Suchergebnisse

Введение. Статья посвящена исследованию общих и дополнительных правовых гарантий несовершеннолетнему в ходе отправления правосудия в суде, а также анализу понятия«ювенальные технологии» в качестве гарантии обеспечения прав несовершеннолетнего подсудимого на стадии судебного разбирательства. На основе анализа имеющихся в науке и на практике точек зрения предпринята попытка дать собственное оригинальное определение понятию «ювенальные технологии». Исследуется практическое применение ювенальных технологий в деятельности судов в рамках пилотных проектов в различных регионах страны с целью их дальнейшего законодательного закрепления и применения на всей территории России для решения проблем подростков, оказавшихся в зоне риска. Результаты. Проведен анализ положительного опыта применения ювенальных технологий в различных регионах страны, а также исследованы проблемы современного российского общества, решить которые позволит формирование системы ювенальной юстиции. Заключение. В результате анализа опыта применения ювенальных технологий в рамках пилотных проектов на территории страны, а также уровня преступности в целом по стране автор приходит к выводу о необходимости скоординированных действий всех государственных структур и общественных организаций, направленных на усиление профилактической работы с несовершеннолетними, и кардинального совершенствования правосудия по делам несовершеннолетних. ; Introduction. The article deals with the general and additional legal guarantees to a minor during the administration of justice in the court, as well as the analysis of the concept of «juvenile technologies» to guarantee the rights of the minor defendant at the trial stage. On the basis of analysis of the available science and practical points of view, an attempt to own the original definition of «juvenile technology». The author examines the practical application of technologies in juvenile courts in the pilot projects in different regions of the country, with a view to further legislative consolidation and application throughout the territory of Russia to solve problems of teenagers caught up in the risk zone. Results. The analysis of the positive experience with the juvenile technologies in different regions of the country, and also investigated the problems of modern Russian society, decide that allow the formation of the juvenile justice system. Conclustion. The study author showed that the experiences of juvenile technologies in pilot projects in the country, as well as the level of crime in the whole country shows the author comes to the conclusion that coordinated action by all government agencies and civil society organizations to strengthen preventive work with juveniles and a radical improvement of justice juvenile.

While many countries are facing difficulties in implementing transitional justice mechanisms, designed mainly to include different stakeholders in the process, in very few contexts have perpetrators been perceived as active participants who represent a potential resource to the process. This study examines and compares two contexts in which this has been so. Its central objective is to understand to what extent the practice of plea bargaining with perpetrators of war crimes at the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) contributed to the process of establishing the truth about past abuses and to compare this with probably the most controversial aspect of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa (TRC) -- granting of amnesty to the responsible for the atrocities during apartheid. Drawing on both contexts, this study argues that that acknowledgment given by perpetrators potentially constitutes a legitimate and in some contexts crucial transitional justice mechanism. The study has not examined all the issues relating to these processes, recognizing their complexity in both the historical development of the field of transitional justice and the specific features of the process in each context. The study was developed at two levels, firstly through a normative analysis of the aims and objectives of the plea bargaining process at the ICTY and amnesty process at the TRC and secondly, through historical and factual investigation of the processes and outcomes in relation to the criteria set out for processes ICTY and TRC adopted. The main aim was to analyze what were the outcomes of these two processes in terms of contributing to the process of establishment of truth. Recognizing that these processes were inherently different from each other ? one being implemented in criminal trials, and other in truth commission, it is important to note that these have been the only two examples to date to include a form of compromise with perpetrators as one of their main strategies for the process of establishing truth. While recognizing that serious criticism have been made against both institutions for this compromises, this study concludes that any truth process, if trying to be comprehensive, will have to include perpetrators, because only they can provide the most important element in dealing with the human rights violations and the one most difficult to be obtained - acknowledgment by those who actually committed the crime.

El presente artículo analiza y construye una interpretación de los litigios de los indios que tuvieron lugar en el marco de la justicia civil de Buenos Aires durante fines de la Colonia y las primeras décadas de vida independiente. En particular y considerando como sujeto analítico a todos los indígenas que habitaban el Estado al momento de litigar en los juzgados hispanocriollos, el trabajo muestra cómo las justicias se desplegaban en la administración de dichos pleitos; qué participación tuvo el indio querellante y querellado y finalmente, en qué medida los derechos establecidos por la legislación imperante se extendieron a este sector social en la práctica. Para su abordaje y comprensión -y dado que los expedientes se convierten en la principal fuente de análisis- de un corpus seleccionado de causas indígenas administradas por la justicia de Buenos Aires desde 1785 con el inicio de las actividades de la Segunda Real Audiencia y de la subsiguiente Cámara de Apelaciones en 1812, se extrajeron únicamente aquellas de índole civil. De esta manera, el trabajo busca cubrir, en la medida de lo posible, el vacío de conocimiento existente en la historiografía argentina en relación a las cuestiones propiamente planteadas. ; This article analyses and builds an interpretation of the litigations of the Indians which took place in the framework of civil justice during the late Colony and the initial stages of the Independence. Considering as analytical subject to all the Indians that inhabited the State at the time of litigating in the courts Hispanocriollos, the work shows how the justices were deployed in the administration of such lawsuits; what role the plaintiff and defendant Indian had; and finally, to what extent the rights established by the commanding legislation, were extended to Indians in practice. For its approach and understanding -and because expedients become the main source of analysis- we extracted only those of civil indole from a selected corpus of indigenous judicial trials administered by the justice of Buenos Aires from 1785 with the beginning of functions of The Second Royal Audience and of the following Appeals Chamber in 1812. So, as far as possible, this work seeks to cover the knowledge gap regarding the raised issues of the Indians, that exists in the Argentine historiography. ; Fil: Calabrese Bonzón, Ángela. Universidad Nacional de La Plata

El presente artículo de reflexión describe el proceso de formulación depolíticas públicas con miras al proceso de paz en Colombia donde participanactores estatales y no estatales. Así entonces, inciden en el diseño de modelosde justicia transicional actores como las Fuerzas Militares, los gremioseconómicos, los medios de comunicaciones y las ONG. En dicha discusióny debate se encuentran intereses paralelos, comunes y opuestos lo que denotala complejidad del proceso de construcción de modelos de transición que facilitenla consecución de la paz y la reparación de las víctimas como aspectofundamental para la reconciliación nacional. A partir de lo anterior, el presenteartículo parte de la comprensión del comportamiento de Colombia como Estadoy como gobierno frente al conflicto armado, esbozando las tensiones quese han producido por las ambivalencias frente a este y la imposibilidad delcumplimiento de los estándares internacionales de DDHH. Seguidamente seabordan los instrumentos de justicia transicional implementados en Colombiaen contraste con los estándares internacionales para la justicia transicional.Finalmente, se interpreta las posiciones y el juego político de los actores estatalesy no estatales para el proceso de formación de los modelos de justiciatransicional. AbstractThe present article of reflection describes the process of formulation ofpublic policies with a view to the process of peace in Colombia where stateactors take part and not state. This way then, there affect in the model designof transitional justice actors like the Military Forces, the economic unions, themeans of communications and the NGOs. In the above mentioned discussionand debate they find parallel, common and opposite interests what denotes thecomplexity of the process of model construction of transition that there facilitatethe attainment of the peace and the repair of the victims as fundamental aspectfor the national reconciliation. From the previous thing, the present articledeparts from the comprehension of the behavior of Colombia as State and asgovernment opposite to the armed conflict, outlining the tensions that have takenplace for the ambivalencias opposite to the same one and the impossibilityof the fulfillment of DDHH's international standards. Immediately afterwardsthere are approached the instruments of transitional justice implemented inColombia in contrast by the international standards for the transitional justice.Finally, is interpreted the positions and the political game of the state and notstate actors for the process of formation of the models of transitional justice.

International audience ; In 2003, 80 Aboriginal Noongar, represented by the South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council (SWALSC), lodged the 'Single Noongar Claim', an application for native title, on behalf of all Noongar people, over the South West of Western Australia, including the Perth metropolitan area. At the request of the State of Western Australia and the Commonwealth, the hearing over the Perth area commenced first in 2005 before Justice Wilcox, who handed down his judgement in 2006. He recognised the existence of a single Noongar community, governed by a normative system of laws and customs at the date of settlement in 1829, and confirmed the continuity of that community and normative system to the present day. He identified eight surviving native title rights that should be recognised, subject to extinguishment. The State and Commonwealth governments appealed this decision. In 2008, the full Federal Court confirmed the existence of a single Noongar society at sovereignty. However, the full Court overturned the positive determination and sent the case back to another court for reconsideration. In consultation with the Noongar, SWALSC decided to pursue the Single Noongar Claim through negotiations with the State government. These negotiations should soon be concluded. The concept of history and its interpretations, rather than culture, tradition or practice, played a central role in the prosecution of the separate proceeding and its subsequent appeal, and is still central to the negotiations with the State government. I illustrate how history as such as has been instrumentalized by the various parties involved in the Single Noongar Claim. The applicants used historical evidence to prove the continuity of the Noongar community, a view adopted by Justice Wilcox. On the contrary, the State and Commonwealth argued that, due to the history of dispossession in the South West, the maintenance of 'traditional' laws and customs to the present day was impossible. The judges of the full Court accepted their claim that continuity had not been proved for each generation and were dissatisfied with Justice Wilcox's consideration of the historical context as an explanation for change. Eventually, to prepare themselves for the negotiations with the State of Western Australia, SWALSC used history again as an empowering tool proving the continuity and strength of the Noongar community.

ANALISIS PELAYANANPADA PENDAFTARAN SERTIFIKAT JAMINAN FIDUSIA DI KANTOR WILAYAH KEMENTERIAN HUKUM DAN HAK ASASI MANUSIA JAWA TIMURYossi Wahyu ArieantoMeirinawatiAbsctractThe public service is the primary function of Government to fulfill the people's needs of various aspects of the service. One aspect of concern currently is service on the registration of the fiduciary guarantee. Where the fiduciary guarantee is rights guarantee in the form of objects handing over rights based on the trust which agreed to guarantee repayment of the debt to the lender that serves to protect the rights of consumers who do a financing vehicle for credit finance companies. Finance companies must register the fiduciary guarantee in any credit financing of motor vehicles in the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights regional office, in accordance with Permenkeu Number 130/FMD. 010/2012. One of the regional offices that deliver a fiduciary guarantee services is the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights of East Java regional office. This research aims to analyze the service on the fiduciary guarantee certificate registration in the regional offices of the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights of East Java.The type of research that used is descriptive with qualitative approach. The subject of this research consists of the Head. Field of the Fiduciary service, staffs in the fiduciary service, and people that used the fiduciary service. Data collection techniques used are interviews, observation, and documentation. Technique of data analysis performed using analysis of qualitative data in the form of data reduction, the presentation of the data, and draw conclusions.The results of this research describe the service on registration of fiduciary guarantee, can be seen from the indicator of Procedure that appropriate service standard service and comprehension of the people and the officer was pretty good. settlement time, the Government's defined standards could not be fulfilled by the officer. Service fees, there are Government-issued regulations about the cost of a fiduciary guarantee registration. Service product, there are three products that accepted by the community. They are Fiduciary guarantee certificate, the changes and removal of the fiduciary guarantee certificate. Infrastructure and facilities, including buildings, equipment and human resources, can be said to be inadequate. The Service provider's competence shown by the officers that had acted professionally and in accordance with proficiency.Keywords: Fiduciary guarantee, Public Service

This paper aims to elaborate upon Pope Benedict's speech to the Bundestag in September 2011, just as he Himself suggests doing. The core of the discourse is the foundation of Law or the fundamental issue of its philosophy: Justice (which is the response from iusnaturalism to the question about such principle). With Kelsen, what is and what ought to be were set apart and that had an adverse effect on their essence. On the contrary, Benedict XVI wants to return to the ancient and perennial notion of justice, the foundation of Law that understood the just thing as a trinomial composed of nature (what is), reason (what ought to be), and Spiritus Creator (support of reason and nature) and made justice more comprehensible. This is the starting point from which this paper intends to comment on in order to facilitate the understanding of Benedict XVI's ideas, basing His thoughts on the book by Leonardo Boff La opción tierra (Earth option). From our point of view this book approximates what is to what ought to be and from Boff's ecologist view poses some questions in the human level, particularly in the field of Law ; Se busca desarrollar el discurso del papa Benedicto XVI al Bundestag en septiembre de 2011, talcomo su autor invita a hacerlo. El centro del discurso es el fundamento del Derecho o asuntobásico de su filosofía: la justicia (respuesta iusnaturalista a la pregunta sobre tal fundamento).Con Kelsen, el Derecho separó el ser del deber ser, afectando de manera negativa su esencia. Benedicto XVI, por el contrario, quiere volver al ancestral y perenne concepto de justicia que cimenta el Derecho, que veía lo justo como un trinomio compuesto de naturaleza (ser), razón (deber ser) y Spiritus Creator (sustento de razón y naturaleza), que hacía de la justicia algo más comprensible. Desde ahí se pretende hacer algunas glosas que faciliten la comprensión del pensamiento de Benedicto XVI, apoyando el pensamiento papal en el escrito de Leonardo Bofftitulado La opción Tierra, libro que, a mi juicio, acerca el ser al deber ser y sugiere desde esapostura ecologicista boffiana algunos interrogantes en el plano humano, más concretamenteen el terreno del Derecho.

Since the mid-1970s the U.S. imprisonment rate has increased roughly fivefold. As Christopher Wildeman and Bruce Western explain, the effects of this sea change in the imprisonment rate—commonly called mass imprisonment or the prison boom—have been concentrated among those most likely to form fragile families: poor and minority men with little schooling. Imprisonment diminishes the earnings of adult men, compromises their health, reduces familial resources, and contributes to family breakup. It also adds to the deficits of poor children, thus ensuring that the effects of imprisonment on inequality are transferred intergenerationally. Perversely, incarceration has its most corrosive effects on families whose fathers were involved in neither domestic violence nor violent crime before being imprisoned. Because having a parent go to prison is now so common for poor, minority children and so negatively affects them, the authors argue that mass imprisonment may increase future racial and class inequality—and may even lead to more crime in the long term, thereby undoing any benefits of the prison boom. U.S. crime policy has thus, in the name of public safety, produced more vulnerable families and reduced the life chances of their children. Wildeman and Western advocate several policy reforms, such as limiting prison time for drug offenders and for parolees who violate the technical conditions of their parole, reconsidering sentence enhancements for repeat offenders, and expanding supports for prisoners and ex-prisoners. But Wildeman and Western argue that criminal justice reform alone will not solve the problems of school failure, joblessness, untreated addiction, and mental illness that pave the way to prison. In fact, focusing solely on criminal justice reforms would repeat the mistakes the nation made during the prison boom: trying to solve deep social problems with criminal justice policies. Addressing those broad problems, they say, requires a greater social commitment to education, public health, and the employment opportunities of low-skilled men and women. The primary sources of order and stability—public safety in its wide sense—are the informal social controls of family and work. Thus, broad social policies hold the promise not only of improving the well-being of fragile families, but also, by strengthening families and providing jobs, of contributing to public safety.

JUDICIAL ETHICS AND DISCIPLINARY AMENABILITY: PROBLEM AREAS Summary The exclusive location of the judicial authorities in the government system, describes the judicial power of justice function in the country. This is the main function of the judiciary, enshrined in the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania. Any other authority other than the courts cannot implement these functions. According to that constitutional provision for the special status of the judiciary, can be concluded that persons who wish to become a judge, must also be made extremely high demands. Such persons must be the example of the public, that their decisions are respected and enforced. It is therefore very important that judges comply with the principles of conduct for judges at the time of the direct and unrelated to the direct duties. The judge, at the same time and all of the legal system, good name, and procedural decisions and execution directly depends on the perception of judicial ethics and compliance. The current Code of Judge Ethics of the Republic of Lithuania and any continuation of conduct lay down the basic principles, however, casts doubts on its implementation mechanism. The ethical conduct of judges of the issues will be discussed for various reasons: dispute resolution should be to raise the confidence, the judges granted power is closely related to values such as justice, truth and freedom, the judges applied the standards of conduct - these values as a necessary condition for confidence in the operation of justice. The paper aims to define the activities and principles of conduct to be observed by the judge in the exercise of the legislation of the features and functions free from direct execution. Assess the value of the Code of Judicial Ethics and practice of media influence in the judiciary's image. To analyse the behaviour of the judges expected by the public to trust the courts and to their authority. It also analyses realization of the institute of the judges' disciplinary responsibility in practice and attempts to identify the related problems. Master's work consists of two major parts: Part I – "Judicial Ethics", Part II – "The disciplinary responsibility of judges", which are analysed by subdividing them into smaller sections.

JUDICIAL ETHICS AND DISCIPLINARY AMENABILITY: PROBLEM AREAS Summary The exclusive location of the judicial authorities in the government system, describes the judicial power of justice function in the country. This is the main function of the judiciary, enshrined in the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania. Any other authority other than the courts cannot implement these functions. According to that constitutional provision for the special status of the judiciary, can be concluded that persons who wish to become a judge, must also be made extremely high demands. Such persons must be the example of the public, that their decisions are respected and enforced. It is therefore very important that judges comply with the principles of conduct for judges at the time of the direct and unrelated to the direct duties. The judge, at the same time and all of the legal system, good name, and procedural decisions and execution directly depends on the perception of judicial ethics and compliance. The current Code of Judge Ethics of the Republic of Lithuania and any continuation of conduct lay down the basic principles, however, casts doubts on its implementation mechanism. The ethical conduct of judges of the issues will be discussed for various reasons: dispute resolution should be to raise the confidence, the judges granted power is closely related to values such as justice, truth and freedom, the judges applied the standards of conduct - these values as a necessary condition for confidence in the operation of justice. The paper aims to define the activities and principles of conduct to be observed by the judge in the exercise of the legislation of the features and functions free from direct execution. Assess the value of the Code of Judicial Ethics and practice of media influence in the judiciary's image. To analyse the behaviour of the judges expected by the public to trust the courts and to their authority. It also analyses realization of the institute of the judges' disciplinary responsibility in practice and attempts to identify the related problems. Master's work consists of two major parts: Part I – "Judicial Ethics", Part II – "The disciplinary responsibility of judges", which are analysed by subdividing them into smaller sections.

[ES] A lo largo de la Edad Moderna los Estados Pontificios mantuvieron una naturaleza compleja, caracterizada por fuertes tradiciones municipales, amplios poderes feudales y la herencia de los ducados que habían pertenecido a dinastías extintas, como el caso de Ferrara y Urbino. Todo ello condicionó el gobierno romano en los distintos lugares. También fue necesario adaptar las diversas clases de justicia —laica, eclesiástica, distributiva y conmutativa— a las circunstancias locales, sin comprometer la autoridad del Papa o de sus representantes. En este proyecto político de dominación del territorio, Roma y su sistema de justicia se propusieron como modelo para el conjunto de los Estados Pontificios. El control del orden y de la administración de justicia, sinónimos de buen gobierno y factores determinantes para mantener el consenso hacia el poder papal, se manifestaron en la adaptación de la norma y de la práctica a la realidad local, como prueba la correspondencia de las congregaciones romanas —la Sacra Consulta, el Buon Governo, la Inquisición— con los funcionarios judiciales periféricos. ; [EN] Throughout the early modern period the Papal States maintained their composite nature; characterized by territories with strong traditions of local government, extensive feudal powers and by the inheritance of duchies that had belonged to dynasties that had become extinct, as happened in the cases of Ferrara and Urbino. These characteristics of the papal dominions strongly determined the nature of Roman government in the localities. Also very necessary was the need to adapt different kinds of justice —lay, ecclesiastical, distributive and commutative— to these local conditions, without compromising the authority of the pope or that of his representatives. In this political project of territorial domination, Rome and its system of justice was put forward as a model for the entire Papal States. Control of law and order and the administration of justice, themselves synonyms of «good government», (and determining factors in maintaining the consent of those under papal authority), received expression in the adaptation of norms and practices to local conditions, as can be seen in the dense correspondence between the relevant Roman Congregations —of the Sacra Consulta, Buon Governo and Holy Office— and the local law officers.

In this paper we shall center in one of the questions that takes up the first plan of the nowadays theoretical reflexion: the problem of democracy as the political form of the public use of reason. We shall take it from the paradigm that presents J. Rawls in his last works with a view specially to the function and limits that Rawls asigns to «public Reason» and «public Deliberation». The analysis of these concepts seems to me hugely illuminating for the contemporary democratic theory. In the first place I have analysed the relation between democracy and political conception of justice, and afterwards between public reason and the limits of public deliberation. I conclude that the displayed conception of public reason mainly aspires to mark the boundaries of a space that cannot be subjected to interests, either strategical or even deliberative, because it is secured by a political conception of justice which is acepted by everyone. A conception that tries to overcome the conflict between different forms of life through the ideal of justice and human rights. ; En el presente trabajo me centro, principalmente, en una de las cuestiones que ocupan, a mi modo de ver, el primer plano de la reflexión teórica actual: el problema de la democracia como forma política del uso público de la razón por parte de todos, estudiándolo desde el paradigma que nos ofrece John Rawls en sus últimas obras. Sobre todo en el papel y límite que Rawls asigna a la «Razón pública» y la «Deliberación pública», cuyo análisis me parece enormemente sugerente e iluminador para la Teoría democrática contemporánea. He analizado, en primer lugar, la relación entre democracia y concepción política de justicia, y en segundo, la razón pública y los límites de la deliberación pública. Concluyendo que la concepción presentada de la razón pública está comprometida, sobre todo, con delimitar un espacio que no puede estar sometido a intereses, ya sean estratégicos o incluso deliberativos, porque está garantizado por la concepción política de justicia, aceptada por todos. Una concepción que intenta superar el conflicto entre formas de vida diferentes a través del ideal de justicia y los derechos.

Many papers on gender inequality focus on one or more respects in which women, as a group, fare worse than men, with some also noting respects in which gender discrimination and oppression is bad not only for women and children but also, as John Stuart Mill recognized, for society as a whole (1869: eg. 471-5, 558, 564). All this is, of course, consistent with men being harmed by patriarchal institutions or worse off than women in some respects either because of those institutions or for independent reasons. In his controversial paper "Four Puzzles on Gender Inequality," based on a provocative talk presented at a feminist forum, Philippe Van Parijs lists some peculiar gender inequalities. Such inequalities are puzzling not because they indicate dimensions in which women fare better than men but because they show a lack of shared and clear criteria to determine when inequality involves injustice, which is not due to predictable differences between Left and Right. Whether some inequalities require some sort of compensation or institutional reform is unclear even within a single position in distributive justice, including positions as elaborated as that of John Rawls. As readers will notice, the paper is different from the standard scholarly pieces that appear in academic journals like LEAP. However, it still serves a valuable philosophical function because the puzzles it describes raise important questions regarding which statistical differences between two social groups identify an injustice and which merely contain information that is either irrelevant or that bears a more indirect relation to social justice. The value of discussing these questions, stressed by Van Parijs' response "Real Freedom for All Women (and Men)," thus extends well beyond feminism. In addition, each instance of gender inequality Van Parijs describes is also intriguing in its own right, and not only as an illustration of the general problem just described. So, the discussion published here aims to contribute to an exchange that is informative and engaging not only for those interested in gender but also for those working on distributive justice more generally. ; This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme (Grant Agreement Number: 648610).

International law — Sources — Custom — Local custom — Whether possible for legally binding custom to be based on relations between two States alone — Whether necessary to look to general international custom or general principles of law recognized by civilized nations in support of existence of local custom — Whether in absence of binding local custom State may rely on general customary law or general principles of law — Circumstances in which particular practice prevails over general rule.State succession — International conventions — Treaties concerning rights over territory — Treaties creating personal rights and obligations — Right of passage over foreign territory to reach enclaves — Portuguese enclaves of Dadra and Nagar — Aveli in India.Treaties — Conclusion and operation of — Conditions of validity — Criteria those of period when treaty signed — Treaty of Poona, 1779, between Portugal and Maratha Ruler.Treaties — Termination of — By operation of law — In general — Clausula rebus sic stantibus — Extinction of treaty rights and obligations owing to changed relations between one Party and successor State to other Party — Treaty of Poona, 1779, between Portugal and Maratha Ruler.International Court of Justice — Judicial function — Statute, Article 38 (1) — Judicial determination of rights on basis of international law — Degree of precision required for such determination — Relevance of difficulties in exercise of right and fulfilment of corresponding obligation.International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — Competence — Acceptance of compulsory jurisdiction subject to reservation ratione temporis — Moment when dispute arises — Nature and subject of dispute — Distinction between facts or situations the existence of which is presupposed by dispute and facts or situations which are real cause of dispute.International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — Competence — Acceptance of compulsory jurisdiction subject to reservation of questions falling exclusively within domestic jurisdiction of accepting State — Scope of reservation.Territory — Nature of territorial sovereignty — Rights in and over territory — Enclaves — Sovereign rights of State in which enclaves situated — Right of passage over territory of that State for purpose of access to enclaves — Right of access necessarily presupposed by existence of enclaves — Discretionary right of sovereign of surrounding territory to refuse right of passage for reasons of internal security — Consistency of requirement of prior authorization with existence of right of passage — Effect upon exercise of right of passage of new de facto Government in enclaves opposed to Government of State claiming sovereignty over enclaves — Portuguese enclaves of Dadra and Nagar — Aveli in India.

State responsibility — Claims — In general — Exhaustion of local remedies — Nature of rule — Exceptions to rule — Whether rule applicable to wrongful acts of Government — Whether rule applicable when local courts not competent to examine relevant issues of international law — Whether rule applicable to claims arising directly between Governments — Determination of nature of claim — Whether dispute arises out of espousal of claim of a national — Exhaustion of local remedies as a procedural bar.International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — CompetenceNecessity to exhaust local remedies — Nature of plea that local remedies not exhausted — Whether directed to jurisdiction or to admissibility.Preliminary objections — Reservations — Disputes arising prior to date of acceptance by defendant State of jurisdiction of the Court — Elements constituting dispute — Whether date of acceptance by plaintiff State is relevant — Limits of operation of rule of reciprocity.International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — Procedure — Suspension of proceedin~s on the merits upon receipt of a preliminary objection — New submission amounting to new claim on the merits filed after suspension — Admissibility of — Rules of Court, Article 62 (3).War — In general — Effects of outbreak of — On enemy subjects — With regard to their property — Measures of seizure and retention of enemy property — Determination of enemy character of property — Whether within domestic jurisdiction of State taking such measures.Disputes — International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — Competence — Declarations under Article 36 (2) of Statute — Reservation of matters essentially within domestic jurisdiction of declarant State as determined by that State — "Automatic reservation" — Whether objection based on such reservation may be joined to merits — Validity of automatic reservation — Relevance of limited reliance on reservation — Whether affecting validity of declaration as a whole — Severability — Whether reservation compatible with Article 36 (6) of Statute — Immutable character of rules fixed by Statute — Meaning of "obligation" to recognize jurisdiction of Court in Article 36 (2) — Effect of reservation on character of declaration as a legal instrument — Relevance of intention of State to make valid and effective acceptance of jurisdiction — Relevance of past practice of State with regard to arbitral and judicial settlement — Whether condition that reservation be applied "reasonably" may be implied — Distinction between "determined" and "understood" — Whether Court has jurisdiction to decide if reservation exercised in good faith — Principle that Court must be cautious in attributing bad faith or unreasonableness to a sovereign State.