The Silk Route Between Past and Present. A Paradigm Beyond Space and Time. On the threshold of the third millennium, in an atmosphere of anachronisms and contradictions, dominated and conditioned by scientific and technological discoveries, new ideas seem to take flight whilst regional barriers and territorial boundaries are collapsing to give way to a new form of comprehensiveness. Sharing ideas and intellectual stimuli, amalgamating cultural elements circulating along its intertwining branches, the Silk Route has more than once given life to new scientific forms, cultural and intellectual systems and, amongst these, artistic shapes and religious syncretism. The "Silk Route", which, with its articulated network of twisting routes and sub-routes, even now well represents the challenging paradigm of a new age yet standing at its threshold.
A paradigm beyond time and space. The following paper aims at focusing on the Silk Route's Religious-Cultural dimension in the middle-inner Asia of the 13th-15th Centuries, when, whatever may have happened regarding local realms and rulers, it played the role of junction and meeting point of different worlds and their civilisations. Even now we are confronted with a political trend that is at once and the same time a cultural current; emanating from the past, it is re-linking Europe and Asia and, re-uniting territories with their individual and traditional cultural forms, is shaping a renewed kaleidoscopic framework. We are confronted with new forces deeply rooted in the past, which, emanating from the far eastern fringes of Asia, by the second decade of the 21st century have reached the far western fringes of Europe, dynamics that are not only 'economics' and 'scientific technologies' but also thought, religion, and other intellectual values. These forces are heir of past times, nevertheless they endure in the present and are the active lively projection of a future time…though still largely to be understood and matured. A vision of life and universe where speculative and religious values coexist with astounding technological and scientific discoveries in a global dimension without space and time.
At the verge of this millennium, the Information and Communication Revolution has given life with its advanced technologies to a new space conditioned and dominated by no-distances. And this space with its always-evolving scientific discoveries today involves the society in its entirety (what is commonly named as "global space" actually symbolised by the Silk Route), endeavours to amalgamate it creating new links between civil and political society and positioning them in a new military dimension. New forms and structures that are rapidly evolving in search of some balance between technological development and preservation of ancient traditions, which might make possible social and economic justice, yet an utopia more than a reality. However, both (social and economic justice) form the ideological basis of order and stability, anxiously pursued by the young generation in search of an economic and speculative order where stability, security (hard and soft security) and religious structures should in their turn become the platform of new political-institutional structures.
Be that as it may, this is not a new phenomenon. Technological advancements are astoundingly new, but not the process and its aims. We are confronted with a phenomenon that has already occurred in more than one historic phase. Epochal phases. That is the human search for economic and social justice, and their framing into new conceptual schemes. And within this ratio, it would be unrealistic to ignore an additional key-factor. It would be unrealistic to deny that Religion has always been a major player. It has been at the basis of more than one revolution, it has represented the culturalpolitical response to foreign challenges, it has legitimised military action, it has given life to new spaces and political systems, it has filled with its pathos cultural and political voids. It has given to Mankind and Universe a new centrality, creating a new space within which Man and Mankind, History and Philosophy, Cosmos and Universe with their laws meet and merge in new systems and structural orders. The World and its Destiny, core of lively debates, conditioned by the eternal dialectic between economics and society, between society and religion, between science and technology on the one hand, and religion on the other, between formal ratio and ideologies or myths, which underline with their voice the eternal antithesis between cultures and civilisations.
At the verge of the third millennium, the intellectual world is facing a new historiographical debate, into which the Religious Factor has also entered. Knowledge and the vision of the world and its new order/disorder are translated into a new philosophy of culture and history, of society and religion. Rationality, historicity of scientific knowledge, nature and experience, nature and human 'ratio', science and ethics, science and its language, science and its new aims and objectives are amongst some of the major themes of this debate. But not only this: which aims, which objectives? And within which new order that might ensure security and stability, social and economic justice? Thence, revolution and power are coming to the fore with another factor: Force and its use…a stage that, however, does not disregard dialogue and tolerance, or, as recently stated by Francesco Bergoglio, more than tolerance, "reciprocal respect". These are only 'some' amongst the main issues discussed and heard of also in the traditional culture of ordinary people.
Undoubtedly, the end of the Cold War and the well-known "global village" dealt with by Samuel Huntington, the global village with its technological revolutions, have induced to re-think our own speculative parameters, traditional paradigms and models of society and power, mankind and statehood. And once again we have been confronted with elements that might bring to new forms of sharp opposition and a global disorder. However, beyond and behind the Huntingtonian cliché of the "clash of civilizations", a new cultural current seems to take flight spurring from the roots of a traditional past, which however has not yet disappeared. The Silk Route stems out emanating from the far-eastern lands of Asia as the conceptual image, the paradigm of a conceivable new order. By merging the material, scientific-technological and economic dimension of life with a new cultural (or neo-cultural) vocation it seeks (and seems to be able) to give life to a new social body and new systemic-structural answers, a comprehensive order capable of tackling the challenges opened by the collapse of the traditional cultural parameters and the dramatic backdrop of a mere clash of civilisations.
Middle-Inner Asia of the 13th -15th Centuries: the Silk Route and its Reflection on Painting and Architectonic Forms. As just pointed out, nothing is new in the course of History. Professor Axel Berkowsky has authoritatively lingered on the Silk Route – or better "the New Silk Route" – with specific regard on practical aspects of these last decades. In the following text, I wish to linger on a past historic period, particularly fertile when confronted with the collapse of traditional values and the challenges posed by new fearful forces and their dynamics: the Mongols with their hordes (ulus) and, some later, Tamerlane with his terrible Army. Sons of the steppe and its culture, these people suddenly appeared on the stage, raced it from Mesopotamia to the north-eastern corner of Asia with their hordes and their allied tribal groups, shattered previous civilisations and imposed a new dominion, a new political-military order and new models of life. But, with their Military superiority, they also brought the codes and the ancient traditional knowledge of the nomadic world. It is misleading to watch to this epochal phase only as a phase of devastation and horrors. With their codes, Mongols and Timurids brought with them the Chinese algebraic, mathematical and scientific knowledge, and fused it with Mesopotamian mathematical and medical sciences reaching peaks of astronomical, arithmetical, numerical, geometric, algebraic theoretical and practical knowledge. They also brought with them from vital centres of religious scholarship and life a large number of theologians, pirs, traditionists and legal religious scholars with their individual religious features and systems. Shamanism, Buddhism, Muslim forms, Nestorianism and other cults vigorously practised in the mobile world of the steppe gave life to an important phase of religious culture and multifarious practices largely imbued with mystic feelings and traditional emotional states.
Then, and once again, within the global space created by the military conquests of the new-comers, the Silk Route – or more precisely, the Silk and its Routes – reorganised and revitalised trades and business, gave life to close diplomatic connections and matrimonial allegiances reinforced by a vigorous traditional chancery and official correspondence, that tightly linked Asia with Europe. Within this new global order, the Silk and its routes played the crucial role, shaped new political, institutional, scientific and intellectual formulae, gave life to new conceptual forms that – at their core – had Man and Mankind as centre of the entire Universe. We are confronted with a cultural development begun at a time when the sons of the steppe were taking over lands of the classical Arabic civilisation (like Syria, Iraq and al-Jazīra), at a time when the Iranian world was still centre of intellectual life and its social norms were still spreading over large spaces of Inner Asian territories. Visual Arts wonderfully mirror this phenomenon.
We witness a process that renovated itself 'from within' in the course of three centuries and did not stop even when the arrival of the European Powers on the Asian markets seemed to sign, with the decay and end of the traditional market economy, also the closing of the cultural interactions created by the Silk Routes of the time. Once again, Visual Arts wonderfully mirror this phenomenon: a dramatic transitional, fluid period, marked by a distinctive timeless reality, which had no longer territories well delimited by frontiers to conquer or defend.
Herewith I have dealt, as an example, with the reflection of the new conceptions of Life and Universe on visual Fine Arts in the 13th-15th centuries, specifically painting and architectonic forms. Ideological values that aimed to forge new relationships among different peoples and their individual human values, religious thinking, moral codes…and economic, scientific, technological achievements.
'Fine Arts'. Visual fine arts, in my case painting and architecture, are the mirror of feelings shared by the Lords of the time, registered by painters and architects in plastic forms, the signal of these stances to an often confused Humanity. Here, I linger on two pictorial themes: Nature and Landscape on the one hand, and Religion with its very images on the other. With regard to architectonic forms, these reflect the same conceptual paradigm shaped through technical features. By those ages, Nature and Landscape were perceived by contemporary painters and architects with formal, stylistic and technical characteristics which strongly reflected the impact with a world which lived its life in close, intimate contact with nature, a world and a culture which observed Nature and the Cosmos, and perceived them in every detail over the slow rhythmical march of days and nights, of seasons and the lunar cycles. These artistic features depict a precise image, that of a world which lives its life often at odds with nature for its very survival, a world which conditions nature or is conditioned in its turn. At that time, it was a world and a cosmic order which were often perceived by the artist in their tension with uncertainty and the blind recklessness of modern-contemporary times. However, to a closer analysis, these same artistic forms shape a celestial order which was at one and the same time a culture and a religion.
In the vast borderless space of the Euro-Asiatic steppes, cut by great rivers, broken by steep rocky mountainous chains and inhospitable desert fig.aux, the Silk succeeded in building and organising its own network of twisting routes and sub-routes, along which transited (albeit, yet still transit) caravans with their goods…but also cultural elements and their conceptual-philosophical forms. Of these latter and their syncretic imageries and dreams, the fine arts have left evocative pictures and architectonic images, which depicted a world that is the projection of a precise social and political reality and its underlying factors, such as the restlessness of a nomadic pattern of life and the culture of the Town and its urban life. Little is changed today despite the collapse of the Soviet empire and its order. Features and forms change, but in both cases they announce a different world with its order built on a robust syncretism, which is at the same time science, knowledge, harmony and religion (divine or human, or both). A world that is the projection of a precise political, social and economic reality. A reality that, at one and the same time, is the silent voice of a humanity often disregarded by contemporary writers, an 'underground world' that echoes traditional forms and their dynamics, and a no less authoritative de facto power that politically, economically and militarily conditions and dominates its times. A reality that finds an authoritative voice through the Silk Route.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Anekatte Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and behavior, use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 544 ha in Chikkanayakanahalli taluk of Tumkur district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 700 mm, of which about 378 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 179 mm during north-east and the remaining 143 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and 3 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 10 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and six land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of July to 3rd week of November. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. An area of about 97 per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and three per cent not suitable for agriculture. About 60 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm), 32 per cent moderately deep (75-100cm) and 5 per cent moderately shallow (50-75%) soils. About 25 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 65 per cent loamy soils and 7 per cent sandy soils. About 38 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 12 per cent gravelly (15-35%) and 48 per cent very gravelly to extremely gravelly (35-80%) soils. About 59 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 92 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) and 5 per cent gently sloping (3-5%) lands. An area of about 52 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 45 per cent moderately eroded (e2). An area of about 21 per cent has soils that are slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) to moderately acid, 36 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 40 per cent slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 9 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is high (>10 ppm) in about 28 per cent area, low (4.5 ppm) in about 93 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 60 per cent area and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 37 per cent area. The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71 (13) 158 (29) Guava 46 (9) 221 (41) Fodder Sorghum 71 (13) 158 (29) Pomegranate 71 (13) 172 (32) Maize - 133 (24) Banana 71 (13) 172 (32) Upland paddy 71 (13) 195 (36) Jackfruit 71 (13) 84 (15) Finger millet 71 (13) 138 (25) Jamun 71 (13) 135 (25) Redgram 71 (13) 197 (36) Musambi 71 (13) 172 (32) Horse gram 96 (18) 331 (61) Lime 71 (13) 172 (32) Field bean 71 (13) 197 (36) Cashew 46 (9) 100 (18) Cowpea 71 (13) 197 (36) Custard apple 71 (13) 356 (65) Groundnut - 305 (56) Amla 71 (13) 356 (65) Sunflower 71 (13) 133 (24) Tamarind 71 (13) 135 (25) Onion 24 (4) 147 (27) Marigold 71 (13) 197 (36) Chilli 71 (13) 197 (36) Chrysanthemum 71 (13) 197 (36) Brinjal 71 (13) 197 (36) Jasmine 71 (13) 197 (36) Tomato 71 (13) 197 (36) Coconut 46 (9) 100 (18) Mango 71 (13) 135 (25) Arecanut 46 (9) 100 (18) Sapota 71 (13) 76 (14) Mulberry - (2200) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food,fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Anekatte micro-watershed (Anekatte sub watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13024' – 13026' North latitudes and 76031' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 544.32 ha, bounded by Aralikere, Kallenahalli, Navule, Gowdanahalli, Kurubarahalli and Bevinahalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Anekatte Microwatershed (Anekatte sub watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 52 to 48 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 48 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 89 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) and other backward caste (OBC) is around 10 and 40 per cent, respectively. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 60 per cent. About 60 per cent of households have Yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (70 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 10 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 0.92 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 45.8 % and irrigated land 54.2 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 9 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 85.0 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 85481 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 10623 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers having plough and weeder (74 %). The average value of livestock is around Rs. 28125 per household; about 82.3 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 681.5 grams (1600.9 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.25693 per household. About 20 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1272 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 584 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 309005 per year for the total area of 544.32 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 11804/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs. 40596) followed by horse gram (Rs. 15989), sorghum (Rs. 11528), ragi (Rs. 5593), green gram (Rs. 4778), maize (Rs. 2562) and sesamum (Rs. 1579). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2413/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 5273) followed by ragi (Rs. 2489), horse gram (Rs. 1466), and sorghum (Rs. 423). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 3 67233) followed by sorghum (Rs 53775), green gram (Rs. 35719), maize (Rs. 33063), horse gram (Rs. 23761) and ragi (Rs. 11418). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is horse gram (24.7 %) followed by maize (14.4 %), green gram (11.8 %), ragi (31.0 %), red gram (3.3 %), sesamum (3.3%) and sorghum (11.5 %). In Anekatte micro-watershed, major soil is alluvial landscape of Bidanagere (BDG) series is having moderately deep soil depth cover around 14.11 of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing ragi (50 %) red gram (50 %).Hooradhahalli (HDH) are also having moderately deep soil depth cover around 16.9 % of area, the crops are green gram (14.2 %), ragi (65.3 %) and sesamum (20.4 %). Mukhadahalli (BPR) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 22.25 % of areas, crops are green gram (11.1 %), horse gram (38.8 %), ragi (11.1 %) and sorghum (38.8 %). Ravanaki (LGD) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 17.62 % of area, crops are green gram (12 %), horse gram (38 %), and ragi (5.0 %). Kadagathur (KDT) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 8.5 % of area; the major crops are horse gram (33.3 %), maize (33.3%) and ragi (33.3 %). Ranatur (RTR) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 4.4 % of area, the major crop grown is green gram (50 %) and maize (50 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for green gram ranges between Rs.107918/ha in LGD soil (with BCR of 1.53) and Rs.22068/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.34). In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 98303/ha in LGD soil (with of 1.05) and Rs.10268/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.73). In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 22616/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.53) and Rs. 16591/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 2.38). In maize the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 51788/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.28) and Rs. 49867/ha in RTR soil (with BCR of 1.17). In sesamum the cost of cultivation in HDH soil is Rs.39168 /ha (with BCR of 1.51) In red gram the cost of cultivation in BDG soil is Rs. 47969/ha (with BCR of 1.80) and sorghum the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs.20230/ha (with BCR of 2.27). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. 4 It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in ragi (83.3 to 59.5 %), green gram (58.7 to 42.2 %), maize (60.8 to 70.4 %), horse gram (13.2 %), sorghum (28.4 %) and sesamum (11.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Devihal-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 473 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm, of which about 363 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 91 per cent is covered by soils and nine per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 16 soil series and 37 soil phases (mapping units) and 10 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 89 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 11% is not suitable for agriculture. About 61 per cent of the soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) to shallow (25-50 cm) and about 29 per cent are moderately deep to very deep (75->150 cm) soils. About 62 per cent of the area has loamy soils at the surface, 16 per cent of the soils are sandy at the surface and 10 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface. About 14 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 65 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel), 10 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) and one per cent extremely gravelly (60-80%) soils. About 18 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 72 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (0.75%) and 18 per cent low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 45 per cent, about 41 per cent area is low (20 ppm) in available sulphur. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 47 per cent area, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 42 per cent area and high (>1.0 ppm) in 1 per cent area. Available iron is deficient in about 26 per cent area and sufficient in 64 per cent area. Available manganese is sufficient in the entire microwatershed area. Available zinc and copper are sufficient in entire microwatershed area. The land suitability for 23 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 79 (17) 139 (30) Sapota 34 (7) 79 (17) Maize 79 (17) 139(30) Jackfruit 27 (6) 20(4) Cotton 40 (8) 179(38) Jamun 27 (6) 20 (4) Sunflower 40 (8) 158(33) Musambi 27 (6) 20 (4) Onion 97 (21) 121(25) Lime 27(6) 20 (4) Groundnut 53 (11) 180(59) Cashew 27 (6) 64 (13) Chilli 59 (12) 160(34) Custard apple 40 (8) 293(62) Sugarcane 40 (8) 95(20) Amla 40 (8) 293 (62) Pomegranate 40 (8) 74 (16) Tamarind 27 (6) 20(4) Tomato 104 (22) 114(24) Marigold 104 (22) 137 (28) Guava 33 (7) 81 (17) Chrysanthemum 104(22) 137 (28) Mango 27 (6) 20 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 10 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the income, provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass, of which would help in maintaining ecological balance and help in mitigating climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Devihal-1 micro-watershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1506' – 1508' North latitudes and 75036' – 75038' East longitudes, covering an area of about 473 ha, bounded by Chabbi, Majjur, Rantur, Devihal and Belhatti villages with length of growing period (LGP) 150-180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Devihal-1 Microwatershed (Nilogal subwatershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 49.0 to 51.0 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 59 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 82 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 80 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 80.0 per cent. About 40 per cent of households have a Yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (80 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 4 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 90 per cent of households. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.07 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 67 % and irrigated land 32 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 20 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 70.0 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.18485 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 165730 per household, about 70 per cent of sample farmers own plough and sprayer (30 %). The average value of livestock is around Rs. 33876 per household; about 86 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 895.7 grams (1920 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 30 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.56756 per cent household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1338. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1033 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 441031 per year for the total area of 471.44 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 52205/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 205703) followed by maize (Rs. 3228), horse gram (Rs. 2516) and sorghum is negative returns. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2288 ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 2470) followed by horse gram (Rs. 2253) and sorghum (Rs. 2141). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengal gram (Rs. 62545) followed by green gram (Rs. 33122), sunflower (Rs. 27713), maize (Rs. 23651), groundnut (Rs. 22905) and sorghum (Rs. 18626). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is sorghum maize (71 %) followed by onion (12%), horse gram (9.0 %) and sorghum (8.0%) In Devihal 1 micro-watershed, major soil are soil of alluvial landscape of Vaddarahalli (VDH) series is having deep soil depth cover around 1.5 % of 3 area; on this soil farmers are presently growing maize followed by Hooradhahalli (HDH) series is having moderately deep soil depth cover around 4.8 % of area, presently crop growing horse gram (18.8 %), maize (53.7 %) and sorghum (27.6 %), Kanchikere (KKR) series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 9.6 % of area; crop is horse gram. Thammadahalli (TDH) series is having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 12.2 % of area; on this soil farmers are presently growing onion. Kumchahalli (KMH) series is having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 1.14 per cent area crops is maize, Honnenahalli (HNH) series is having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 5.4 % of area the crops is maize and Harve (HRV) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 3.6 % of area of presently growing crops is maize. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize ranges between Rs. 49607/ha in VDH soil (with BCR of 1.03) and Rs. 20866/ha in HRV soil (with BCR of 1.41). In onion the cost of cultivation Rs. 49814/ha in TDH soil (with BCR of 5.13). In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 26315/ha in KKR soil (with BCR of 1.08) and Rs. 13344/ha in HDH soil (with BCR of 1.56). In sorghum the cost of cultivation is Rs.14976/ha in HDH soil (with BCR of 0.97). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in onion (30.2 %), maize (77.4 to 58.3%), horse gram (44.7 to 12.7 %), and sorghum (70.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanikal-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 622 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 592 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 30 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 12 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use class. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 39 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 23 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm). About 32 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 55 per cent clayey soils and 9 per cent are sandy at the surface. About 94 per cent area of the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands. Entire area of about 95 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded. An area of about 39 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 46 per cent soils are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 10 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (7.8 - 8.4). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75) in organic carbon. About 29 per cent area is low in available phosphorus and 66 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha). About 1 per cent is low (337 kg/ha). Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 27 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in an area of 72 per cent. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Sorghum 31(5) 290(47) Sapota - 90(15) Maize 31(5) 104(17) Pomegranate - 246(40) Bajra 31(5) 319(51) Musambi - 246(40) Groundnut - 168(27) Lime - 246(40) Sunflower - 217(35) Amla 31(5) 290(47) Redgram - 246(40) Cashew - 31(5) Bengal gram 144(23) 147(24) Jackfruit - 61(10) Cotton 144(23) 148(24) Jamun - 185(30) Chilli - 284(46) Custard apple 31(5) 290(47) Tomato 31(5) 163(26) Tamarind - 185(30) Drumstick - 246(40) Mulberry - 61(10) Mango - 31(5) Marigold - 350(56) Guava - 90(15) Chrysanthemum - 350(56) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Kanikal-1 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16035' – 16037' North latitudes and 770 17'– 76019' East longitudes, covering an area of about 621.91 ha, bounded by Kanikal, Gudalagunta and Neelahalli villages. Agro Ecological Sub Region (AESR) 6.2: Central and Western Maharashtra Plateau and North Karnataka Plateau and North Western Telangana Plateau, hot moist semi-arid ESR with shallow and medium loamy to clayey black soil (medium and deep clayey black soil as inclusion), medium to high AWC and LGP 120-150 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kanikal-1 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 56.5 to 43.5 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 56.5 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 48.5 per cent. Social groups belong to SC/ST is around 12.5 per cent. Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 93.7 per cent. About 46.88 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (21.8 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 96.8 per cent Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 15.6 per cent. Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 3.0 per cent. Women participation is decisions making are around 38.7 per cent were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 3.8 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium and semi medium farmers. The dry land account for 76.3 % and irrigate land is 34.4 % of total cultivated land among the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 0.8 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 93.5 per cent. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 28593 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media. The average farm assets a value is around Rs.110824 per household, about 74.2 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average livestock value is around Rs.18667 per livestock; about 68 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 860 grams (1891.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 9.3 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.41815 per household. About 17.6 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs.2272 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1587.7 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 939961 per year for the total area of 621.9 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around 14124/ ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in chillies (Rs.29465), ground nut (Rs.7631), sorghum (Rs.7408), redgram (Rs.7015) wheat (Rs.4678), cotton (Rs.7490) and maize (Rs.2186). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 3359/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs.6112) followed by sorghum (Rs.2964), wheat (Rs.2964), paddy (Rs.2669), groundnut (Rs.1743) and redgram (Rs.112). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in wheat (Rs.82646), sorghum (Rs.56464), red gram (Rs.51478), cotton (rs.47228), groundnut (Rs.32067) and maize (Rs.30686). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is red gram (51.9 %) followed by groundnut (11.8 %), cotton (11.5 %), maize (7.24 %), paddy (5.9 %), onion (4.5 %), green gram (2.7 %), sorghum (1.8 %), chillies (0.5 %) and wheat (2.6 %). 3 In kanikal-1 micro-watershed, major soil is soil of alluvial landscape of Badiyala (BDL) series is having shallow soil deep cover around 20.41 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (5.9 %), groundnut (14.7 %), maize (17.6 %) paddy (14.7%) and red gram (47.1 %). Soil of moderately shallow depth of Sambara (SBR) are also having cover around 14.86 % of area, the crops are cotton (22.2 %), red gram (55.6 %), groundnut (11.1%) chillies and wheat was 5.6 % each. Yalleri (YLR) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 12.46 % of areas, crops are red gram (100 %). Nagalapur (NGP) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around (10.7 %) of area, they major crops grown are cotton (42.9%), groundnut (42.9%) and rice (14.3%). Poglapur (PGP) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around (5.04 %) of area, they major crops grown are cotton (42.9%), groundnut (42.9%) and rice (14.3%). Mundargi (MDG) and are soil depth cover around 4.9 % cent of area. Yadgir (YDR) soil series are having deep soil depth covers around 4.6 % of area, the major crop grown is cotton (10.8%), paddy (18.9%) and red gram (60.2 %). Baddeppalli (BDP) and Jinkera (JNK) soil series having very shallow and moderately shallow soil depth cover 3.5 % and 4.3 % of areas respectively; crops are cotton, groundnut, maize and red gram. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.54510/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.18) and Rs.26627/ha in YDR soil (with BCR of 1.04). In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between Rs 63430/ha in MDG soil (with of 1.07) and Rs.25460/ha in BDP soil (With BCR of 1.52). In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 46555/ha in JNK soil (with BCR of 1.1) and Rs.20504/ha in BDP and BDL soil (with BCR of 1.28). In paddy cost of cultivation range between is Rs.88537/ha in PGP soil (with BCR of 1.27) and Rs 37212in BDL soil (with BCR of 1.38). In red gram the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 46298/ha in BMN soil (with BCR of 1.25) and Rs.17950/ha in MDG soil (with BCR of 1.18). In wheat the cost of cultivation in SBR soil is Rs.54602/ha (with BCR of 1.14). In sorghum the cost of cultivation in BMN soil is Rs.23158/ha (with BCR of 1.45) and chillies the cost of cultivation in SBR soil is Rs.66865/ha (with BCR of 1.44). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. Fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. 4 Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (24.3 to 66.3%), red gram (10.6 to 67.2 %), paddy (0 to 65.8 %), maize (45.7 to 71.0 %), sorghum (0 %), chillies (86.8 %) and groundnut (0 to 7.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hongahalli-4 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 624 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagara district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 611 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 6 ha area under reserve forest and about 14 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 33 soil phases (management units) and 8 land use class. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 3rdweek of June to 3rd week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 27 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 55 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 41 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm). About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 46 per cent of loamy soils and 44 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 17 per cent area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 22 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 34 per cent area very low (0.75). About 73 per cent of the area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 24 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha). About 7 per cent is low (145 kg/ha) is low in available potassium, 72 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 18 per cent is high (>337 kcg/ha). Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 90 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 15 per cent of the soils in the microwatershed. The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 85(14) 287(46) Guava 97(16) 18(3) Maize 116 (19) 218(35) Mango 97(16) 27(4) Redgram 97(16) 320(51) Sapota 97(16) 27(4) Horsegram 97(16) 341(55) Jackfruit 86(14) 38(6) Sunflower 47(8) 209(33) Jamun 76(12) 131(21) Cotton 85(14) 218(35) Musambi 97(16) 158(25) Beans 97 (16) 227(36) Lime 97(16) 158(25) Field beans 97(16) 273(44) Cashew 97(16) 68(11) Onion 97(16) 295(47) Custard apple 97(16) 386(62) Beetroot 97(16) 258(41) Amla 97(16) 364(59) Groundnut - 401(64) Tamarind 97(16) 158(25) Banana 97(16) 248(40) Marigold 97(16) 341(55) Potato 97(16) 258(41) Chrysanthemum 97(16) 273(44) Turmeric 97(16) 258(41) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Hongahalli-4 micro-watershed (Hongahalli sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11047' – 11049' North latitudes and 76034' – 76037' East longitudes, covering an area of about 624 ha, bounded by Baragi, Mukahalli, Hongahalli, Bhimanabid and Kannagal villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Hongahalli-4 micro-watershed (Hongahalli sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 54.3 to 45.7 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 54.3 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 80 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 10 per cent. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90 per cent. About 60 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (10%) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 5.7 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 70 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 0.35 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 83.7 per cent and irrigated land 16.3 per cent of total cultivated area among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 71.5 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 25.7 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 11091 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average farm assets value is around Rs. 129881 per household, about 60.0 per cent of sample farmers having plough and sprayer (38.1%). The average livestock value is around Rs. 17800 per household; about 61.5 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 644.2 grams (1600.3 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 39063 per household. About 70.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.911. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 900 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 505064 per year for the total area of 623.97 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 17634/ ha/year. per hectare food grain production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 120823) followed by beans (Rs. 18414), tomato (Rs. 18090), ragi (Rs. 16396), groundnut (Rs. 7604), beetroot (Rs. 4803), sunflower (Rs. 3973), cotton (Rs. 16407), horse gram (Rs. 457), maize and sorghum is negative return. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 10209/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 20150), followed by sorghum (Rs. 17290), ragi (Rs. 5200), horse gram (Rs. 4940) and groundnut (Rs. 3467). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum beans (Rs. 601445) followed by maize (Rs. 69501), cotton (Rs. 54585), sorghum (Rs. 43020), sunflower (Rs 3 33256), horse gram (Rs. 25342), groundnut (Rs. 24111), tomato (Rs 21143), onion (Rs. 20155) and ragi (Rs. 18534). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern are maize (23.5 %) followed by cotton (21.3 %), sorghum (7.0 %), horse gram (15.1 %) groundnut (6.6 %), sunflower (5.8 %), onion (5.8 %), ragi (6.6 %), tomato (5.8 %), beans (1.4 %) and beetroot (1.0 %). In Honganahalli-4 micro-watershed, major soil are soil of alluvial landscape of Berambadi (BMD) soil are shallow soil depth well drained covered around 8.4 per cent of areas; crops are groundnut (23.3 %), horse gram (4.1 %), onion (20.4 %), ragi (23.3 %), sorghum (8.6 %) and tomato (20.4 %). Magoonahalli (MGH) soil is moderately shallow soil depth cover around 3.9 per cent of areas, crops is cotton (50%) and horse gram (50 %). Kannigala (KNG) soil is moderately deep soil depth cover around 10.9 per cent of areas; the major crops are beans (16.2 %), maize (16.2 %) and sunflower (67.6 %). Beemanabeedu (BMB) soil is very deep soil depth cover around 6.0 % of areas; the crops are horse gram (50 %) and sorghum (50 %). Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) soil series are very deep soil depth cover around 11 per cent of area; crops are cotton (86.6 %) and maize (13.4 %). Bargi (BRG) soil is very deep soil depth cover around 15.1 % of area crops is beetroot. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for groundnut cultivation in BDM soil Rs.44396/ha (with BCR of 1.25). In maize the cost of cultivation range between in HGH soil Rs. 75392/ha (with BCR of 0.95) and Rs.11452/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.01). In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 43608/ha in BMD soil (with of 1.67) and Rs. 13237/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 2.1.46). In sorghum the cost of cultivation in between Rs. 40260/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.10) and Rs. 38385/ha in BMD soil (with BCR of 1.15). In cotton the cost of cultivation between Rs. 54700/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.43) and Rs. 44599/ha in MGH soil (with BCR of 1.38). In sunflower the cost of cultivation in KNG soil is Rs.35547/ha (with BCR of 1.11). In ragi the cost of cultivation in BMD soil Rs. 22604/ha (with BCR of 1.80). In tomato the cost of cultivation in BDM soil Rs. 70830/ha (with BCR of 1.26). In onion the cost of cultivation in BMD soil is Rs. 108887/ha (with BCR of 2.11). In beetroot the cost of cultivation in BRG soil is Rs.73414/ha (with BCR of 1.07). In beans the cost of cultivation in KNG soil is Rs. 123611/ha (with BCR of 1.15) and sunflower cultivation in KNG soil is Rs. 40260/ha (with BCR of 1.11). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. 4 It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in groundnut (49.3%), horse gram(15.7 to 57.8%), onion (69.6 %) ragi (57.4 %) sorghum (41.3 to 58.1 %) tomato(80.7%), cotton (17.5 to 27.7 %), maize (25.6 to 37.6 % ), sunflower (39.3 %) and beetroot (90.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Pinnenahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 472 ha in Gubbi taluk of Tumakuru district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 813 mm, of which about 466 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 196 mm during north-east and the remaining 151 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and one per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 6 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 3rd week of June to third week of November. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area is suitable for agriculture. About 78 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm), 16 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm) and 5 per cent of the soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm). About 16 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 83 per cent loamy soils. About 47 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils (200 mm/m) available water capacity. About 99 per cent of the area has gently sloping (1-3%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands. An area of about 67 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 32 per cent moderately eroded (e2). Maximum area of about 79 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic to strongly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) and 20 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 3 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 4 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in an area of 94 per cent. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 36 per cent of soils of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 119 (25) 24 (5) Guava 109 (23) 216 (46) Fodder Sorghum 119 (25) 24 (5) Pomegranate 109 (23) 9(2) Maize - 133 (28) Banana 109 (23) 9(2) Upland paddy 109 (23) 109 (23) Jackfruit 109 (23) - Finger millet 109 (23) 100 (21) Jamun 109 (23) 9(2) Redgram 109 (23) 33 (7) Musambi 119 (25) - Horse gram 133 (28) 332 (71) Lime 119 (25) - Field bean 109 (23) 33 (7) Cashew 109 (23) - Cowpea 109 (23) 33 (7) Custard apple 119 (25 ) - Groundnut - 456 (97) Amla 119 (25 ) - Sunflower 119 (25) - Tamarind 109 (23) 9(2) Onion - 133 (28) Marigold 119 (25) 55 (12) Chilli 119 (25) 24 (5) Chrysanthemum 119 (25) 55 (12) Brinjal 119 (25) 24 (5) Jasmine 119 (25) 55 (12) Tomato 119 (25) 24 (5) Coconut 109 (23) - Mango 109 (23) - Arecanut 109 (23) - Sapota 109 (23) - Mulbery - 324 (69) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Pinnenahalli Microwatershed (Tyagatur sub-watershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13027' – 13028' North latitudes and 76049' – 76052' East longitudes, covering an area of about 471.74 ha, bounded by Pinnenahalli, Karegondanahalli, Kempanahalli, Varthikatte, Maddenahalli and Jogihalli villages with an length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Pinnenahalli Microwatershed in Gubbi taluk and Tumkur district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 56.8 to 43.2 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 63.6 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 84.1 per cent. Social groups belong to general category of all sample households. Liquefied petroleum gas (LGP) is the source of energy for a cooking of all sample households. About 30 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (20.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on rations cards for food grains through public distribution system about 80.0 percent of farm households. Swachha bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50.0 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 13.6 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 45 per cent of sample household. Economic Indicators; 2 The average land holding is 0.55 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal farmers. The dry land of 90.3 % and irrigated land 9.7 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 59.1 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour services is main occupation for 2.3 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 52198 households. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs.70579 per household, about 30 per cent of sample farmers having plough and tractor. The average value livestock of is around Rs.14380 per household, about 75 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 478.1 grams (1188.29) kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 37269 per household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.749. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 471 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 219334 per year for the total area of 471.7 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 20287 /ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in coconut (Rs. 62915) followed by red gram (Rs. 20804), sorghum (Rs. 16238), horse gram (Rs. 10607), green gram (Rs. 7117) and ragi (Rs. 4039). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2193/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in ragi (Rs. 3850) followed by sorghum (Rs. 2198), green gram (Rs. 1611) and horse gram (Rs. 1112). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water coconut (Rs. 305755), red gram (Rs. 57220), sorghum (Rs. 51041), green gram (Rs. 37082), horse gram (Rs. 22808) and ragi (Rs 15041). 3 Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is coconut (57.3 %) followed by ragi (33.7 %), red gram (13.9 %), sorghum (7.0 %), green gram (6.8 %) and horse gram (5.9 %). In Pinnenahalli micro-watershed, major soil are soils of granite gneiss landscape of Kethanapura (KTP) series is having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 5.0 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing ragi. Bidanagere (BDG) is also having moderately deep soil depth cover 16.1% of area, the crops are ragi (50 %) and sorghum (50 %). Balapur (BPR) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 45.8% of areas, crops are coconut (15.9 %), green gram (13.8%), horse gram (12.0 %), ragi (30.1 %) and red gram (28.2 %). Shyanadrahalli (SNH) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 2.0 % of area; crops are coconut. Kadagathur (KDT) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 23.1 % of area; the major crops grown are coconut (68.4 %) and ragi (31.6 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for coconut ranges between Rs. 67960/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.97) and Rs. 28631/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 4.39). In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 39120/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.25) and Rs. 20020/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.54). In sorghum the cost of cultivation in BDG soil is Rs. 18928/ha (with BCR of 1.97). In red gram the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs. 20187/ha (with BCR of 2.03). In green gram the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is RS. 277885/ha (with BCR of 1.31) and horse gram the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs. 16069/ha (with BCR of 1.73). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4 The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in ragi (57.9 to 67.6 %), coconut (36.6 to 38.9 %), sorghum (40.3 %), bengal gram (37.1 %), horse gram (24.1 %) and red gram (13.9 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
The L Word: Generation Q is the reboot of The L Word, a long running series about a group of lesbians and bisexuals in Los Angeles in the early 2000s. Both programmes are unique in their positioning of lesbian characters and have been well received by audiences and critics alike. These programmes present a range of characters and narratives, previously excluded from mainstream film and television, bringing a refreshing change from the destructive images typically presented before. We argue that the reboot Generation Q now offers more meaningful representation of the broader lesbian and transgender communities, and discuss its relevance in the changing portrayals of gay representation. Gay visibility has never really been an issue in the movies. Gays have always been visible. It is how they have been visible that has remained offensive for almost a century. (Russo 66) In 2004 The L Word broke new ground as the very first television series written and directed by predominantly queer women. This set it apart from previous representations of lesbians by Hollywood because it portrayed a community rather than an isolated or lone lesbian character, that was extraneous to a cast of heterosexuals (Moore and Schilt). The series brought change, and where Hollywood was more often "reluctant to openly and non-stereotypically engage with gay subjects and gay characters" (Baker 41), the L Word offered an alternative to the norm in media representation. "The L Word's significance lies in its very existence" according to Chambers (83), and this article serves to consider this significance in conjunction with its 2019 reboot, the L Word: Generation Q, to ascertain if the enhanced visibility and gay representation influences the system of representation that has predominantly been excluding and misrepresentative of gay life. The exclusion of authentic representation of lesbians and gays in Hollywood film is not new. Over time, however, there has been an increased representation of gay characters in film and television. However, beneath the positive veneer remains a morally disapproving undertone (Yang), where lesbians and gays are displayed as the showpiece of the abnormal (Gross, "Out of the Mainstream"). Gross ("Out of the Mainstream") suggests that through the 'othering' of lesbians and gays within media, a means of maintaining the moral order is achieved, and where being 'straight' results in a happy ending. Lesbians and gays in film thus achieve what Gerbner referred to as symbolic annihilation, purposefully created in a bid to maintain the social inequity. This form of exclusion often saw controversial gay representation, with a history of portraying these characters in a false, excluding, and pejorative way (Russo; Gross, "What Is Wrong"; Hart). The history of gay representation in media had at times been monstrous, playing out the themes of gay sexuality as threatening to heterosexual persons and communities (Juárez). Gay people were incorrectly stereotyped, and gay lives were seen through the slimmest of windows. Walters (15) argued that it was "too often" that film and television images would narrowly portray gays "as either desexualized or over sexualized", framing their sexuality as the sole identity of the character. She also contested that gay characters were "shown as nonthreatening and campy 'others' or equally comforting and familiar boys (and they are usually boys, not girls) next door" (Walters 15). In Russo's seminal text, The Celluloid Closet, he demonstrated that gay characters were largely excluded from genuine and thoughtful presentation in film, while the only option given to them was how they died. Gay activists and film makers in the 1980s and beyond built on the momentum of AIDS activism (Streitmatter) to bring films that dealt with gay subject matter more fairly than before, with examples like The Birdcage, Philadelphia, To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar, and In and Out. Walters argues that while "mainstream films like Brokeback Mountain and The Kids are Alright entertain moviegoers with their forthright gay themes and scenes" (12), often the roles have been more of tokenisation, representing the "surprisingly gay characters in a tedious romcom, the coyly queer older man in a star-studded indie hit, the incidentally gay sister of the lead in a serious drama" (Walters 12). This ambivalence towards the gay role model in the media has had real world effects on those who identify themselves as lesbian or gay, creating feelings of self-hatred or of being 'unacceptable' citizens of society (Gamson), as media content "is an active component in the cultural process of shaping LGBT identities" (Sarkissian 147). The stigmatisation of gays was further identified by the respondents to a study on media and gay identity, where "the prevailing sentiment in these discussions was a sense of being excluded from traditional society" (Gomillion and Guiliano 343). Exclusion promotes segregation and isolation, and since television media are ever-present via conventional and web-based platforms, their messages are increasingly visible and powerful. The improved portrayal of gay characters was not just confined to the area of film and television however, and many publications produced major stories on bi-sexual chic, lesbian chic, the rise of gay political power and gay families. This process of greater inclusion, however, has not been linear, and in 2013 the media advocacy group known as the Gay and Lesbian Alliance against Defamation (GLAAD) mapped the quantity, quality, and diversity of LGBT people depicted in films, finding that there was still much work to be done to fairly include gay characters (GLAAD Studio Responsibility Index). In another report made in 2019, which examined cable and streaming media, GLAAD found that of the 879 regular characters expected to appear on broadcast scripted primetime programming, 10.2% were identified as gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and or queer (GLAAD Where Are We on TV). This was the highest number of queer characters recorded since the start of their reporting. In January 2004, Showtime launched The L Word, the first scripted cable television to focus chiefly on lesbians. Over the course of six seasons it explored the deep bonds that linked the members of an evolving lesbian friendship circle. The central themes of the programme were the love and friendship between the women, and it was a television programme structured by its own values and ideologies. The series offered a moral argument against the widespread sexism and anti-gay prejudice that was evident in media. The cast, however, were conventionally beautiful, gender normative, and expensively attired, leading to fears that the programme would appeal more to straight men, and that the sex in the programme would be exploitative and pornographic. The result, however, was that women's sex and connection were foregrounded, and appeared as a central theme of the drama. This was, however, ground-breaking television. The showrunner of the original L Word, Ilene Chaiken, was aware of the often-damning account of lesbians in Hollywood, and the programme managed to convey an indictment of Hollywood (Mcfadden). The L Word increased lesbian visibility on television and was revolutionary in countering some of the exclusionary and damaging representation that had taken place before. It portrayed variations of lesbians, showing new positive representations in the form of power lesbians, sports lesbians, singles, and couples. Broadly speaking, gay visibility and representation can be marked and measured by levels of their exclusion and inclusion. Sedgwick said that the L Word was particularly important as it created a "lesbian ecology—a visible world in which lesbians exist, go on existing, exist in forms beyond the solitary and the couple, sustain and develop relations among themselves of difference and commonality" (xix). However, as much as this programme challenged the previous representations it also enacted a "Faustian bargain because television is a genre which ultimately caters to the desires and expectations of mainstream audiences" (Wolfe and Roripaugh 76). The producers knew it was difficult to change the problematic and biased representation of queer women within the structures of commercial media and understood the history of queer representation and its effects. Therefore, they had to navigate between the legitimate desire to represent lesbians as well as being able to attract a large enough mainstream audience to keep the show commercially viable. The L Word: Generation Q is the reboot of the popular series, and includes some of the old cast, who have also become the executive producers. These characters include Bette Porter, who in 2019 is running for the office of the Mayor of Los Angeles. Shane McCutchen returns as the fast-talking womanising hairdresser, and Alice Pieszecki in this iteration is a talk show host. When interviewed, Jennifer Beals (executive producer and Bette Porter actor) said that the programme is important, because there have been no new lesbian dramas to follow after the 2004 series ended (Beals, You Tube). Furthermore, the returning cast members believe the reboot is important because of the increased attacks that queer people have been experiencing since the election of Donald Trump in 2016. Between the two productions there have been changes in the film and television landscape, with additional queer programmes such as Pose, Orange Is the New Black, Euphoria, RuPaul's Drag Race, and Are You the One, for example. The new L Word, therefore, needed to project a new and modern voice that would reflect contemporary lesbian life. There was also a strong desire to rectify criticism of the former show, by presenting an increased variation of characters in the 2019 series. Ironically, while the L Word had purposefully aimed to remove the negativity of exclusion through the portrayal of a group of lesbians in a more true-to-life account, the limited character tropes inadvertently marginalised other areas of lesbian and queer representation. These excluded characters were for example fully representative trans characters. The 2000s television industry had seemingly returned to a period of little interest in women's stories generally, and though queer stories seeped into popular culture, there was no dedicated drama with a significant focus on lesbian story lines (Vanity Fair). The first iteration of The L Word was aimed at satisfying lesbian audiences as well as creating mainstream television success. It was not a tacky or pornographic television series playing to male voyeuristic ideals, although some critics believed that it included female-to-female sex scenes to draw in an additional male viewership (Anderson-Minshall; Graham). There was also a great emphasis on processing the concept of being queer. However, in the reboot Generation Q, the decision was made by the showrunner Marja-Lewis Ryan that the series would not be about any forms of 'coming out stories', and the characters were simply going about their lives as opposed to the burdensome tropes of transitioning or coming out. This is a significant change from many of the gay storylines in the 1990s that were seemingly all focussed on these themes. The new programme features a wider demographic, too, with younger characters who are comfortable with who they are. Essentially, the importance of the 2019 series is to portray healthy, varied representations of lesbian life, and to encourage accurate inclusion into film and television without the skewed or distorted earlier narratives. The L Word and L Word: Generation Q then carried the additional burden of countering criticisms The L Word received. Roseneil explains that creating both normalcy and belonging for lesbians and gays brings "cultural value and normativity" (218) and removes the psychosocial barriers that cause alienation or segregation. This "accept us" agenda appears through both popular culture and "in the broader national discourse on rights and belongings" (Walters 11), and is thus important because "representations of happy, healthy, well integrated lesbian and gay characters in film or television would create the impression that, in a social, economic, and legal sense, all is well for lesbians and gay men" (Schacter 729). Essentially, these programmes shouldered the burden of representation for the lesbian community, which was a heavy expectation. Critiques of the original L Word focussed on how the original cast looked as if they had all walked out of a high-end salon, for example, but in L Word: Generation Q this has been altered to have a much more DIY look. One of the younger cast members, Finlay, looks like someone cut her hair in the kitchen while others have styles that resemble YouTube tutorials and queer internet celebrities (Vanity Fair). The recognisable stereotypes that were both including and excluding have also altered the representation of the trans characters. Bette Porter's campaign manager, for example, determines his style through his transition story, unlike Max, the prominent trans character from the first series. The trans characters of 2019 are comfortable in their own skins and supported by the community around them. Another important distinction between the representation of the old and new cast is around their material wealth. The returning cast members have comfortable lives and demonstrate affluence while the younger cast are less comfortable, expressing far more financial anxiety. This may indeed make a storyline that is closer to heterosexual communities. The L Word demonstrated a sophisticated awareness of feminist debates about the visual representation of women and made those debates a critical theme of the programme, and these themes have been expanded further in The L Word: Generation Q. One of the crucial areas that the programme/s have improved upon is to denaturalise the hegemonic straight gaze, drawing attention to the ways, conventions and techniques of reproduction that create sexist, heterosexist, and homophobic ideologies (McFadden). This was achieved through a predominantly female, lesbian cast that dealt with stories amongst their own friend group and relationships, serving to upend the audience position, and encouraging an alternative gaze, a gaze that could be occupied by anyone watching, but positioned the audience as lesbian. In concluding, The L Word in its original iteration set out to create something unique in its representation of lesbians. However, in its mission to create something new, it was also seen as problematic in its representation and in some ways excluding of certain gay and lesbian people. The L Word: Generation Q has therefore focussed on more diversity within a minority group, bringing normality and a sense of 'realness' to the previously skewed narratives seen in the media. In so doing, "perhaps these images will induce or confirm" to audiences that "lesbians and gay men are already 'equal'—accepted, integrated, part of the mainstream" (Schacter 729). References Anderson-Minshall, Diane. 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As President Biden's first term draws to a close, his foreign policy record, particularly in the tumultuous Middle East, is marked by a series of major missteps. His handling of the Gaza conflict, where he has failed to exert meaningful pressure on Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to end the war, has drawn widespread criticism. Additionally, his attempts to advance the Abraham Accords with Saudi Arabia have stagnated and failed to spur regional stability. However, it is Biden's approach to Iran that stands out as particularly self-defeating. Despite campaign promises to reinstate the 2015 nuclear agreement (the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action or JCPOA) and reduce tensions with the longstanding U.S. adversary, his administration's policies have left the U.S. grappling with an even more formidable Iranian challenge than at the start of his term.Biden's mishandling of Iran is central to his Middle Eastern policy failures. Had he chosen not to continue the Trump administration's "maximum pressure" policy on Iran, characterized by unprecedented sanctions aimed at collapsing the Iranian economy, the Middle East might not be in its current state of turmoil. The ripple effects of Trump's decision to withdraw from the JCPOA in 2018, for which we now mark the 6-year anniversary, have been disastrous for U.S. strategic interests, leaving America and its regional allies in a markedly weaker position.Trump and his hawkish advisers, including Mike Pompeo and John Bolton, believed that by leveraging all U.S. instruments of power, short of an all-out military confrontation and invasion of Iran, they could coerce the Iranian government into capitulation or even precipitate its collapse. They expected Iran to acquiesce to Pompeo's sweeping demands, which essentially called for Iran to cave on all its foreign policy and national security strategies and its defense capabilities, or, ideally, that the Islamic Republic would simply crumble under the immense sanctions designed to blockade its economy and reduce its oil exports — the backbone of its economy — to zero.However, Trump's Iran policy was a resounding failure. By the time Trump left office, the Islamic Republic not only survived but had also significantly expanded its nuclear program. Despite the economic "shock" induced by sanctions, Iran succeeded in stabilizing its economy, albeit at a significant cost to the livelihoods of ordinary Iranians. Moreover, Iran retaliated against U.S. interests in the region, escalating the costs of America's regime-change agenda. These actions encompassed unprecedented missile strikes on Saudi Aramco in September 2019 and subsequent attacks on a U.S. military base in Iraq following the assassination of Qassem Soleimani in January 2020. Iran and its allies also targeted U.S. interests in Iraq and disrupted shipping in the Persian Gulf.Iran has sent an unambiguous message that U.S. attempts to isolate or destabilize it will not be without consequences. Washington's aspiration to establish a Middle East under its strategic domination, characterized by compliant authoritarian Arab regimes allied with an expansionist Israel, has proven elusive, largely due to Iran's role as a spoiler. For instance, regional U.S. allies, including the UAE and Saudi Arabia, transitioned from confrontation to engagement with Iran as Trump's term concluded, driven by the costs of maximum pressure for their security. This shift towards diplomacy and accommodation of Iran has gained momentum recently, drawing in additional regional states and figures, such as the leader of the Kurdish regional government in Iraq, who displayed a starkly conciliatory stance towards Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei during a recent visit.It is therefore baffling why Biden opted to continue Trump's failed and self-defeating policies. Upon assuming office, Biden had a golden opportunity to swiftly reenter the JCPOA. In January 2021, a group of foreign policy and arms control experts recommended that the administration immediately reinstate U.S. compliance with the JCPOA through an executive order, akin to his actions with the Paris Climate Accords. Over 150 Democratic members of Congress also called on Biden to return to the deal without preconditions.However, not unlike his predecessor, Biden proceeded with an approach characterized by overconfidence. During his 2020 campaign, Biden said that "If Iran returns to strict compliance with the nuclear deal, the United States would rejoin the agreement as a starting point for follow-on negotiations." He placed the burden on Iran to return to the deal first, despite the U.S. being the initial violator and bearing the responsibility of rebuilding trust.In the crucial early months of his administration, Biden's advisers conveyed the wrong messages to Tehran. Rather than signaling a readiness to rectify Washington's initial breach of the JCPOA, they implied that they viewed Trump's maximum pressure as leverage they were reluctant to abandon, seeking further concessions from Iran for a return to the JCPOA.Secretary of State Antony Blinken said early on that Iran must first comply with the JCPOA before the U.S. would consider sanctions relief and pursue a "longer and stronger agreement" demanding additional concessions from Iran regarding regional issues and its missile program, a vital component of Iran's defense. Similarly, Avril Haines, during her confirmation hearing to become Director of National Intelligence, remarked that rejoining the JCPOA was a distant prospect and that ballistic missile concerns would also need to be addressed. These sentiments were echoed by Biden's press secretary, Jen Psaki, who emphasized the administration's goal to extend and reinforce nuclear constraints on Iran and address other areas of concern, contingent on Iran's compliance.These statements sent the wrong signals to Tehran, reinforcing the Iranian perception that the U.S. is not a reliable partner and that striking a deal would not be worthwhile. The Iranians have consistently faced disappointment in negotiations with the U.S. going back decades, with former President Hassan Rouhani being the latest Iranian leader to broker a deal, only to encounter U.S. backtracking, which weakened Iran's reformist-moderate and Western-oriented political factions.Biden's erroneous belief that Trump's "maximum pressure" provided leverage — a notion that led to the expectation of Iran's full compliance before the U.S. would honor its commitments — was a grave error. He missed the opportunity to negotiate with Rouhani government and secure a revival of the JCPOA while it was in power, instead aiming for additional Iranian concessions.By the time negotiations commenced in April 2021, Israel also escalated efforts to sabotage them. An explosion at Iran's Natanz nuclear facility coincided with the resumption of talks, prompting Ayatollah Khamenei to authorize an increase in uranium enrichment to 60%, nearing weapons-grade levels. Amidst these challenges, Biden pursued talks in Vienna, but the Iranians at this point sought more concessions themselves, including confirmation of sanctions removal before agreeing to dismantle their nuclear program, and guarantees that the U.S. would adhere to the deal.By June 2021, Rouhani and his foreign minister Javad Zarif, proponents of détente with the West, were ousted from office, and Iranian conservative forces deeply distrustful of Washington assumed control of the presidency and major governing institutions. This led to 15 months of fruitless negotiations, with Iran's lack of confidence in Washington's long-term commitment to the agreement being the central issue.Today, the landscape is starkly different from 2015. Iran has advanced its nuclear capabilities and reduced its economic dependency on oil, showcasing resilience against sanctions. The regional and global perception is that Iran has effectively managed to withstand U.S. pressures while advancing its strategic interests. Moreover, the prospect of Iran still viewing its nuclear program as a bargaining chip for accommodation by the West seems increasingly unlikely, as it has pivoted to deepening ties with Russia and China and faces rising domestic pressures for weaponizing its nuclear program.Ultimately, the Biden administration's decision to uphold the Trump-era maximum pressure campaign has proven ineffective in deterring Iran's nuclear program and has further closed off avenues for diplomacy. This approach has perpetuated the belief that positive actions will not result in the removal of U.S. sanctions on adversarial nations.The U.S. inconsistency in honoring agreements has fostered a harmful incentive structure for its adversaries. Skeptical of America's commitment reliability, these adversaries choose to counter escalate, as evidenced by Iran's actions in recent years and North Korea's continued development of its missile capabilities. This situation highlights a significant weakness in U.S. foreign policy: internal political dynamics and strategic errors impede conflict prevention with countries like Iran. The challenge ahead with Iran involves not only reaching a fairer agreement but also upholding the credibility and consistency necessary to ensure its longevity and effectiveness.
This thesis deals with geomorphic processes associated with Small-Scale Opencast Mining (SSOM) in the Gatumba sector of the Western Highlands of Rwanda. In this area tin and tantalum mining was carried out for decades, and it has brought about increase in the wealth and standard of living of the people. Though a lot has been done and achieved in soil erosion research, and despite the enormous wealth coming from mining in Rwanda and Gatumba sector in particular, the negative environmental impacts resulting from mining activities were overlooked by miners and stakeholders and are scarcely addressed in the research yet. This trend was bound to last since there were no valid guidelines for assessing impacts and reclamation of mine sites for the operators in the sector. It was recently, in 2007, that restoration of mining areas has received great attention from the Rwanda Geology and Mine Authority. The objective of the research was to assess and to increase the understanding of geomorphic impact produced by SSOM. In this regards, the following aspects which indicate the types and spatial distribution of geomorphic processes were measured: (i) investigate the landforms typical of SSOM, (ii) map the watershed morphometry of the study area, (iii) analyse the most relevant properties of soils in term of geomorphology, and (iv) to assess the soil loss potential in the study area. Primary and secondary data were collected from Government agencies and personal observations. Desk study to review papers and relevant literatures, field observation and experiments, laboratory analyses, mapping and modelling using RUSLE were combined together to develop a practical and integrated methodological approach to effect and realize the objectives. The argument guiding this analytical approach is that physical processes produced by mining cannot be assessed through a single method. The first step mainly concentrated on defining mining sites suitable for assessing geomorphic processes. Within the two studied mines, namely Ruhanga and Gatare, different plots were identified based on the post-mining land uses, to investigate the level of soil and landscape degradation by comparing them with that of control sites located outside of mining influence. Modelling using RUSLE in GIS interface enabled to quantify soil loss potential within the mines and the watershed. Results indicate that the direct processes associated with opencast mining commonly involve pitting and trenching. Indirect and less conspicuous processes emerge as a long-term consequence of mining. They include depletion of organic matter, compaction or loosening of soil particles in mine sites mostly reflected by low content in organic matter, low rating in soil stable aggregates, and often high soil bulk densities which are variably distributed within the mine sites. This could explain the restriction or lowering, or the rapid infiltration of water into the soil during field experiments, as a consequence probably of the sealing of soil pores or the formation of fissures around mine shafts, from which slides or slumps occur. In average, soil organic matter comprises between 1 and 2.5 % on control sites and ex-mine cultivated sites. organic matter content of soils on reclamation sites was in the same ranges with that of control and ex-mine cultivated sites, but could reach 4,8 % in topsoil of some sample locations. The ex-mine self-recovering sites present much lower organic matter content which doesn't exceed 2 % in general. The soil aggregation rating of the area is from very low (8%) to low (≤13.5 %). In general, the bulk density ranges between 1.29 to 1.56 g cm-3, and locally can attain 1.76 g cm-3. As a consequence, the total porosity changes locally. Application of correlation and multiple regression models showed a strong influence of soil organic matter on the bulk density. Infiltration tests performed on different experimental sites showed differences of rates in water intake rates as in infiltration curves as well. Infiltration rates are variably distributed over the mines. They range from very slow (3.8 mmhr-1) to rapid (111.18 mm hr-1). Atterberg Limits analyses showed that soils of Gatumba Mining District do not possess extreme properties and they are suitable for engineering purposes. The liquid limit ranges between 51 % and 26 %, whereas the plastic limit is comprised between 22 % and 18 %. The highest plastic index (PI) determined was 29 % and the later soil had a plastic index of 6 %. The average soil loss in the Gatumba watershed is 27.45 t ha-1 yr-1 with a standard deviation of 0.891. More than 65% of land are prone to high rates of soil loss (exceeding 10 t ha-1 yr-1), and an increasing soil erosion follows increasing slope and land use patterns. The maxima of soil erosion rates are found in Upper Kibilira, Kirombozi and Gisuma catchments respectively. Based on different scenarios applied to quantify soil erosion rates, we found that more the organic matter content from 0. 5%, 2% and >2%) is increased with better support practice (from contour, strip and terrace), more the soil erosion potentials are decreased linearly, in the order of 18.8 to 17.8 t ha-1 yr-1 from 2% to >2 % of organic matter content respectively. To make SSOM more environmentally sustainable, there is a need of developing integrated practices and cross-cutting approaches that reduce the environmental impact of mining operations, and leave mine sites in an acceptable state for reuse by people or systems. Practices such as isolation of soil and earth material, stabilization of slopes and amendments of sites to be restored should be highly considered in the process of rehabilitation of affected sites. ; Diese Arbeit behandelt geomorphologische Prozesse, die im Zusammenhang mit kleinräumigen Tagebauen (Small-Scale Opencast Mining) in der Gatumba-Region des westlichen Hochlands von Ruanda auftreten. In diesem Gebiet fand jahrzehntelanger Zinn- und Tantalabbau statt, der das Einkommen und den Lebensstandard der Bevölkerung erhöht hat. Obwohl im Bereich der Bodenerosionsforschung viel unternommen und erreicht wurde, und trotz des aus dem Bergbau in Ruanda und Gatumba kommenden enormen Reichtums, wurden dessen negative Auswirkungen auf die Umwelt sowohl von Bergbautreibenden als auch anderen Interessengruppen ignoriert und von der Forschung weitgehend vernachlässigt. Dieser Zustand hat sich verfestigt, da es für die Akteure in der Region keine verbindlichen Regelungen hinsichtlich Erfassung von Auswirkungen des Bergbaus und Wiederherstellungsmaßnahmen gibt. Erst kürzlich, im Jahr 2007, hat die Wiederherstellung der Bergbaugebiete größere Aufmerksamkeit seitens der Ruandischen Geologie- und Bergbaubehörde erhalten. Das Ziel der Forschungsarbeiten war es, die geomorphologischen Auswirkungen von kleinräumigen Tagebauen abzuschätzen und besser zu verstehen. In diesem Zusammenhang wurden die folgenden Aspekte, die die Art und räumliche Verteilung von geomorphologischen Prozessen charakterisieren, erfasst: (i) Untersuchung der Landschaftsformen, die für SSOM kennzeichnend sind, (ii) Kartierung der Einzugsgebiets-Morphometrie im Untersuchungsgebiet, (iii) Analyse der relevantesten Bodeneigenschaften hinsichtlich der Geomorphologie, und (iv) Abschätzung der potentiellen Bodendegradation im Untersuchungsgebiet. Primäre und sekundäre Daten wurden bei Regierungsbehörden und durch eigene Beobachtungen zusammengestellt. Literaturrecherche, Feldbeobachtungen und-experimente, Laboranalysen, Kartierung und Modellierung mittels RUSLE wurden kombiniert um einen praktischen und integrativen methodischen Ansatz für das Erreichen der Zielstellungen zu entwickeln. Die Grundidee bei diesem analytischen Ansatz ist, dass die mit dem Bergbau assoziierten physikalischen Prozesse nicht durch nur eine einzige Methode erfasst werden können. In einem ersten Schritt wurden geeignete Tagebaue für die Erfassung geomorphologischer Prozesse bestimmt. Innerhalb der zwei untersuchten Tagebaue (Ruhanga und Gatare) wurden anhand der nachbergbaulichen Landnutzung verschiedene Untersuchungsflächen identifiziert, um den Grad der Boden- und Landschaftsdegradierung anhand des Vergleichs mit Kontrollstandorten außerhalb des bergbaulichen Einflusses zu untersuchen. Modellierung mit RUSLE über ein ArcGIS-Interface ermöglichte die Quantifizierung des Bodenabtragspotentials innerhalb der Tagebaue und des Einzugsgebiets Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die direkten Prozesse, die mit tagebaulichem Bergbau verbunden sind, üblicherweise die Anlage von Gruben und Gräben umfassen. Indirekte und weniger augenfällige Prozesse treten als langfristige Konsequenz des Bergbaus auf. Sie umfassen die Verringerung der organischen Substanz, Verdichtung oder Auflockerung von Bodenpartikeln an Bergbaustandorten, die meist mit einem niedrigen Gehalt an OS einhergeht, niedrige Gehalte an stabilen Bodenaggregaten, und oftmals hohen Lagerungsdichten, die variabel innerhalb der Bergbaustandorte verteilt sind. Dies könnte die Beschränkung oder Absenkung, oder die schnelle Infiltration von Wasser in den Boden während der Feldexperimente erklären, möglicherweise als Konsequenz der Porenversiegelung oder der Rissbildung um Minenschächte, von denen aus Rutschungen oder Grundbrüche entstehen. Die organischen Substanz-Gehalte reichen von 1 bis 2,5% an den Kontrollstandorten und landwirtschaftlich genutzten ehemaligen Bergbaustandorten. OS-Gehalte an wiederhergestellten Standorten waren in derselben Größenordnung wie die Kontrollstandorte und die landwirtschaftlich genutzten ehemaligen Bergbaustandorte. Die sich selbst erholenden Standorte im ehemaligen Tagebau weisen weit niedrigere organischen Substanz-Gehalte auf, die generell 2 % nicht überschreiten. Die Rate der Bodenaggregatbildung reicht von sehr gering (8 %) bis gering (≤13,5 %). Die Lagerungsdichten reichen von 1,29 bis 1,59 g cm-3, und können lokal bis 1,76 g cm-3 erreichen. Als Konsequenz ändert sich auch die Gesamtporosität lokal. Die Anwendung von Korrelations- und multiplen Regressionsmodellen ergab einen starken Einfluss der organischen Substanz auf die Lagerungsdichten. Infiltrationsexperimente, die an Proben der verschiedenen Versuchsstandorte durchgeführt wurden, zeigten Unterschiede sowohl bei der Wasseraufnahmerate als auch bei den Infiltrationskurven. Infiltrationskurven sind variabel über die Untersuchungsstandorte verteilt. Sie reichen von sehr langsam (3,8 mm h-1) bis schnell (111,2 mm h-1). Die Versuche zu den Atterberg'schen Grenzen zeigen, dass die Böden des Gatumba-Bergbaudistrikts keine extremen Eigenschaften aufweisen und für technische Maßnahmen geeignet sind. Die Fließgrenze liegt zwischen 26 % und 51 %, wohingegen die Ausrollgrenze Werte zwischen 18 % und 22 % umfasst. Die höchste gemessene Ausrollgrenze war 29 %, und dieser Boden wies eine Plastizitätszahl von 6 % auf. Der durchschnittliche Bodenabtrag im Gatumba Einzugsgebiet beträgt 27,45 t ha-1 a-1 mit einer Standardabweichung von 0,891. Mehr als 65 % des Landes sind anfällig für hohe Bodenabtragsraten (mehr als 10 t ha-1 a-1), und eine steigende Bodenerosion folgt steigenden Hangneigungen und Landnutzungsmustern. Die Höchstwerte der Bodenabtragungsraten finden sich jeweils im Oberen Kibilira, Kirombozi und Gisuma-Einzugsgebiet. Auf Grundlage verschiedener Szenarien, die zur Quantifizierung der Bodenerosionsraten angewendet wurden, zeigte sich, dass mit höheren organischen Substanz-Gehalten (2 % bis >2 %) und mit verbesserten Anbaupraktiken (Kontur-, Streifen-, Terrassenanbau) die Bodenerosionsraten linear in der Größenordnung von 17,8 bis 18,8 t ha-1 a-1 verringern. Um kleinräumigen Tagebauen umweltverträglicher zu gestalten bedarf es der Entwicklung integrierter Methoden und interdisziplinärer Ansätze die die Umweltfolgen von Bergbauoperationen reduzieren und Bergbaustandorte in einem nutzungsfähigen Zustand hinterlassen. Praktiken wie die Trennung von Boden und Gesteinsaushub, die Stabilisierung von Hängen und die Verbesserung von Wiederherstellungsstandorten sollten größte Berücksichtigung beim Rehabilitationsprozess betroffener Standorte finden.
"Opportunities multiply as they are seized."Sun TzuOn the eve of the one hundredth day of his Presidency, Barack Obama received a wonderful gift: Senator Arlen Specter, Republican of Pennsylvania, announced he was leaving the Republican Party to become a Democrat. This puts the number of Senate Republicans at 40, the lowest level in over 30 years, and gives the Democrats, at least on paper, the special majority of 60 votes needed for them to override a filibuster of legislation by the opposition. Besides the obvious advantages for Democrats, Specter's pivotal decision has other important implications, not only for Republicans but also for Democrats.First, it highlights the sad state of the Republican Party: Specter explained that he felt compelled to leave the party because he knew that, as a moderate, he could not win another Republican primary election. The Republican Party under G.W Bush employed the electoral tactic of consolidating the white, Southern, right -wing Christian base, rather than reaching out to the middle. This helped them win two presidential elections and gave credence to the claim that they were the "party of the permanent majority". That was only four years ago. But Bush's disastrous second term had the effect of alienating two major constituencies: the realist establishment in foreign policy who were dismayed by his stated goals of bringing democracy to Iraq and Afghanistan, and the fiscal conservatives who saw the federal budget surplus rapidly turn into deficit. The party then entered a downward spiral of contraction. It lost ground with centrist voters, at a time when the center of the political spectrum was expanding. It suffered from a leadership void that left it at times voiceless, while at other times it spoke in a cacophony of inchoate opinions. During these 100 days, no articulate Republican counter-case was made to Obama's proposals. The "big tent" party has become so narrow in its geographical and ideological base that it is as irrelevant today as the Whigs were in the 1850s.Second, Arlen Specter's switch is also significant in that it may have a moderating force on the Obama agenda, forcing him to accommodate it toward the center instead of pushing ahead at full steam. This could be a timely correction, since some fiscally conservative Democrats (so-called Blue Dog Democrats) are increasingly voicing their concern, not only about the frenetic pace of reforms but also about the ambitious scale of the spending: the request for $ 800 billion in the form of a fiscal stimulus will be followed by another $ 600 billion for health care and $ 500 billion for infrastructure. This will add two trillion dollars to the national debt, and would represent the biggest expansion in the role of the Federal Government since Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society program. According to Niall Ferguson, economic historian at Harvard, the federal debt which is now around a still-healthy 70% of GDP, will balloon to 180% of GDP, similar to Japan's. These are serious concerns that may come back to haunt the administration further down the line, if the economy does not pull ahead in a year or two.The first one hundred days is by most measures an inconclusive, artificial period of time in which to evaluate a President's success. In all likelihood the next one hundred days will be more determinative, once the legislative agenda moves forward. But we can still use this early stage as a barometer of public support and as a measure of how much Obama has worked to fulfill his campaign promises. In many ways, this period only writes the afterword of the 2008 presidential election. The President has been given an extended period of grace by the American people, in the understanding that he inherited the worst economic crisis since 1930. In the face of tumultuous times and unprecedented unease over the economy, he has maintained his calm and collected demeanor and continued to communicate, explain, and give hope. Thus he was able to avoid a flare- up of populist rage at the excesses of Wall Street, and focus with calm persistence on fixing the economic mess at home and the frayed international ties abroad. His ability to recognize US missteps and open up to the world reaching out to Iran and Cuba has already changed the entire tone of US foreign policy. This new moderation and sensitivity about how others perceive the United States was welcomed around the world and even has not borne fruit yet, it bodes well for future exchanges.The main criticism that has been raised is that the Obama team is embarking on too many different tasks and that this "frenzied flurry" of activity will not allow it to focus on solving the two main problems it faces: the economy and the fight against terrorism. Both are labor intensive and complicated and demand full-time attention and concentration. There is some value in these criticisms, but there are two main reasons why the White House has chosen this approach. First, the President has a vision that ties all his initiatives together, and he so far deserves praise for pursuing it without neglecting any of the major problems he faces. For Obama, fixing the economy alone is not feasible without changing the country's energy base, reforming its health care and education systems. His vision encompasses a technological, knowledge- based economy where the new jobs will be in the green energy sector and in bio-technology and robotics. To meet the job demands of these two revolutions in technology and energy, a third revolution will have to take place in the educational field, with a renewed stress on mathematics and science, as well as a restructuring of curriculums and developing inter-disciplinary skills for problem-solving. At the same time, these revolutions would also transform the international landscape in many ways, some predictable (the demise of oil-based economies would certainly solve a problem or two in the Middle East), others not so. But the United States is clearly at a crossroads in its history and must choose between continuity and demise, or change and a renewed claim to leadership in the XXI century.Second, blessed by a prolonged period of grace granted to them by the American people and the media, and with no opposition in the horizon, the administration has adopted this frenetic pace to make the most of this enlarged window of opportunity. Propelled forward by a vision but at the same time imbued of a healthy pragmatism, Obama has not kept every single promise to every constituency, and has preferred instead to pick his battles. For example, he did not re-open NAFTA in the realization that economic recovery will require free trade. Similarly, he has postponed a fight over making permanent a ban on the sale of assault weapons. He also gave up on pushing for a reduction of farm subsidies when it was clear that Congress Democrats would not yield on that issue. Instead, he has focused on a set of non-negotiable priorities, trying to do as much as he can and knowing that only a few will bear fruit in the long run. Obama is now at the peak of his power but has not lost sense of the ephemeral nature of politics, and he knows that the seeds of the downfall are often sowed at the highest point of power. A student of history, he is well aware that presidents inevitably become reactive, as unforeseen events beyond their control begin to shape their tenures and their place in history. If a year or two from now the economy has not recovered and promises made in the first hundred days remain unfulfilled, disillusionment will set in and his power will wane accordingly. His outsized expansion of the federal government would then be harshly criticized and cost him the support of moderates. His strong repudiation of all of Bush's national security policies, including the publishing of the torture memos, could also become a huge liability in the case of another major terrorist attack. Ultimately, the strongest moment for a president is also the riskiest, since there is a temptation to overreach. Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia
In Politics, one week can be a long time. The last couple of weeks in the Democratic Primary have dramatically changed the political landscape. Obama's "golden boy"image has suffered major setbacks and those asking for Hillary to quit now appear to have discovered a new "glow" surrounding her political persona.First there was that San Francisco speech in which Obama, with anthropological detachment, observed that he perfectly understood why people in mid-town America were "bitter" as their jobs "were being exported overseas" and as a consequence, were "clinging to their religion and their guns." This, together with other silly anecdotes during his campaign in Pennsylvania which purportedly showed a lack of connection with the common man (including his bad bowling scores, his discomfort in sitting around in a bar and sharing a beer with the locals, and his preference for arugula salad!), won him the label of elitist and out of touch with blue collar workers. These missteps were also well-exploited by Hillary Clinton, who in contrast with Obama, during the same campaigning route, portrayed herself as a "regular working gal", conquered the white blue-collar vote and did much better than expected in the wealthy Philadelphia suburbs. Thus, she won handily in Pennsylvania, and was able to extend the momentum gained in Ohio and Texas. Although it appears as a mathematical certainty that Obama will win the delegate count, she is still ahead in superdelegates, but, more importantly, Obama seems to be losing ground fast. If she wins Indiana and Obama gets North Carolina this coming Tuesday, the agony goes on.Bill Clinton is already talking about the popular vote (which Hillary is winning clearly if Florida votes count). That decision will most likely be made at the National Convention in August, if by then there is no declared winner.In the meantime, Obama has had to deal with the "Reverend problem", as Rev. Jeremiah Wright continued to damage his national image. When Barack denounced his anti-America sermons and declarations (the latest one being a claim that the US government had "invented the HIV virus as a means of genocide against people of color"), Wright replied that "he was a politician, and that is what politicians do," thus aiming at debunking the myth that Obama is a new type of leader, a Washington outsider. This led to Michelle Obama's appearances in CNN and NBC to try to damage control or, as she put it, to "define ourselves and not let other people define us." Her strong, intelligent and straightforward demeanor may have partially succeeded in restoring his image as a leader who is in it not for power but because he sincerely believes he can change the country; while she her certainty might have reassured followers, the Jeremiah Wright story will not go away so easily. How much this has hurt Obama's chances in the Primary still remains to be seen, but, more importantly, it may have inflicted a deadly wound to his national chances at the Presidency.Politics is a complex phenomenon and public opinion is fickle. Voters have little time to follow the vicissitudes of a campaign, to understand the nuances of ideas and policies, to make well-informed decisions on which candidate will better represent them. In fact, that is the main value of political parties: to help people make sense of politics. Their role is to offer clear and consistent policy positions so voters can make up their minds on which party better represents their values, needs and demands, to aggregate the vote and articulate voters interests. But they also must appeal to deeper feelings and emotions, and generate symbols of identification and allegiance, in order to mobilize people to participate.Several new phenomena are at play in this election and political strategists are bewildered by them. The first is the premise that we are beyond partisan politics and ideologies. This is Barack Obama's claim, that his style of "new politics" transcends ideological barriers and crosses over political parties. That there are no more "red states" and "blue states", just people with similar problems. That he can appeal to people everywhere and from all political convictions by focusing on their individual values, needs and demands. That the old divides, namely, Market versus State, Private versus Public, Rich versus Poor, White versus Black, don't apply anymore. He posits that those frameworks are the wrong questions to ask, he talks about the new politics of unity, and he reassures them that he will rule for all. And his historical example is Ronald Reagan, who won over to his side the "Reagan Democrats". Regardless of the fact that this is the wrong analogy (that could be the subject of a different article), the main problem is that perhaps at this point in time, post-ideological politics may not be good politics, and will not win the election. He concedes important ideological points that should instead be argued. This is what has given Hillary the momentum: she went back to basics, and is speaking to each group directly, stating her "bread and butter policies first" positions in clear, pragmatic terms. Her upbeat, clear-eyed mood is more appealing to many than his "egg-head", post-modern intellectual analysis. That is why he has the PhDs and she has the blue collar vote.The next problem that bemuses political thinkers is the fact that, at a time when Bush's approval ratings are the lowest in the history of Gallup (27% on job performance, 21% on the economy), John Mc Cain continues to run very close to his Democratic rivals (Obama leads him 46% to 43% and Clinton 45% to 44%). When voters are asked which party they would prefer to win the election, over 44 per cent say Democratic. Of Independents (one third of the electorate, which will have the decisive vote) two-to-one prefer Democrats. So why is John Mc Cain still doing so well? The answer can be found is his likability and his proven independence from the party in several instances during his Senate career. In an extremely skillful slalom motion, he has been able to first win back the conservative majority of the Republican party by supporting the troop surge in Iraq and gaining a bland Bush endorsement (no easy feat given his positions on immigration, campaign-finance reform and his criticism of the way the war in Iraq was executed, and then succeeded in moving away from Bush as fast as possible, visiting New Orleans and portraying himself as a caring protector of the poor.Although voters disagree with him on main issues, such as staying in Iraq for as long as it takes, they trust him, his sincerity, his patriotism and his values. His age does not appear to be a problem. But this dichotomy between lack of support for the party and favorable ratings for the candidate could be interpreted as another indication that parties are in demise. But the paradox here is that this decline in party allegiance is not for the post-modern reasons we have pointed out above (demise of ideologies of Left and Right, emergence of a range of post-material political issues such as the environment, consumer rights, and lifestyle choices). Instead, here we are confronted with an older type of politics, one that precededideologies, namely a more personalistic style of politics, based on primordial feelings about leaders who embody the Rousseauan will of the people. This is much more likely to be found in European "continental" and Latin American political cultures than in the Anglo-Saxon ones, where modern mass based representative parties were invented.If modern democracy in inconceivable without political parties, as Shattschneider and Schumpeter concluded, will charisma alone be enough to carry representative government forward? And, if the Primary goes his way, will the charisma of a Washington outsider and political dreamer trump the one of a down to earth Senator of Arizona? Will the issue of race play a role in the national election? Faced with the choice of a black candidate with admirable academic credentials but unproven political record running for the favorite party, and a white patriot representing a highly discredited party, who will Americans vote for? Political analysts and historians will have to wait at least until this November to sort all this out. Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia
Mehling, Sebastian (Dogus Author) ; This Essay is not meant to deliver a new history of Turkey-EU relations. Neither is it a fully-fledged discourse analysis of the debate on Turkish Accession within German Newspapers. Its focus lies instead on the political language, more precisely on the discursive logics, which were used within the discussion on the complex policy decision of whether or not Turkey can or should join the European Union. lts major claim is thereby, that it is the character of language that determines the way in which discussion about politics are structured. Language is accordingly defined, first, as a collectively derived 'tool-kit' which is only used by individuals. Every individual statement, indeed any individual reflection, is thus framed by collective structures and must obey predominant linguistic rules (to a certain extent) in order to be meaningful and enable the individual to communicate with its environment. On the other hand it is equally true, that .every meaningfu1 statement must redefine those structures, so as to adjust them and make them useful within the individual speech situation. What emerges from this perspective on language, is a mutual and tense relationship between structure and agency, between continuity and change and between the other and the self, i.e. a dialectical relationship between both, which is necessary to construct a meaningful reality. In consequence, and secondly, every meaningful statement must connect to a historicist beyond, i.e. an other time beyond the individual speech situation. The individual present must thus be embedded in speculations about past and future, in order to endow the statement made with the necessary element of consistency and direction in time, without however, proving that something like a meaningful history/futııre does exist outside of language. Thirdly, but equally emergıng from the first point, it is indispensable for every meaningful statement to refer to a collectivist beyond, i.e. the speculative and imagined other, which is not directly involved within the individual speech situation. This is done to endow the statement made with the necessary element of direction in (social) space, without, however, implying an authentic representation of the other within the statement made. Accordingly, every statement within a political debate cannot avoid potentially ideological speculations about a teleological connection of past and future, as well as it cannot avoid a stereo-typical representation and evaluation of difference, ranging from the same (or self), over similar ( or core ), to different ( or peripheral other) and contradictory ( or the outside other). On the other hand, however, it is exactly the actual utilisation of these linguistic tools within a communicative confrontation between two or more individual debate participants, which triggers a mutual re-definition of them and thus enables an inter-subjective creation of a social reality. Yet, this does not mean that communication leads necessarily to dialogue and understanding. It can equally lead to misunderstanding, or be performed through mutually exclusive monologues. Instead it means that all kinds of statements are formulated within a present negotiation and bargaining process, in which commonsensical knowledge about the self and the other, about the past and the future, is re-defined according to the new situation at hand. It is thus feasible to approach the complex discursive landscape of the debate on Turkish accession to the EU, from the perspective of language. If one does so it becomes clear how the specific argumentation used connect to certain discursive logics, so as to receive from them the necessary normative horizon it needs to produce itself as authentic reflection on reality, which can trigger consistent and morally legitimate decisions. The structuring discourse logics used within the debate, can be categorised under the labels of the French notion of Civilisation, the German notion of Kultur, and the English notion of cosmopolitanism. This categorisation thereby is constructed as ideal-type categorisation, which reduces an over-complex debate reality and creates clear-cut distinctions between the camps, in order to provide a structure that can trigger understanding. However, it does not suggest that the ideal types formulated strictly correspond to anything real. lt thus resembles both, the structuring frame of language and the ideological and stereotypical distortions, which necessarily emerge from this reductionist, selective and speculative procedure of structuring. The ideal types of Civilisation, Kultur and cosmopolitanism are accordingly defined as discursive logics, which produce mutually exclusive but interdependent, ideological evaluations of historical and social development. Yet, although these evaluations do not correspond to any social reality, they are nevertheless able to re-create it through their employment of a self-referential and self-evident, i.e. quasi-realistic narrative, which sets itself off against the other logics and thus produces itself as the more realistic and more trustful alternative. Hence, by doing this, the discursive logics employ the linguistic fundamental of a dialectical relation between two poles (thesis and antithesis), whereby reality logically must emerge in between those poles (as a synthesis). An argumentative chain based on the logic of Civilisation, for example, can thus materialize itself as more realistic, when it is able to disqualify counterarguments as being based on the ' amoral ', 'unrealistic' and 'obsolete' boundaries of a thesis Kultur and antithesis cosmopolitanism, which are accordingly synthesised and balanced within the logic of Civilisation. However, this process works as well from out the other discursive logics, exactly because neither of them can be verifıed or falsified, i.e. objectively proven by the yardstick of an outside reality. Instead, they produce reality among each other verify themselves by falsifying the altematives, within a mutual but tense relationship of dependence and exclusion. Accordingly one can define the three discursive logics as fundamentally based on the same linguistic method of dialectical production of reality, whereby, they however, essentially differ in the way they emphasis on one feature of society and de-emphasise the corresponding alternatives. Whether one or the other discursive logic is used does therefore not depend on their objectivity, but instead on their utility for the identity project of the debate participant that employs one of them. The analysis of (a selection of articles from) the German debate illustrates this fact by applying the theoretically derived ideal-type categorisation to newspaper articles, which were published in between 2002 and 2004. The statements made in those articles are all essentially based on normative speculations about what the specific qualities of European societies are. In so doing they derive their meaning not primarily from their analytical quality. Their meaning rather depends on their capacity to construct an internally consistent narrative, i.e. their ability to re-produce the framing discourse logics of Civilisation, Kultur or cosmopolitanism and to establish an ordering hierarchy among them within the speech situation at hand. The thesis concludes thus that it is impossible to arrive at an objectively right evaluation of the compiex social environment around the political decision whether Turkey should join the EU or not. However, the more channels for communication exist, where individuals can confront and (re-)negotiate their commonsensical knowledge with or against each other, the more probable it is that a dynamic debate emerges, which keeps the fruitful dialectical tension alive. The question, whether an entity called Turkey will join a European Union or not, is thus not so important. More important is the question how one can intensify the communicative engagement between individuals of both, the societies of the EU Member States and the Turkish society. ; PREFACE, IV -- SUMMARY, V -- INTR0DUCTION: THE NEVER ENDING STORIES OF TURKEY AND THE EU, 8 -- 1. The fortresses of Europe or the monasteries of Europe? - European Kultur vs. -- European Civilisation vs. European Cosmopolitanism, 14 -- 1.1. Civilisation and Orientalism - Revolutionary Enlightenment and the civilised European Empire, 27 -- 1.2. Kultur & Occidentalism - Conservative Romanticism and the World of (German) Nations, 34 -- 1.3. Cosmpolitanism - Liberal Enlightenment and Reflective Individualism as the cure for a plagued Continent, 42 -- 2. Closing or opening up the European Union? - The debate on Turkish Accession -- caught between Kultur and Civilisation - and what about Cosmopolitanism?, 51 -- 2.1. Discursive construction of the other, 53 -- 2.2. The debate in German Newspapers, 64 -- Conclusion, 92 -- 4. Annex, 100 -- 4.1. Hans Ulrich Wehler; Die türkische Frage. Europas Bürger müssen entscheiden, 100 -- 4.2. Seyla Benhabib; Das türkische Mosaik. Ein lrrtum zu meinen, Europa müsse am Bosporus enden, 108 -- 4.3. Cristian Meier: Wo liegt Europa? Historische Reflexionen - aus gegebenem.Anlass, 112 -- 4.4. Kardinal Josef Ratzinger; Auf der Suche nach dem Frieden. Gegen erkrankte Vernunft und missbrauchte Religion, 118 -- 4.5. Armin Adam; Der ideelle Kern. Lasst sich eine Vorstellung von Europa gewinnen, die seine religiöse Geschiche nicht verfalscht?, 124 -- 4.6. Heinz Kramer; EU-kompatible oder nicht? Zur Debatte um die Mitgliedschaft der Türkei in der Europaischen Union. Berlin: SWP Studie, 128 -- 5. Biblography, 12
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkasavanur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 474 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm of which about 363 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 88 per cent is covered by soils, 19 percent is covered by rock lands and three per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 10 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 78 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 22 per cent is not suitable for agriculture. About 69 per cent of the soils are very shallow (150 cm) soils. About 8 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 56 per cent loamy soils and 14 per cent of the area has sandy soils at the surface. About 9 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 55 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 13 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils. About 78 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (9.0), 22 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 7 per cent slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 21 per cent area and about 57 per cent area is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area. Available iron is deficient in about 21 per cent area and sufficient in 57 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. Available zinc is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in 6 per cent and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 71 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 23 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Sorghum 75(16) 83 (18) Sapota - 41(9) Maize 75(16) 83 (18) Jackfruit - - Cotton - 158(33) Jamun - - Sunflower - 88(19) Musambi - - Onion 41(9) 117 (25) Lime - - Groundnut 41(9) 139(29) Cashew - 41(9) Chilli 41(9) 117(25) Custard apple - 180(39) Sugarca ne 41(9) 139(29) Amla - 69 (14) Pomegran ate - 41(9) Tamarind - - Tomato 41(9) 117 (25) Marigold 41(9) 133(28) Guava - 117 (25) Chrysanthem um 41(9) 133(28) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Chikasavanur-2 micro-watershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1504' – 1506' North latitudes and 75035' – 75037' East longitudes, covering an area of about 322 ha, bounded by Fatgoan Badani, Nilogal, Chikasavanur and Devihal villages with a length of growing period (LGP) 150- 180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Chikasavanur-2 Microwatershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 62.7 to 37.3 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 50.9 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 72.5 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 44.4 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 77.8 per cent. About 44.4 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (66.7 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system among all the sample households. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 33.3 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 7.84 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making is around 58 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.61 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The total cultivated land by dry land condition among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 22.2 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 33.3 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 106480 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 137948 per household; about 33.3 per cent of sample farmers owen plough and bullock cart. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 32550 per household; about 25 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 819.2 grams (1634.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 88.9 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 12537 per household. Among all sample farm households are above poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs. 1114. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 467 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 171969 per year for the total area of 474.16 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs. 20433/ ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in lemon (Rs. 415454) followed by horse gram (Rs. 9228), sunflower (Rs. 5480), cowpea (Rs. 3575), Ragi (Rs. 1356) and sorghum negative returns. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2213/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize greengram (Rs 2687) followed by sorghum (Rs. 1976) and maize (Rs. 1976). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in cotton (Rs. 49758), sorghum (Rs. 37643), greengram (Rs. 37317), sunflower (Rs. 33256) and maize (Rs. 21598). 3 Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is maize (65.9 %) followed by greengram (17.4 %), cotton (8.4 %), sorghum (5.6 %) and sunflower (2.8 %). In Chikasavanur-2 micro-watershed, major soil are soil of alluvial landscape of Chikasavanur (CRS) and Kanchanahali (KNH) soil series are having shallow soil depth covered around 20.59 per cent and 9.61 per cent of areas respectively. On the soil farmers growing crops are maize and cotton. Kutegoudanahundi (KGH) series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 18.07 per cent of areas; crops on greengram (38%), maize (44%), sorghum (12 %) and sunflower (6%). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sunflower Rs.57747/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.20). In cotton the cost of cultivation Rs. 34446/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.47). In maize the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 32642/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.05) and Rs.17944/ha in CRS soil (with BCR of 81.34). In greengram the cost of cultivation Rs. 19891/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.17) and sorghum the cost of cultivation Rs 21936/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.10). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (71.5 to 81.8 %), cotton (56.0 %), sorghum (83.9 %), green gram (27.7 %), sunflower (38.5 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
