]ourney into God VOLUME 20, 196]. 273 ÷ + ÷ John C. $chwarz, S.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 274 ders. Imagine a man who barehandedly grasps a high-voltage cable exposed and sputtering, yet continues to converse amiably with bystanders while a stream of current charges through him! Transferred to matters spiritual, the image is not without value for stressing the fact that we comparably and steadfastly refuse to be impressed by the revealed fact of the omnipotent Creator's dwelling within us. Granted, voltage is felt, while God is noL Nevertheless, divine revelation confronts man with .the [act of the Trinity within when the soul possesses sanctifying grace. Such opportunity, provided by His presence, must be seized, utilized to the utmost; it should make a difference, shatter lethargy, produce results. Of what sort? Father Plus again: The imitation of the Lord Jesus should not be an imitation from without. We are not to copy Him in order to be able to reproduce Jesus Christ; we are to copy Him in order to be able to continue Him. Christ wishes to enjoy continuity in each one of us~ This is.the last word in the great secret of the Christian life . Our poor humanity is called to share, thanks to Jesus Christ and in Jesus Christ, the life of the three Persons.' The daily Mass-journey into God (or perhaps equally accurately, God's journey into the soul) provides a daily fresh start in one's continuance of Christ's life. Deliberate efforts at patience and love, at self-sacrifice and under-standing, at prayer and obedience, are merely efforts to present to Christ a mature and maturing personality which He can use. Refusal and culpable failure (that is, when cupable) in such efforts produce a serious restric-tion of Christ's intent to continue His life through this human being. A personality of harshness, 6f resentment, of careful focusing on the almighty minimum scarcely serves Christ's uses and designs, just as a child's violin, with three strings missing, would thwart even the great-est virtuoso. God must not be relegated to the shadows of the soul. Recently a portrait by the French impressionist, Cezanne, sold for $616,000 to a wealthy connoisseur and his wife. Will these new owners place this valued masterwork a shadowy cellar or storeroom? Yet God indwelling may be, in practical el~ect, reduced to a comparable insignifi-cance. Elizabeth of the Trinity, saintly young Carmelite of our own century, considered the Divine Guest as a singularly practical, albeit sublime, influence; practical results are expected: "He is ever living in ore: souls and ever at work there. Let us allow ourselves to be built up by Him, ' In Christ Jesus (London: Burns, Oates, and Washbourne, 1923), p. 26. May He be the soul of our soul, [he life of our life, so that we may be able to say with Paul I live, now not I." Perhaps the personal frustration vaguely felt by "shine religious springs from their practidal refusal "to be built up" by Christ, refusing'to relinquish habits,and attitudes ininiicable to Christ. One ffbui~ e~pect that the Infinite Lord can not be constrained without some degree of un-easy tension developing ~as a consequence." One is re-minded of the massive tension generated when aircraft engines are gunned to full power while the plane stands motionless, braked tightly, just before its take-off run down the airstrip. The plane thrpbs, with power con-strained. Then, engines subsided~ brakes released, the craft sweeps into smooth, swift motion down the airstrip and gracefully aloft. Engine powerhas been channeled into its normal fulfillment. Smooth performance results. Ten-sion resolves into flight. Perhaps the tension in some religious lives is, at least in part, comparable in origin, stemming at least to an extent from constraining the 'Lord :within. His dynamic life and love seeks cooperative expression in the life and love of a religious. Refusal to make a lifetime relation-ship out of this can 'produce only frustration and con-flict. ~ . ~." . ~ '" ' The four-phase Mass-journeys, into God brings ~the re-ligious once again to the .threshold.oLanother day where our_hUman efforts at charity will;as two voices harmonize in one song, blend into Christ's charity:Our human pa, tience, compassion, teaching, courtesy, gentleness; work, will blend into Christ's. ~.~ The Christ-union in this life, so, rich a delight, prepares the soul for a future prize indescribably richer so states Gerard-Manley Hopkins:° "r Be our delight, 0 Jesu now ~ As by and by our pri[e art Thou, And grant our glorying may be World with end alone in Thee. 5In asserting .the possibility of supernatural sources of tension, there is no intention of denying the importhnce and prevalence o[ natural soui'ces of tension, culpable and inculpable~, i:onscious and unconscious. ~ Translating :the "Jesu Dulcis Memoria." VOLUME 20, 1961 CARL LOFY, ,s.J. Finding God's Will Through the Discernment of Spirits Carl Lo~/, S.J., who is studying at the Univer-sity of Innsbruck, lives at Sillgasse 6, Inns-bruck, Austria. REVIEW FOR ~ELIGIOUS 276 In a book published to help commemorate the fourth centenary of the death of St. Ignatius Loyola? a group of leading experts~on Ignatian spirituality has gathered a series of essays which, taken as a whole, constitutes one of the most valuable contributions to this field in the past decade. The profound insights it furnishes into the most fundamental aspects of the Spiritual Exercises make the book required reading for anyone seriously interested in retreat work and/or Ignatian spirituality. The most im-portant essay is that by Father Hugo Rahner on the dis-cernment of spirits. Most of the other~ eight articles pattern themselves ar6und that of Father Rahner's, espe-cially Father Heinrich Bacht's discussion of the discern-ment of spirits according to the early Church Fathers and Father Karl Rahner's study of the dogmatic implica-tions of finding the wili of God through the discernment of spirits. Hugo Rahner's Article ' ~ugo' Rahner's article can be summarized under the following po!nts: 1) For St. Ignatius the most important part of the retreatwas the election. Everything else in the Spiritual Exercises either builds towards this or is meant to strengthen it. 2) Among the three times outlined by. the saint for making the election, St. Ignatius felt that the second (that is, when the soul is moved by consolations and desolations) is and should be the most common. 3) As a result, the rules for the discernment of spirits take a Ignatius yon Loyola: Seine geistliche Gestalt und sein Ver-miichtnis. Edited by Friedrich Wulf, S.J., Wiirzburg; Echter Verlag, 1956. Hereafter this work will be referred to as Ignatiu.~. on extreme importance, since it is precisely through these rules that the retreatant distinguishes the different effects (consolations and desolations) of God, the good angel, and the devil in his. soul; moreover, it is through such dis-cernment that~the exercitant comes to a certain' election concerning God's will for him. In all this St. Ignatius had to presuppose several points as e~cident. The first of these is that~God does have a distinct will for each individual. Secondly, it is not al-ways possible to know that will simply by applying gen~ eral moral principles to particular~ situations, To know that each of two acts would be prudent ~ind good ,does not yet assure one to which of these two God is calling him. Finally, God can and often does manifest His will for the individual through consolations and desolations. When He so acts, His will can be discovered by applying the rules for the discernment of spirits to the different consolations and desolations one experiences in his prayer as he considers against the background of the life of Christ the alternatives of election. Father Rahner insists that this should be the most common way of making the election. ~ ~ ' "Impliqations ol This~ View,~ Let us consider for a moment some of the implications of this interpretation. In most present,day practice2 it is taken for granted that the'third time for making the election (that is, when the person is not moved by~ the different spirits) iSthe most common. Why this is so is not immediately evident. Perhaps we are afraid to attribute our consolations and desolations to supernatural causes when we know today how much can be caused naturally by the subconscious forces at work in us. (Father Karl Rahner handles this p~obl~m explicitly in his article.) In any case, we tend rather to elect what we are going to_do for God rather, than to discover, what God wants of us. Confronted by a choice between two good or indifferent acts, we normally ask ourselves: "Where can I most 2See, for example, John A. Hardon, S.J:~ All My Liberty: The Theology oI the Spiritual Exercises 0Nes[minster: Newman, 1959), p. 66: "This [the third time for an election] is the most ordinary. time [or reaching a decision." Father Hardon reduces the first time to a "miraculous grace" (an opinion quite co,ntrary to that of both Father Hugo Rahner and Father Ignacio Iparraguirre [Ignatius, pp. 305 ands311]) and handles the second time in three sentences. For him the third time is also '~the most securE" time. "]'his is some-what difficult to understand since, by defimtlon, ~n the first time the person "neither doubts nor as capable of doubting' (Sptr, tual Exer-ctses, n. 175). For Father Hardon t.he third ttme ~s valuable as a check on the second time, which Father Rahner also admits (Ignatius, p. 311). Yet it is interesting to note that for St. Ignatius the second time is the check on the third time and not vice versa; on this see. foot-note 3. + ÷ ÷ The Discernment of Spirit~ VOLUME~ .20, 19~1 277 " 4. Carl Lo~y, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 278 certainly save my soul? Where'can I be of more help others?~Along what lines d~o my talents run?" and so f6rth. All this is good, 'Fffther Rahner' would say, if we-have first tried the first two times of election and have dis- ,covered that the different spirits are .in fact not at work in us. Moreover, we should recall that St. Ignatius ques-tioned the earnestness of one who is :not so moved. other words, the presupposition that we are not and 'will not be moved by the different spirits is directly foreign to the saint's thinking, For St. Ignatius, the main task of.the exercitant is try to :get into vital, personal contact with God and this contact to ask God what He wants of him. Only God does not "answer" is the exercitant to consider quietly the. pros and cons; and~even in this case, after ar-riving at his decision, he is to ask God for confirmation in the form of consolation.3 Instinctively perhaps we find such language strange: ."How can God tell us His will through consolations and desolations?" And yet it re-mains true that Ignatius was convinced that God can and does "talk" to us through consolations and that ~e can interpret His "words" to us through the rules for the discernment of spirits. Once this fundamental position of the saint is accepted, ~°ne Sees these rules in their proximity to the election at the very heart of the Spiritual Exercises~ The same can also be said for our daily prayer as well. For, as Father Josef Stierli points' out in his article, "Ignatian Prayer: Seeking God in All Things," the search for God in all things is primarily a search for the will of God°in all things; only secondarily is it an affective con~ templation of Him in His creatures, In our daily prayer we are to ask~God what His will~i~ifor us, "not only in our state of life but also in. all particulars.''4 Father Adolf Haas shows ,us in his article, "The Mys-ticism of Saint Ignatius as Seen in His Spiritual Diary," how St. Ignatius did this in his own daily prayer. Here see the saint seeking, in the heights :of mystical union with the different Persons of the Trinity confirmation of his 8 spiritual Exercises, n. 178: "If a choice of a way of life has not been made in the first and second time, below are given two ways of making ~/ choice of a way of life in the third time." See also n. 180, where even in the third time of election we are told to "beg God our Lord to deign to move my will, and to bring to my mind what I ought to do in this matter fhat would be more for His praise and glory"--as 'though in one final attempt to r~main in the ~econd time. Only after this' request are we to "use the understanding to weigh the matter with care and fidelity." And after reaching a de-cision through this rational process, we are to "turn with great dili, gence to prayer in the presence of God our Lord, and offer Him this choice that the Divine Majesty may deign to accept and con-firm it if it is for His ~reater service and praise" (n. 183). ¯ Summary o] the Constitutions oI the Society oI Jesus, Rule 17. election concerning his order's poverty. "Eternal Father, confirm me in my election. Eternal Son, confirm me. Eternal Holy Spirit, confirm me. Holy Tri~nity, confirm me. Thou, my only God, confirm me.''~ The entire con-text of this prayer sho.ws, that Ignatius is here not seeking strength to carry out a.n'~ election already made, but the assurance that what he has elected is truly.the will of God. Confirmati.on means, therefore, the certitude, penetrating the entire personality, that one has really found Goffs will. It is--to use the phras~ found frequent!y in the letters of both St. Ignatius and St. Francis Xavier--"the grace to feel in the innermost part of ourbeing God's. will for us."O +, Role of the Retreat Director This interpretation of Father-Rahner, of course, raises serious dogmatic questions and difficulties. Can we really trust the rules for the discernment of spirits? Does God really make known to individuals His will for. them as' individuals? Are the first and second times for election really more secure than the more rational third time? What is the relation between God's will for~the individual and, the consolation experienced as confirmation? It was the task of Father Karl Rahner to answer these and other questions. He does so brilliantly; but .since his article will appear soon in English,7 we need, not discuss it here, especially since its complex reasoning processes would take us far beyond the scope of this present paper. What should be stressed here is that in the light of this interpretation ~ the role of the retreat director is seen under a new aspect. Retreat-giving need not involve so much the ability to give inspiring points' for meditation (Ignatius insisted that these be short and "to the point, that the main work be left to the exercitant"), as the ability to discern the spirits at work in the exercitant's soul in his search for the will of God. This is a pains-taking, delicate t~ask, not to be regarded lightly. Ignatius himself thought that of all the Jesuits of his day (over a thousand) he knew of only three who fulfilled his ex-pectation~ of,a good retreat master,s In this context the ~ Ignatius, p. 199. , 0 It:is astonishing to see how often this phrase occurs at the close )f the letters of both saints, In the original Spanish, Saint Ignatius )ften uses the word "sentir 'la voluntad de Dios," which means con-siderably more than "to know" and is better translated as~ "to feel" or "to. be deeply aware of." On this see Obras cornpletas~ de $. lgnacio de Loyola, edited by Ignacio Iparraguirre, S.J. (Madrid: BAG, 1952). ~ In the translation of the book Das Dynamische in der Kirche (Freiburg: Herder, 1958). a Ignatius, p. 257. ÷ 4- The Discernment VOLUME 20, 1961 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS last part of Father Bacht's article on the role of the re-treat director deserves careful study and restudy. Father Friedrich Wulf's article on Ignatius as director of souls is important in this connection, because it con-tains many remarkable, hitherto unpublished, texts which reveal the saint's personality. Here, too, we see the tre-mendous importance Ignatius placed on the discernment of spirits in his direction of others. The article furnishes rich food for thought for any spiritual director, Practical Importance of This Interpretation We have been able here to sketch only briefly the more important points of this book. There are many others. We can only encourage the reader to take the book and study it carefully; it is to be hoped that the work finds an early translation, for the ideas it contains are basic [or a proper understanding of the Spiritual Exercises and of Ignatian spirituality. Father Hugo Rahner's article is of special importance for it returns to the position of St. Ignatius that God really "talks" with us in prayer and in time of retreat, that He really makes His will known to us --His will for us as individuals. Retreat making is, there-fore, not so much a time of mere resolution making, as of finding God; not so much a renovation of spirit as an inner development in which the person strives for deep, personal contact with God and, in this contact, for God's will for him as an individual. This is the deeper meaning hidden in Ignatius' use of the word "election." This is a bold interpretation, but one which is receiv-ing more and more backing by recent research.9 It is an interpretation that deserves serious attention. One gets the impression at times that retreats are a trifle too volun-taristic, somewhat too impersonal, too separated from prayerful union with God. Do not many work out resolu-tions, make plans for the future, form new particular examens--all.quite independently of formal prayer? Of course, once we have made the resolutions and plans, we offer them to God, ask His grace to fulfill them, and so forth; but the resolution making process itself remains basically rounded-off in itself, shut off, completely (as it were) "our.own." Often we are n6t open to God during the process itself. "God, what will You have me do? What do You want of me?" Such an approach would open us to God within the very resolution making process. The latter would become, quite literally, a search for the will ~ See especially Gaston Fessard, S.J., La dialectique des Exercices Spirituels de Saint lgnace de Loyola (Paris: 1956) and August Brun-ner, S.J., "Die Erkenntnis des Willen Gottes nach den Geistlichen 3O0b u(n1g9e5n7 d),e ps ph. e1i9li9g-e2n1 2I.g Sneaeti ualss oy othne Lboibyloiolag,r"a pinhy G geivisetn u bnyd FLaethbeernll,l lv].[ Rahner in his footnotes, especially on pages 305, 312, and 313. o[ God. The dialogue with God would begin immediately (not merely after the formation of resolutions) and at a much deeper level of the indiyidual's personality. There would be (to use Browning's words) "no spot for the crea-ture to stand in," not even his good resolutions. For we are creatures in everything. We serve God only through His gift to us. He alone knows how we can serve Him as individuals with a radicality of dedication and surrender. He alone can break into the hard core that "protects" the inner core of a self and there touch us and so awaken us to life. It is possible and all too easy to form plans serving God which, although good, do not get down into the real self, do not take hold. of the Whole person, and which, when completed, contain the d.anger of being something "outside God," something strictly our own. To avoid this danger the use of the rules for the discern, merit of spirits in the second time to making an election can be of fundamental importance ~ind help. The Discernmt, nt o] Spirits VOLUME 20, 1951 281 WILLIAM H. QUIERY, S.J. Courage and Counseling William H. Quiery, &J., writes from Cam;, pion House, B29 West 108th Street; New Yolk 25, New York. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 282 Nothing has quite the' force to convince us that we are human as the phenomenon of fear. And nothing can ap-pear to be so ridiculous. Bruce Catton, in his account of the early years of the Civil War, Glory Road, records an amusing incident of a panic-stricken squad of Union troops put to flight by a rumor of a Rebel~breakthrough some miles ahead. As the men ran in disorder past a farm-house, a calm old lady sat on the porch enjoying the spectacle. The soldiers were almost out of their heads in the grip of mob hysteria, and the woman stood up and called to them, "What in the world are you boys running from? They're only men!" The soldiers had no answer for the jibe, of course. Each of them knew that he wasn't acting with cool reason at the moment. The enemy hadn't been seen and counted and a quiet estimation made of their striking force. The Northerners were simply running, that was all. It was the best they could do at the time. Terror had them by the throats. All the unknowns were jumbled and lumped to-gether and blown up into something like that horrifying ghost that children see leaning over their beds at night. That's what was chasing the squad of Yankees. Most of us have little trouble understanding this sort of panic because we have found ourselves in somewhat sim-ilar circumstances, in the grip of unreasonable fears and emotions. Everyone is acquainted with worry and anxiety and tension, at least of a minor sort: the "formless fears" of C. S. Lewis. What makes such fears particularly mysterious and exasperating is the fact that frequently.! enough we are fully conscious that there is nothing to be anxious about, or certainly nothing in the situation that calls for quite the emotional response we find ourselves giving it. We wonder where our courage is at times like these.' Yet strange to say, we have not lost our major life-ideals in any way: We would rather die than desert our cause, and we would never calmly choose to be traitors no mat-, ter what the threat. Still we find ourselves unnerved by ~' / a set of circumstances of small moment and reacting childishly while we know we are not childish at heart. And I am not speaking here of a. problem which i consider to be a specifically religious one.~.It would not be correct to say that there are special threats in the re-ligious or ,priestly life viewed in its spiritual aspects. For our consecration to God is nora gamble. On the contrary, vows are m.eans of making perfection of life more easy and secure. ~One. of the purposes of the vows, according to St. Thomas, is. to eliminate the "main 6bstacles to a perfect love and service of God, to,guarantee, as.much as is pos-sible on this earth, a secure hold on some of the most powerful spiritual means the Church knows of. If we are subject to worries and fears.of variou~ ~.kinds to a somewhat greater extent, than ordinary people, the reason is probably the simple fadt that we have taken owa rather ambitious form of life, that otir aim is high, that we make a more self-conscious effort right from the beginning to fill out and make use of our share of human talent. Our.,counterparts on the :non-religious level are the~politicians and the doctors and the scholars, yes, and those bent on heaping up a material fortune. It ivwith this group that we might find a compai~able level of tension~ anxiety, and worry: From this point of view, then, we, should not be sur-prised to discover that part Of the price of our spiritual ambitions will be some sort of, interior susceptibility to inner conflicts and phobias.~But we have far more reason for trying to control and limit our anxieties and fears ~ttian~ have other ambitious people. Out,target is not an earthly one, but the glory .of God and the sanctification of men. It will be a'great loss if we are kept from that. The panic of the Union troop was not a logical and calculated response to a threat, and this is the case'.with human fears generally.oOur responses are seldom exactly what they should be; and I am not referring to any sort of psychotic or compulsively neurotic reaction, but~just to the "off-balance" emotional reactions that perfectly normal people experience. For iristance, there is nothing unusually abnormal! in a religious who is worried, even greatly~ worried, abouf some truly risky situation: whether,~f0r example, a certain studefit should be. expelled for the good of the others or for the relief of the teacher. The trouble b~gins, though, when the legitimate and reas'6n~able worry develops into a permanent hnd troUblesome, anxiety that louvers his ef-ficiency and impairs the effectiveness, of his work. It is perfectly normal and rational to' experience the sensation of loneliness when one actually is ;ilone. The presence of God, for. the ordinary person, simply does + + + Courage and Counseling. VOLUME 20, 1961' 283 ÷ ÷ ÷ w. H. Qulery, s.l. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 28~4 not compensate for the absence of human companionship. Holiness does not change the social nature of man. But loneliness becomes an unreasonable thingwhen it carries us into a paralyzing depression despite all we do to pre-vent it. Such self-pity is not deliberately chosen. We not turn it on as we might a TV set. We should not be surprised, then, if it does not fade out with a simple flick of a switch. The ambitious role we have chosen in life often calls for public service. Religious frequently work in the public eye, teaching, lecturing, or representing their group in panel discussion or at a civic council of some kind. Every normal person will feel some sort of nervous excitement or self-consciousness in public appearances, particularly at first. But these normal emotional reactions can become unreasonable bullies. They can scare us out of our job and our vocation altogether; or, what is bad enough, ruin our performance. Nor does it satisfy us to say "God will supply" and done with it. We are not entitled to leave things to God until we have exhausted all our ordinary resources and our ingenuity as well. In action, it is a good rule to act though everything depends on our own work (as though God will not supply), provided we pray as though every-thing depends on .God. Other instances of normal emotions which get out hand are easy to find. To hesitate makes sense when much is at stake and when we are :all too conscious of our falli-bility. But excessive hesitancy and indecision can sap strength and waste our time. Again, discouragement an .understandable thing in view of our daily failings; but unfortunately this very subtle and dangerous emotion (Is it not a form of fear?) can grow into a sentimental resignation to mediocrity of a ruinous kind. Again, sense of guilt is common and healthy, scruples a torment-ing excess. Embarrassment is everyone's lot at one time another, but a perrilanent timidity is usually a limita-tion. All of us feel emotion at times; almost all suffer from excess of it at least occasionally. Under stress we feel con-fused. Some exasperating inner battle is'going on and must bear.it at least for a time. It is on such occasions, when we have only a blurred view of our value scale, that we make hurried and faulty decisions. If the instances emotional pressure are froequent, we may find ourselves regularly ,doing quite childish ,things. We know what right, but by a weird subconscious illogic, we do not feel that it is the right thing to do---at least not ~his time. We know we should not be timid or unnerved or so worried' as we are. It may even be clear to us that our state of mind is ridiculo~us, that we will laugh at ourselves later on. But at the time, it does not ]eel ridiculous at all. 'It is not a laughing matter. The philosophers can explain it all to us in technical terms. The mind, the); say~, exercises only political con-trol over the emotions. But what concerns the average person most is what in the world [o do about it.'What kind of interior politics will get the constituents back, into line? Prayer and the sacraments, mortification, sublima-tion, distraction, advice-seeking, rest--alL.of these we en-list in our cause and still we find ourselves over-reacting to minor threats, slipping into unreasonable depression, or harrassed by toll-taking inner unrest. Courage alone is not the cure. Nor,:in fact, can we-talk of a L complete cure in this world for this weakness in our make-up. A cure will only come in heaven with the restoration of the gift of integrity which the first human being lost for the whole family that follows him. A partial solution to this type of problem may very well be counseling--and that is.the burden of this article--but not just any kind~ of counseling will help. These are cases where information is not lacking--the sufferer ordi-narily knows the pertinent facts or at least knows where they can be found and so there is very little to be gained in having them told to him all. over again. And since the person's desire to get over the problem is very great to be-gin with, the type of counseling which includes strong urging on the counselor's part is .likewise of little use. Now this particular area is one that the so-called "client-centered" or "non-directive" or "self-directive" counseling is admirably suited to take care of. In practice such coun-seling has been found to help with many kinds of prob-lems, from normal everyday decision-making to the give-and- take of classroom discussion, from the troulSlesome minor f~irs we are discussing here to more serious per-sonality conflicts. Client-centered counseling is by no means a modern in-vention. In fact, some Catholic authorities claim that it is very similar to the approach'bf som~ traditional spir-itual directors. However, a new surge of interest has taken place in the field since the earlg. 1940's. Responsible for much of this new interest is Dr. Carl Rogers. His bobk, Client-Centered Therapy (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1951), is probably the most important book in the field today. In 1952 Reverend Charles A. Curran of Loyola University, chicago, published his well known book Counseling in Catholic LiIe and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1952), in which he demonstrated the relation of such counseling to Thomisti~ psychology and ex-plained how these psychological counseling skills can be 4- Courage and Counseling VOLUME 20, 1961 ÷ ÷ ÷ w. H. Q=,iery, s.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 286 applied to specifically Catholic problems. This book is still the standard Catholic~ treatment of the matter, and though directed primarily to psychologists, would be valuable reading for anyone interested in learning more about the subject. . In the past fifteen years the seeds sown by these write
AMÉRICA LATINACrece la indignación en México por el asesinato de los 43 estudiantes.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-30062124http://edition.cnn.com/2014/11/15/world/americas/california-mexico-parents-missing-43-students/index.html?hpt=ila_c1http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/mexican-president-faces-nation-tired-of-crime.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744319-mexico-dice-basta-cansancio-e-ira-contra-el-gobierno-y-la-violenciahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/restos-hallados-en-primeras-fosas-no-son-de-los-43-http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416087897_392905.htmlhttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3968426.htmlestudiantes/14821271http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/estudiantes-mexicanos-desaparecidos-criticas-a-gestion-del-presidente-enrique-pena-nieto/14837755http://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-mexico-student-protests-acapulco-20141114-story.html"The Economist" analiza desafíos de Enrique Peña Nieto.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21632477-save-promising-presidency-enrique-pe-nieto-must-tackle-crime-and-corruption-reforms-andLa caída del precio del petróleo inquieta a Venezuela.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744297-el-petroleo-inquieta-a-iran-y-a-venezuelaCrece el escándalo de corrupción en Petrobras y arrestan a decenas de ejecutivos.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/business-30055817http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/pesquisa-a-petrobras-cambiara-a-brasil-rousseff-1054574.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744092-se-agrava-el-escandalode-petrobras-y-detienen-a-decenas-de-ejecutivoshttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/marchan-miles-en-brasil-contra-la-corrupcion-88939.htmlContinúa la inestabilidad política en Venezuela.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742939-por-segundo-mes-consecutivo-venezuela-no-difunde-los-datos-de-la-inflacionhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/venezolanos-hacen-colas-en-comercios-en-la-busqueda-del-precio-justo/14831876http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742411-en-crisis-las-divisiones-en-el-chavismo-el-otro-frente-que-pone-en-riesgo-a-maduroCumbre de la Unasur en Quito.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cumbre-de-la-unasur-en-quito/14834363América Latina va perdiendo su identidad católica.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/el-catolicismo-pierde-presencia-en-latinoamerica-/14831636http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743785-otro-desafio-para-el-papa-america-latina-pierde-su-identidad-catolicaFrontera de Estados Unidos y México será controlada por drones.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-30044702La cara más violenta de Brasil: hay un asesinato cada diez minutos.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743086-la-cara-mas-violenta-de-brasil-hay-un-asesinato-cada-diez-minutosSegún Santos será difícil mantener el proceso de paz más allá de 2015.Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/sera-dificil-mantener-proceso-de-paz-mas-alla-de-2015-santos-1054572.htmlESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁEstados Unidos consternado por asesinato de otro estadounidense por parte del Estado Islámico.Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2014/11/16/l-ei-affirme-avoir-assassine-l-otage-americain-peter-kassig_4524334_3218.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/17/world/middleeast/peter-kassig-isis-video-execution.htmlwww.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/afirma-ei-haber-matado-al-estadunidense-peter-kassig-1054554.htmlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/isis-killing-u-s-aid-worker-act-pure-evil-obama-n249471http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-video-claims-us-aid-worker-beheaded-20141116-story.html#page=1http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30076629http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3964732.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/kerry-eu-intento-evitar-muerte-kassig-1054644.htmlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/u-s-airstrikes-isis-are-not-enough-n249061El rápido crecimiento del liderazgo de Xi es un desafío para Washington.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/asia/finishing-asia-tour-obama-promotes-more-ambitious-foreign-policy.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743435-el-rapido-crecimiento-del-liderazgo-de-xi-un-desafio-para-washingtonObama visita países asiáticos.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30049266http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-obama-suu-kyi-meeting-20141114-story.htmlGiro de Pekín y Washington en la política ambiental tras firmar pacto sobre emisión de gases.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/international/21632412-agreement-greenhouse-gas-emissions-america-has-made-bigger-concessions-china-unevenhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-30015545http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743434-eeuu-y-china-sellan-un-pacto-historico-pero-no-logran-frenar-las-criticashttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/china-y-eeuu-se-fijan-objetivos-de-reduccion-de-emisiones-de-gases-/14822255Obama intenta recobrar el pulso tras la derrota ante los republicanos.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21632503-anyone-hoping-outbreak-good-government-likely-be-disappointed-facehttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/republicanos-estudian-cierre-gobierno-obama-1054655.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416011286_687791.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742168-debilitado-obama-apuesta-a-una-agenda-comun-con-los-republicanoshttp://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21632510-republicans-want-president-get-tougher-abroad-olive-branch-big-stickEstados Unidos regulará la llegada de menores migrantes centroamericanos.Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/14/actualidad/1416003197_705890.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/obama-evita-deportacion-de-5-millones-de-indocumentados/14830617http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744057-por-decreto-obama-lanzara-una-reforma-migratoriaEUROPAContinúa la tensión en Ucrania.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21632597-renewed-russian-military-build-up-could-be-prelude-more-fighting-military-marcheshttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/crisis-en-ucrania-tensa-al-g20-88940.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-ukraine-defense-russia-20141114-story.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416088304_442188.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/moscu-desmiente-que-tenga-tropas-en-ucrania/14830624http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743217-vuelve-la-tension-al-este-de-ucrania-kiev-advirtio-que-se-prepara-para-la-accion-militarhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/occidente-presiona-a-rusia-para-evitar-una-guerra-total-en-ucrania/14827396Vladimir Putin recibe fuertes críticas en la cumbre del G-20.Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-11/16/content_18923757.htmwww.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-putin-versus-nato-20141116-story.html#page=1http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/europe/vladimir-putin-gets-cool-g-20-welcome-over-ukraine-conflict.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2014/11/16/le-blocus-de-l-est-separatiste-de-l-ukraine-une-grosse-erreur-pour-poutine_4524316_3214.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744411-tras-las-fuertes-criticas-vladimir-putin-fue-el-primero-en-dejar-australiahttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416087447_308634.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/europe/vladimir-putin-gets-cool-g-20-welcome-over-ukraine-conflict.htmlhttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/business/article3964759.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/putin-abandona-reunion-del-g20-para-dormir-a-sus-horas-1054537.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-g20-obama-putin-20141116-story.htmlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-crisis/western-leaders-confront-putin-g20-threat-more-sanctions-n249306Cataluña: tras suspensión judicial del referéndum casi 2 millones de personas participaron en la consulta simbólica sobre la independencia.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21632478-madrid-government-should-let-catalans-have-voteand-then-defeat-separatistshttp://elpais.com/elpais/2014/11/14/inenglish/1415985906_219504.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742819-ultimatum-del-gobierno-catalan-a-rajoy-tras-el-exito-de-la-consultahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/lo-que-hay-que-saber-sobre-la-consulta-de-independencia-catalana/14788200http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742547-cataluna-tuvo-su-9-n-casi-2-millones-de-personas-participaron-en-la-consulta-simbolica-sobre-la-independencia3Elecciones locales en Polonia.Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3964816.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2014/11/16/world/europe/ap-eu-poland-local-elections.html?ref=worldRumania vota nuevo primer ministro.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30076716http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/abren-las-urnas-en-las-presidenciales-de-rumania-1054552.htmlhttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3962767.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/16/actualidad/1416169932_085182.htmlLa Nación analiza: "Los peligrosos encuentros militares de Rusia en Europa".Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742659-los-peligrosos-encuentros-militares-de-rusia-en-europaComienza en Ucrania la recogida de los restos del fuselaje del MH17.Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-plane-crash/pieces-mh17-crash-removed-scene-ukraine-n249586http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30073283http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/16/actualidad/1416150737_258935.htmlDiversos medios hacen referencia al aniversario de la caída del Muro de Berlín.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-germany-wall-anniversary-20141109-story.html#page=14http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742542-en-fotos-alemania-antes-y-despues-del-muro-de-berlinhttp://elpais.com/especiales/2014/aniversario-caida-muro-de-berlin/Tras escándalo de corrupción el PP realiza auditoria a sus candidatos.Para más información:http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/11/13/inenglish/1415897409_152185.htmlUn brote de gripe aviar en Holanda obliga a sacrificar 150.000 pollos.Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/16/actualidad/1416162288_552887.html"The Economist" analiza postura de los conservadores de cara a las próximas elecciones en Gran Bretaña.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/britain/21632629-win-next-general-election-conservatives-must-hold-their-nerve-keep-calm-and-carryRusia planea lanzar una Wikipedia alternativa.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30058048ASIA-PACÍFICO / MEDIO ORIENTEContinúa el avance del Estado Islámico mientras que occidente planea su lucha.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/iraq-and-us-find-some-potential-sunni-allies-have-already-been-lost.htmlhttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/business/article3966656.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-syria-airstrikes-20141114-story.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/lucha-mundial-contra-el-estado-islamico/14832456http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744414-estado-islamico-rehen-peter-kassig-decapitacion-videohttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416061775_077932.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2014/11/16/world/middleeast/ap-ml-islamic-state.htmlEl nuevo orden geopolítico: Pekín muestra su influencia de potencia global.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21632452-weeks-summit-beijing-helped-great-power-rivalry-still-threatens-pacific-bridgehttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/china-creara-nueva-gran-zona-de-libre-comercio/14821565http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2014-11/15/content_18920403.htmhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743092-china-apela-a-la-cumbre-de-la-apec-para-desplegar-todo-su-poderCon desconfianza, Abe y Xi inician el deshielo entre Japón y China.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/china/21632637-welcomeand-long-overduedetente-out-deep-freezehttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/la-descolonizacion-de-asia-entre-japon-y-occidente-88945.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742802-con-desconfianza-abe-y-xi-inician-el-deshielo-entre-japon-y-chinahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/negligencia-medica-habria-causado-muerte-de-mujeres-en-la-india/14818955Tres muertos en un ataque suicida contra una activista afgana.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-afghan-lawmaker-survives-kabul-bomb-blast-20141115-story.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30073189http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/female-afghan-mp-says-prayers-saved-her-attack-n249686http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/16/actualidad/1416172462_034225.html11 mujeres muertas por una esterilización masiva.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-india-sterilization-deaths-20141112-story.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743062-tragedia-en-la-india-11-muertes-por-una-esterilizacion-masivaCondenaron a 36 años de prisión al capitán del ferry Sewol.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742910-condenaron-a-36-anos-de-prision-al-capitan-del-ferry-sewolhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/condenan-a-36-anos-de-carcel-al-capitan-del-ferri-surcoreano-sewol/14817715Terremoto de 7.3 grados de magnitud sacudió a Indonesia.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30066518http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/sismo-de-73-grados-sacude-noreste-de-indonesia-con-alerta-de-tsunami/14836675http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/7-3-magnitude-quake-hits-indonesia-n249161China impide viajar a Pekín a tres líderes estudiantiles de Hong Kong.Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416071323_828020.htmlAtentados terroristas sacuden a Israel.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742803-tension-en-israel-por-dos-nuevos-asesinatosAl menos 56 muertos por accidente de autobús en Pakistán.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/al-menos-56-muertos-por-accidente-de-autobus-en-pakistan-/14817695Diálogo sobre desarrollo nuclear iraní.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-iran-nuclear-talks-20141114-story.htmlÁFRICAÁfrica continua siendo amenazada por el ébola.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-30072477http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ebola-virus-outbreak/mali-tries-track-200-contacts-after-new-ebola-cases-n248941http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/republica-democratica-del-congo-libre-de-ebola-1054531.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/africa/la-fg-mali-ebola-20141111-story.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21632883-malis-second-outbreak-ebola-more-worrying-double-whammyhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/el-panico-se-apodera-de-mali-por-culpa-del-ebola/14827036http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742414-el-temor-al-aislamiento-y-el-colapso-sanitario-aliados-del-ebola-en-sierra-leonaNigeria: un atacante suicida con uniforme escolar mató a 47 estudiantes en un colegio.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742656-nigeria-un-atacante-suicida-con-uniforme-escolar-mato-a-47-estudiantes-en-un-colegiohttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3969522.htmlEjército de Nigeria lucha contra Boko Haram.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30073702http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/muertos-explosion-mercado-nigeria-1054641.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/boko-haram-se-toma-chibok-donde-secuestro-a-mas-de-270-ninas/14832935http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2014/11/16/nigeria-chibok-la-ville-des-lyceennes-enlevees-reprise-par-l-armee-et-des-miliciens_4524341_3212.htmlOTRASVarios medios informan sobre la reunión del G20.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-30072674http://www.miamiherald.com/news/business/article3930434.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-australia-parochial-20141116-story.htmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014xiattendg20/2014-11/17/content_18924018.htmhttp://www.lemonde.fr/economie-mondiale/article/2014/11/16/les-trois-engagements-du-g20-croissance-transparence-fiscale-et-climat_4524331_1656941.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744412-el-documento-final-de-la-cumbre-del-g-20-incluyo-a-los-holdouts "The Economsit" publica su informe: "Business this week".Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21631169-business-week
Pierwszy globalny konflikt międzynarodowy w XX wieku doprowadził do rozbioru Turcji. Nowy układ sił usankcjonowany został wprowadzeniem systemu mandatowego będącego w rzeczywistości jedynie zawoalowaną formą kolonialnego charakteru zaboru arabskiej części tego państwa. Porozumienia między Wielką Brytanią i Francją dotyczące podziału stref wpływów na tym obszarze powierzało pieczę nad Mezopotamią władzom w Londynie. Umowa otwierała drogę do powstania na tym terytorium odrębnego państwa. Powołana przez Wielką Brytanię do życia monarchia iracka o powierzchni o 1/3 większej od obszaru dzisiejszej Polski była całkowicie sztucznym tworem politycznym, niewydzielonym tradycją historyczną konglomeratem etniczno–wyznaniowym, stanowiącym poza okręgami północnymi wykrojony z świata arabskiego fragment mający jedynie czytelną, opartą w przybliżeniu na kryterium narodowościowym granicę na wschodzie. Protektorzy i polityczni budowniczowie tego quasi–państwa, desygnując na tron króla Fajsala, ustanawiając powolne rządy i sterując procesem legislacyjnym, zapewnili tu sobie niemal nieograniczone wpływy . Nadzorowali politykę zagraniczną i obronną Iraku, a przede wszystkim tutejsze złoża ropy naftowej. Zmagania zbrojne II wojny światowej wykazały, jak bardzo ważne dla odniesienia sukcesu militarnego było zapewnienie nieograniczonego dostępu do źródeł tego surowca. Międzynarodowa ranga Iraku wyraźnie wzrosła. Zawiadywanie znajdującymi się na jego terytorium zasobami naturalnymi nabrało teraz dodatkowo zupełnie nowego, nie w pełni docenianego dotąd pozaekonomicznego wymiaru. Stały się one bowiem elementem strategicznym. Równie istotne zaczęło być samo położenie geopolityczne tego kraju. Oba te faktory, łącząc się w jedną całość, czyniły Irak niezwykle ważnym państwem bliskowschodnim. Posiadanie dominujących w nim wpływów pozwalało kształtować nie tylko rozmiary produkcji ropy ale przez długie lata ze względu na istniejącą infrastrukturę także cały prowadzony za pośrednictwem rurociągów transfer naftowy do arabskich portów Zatoki Perskiej i Morza Śródziemnego. W konsekwencji Irak pozostawał w ścisłym spektrum zainteresowania światowych mocarstw, a za takie uchodzić będą tu: Wielka Brytania, Stany Zjednoczone, Związek Radziecki oraz przez wzgląd na silne wpływy w świecie arabskim także Francja. Rezultaty agresywnej polityki tych potęg wobec Iraku, całkowicie determinujące sytuację i stan stosunków międzynarodowych w skali makroregionalnej a pośrednio globalnej, z różnych względów nie zostały jednak dotąd opracowane. Podstawowym celem badawczym pracy było zatem ustalenie wpływu, jaki wywierała w analizowanym okresie polityka mocarstw na sytuację wewnętrzną i zewnętrzną Iraku, a także ukazanie konsekwencji zajmowanego wobec tego państwa stanowiska dla stanu istniejących stosunków w obszarze Bliskiego i Środkowego Wschodu oraz globalnych relacji międzynarodowych. ; The analysis of the material confirms a wide range of political actions lead by Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union towards Iraq. The main reasons for such a state of affairs were Iraq's geopolitical location, and rich and easy to develop Iraqi oil fields. It was also the infrastructure enabling transit of home stock to Mediterranean ports and, in prospect, sending oil of Saudi, Kuwaian and Irani origin forward. As a result, in the time of post-war monarchy (1945 – 1958) Iraq was completely deprived of any influence on forming its own internal situation and international position. In the first case, the existence of such a situation was clearly expressed by the court's dependence on Great Britain and personal relationships between the king's family and the members of the government, and local political establishment. A similar evidence of inability to make independent decisions was Iraqi political parties financed by British and American groups of interest. They also manipulated, through the Iraqi offices, the work of both local legislatures and, at the same time, they helped each succeeding Baghdad cabinet in every respect. An equally obvious proof of Iraqi government dependence was their consultations on home affairs with representatives of Downing Street and the White House, as well as British forces stationing in Iraq and American military presence. Much the same should be judged from the fact that the basic branches of economy were under control of companies representing former mandatories and the treaties signed at that time. The external supervision reached even the political underground, which was kept under surveilance and secretely supported by the Soviet Union. Iraq was made a centre of British influence in the region, and was given a crucial role in all preparations to accomplish projects serving to restore British influence in the Middle East, which also shows Iraq's independence in the sphere of political relations. Equally visible symptom of this phenomenon was dubious attitude of Iraqi government during Sues Crisis. It included providing with weapon and fuel for planes taking off British airports to shell Egypt, protection for oil instalation and oil pipelines, planning Syria neutralization in the case it took any offensive actions against Israel – clearly contrasting to attitude of other Arabian countries. We can give the same explanation to Iraqi membership in Baghdad Pact strictly connected with the rest of British plans to get back the domination in the Middle East. The strong influence of western powers, especially Great Britain, on Iraqi government contributed significantly to support of political tension in the Middle East. Returning attempts to accomplish the Fertile Crescent unification under rule of probritish Hashimids favouring monopolization of oil transit towards Mediterranean coast destabilized the situation in Syria, Lebanon and Jordan making even Kuwait an object of potential expansion. These attempts also met a firm counteraction of remaining powers and authorities in Kuwait and Riyadh, which were unfavorable to british-iraqi aspirations. A seroius consequence of subjecting Iraq to strong external pressure, apart from ruinous results for stabilisation, was its destructive influence on the process of political integration of the Arabian world. It efficiently hampered introduction of existing unification ideas, which lay in the interest of each power. It is also worth to pay attention to the consequences of Iraqi membership in Baghdad Pact. Through the influence of western powers it became one of the bases of antirussian military pact by breaking the existing east Arabian neutrality and making it a new front of the Cold War confrontation. The changes in external situation and international Iraq position brought about by the revolution of July 14, 1958, were not only the effect of the Soviet Union's actions. Each power applied a completely different policy towards Iraq. The division lines of existing rivalry for this country were drawn not only along the standing bipolar confrontation border between east and west but first of all within the sphere of this last pole. Great Britain and the United States cooperation was limited to a very small range of issues. Political activity of American administration during presidencies of H. Truman and D. D. Eisenhower in relation to Iraq was directed towards changing the face of things in that country and replacing British interests by American ones. It proved totally inefficient. By destroying the existing balance it contributed significantly to loss of American influence, and, unable fill the empty space, it only prepared the political ground for Soviet penetration in Iraq. The Cremlin supported Arabian aspirations favouring independence. As a result, the western powers were deprived of their previous possibilities to influence this country. The revolution raised Iraqi independence on a new quality status. During the first decade of the republican government (1958 – 1967) the world powers retained their significant influence on Iraq. They interfered into the country's affairs in two ways: through economic relations and through oppositional groups. Both forms of the pressure used turned out to be very effective and forced the local government to take into consideration interests of Great Britain and the Soviet Union when making any decisions important for the country. The strength of this reaction was reflected in both trade deals, and mass riots and demonstrations started by Kurds. As a result not only the country's international position but its internal affairs as well were defined by the policy of the world powers towards Iraq. Pains of Iraqi leaders aimed at weakening the relations which cramped the country's independence were stopped by their deaths. A.K. Kasim was murdered whereas S. A. Arif died in a mysterious plane crash, which shows the complexity of this problem. The main reason which let the world powers influence strongly the Republic of Iraq during the years of 1958 – 1967 were the huge debts of this country in the face of the eastern block, whereas its income – due to the way in which the concession treaties based on proportional share in oil sale were written – came from the western oil consortiums and depended on the level of production. It gave both sides unlimited possibilities of political manipulations. It was only the nationalization of the Iraq's biggest company– Iraq Petroleum Company - on July 1, 1972, and of some of the other oil giants – Mosul Petroleum Company, Standard Oil of New Jersey, Mobil Oil, Gulbekian and a significant part of Royal Dutch shares during the next year – together with steep crude oil price boost and introduction of embargo on its deliveries to western countries by Arabian countries that granted a unique opportunity for the then Iraqi regime to limit radically foreign influence for more than a quarter of a century. Резюме Анализ подтвердил широкий спектр политический действий, предпринимавшихся Великобританией, Соединенными Штатами и Советским Союзом в отношении Ирака. Главной причиной такой ситуации стало геополитическое положение Ирака, богатые, не представляющие трудностей при добыче нефтяные месторождения и инфраструктура, позволяющая транспортировать сырье к портам Средиземного моря, а в перспективе – пересылать нефть из Ирана, Кувейта и Саудовской Аравии. Итак, в период послевоенной монархии (1945–1958) Ирак был полностью лишен возможности оказывать влияние как на ситуацию внутри страны, так и на международное положение. В первом случае это выражалось в зависимости дворцовых кругов от Великобритании и личных связях королевской семьи и членов правительства Ирака c английским политическим истеблишментом. О невозможности самостоятельного принятия решений свидетельствует также финансирование английскими и американскими деловыми кругами иракских парламентских партий, манипуляция с их помощью деятельностью обеих законодательных палат и оказание всесторонней поддержки со стороны западных держав очередным иракским правительствам. Очевидным симптомом зависимости иракских властей были консультации с представителями Великобритании и США относительно внутриполитических проблем, размещение на своей территории английских вооруженных сил и присутствие постоянной американской военной миссии. Подобным же образом нужно, по всей видимости, расценивать и тот факт, что основная отрасль экономики оставалась под контролем компаний, представляющих интересы бывших мандатариев, а также относящееся к тому же времени заключение международных договоров. Внешний контроль простирался даже на политическое подполье, контролируемое и тайно финансируемое Советским Союзом. Значимым для подчиненного положения в сфере международных отношений было выделение Ираку роли центра английского воздействия в регионе и подготовки разнообразных проектов, имеющих целью восстановление влияния этой державы на Ближнем Востоке. Заметным симптомом названного явления стала неоднозначная позиция иракского правительства во время Суэцкого кризиса: снабжение оружием и топливом вылетающих с местных аэродромов для бомбардировки Египта британских самолетов, защита установок и нефтепроводов, планы нейтрализации Сирии в случае, если она вступит в войну против Израиля – все это ярко контрастировало с позицией остальных арабских государств. Подобным образом объясняется и проблема иракского участия в Багдадском Пакте, тесно связанная с британскими намерениями вернуть себе господство на Ближнем Востоке. Сильное влияние западных держав, особенно Великобритании, на иракское правительство способствовало поддержанию политической напряженности в ближневосточном регионе. Постоянные попытки осуществить объединение "Благодатного Полумесяца" под властью пробританской династии Хашимидов, содействовали монополизации транзита нефти к средиземноморскому побережью, дестабилизировали ситуацию в Сирии, Ливане и Иордании, превращая даже Кувейт в объект потенциальной экспансии. Одновременно попытки эти сталкивались с решительным противоборством остальных мировых держав, каирских и риядских властей, не приветствовавших британо-иракские планы. Серьезным последствием того, что Ирак подвергался сильному внешнему давлению, кроме пагубных для региональной стабилизации результатов, было сильное деструктивное влияние на процесс политической интеграции арабского мира. Оно успешно тормозило распространение объединительных концепций, что, как следует подчеркнуть, было выгодно каждой из держав. Необходимо обратить внимание и на последствия иракского участия в Багдадском Пакте: силами западных стран Ирак стал одной из опор антисоветского военного соглашения, нарушив существовавшую до сих пор нейтральность арабского востока и превратив его в новый фронт холодной войны. Перемены во внутренней ситуации и международном положении Ирака, пришедшие с революцией 14 июля 1958 года, не были результатом только лишь эффективных действий Советского Союза, что следует отметить со всей решительностью. Каждая держава осуществляла особую политику в отношении этого ближневосточного государства. Линии раздела влияния проходили не только вдоль существовавшей тогда биполярной конфронтации Восток – Запад, но, прежде всего, внутри самого последнего полюса. Великобритания и Соединенные Штаты сотрудничали только в очень ограниченной сфере вопросов. Дипломатическая деятельность американской администрации президентов Г. Трумэна и Д.Д. Эйзенхауэра по отношению к Ираку, ориентированная на осуществление "смены караула" в этой стране и замещение британских интересов своими собственными, оказалась совершенно безрезультатной. Нарушая установившееся равновесие, она в значительной степени способствовала потере британцами влияния, но, не сумев заполнить образовавшуюся пустоту, лишь приготовила политическую почву для советского проникновения в Ирак. Кремль в нужный момент поддержал стремление арабов к независимости, в результате чего западные державы оказались лишены прежних способов воздействия. Революция вывела иракскую суверенность на качественно новый уровень. В первой декаде республиканского правления (1958–1967) мировые державы продолжали оказывать значительное влияние на ситуацию в стране. Вмешательство во внутренние дела осуществлялось двумя способами: через использование экономических связей и оппозиционных группировок. Обе формы воздействия были весьма эффективны, заставляя местные власти при принятии важных для страны решений учитывать интересы Советского Союза или той же Великобритании. Силу этого воздействия отражали то торговые договора, то массовые беспорядки и демонстрации или курдские восстания. В результате не только международное положение Ирака, но и отношения внутри страны определялись позицией мировых держав. Старания иракских лидеров, направленные на ограничение связывающих самостоятельность страны факторов, обрывались с их смертью: А.К. Касем был убит, а А.С. Ариф погиб в авиакатастрофе, произошедшей при загадочных обстоятельствах, что, по сути, отражает уровень сложности проблемы. Основной причиной, позволяющей мировым державам оказывать сильное влияние на Иракскую Республику в 1958–1967 гг. были огромные задолженности государства восточному блоку, а полученные доходы, из-за формулировок концессионных договоров, опиравшихся на процентное участие в продаже нефти, шли от западных монополий и зависели от размера добычи. Это давало обеим сторонам неограниченные возможности политических манипуляций. Лишь национализация 1 июня 1972 года самого крупного на территории Ирака предприятия Иракской Нефтяной Компании, а через год и других видных представителей отрасли: Мосульской Нефтяной Компании, Standard Oil of New Jersy, Mobil Oil, Gulbelkian и значительной части капитала Royal Dutch при одновременном резком повышении цен на сырье и введении арабскими странами эмбарго на поставки в западные страны предоставило тогдашнему иракскому режиму исключительный шанс, чтобы радикально ограничить внешнее воздействие на более чем четверть века. ; Piotr Kwiatkiewicz
