Suchergebnisse

"Yükselen İslamofobi'nin Avrupa Kimliğine Etkisi" konulu tez, inşacı yaklaşım ile Hristiyan ve Müslüman kimliği arasındaki ihtilaf sürecini açıklamaya çalışmıştır. İslamofobi algısını oluşturan dinamikler kapsamında karşıt kimliklerin nasıl oluştuğu ile çokkültürlü yapının ve çokkültürcü politikaların kolektif kimliğe etkisi irdelenmiştir. 1960'lı yıllardan itibaren sanayi alanındaki atılımlarla ekonomik ve sosyal kalkınmayı başarılı bir şekilde gerçekleştiren Avrupa Birliği ülkelerinde fabrikalarda çalışacak iş gücüne ihtiyaç duyulmaya başlamıştır. Bu yıllarda ülkelerine göçmen gelmesine izin veren, hatta bunu özel programlarla da teşvik eden AB ülkeleri, 90'ların sonuna doğru katı bir sınır kontrolü politikası gütmeye başlamış ve göçmenlerin ülkelerine girmesini engellemeye çalışmıştır. Bu politikalar zamanla kamuoyuna yabancı düşmanlığı şeklinde tezahür etmiş özellikle sağ muhafazakar partilerin popülist propagandalarına malzeme edilmiştir. Bu propagandaların önemli bir kısmı İslam karşıtlığı üzerinden yürütülmüştür. Bu da bizi şu gerçeğe götürmektedir: Kimliğin ve kültürün inşası için yaşanmış bir tarih duygusunun, ortak toplumsal belleğin ve geleneklerin, sürekli canlı tutulması gerekir. Kolektif belleğin oluşmasında biz ve öteki kavramlarının canlı tutulabilmesi, içerme ve dışlama koşullarının sürekliliği çok önemlidir. Ancak AB'nin, içinde barındırdığı çeşitli ulus devletler, farklı kültürler ve dinler, kolektif kimliğin ya da başka bir deyişle bir üst Avrupa kimliğinin oluşumundaki engellerden sadece birkaçıdır. Ortak bir üst kimlik yerine farklı kimliklerin kültürlerini ötekileştirmeyen farklı bir kavram da ortaya atılmıştır: Çokkültürlülük. Bir zamanlar karşılıklı anlayış çerçevesinde geliştirilmiş olan bu kavram, sonraları devam ettirilememiş, ülkelerin sırasıyla, kavramın iflas ettiğini açıklamasına neden olmuştur. İçerideki faklılıkların yanı sıra dış dinamiklerin de çokkültürlü yapının iflasına zemin hazırladığı bir gerçektir. 11 Eylül saldırılarından sonra İslam'ın terörizm ile birlikte anılmaya başlamasıyla AB içerisindeki Müslüman kimlik ötekileştirilmeye, bir düşman olarak görülmeye başlamıştır. AB üyesi ülkeler son yıllarda her ne kadar sınır kontrollerini katılaştırsalar da kaçak yollardan gelen göçmenlere engel olamamaktadır. Aslında göçmenlerin yasal yollar dışında AB ülkelerine gelmeleri, bu grubun insan hakları ve işçi hakları sözleşmelerinden mahrum kalmasına neden olmuştur. Aslında güvencesi olmayan ucuz iş gücü, küreselleşmenin ve kapitalist ekonomik sistemin çok da karşı çıkmadığı bir durumdur. Fakat yine de bu durum, sağ muhafazakar partilerin; göçmenleri, popülist söylemlerine malzeme etmesine, ırkçılığın ve milliyetçiliğin yükselmesine engel olamamıştır. ; Abstract ; This thesis titled "The Impact of Rising Islamophobia to the European Identity", aimed to explain the process of discord between Christian and Muslim identity by using constructionist approach. In this study, within the scope of dynamics that make up the perception of Islamophobia, how opposite identities formed and the effect of multicultural structure and multiculturalist policies to collective identity are examined. Since 1960's, EU countries which performed a successful economic and social development thanks to progress in the field of industry, began to need manpower to work in the factories. EU countries that allow migrants to come, even encourage them with a special programs during these years, at the end of 1990's they began to implement a strict border control policy and tried prevent immigrant to enter their countries. These policies were manifested in the form of xenophobia in public opinion in time and especially right-wing conservative parties used this problem in their propaganda. An important part of their propagandas were carried out over anti-Islam. This fact leads us to the following; for the construction of identity and culture, common sense of history and common social memory and traditions need to be kept constantly alive. For the formation of collective memory, the concept of "we" and "the other" can be kept alive, continuity conditions for inclusion and exclusion is very important. The various nation-states, different cultures and religions EU contained are just a few of the obstacles in the formation of collective identity or in the other words a supra-European identity. Instead of a common supra identity, a different concept not marginalizing cultures of different identities have been proposed: Multiculturalism. This concept which was developed within the framework of mutual understanding in the past wasn't sustained later and this lead to states respectively declared the collapse of concept. It's obvious not only internal differences but external dynamics has great effect on the failure of the multiculturalist structure. After the attacks of September 11, together with associating Islam with terrorism, Muslim identities in the EU was marginalized and began to be seen as an enemy. EU member states, although they hardened the border controls I recent years, they cannot interfere with smuggled immigrants. In fact, arrivals of immigrants to Europe in illegal way lead to this group is deprived of human rights and workers' right contracts. In fact, it is a condition that is not opposed by globalization and the capitalist economic system: cheap labor without assurance. However, this still didn't stop right-wings conservative parties to use migrants in their populist discourse and the rise of racism and nationalism.

The impact on the human psyche, body and emotions in those who endure major traumatic events is well documented, regardless of whether trauma is human induced or the result of natural disasters. In particular, symptoms leading to depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been linked to traumatic events. PTSD was developed in the United States initially following the documentation of traumatic symptoms in Vietnam veterans after they returned home from the war. Similarly, the diagnosis of PTSD is widely used across Asian countries, and in Cambodia specifically. PTSD diagnoses are reinforced in medical, clinical and academic training programmes, as well as in research designs and outcomes. More profoundly, the diagnosis of PTSD was highlighted by foreign experts after their psychiatric, forensic evaluation of survivors of the Khmer Rouge genocide; their findings underscored testimonies during hearings in the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC). This study set out initially to determine the discrepancy between descriptive analyses of PTSD, and lived experiences of Cambodian survivors of the Khmer Rouge. Despite studies on idioms of distress in non-Western cultures, few ethno-cultural studies capture fully the trauma response set of symptoms in the context of Cambodians' postgenocide history. Given the dearth of assessment infrastructure for the Cambodian context, this study was designed with three objectives: 1) to explore the meaning of trauma and the ethnocultural range of responses to distress, including baksbat (broken courage) for those living inside Cambodia; 2) to develop and validate an inventory to measure ethno-cultural conditions and expressions of baksbat; and 3) to increase the cultural competency in particular on baksbat to local and foreign mental health workers who are practicing and researching in Cambodia. This study used a progression of qualitative and quantitative mixed-methods that started with ethnographic interviews and focus groups in order to unfold the ethno-cultural meaning of trauma; validation of the inventory followed. The focus group discussions were conducted with 53 experts in order to understand the baksbat domain from their overlapping and individual perspectives of context, content, and process. Thematic analysis of the interview data assisted the item development of the first inventory designed to measure the baksbat complex. That inventory for baksbat was administered to a clinical sample inside Cambodia in order to validate the clustering of items. Cambodian psychiatric research is validated mostly on former refugee populations residing outside Cambodia, so a baseline sample taken from inside the country was essential to its cultural reliability. From these objectives, the author published three related articles in peer reviewed journals that are attached inside the thesis. The first article was about the understanding and the analysis of the ethno-cultural concept of baksbat from a social, historical, political, medical and etymological perspective. The author also compared the overlapping symptoms between baksbat and PTSD in terms of symptomatology, causation, and treatment. The second article described the development and validation of the baksbat inventory using statistical measures, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to explore the factor loading, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to confirm the validity of the inventory. This article establishes the development and validation of the baksbat inventory. The third article was written about the application of baksbat as an ethno-cultural condition. Herein, its use offered real practice potential in forensic, clinical, research, and education about transcultural trauma in Cambodia. The author cautioned that foreign experts used PTSD criteria to support their forensic evidence, but because of the lack of cultural sensitivity of PTSD criteria, it may have failed to capture trauma symptoms among survivors. In his third article, the author recommends the use of baksbat together with PTSD criteria in giving forensic evidence; also, the author demonstrated its use when testifying as an expert witness on psychological trauma on survivors of the Khmer Rouge regime at the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC) on the 4th and 5th June 2013. The three published articles presented in this thesis correspond to the three broad aims of this study. This study was exploratory and confirmatory, as there have been no prior systematic and in depth studies conducted on this topic among the Khmer population in Cambodia. The findings show that PTSD and baksbat criteria combined represent better Cambodian survivors descriptive symptoms of trauma. This ethno-cultural syndrome, baksbat provides new knowledge for application on cultural aspects of trauma and mental health in Cambodia. In addition, there is broad scope for other former Cambodian refugees who are living abroad, and for others living in non-Western or Buddhist contexts. These findings bring us another step closer to representing human experience more fully in this long journey across the fields of transcultural psychiatry and traumatic studies.

LGBT/Q film festivals are an integral part of the social practice of queer film culture. They are places where social, political and economic discourses intersect and where LGBT/Q identities, representation through film, definitions of queer cinema, community and global queer politics are negotiated. The festivals themselves are constantly responding to the changing surroundings and demands from stakeholders such as their audience base, the communities they want to serve, and economic and political stakeholders. The versatile, ever evolving form of the festival speaks to its performative formation. Therefore, the concepts of performativity, the performative and performance lend themselves to the analysis of the mechanisms and processes at play there. This study, situated at the intersection of film and media studies, sociology and queer theory, builds its arguments on the interdisciplinary field of film festival studies, and sets out to argue for the value of applying the concepts of the performative, performativity and performance to the study of film festivals in general, and LGBT/Q film festivals in particular. As the discussion of the concepts in chapter 1 show, the performative as developed by Austin in language philosophy and its further transposition to performativity in the theorizations of philosophy and literature by Derrida, for gender/queer theory by Butler, and performance for ethnography by Turner, and in theater/performance studies by Fischer-Lichte and McKenzie provides a versatile analytical arsenal for the analysis of film festivals. At the same time it is highly compatible with other existing concepts and theorizations such as event, public sphere, and networks and flows that have already been canonically applied to festival studies. In chapter 2, I mobilize the historical dimension of the performative to discuss the formation of LGBT/Q film festivals and their circuit. There, I sketch out the historical development of the LGBT/Q film festival while paying attention also to the larger social, political, geographic, and economic contexts. The discursive historiography is accompanied by an empirical one, where I analyze the growth pattern and global spread of the LGBT/Q film festival circuit. Along with the global perspective, a discussion of US-American (Frameline, NewFest, MIX NYC), German (Lesbisch Schwule Filmtage Hamburg, Verzaubert, Berlinale Teddy Award) and Austrian (identities) case studies provides further depth in understanding the evolution of the festivals and the circuit. Having drawn a broad picture of the circuit in chapter 3, I zoom in to look at a number of specific incidents of disruption and boycotts as case studies to unravel the different layers in which LGBT/Q film festivals as instances of queer film culture are performed (or failed). In this chapter I mobilize mainly perspectives of performativity and performance from ethnography and performance studies. These are put in synch with concepts such as public spheres, audience address, and event culture in three steps: selection, exhibition, and reception. Under the heading of selection, I discuss the performance of queer cinema as it becomes visible in the practices of selection of films and their programming at LGBT/Q film festivals. There I discuss various processes involved in programming, ranging from pre-selection, to screening committees, to programming strategies. Two historical incidents from the history of Frameline, the "Lesbian Riot" and the "Genderator" incident, serve as examples of how programming directly interrelates with identity negotiations. In the section on exhibition, I turn to the performative architecture of an LGBT/Q film festival by shedding light on the event itself, which follows specific scripts and rituals. In the last section on reception, I look at the corresponding side of these processes and look at the audience. Here, I discuss the formation of a counterpublic sphere, audience address, and the specific reception context of a festival. Two further festival boycotts are presented to analyze how LGBT/Q film festivals operate as queer counterpublic spheres that activists utilize for political intervention. The last section discusses the communal experience of collective viewing and the impact on the formation of a festival community. With this take on audiences, community and reception contexts, the chapter returns to the question of how LGBT/Q film festivals are an integral part of the practices of queer film culture, which was raised in the introduction. In the concluding outlook to the study I propose three further research trajectories. While the study mostly relied on conceptions of performativity and performance in the sense developed in ethnography, gender/queer theory and performance studies, another aspect of performance can be productively brought to bear on the subject of (LGBT/Q) film festivals: performance in the economic sense of efficiency and achievement.

This thesis identifies and characterizes urban challenges and analyzes springs metropolitan governance. It follows from the analysis of the mechanism of urban development that several processes have contributed to metropolisation Cotonou. First, colonization transformed the once village town while the transfer of skills caused by independence contributed in a second time to shape the urban complex. Democratization of Benin and the process of decentralization in turn gave birth to the metropolis cotonoise along a continuous band of forty miles. The analysis of these mutations revealed that ultimately urban challenges are technical, economic, organizational and methodological concern both the morphology and anatomy of the city. The implementation uncontrolled populations in areas unfavorable then seems to aggravate the deficit successful planning while funding sawtooth urban services disrupts the social equilibrium and degrades the urban adaptability. The magnitude of the issues identified thus requires emergency therapy and hence auscultation of several possible solutions for improving decisions and urban actions. The use of urban engineering practices helped to highlight the skills of all authors and beneficiaries of local public action is a resource capitalizable municipal management. In this process, the need to identify and solve problems through collective repository of common actions led to governance as a point of action. The use of this concept in all directions also forced to replay as well as its history of its foundation and its practices. In this sense, the exploration of different forms of participation has not revealed the information literacy as main criticism urban collective action. Improving the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge necessary for a decision is the path identified to ensure a fair knowledge of topics to discuss. This paved the way for the instrumentation of the governance practices of several experiments. The analysis of these tools of urban governance has entered the obligation observation urban challenges over a long period to track the various trends and thus provide an information base for serious decision. Aware of the multiplicity of urban observation techniques and the delicacy of their effectiveness, the implementation of methodological reflection has led to a conceptual model and a functional model for the operationalization of the observatory of urban change in Cotonou. ; Cette thèse identifie et caractérise les défis urbains et analyse les ressorts de la gouvernance métropolitaine. Ainsi, de l'analyse du mécanisme de l'évolution urbaine, il se dégage plusieurs processus qui ont contribué à la métropolisation de Cotonou. En premier lieu, la colonisation transforma le jadis village en ville alors que les transferts de compétences engendrés par les indépendances ont contribué dans un second temps à façonner le système urbain complexe. La démocratisation du Bénin ainsi que le processus de décentralisation ont quant à eux donné naissance à la métropole cotonoise longeant une bande continue d'une quarantaine de kilomètres. L'analyse de ces mutations révèle in fine que les défis urbains sont d'ordre technique, économique, méthodologique et organisationnel et concernent aussi bien la morphologie que l'anatomie de la ville. L'implantation anarchique des populations dans des zones défavorables semble alors aggraver le déficit de succès de la planification alors que le financement en dents de scie des services urbains désorganise l'équilibre social et dégrade les capacités d'adaptation urbaine. L'ampleur des enjeux identifiés nécessite donc une thérapie d'urgence et de là vient l'auscultation de plusieurs pistes de solution pour l'amélioration des décisions et actions urbaines. Le recours aux pratiques de l'ingénierie urbaine et de l'intelligence territoriale a permis de mettre en évidence que les compétences de tous les auteurs et bénéficiaires de l'action publique locale sont une ressource capitalisable du management municipal. Dans cette dynamique, la nécessité d'identification et de résolution collective des problèmes grâce à un référentiel d'actions communes a conduit à pointer la gouvernance comme mode d'action. L'utilisation tous azimuts de ce concept a aussi obligé à la relecture aussi bien de son histoire que de ses fondements et de ses pratiques. Dans ce sens, l'exploration des différentes formes de participation a révélé la non maitrise de l'information urbaine comme principal reproche à l'action collective. L'amélioration de l'acquisition et la diffusion des connaissances indispensables à la décision est le chemin identifié pour assurer une connaissance équitable des sujets à débattre. Ceci a ouvert la voie à l'instrumentation de la gouvernance par l'expérimentation de plusieurs pratiques. L'analyse de ces outils de gouvernance urbaine a conclu à l'obligation d'observation des défis urbains sur une longue période afin de retracer les différentes tendances et de fournir ainsi, une base informationnelle sérieuse pour la décision. Conscient de la multiplicité des techniques d'observation urbaine et de la délicatesse de leur efficacité, la concrétisation de la réflexion méthodologique a engendré un modèle conceptuel ainsi qu'un modèle fonctionnel pour l'opérationnalisation de l'observatoire des mutations urbaines de Cotonou. ; (BAUR - Art de bâtir et urbanisme) -- UCL, 2013

This dissertation examines the political participation and political incorporation of Hmong American communities across three states--California, Minnesota, and Wisconsin--between 1980 and 2012. This study asks two main questions: First, given Hmong Americans' particular contexts of exit and contexts of reception, how and to what extent have Hmong former refugees and their U.S.-born children been incorporated into the U.S. political system? Second, how do broader political contexts or homeland circumstances shape Hmong American politics and the state's treatment of Hmong in the U.S. and abroad? I address these questions through two historical analyses of Hmong Americans' non-electoral and electoral participation and two detailed case studies of Hmong Americans' social movements. The first historical analysis focuses on Hmong Americans' protest events from 1980 to 2011. Through news media reports and relevant archival materials, I examine 84 Hmong American protests, their contents, and their consequences on public policies and mobilizers' organizational capacity. My findings show that during the past three decades, Hmong Americans' patterns of protest participation are oriented toward both the host society and the homeland. Homeland-oriented protests, rather than declining in frequency, have occurred at a rate almost equal to domestic-oriented protests. The findings also show that Hmong Americans' engagement in protest activities, regardless of domestic or international orientations, has helped them nurture their civic sense and strengthen their organizational capacity. Specifically, protest mobilization has offered ample opportunities for Hmong Americans to develop younger leaders, form new civic organizations, and cultivate a broad alliance system. Protest mobilization has also helped Hmong to refine methods for building collective identity and building collective consensus through the use of common protest symbols such as the uniformed Hmong veteran and master frames such as the military service frame. My second historical analysis focuses on Hmong Americans' electoral participation across three U.S. states--California, Minnesota, and Wisconsin--between 1990 and 2012. I find evidence that Hmong Americans have achieved greater descriptive representation in Minnesota and Wisconsin compared to California. This difference in the level of descriptive representation appears to be due to differences in state and local political contexts. But a significant relative ethnic population size and the presence of ethnic collective mobilization are common to places with higher levels of descriptive representation. The first extended case study examines two interrelated social movements of the early to late-1990s: Hmong Americans' multi-site movements against the benefit ineligibility provisions in the federal Welfare Reform Act of 1996 and their movements in support of the Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act since 1990. This study reveals that framing plays a crucial role in the success of protest/social movements. In both the movements against Welfare Reform and for naturalization provisions, `ordinary' Hmong social actors were able to construct and their institutional allies were able to make effective use of a specific collective action frame--the military-service frame--to bring about benefits and naturalization accommodations in existing state policies specifically for Hmong veterans. I argue that the state's dominant ideology and its foreign policy interests influenced its positive reception of the military-service frame.The second extended case study builds on the first case study to the extent that it examines in detail the contentious, interactive processes of social problem construction that underlie two other Hmong American movements for greater political inclusion. However, this second case differs from the first in that its central focus is on understanding how intra-ethnic conflict affects competing groups' ability to construct social problems and subsequently their ability to make claims upon the state--a state that is usually highly suspicious of ethnic movements for political inclusion. Drawing on interviews and primary written sources, I examine a Hmong American-led social movement that sought to incorporate Hmong history into the social science curriculum of California's public schools and the emotionally intense ethnic counter-movement that arose to meet it. My findings suggest that the mass media play crucial roles in creating cultural opportunities for the emergence of certain social problems and in (de)legitimizing such social problems. Although the California State Legislature showed deference to the military service frame and was willing to give token recognition to a broad, informal, quasi-racial category such as Southeast Asians, it trivialized and refused to hear the claims of an ethnolinguistic group regarding institutionally-produced language material inequity.I conclude that the collective mobilization of endogenous and exogenous resources in response to perceived political opportunities has been the key mechanism through which Hmong Americans have been able to participate in the U.S. political system. Hmong Americans' degree of political incorporation is a byproduct of the interplay between Hmong-led mobilization and the responses of the state.

How do intergovernmental organizations exercise power and how has this exercise of power changed over the last decades? This dissertation addresses these questions through a case study of the WHO's involvement in global immunization programs. It seeks to bridge the gulf between global and local examinations of IGO power by simultaneously exploring the exercise of power at both levels. This dissertation includes four main empirical studies. The first asks whether global civil society or the society of states has greater influence on the spread of global norms and practices. It employs fixed-effects models to test the influence of IGOs (society of states) and INGOs (global civil society) on immunization coverage with polio, measles, DPT and BCG vaccines for the years 1980-2001. It shows that IGOs have a positive effect on immunization coverage, suggesting that the society of states has a greater influence on the spread of public health norms than global civil society. Further, INGOs have a negative effect on immunization with controversial vaccines, especially in high-income countries. I argue that global civil society's influence on the spread of global norms is particularly strong for controversial issues with ties to transnational social movements, like women's rights and human rights. For less controversial issues strongly associated with the state, like public health, the society of states plays a more important role.The second analyzes changes in global immunization policy, tracing power dynamics in deciding on policy changes. It assesses whether states or the WHO plays a more important role in determining policy changes through an analysis of WHA debates and by tracing the source of major policy changes. It argues that WHO experts play a particularly important role in determining how immunization policy has changed since the beginning of the Expanded Programme on Immunization in 1974. It further shows how the power to influence policy has shifted dramatically since the mid-1980s with the rise of new supranational coalitions, like the Task Force for Child Survival and the GAVI Alliance. These new coalitions have come to play a particularly important role in determining major policy changes, constraining the WHO's power to act independently on health issues. However, I argue that they represent a change how the WHO exercises power rather than a diminution in its power, per se. The third study looks at the idea of "health as a human right" as it applies to childhood immunization. In it, I analyze changes in the discourse of responsibility concerning childhood immunization. I show a clear shift from a limited vision, which placed ultimate responsibility for providing immunization on the state, to a vision of shared global/local responsibility which saw immunization as a "right" that both state and global actors had a duty to ensure. Through an analysis of donations to the Voluntary Fund for Health Promotion, I show how changing visions of global responsibility for immunization helped create a new system of shared global/local responsibility for funding immunization programs that relied heavily on long-term, voluntary funding for immunization programs in the developing world. My analysis shows that the EPI had great success increasing donations. However, doing so required constant efforts to maintain donor interest and prevent "donor fatigue," efforts which led to the adoption of increasingly ambitious, and even unrealistic, program goals. Thus, despite increasing actual resources, the WHO's immunization programs came to face a situation of perpetual crisis, with programs facing near constant shortages and funding gaps. I argue that, ironically, the perception of crisis helped sustain needed program funding. The final study in my dissertation looks at two national immunization programs to examine factors favoring and impeding program success. I use residual analysis to identify states with particularly strong and particularly weak immunization programs, ultimately choosing Malawi (with a particularly strong program) and Cameroon (with a particularly weak program) for comparison. I argue that their divergent experiences arose in part from WHO advisers' lack of consideration of institutional legacies. Especially in the early 1980s, WHO advisers strongly pushed a "primary health care" approach to vaccination that stressed the importance of integrating immunization into basic health services, particularly as part of all-encompassing maternal and child health services, preferably delivered from fixed health centers. This orientation gained ground easily in Malawi, where a heavy missionary presence and a history of government cooperation with missionary health centers had furthered the development of a system of holistic health centers spread across much of the territory. In Cameroon, on the other hand, it contrasted starkly with the existing system, which separated preventive and curative health services, with the later being provided by specialized, mobile "Grandes Endémies" teams. Attempts to reform this system in response to advice from the WHO incited resistance from health personnel on the ground, generally hindering efforts to promote immunization.

醫學知識的傳播在近代中國經歷了一個大衆化,普及化,商業化的過程。而以豐富的醫學著述而聞名的上海醫學書局的創辦人,集醫生、著述家、出版商、佛教居士等身份為一體的近代學者丁福保(1874-1952),則是這一過程中的關鍵人物。本文的研究主要建立在丁福保從1900年到1949年翻譯、自撰、編寫出版的各類醫學書籍及發表的醫學知識文章的基礎之上,從其產生的社會背景出發,試圖解釋出身傳統文人家庭的丁氏是如何應時代之變,一步步走向行醫及出版之路的。 ; 從1909到1915年前後,丁福保和他創辦的醫學書局幾乎主導了晚清民初的醫書市場,介紹引進了日本明治維新以來出版的包括解剖生理、病理衛生等各科近百部西醫書籍,還有部分中藥及中醫著作。丁氏獲得成功的原因既在於他在商業、經濟及人際、社團網絡方面的影響力,也在於他出版的醫書適應了近代以來包括中醫、學生及普通市民在内的讀者需求。然而1915年之後,隨著西醫專業團體的興起,丁福保在西醫譯書市場中的壟斷地位迅速被取代。故對丁氏而言,1909至1915年是個非常有利的時段。本文對這個特殊時代的背景做出分析。在此之后,作爲一名佛學養生家,丁氏在醫書市場上貢獻最多的是關於個人保健衛生的通俗醫學知識。因此,丁福保的醫學知識與他對自身的認識,及其人生哲學的關係也在本文的討論範圍之内,以顯示一個傳統文人在中西醫學以及儒、道、釋文化的影響下,對以現代醫藥為代表的「現代性」的思考和身體力行。 ; This thesis is a study of Ding Fubao (1874-1952)--a famous Chinese physician-publisher, lay Buddhist and classical scholar--and the role he played in the history of modern Chinese medicine. Ding's medical ideas and practices as the founder of the Shanghai Medical Bookstore exactly mirrored the popularization and commercialization of medical knowledge in modern China. Focusing on the popularization of medical knowledge, this thesis explains how Ding--an educated man born in a traditional Chinese culture--could make use of political power, marketing and social networks to achieve success with a career of producing and disseminating modern medical knowledge. This process also reflected the relationship between Ding's medical knowledge and his conceptions of the body with his philosophy of life; while further illuminating the conflicts and compromises in the Chinese medical circles of the time. This work is primarily based on medical books and journals produced by Ding Fubao during the Late Qing and Republican eras, from the collections of libraries in Beijing and Shanghai. ; Ding Fubao and the Medical Bookshop he established in Shanghai dominated the medical book market in China from 1909 to around 1915. During this time, dozens of Japanese medical books from the time of Meiji restoration, covering areas ranging from Western medicine to Chinese medicine, were published and distributed from his bookshop. Ding's ...

Evolucija cloud computing-a tokom poslednjih nekoliko godina potencijalno predstavlja jedan od najvećih napredaka u istoriji računarstva i telekomunikacija. Iako su prednosti usvajanja koncepta cloud computing-a brojne, postoje i neke značajne prepreke, od kojih je najbitnije pitanje bezbednosti. U ovom radu objašnjava se koncept cloud computing-a; daje se osvrt na tehnološke pokretače cloud computing-a; opisuju se modeli isporuke cloud servisa. Navedeni su postojeći modeli oblaka, kao i neka iskustva u stranim armijama. Osim toga, posebno je razmotrena bezbednostkao- servis zbog svog značaja u vojnim primenama. ; The evolution of cloud computing over the past few years is potentially one of major advances in the history of computing and telecommunications. Although there are many benefits of adopting cloud computing, there are also some significant barriers to adoption, security issues being the most important of them. This paper introduces the concept of cloud computing; looks at relevant technologies in cloud computing; takes into account cloud deployment models and some military applications. Additionally, Security-as-a-Service is specially considered because of its importance in the military applications. Cloud computing (CC) is such a combination of computer hardware, software, online services and expertise networked by high-speed Internet connections. What is more, cloud computing is a model of using computing resources (servers, disks, operating systems and applications) where these resources are rented and not bought. The consequence of this approach is that users pay only as many resources as they actually have used (pay-as-you-go), so they do not need to take care about either hardware procurement and its installation, or software (operating system and applications) maintenance. Most of the cloud computing architecture used nowadays includes public cloud computing networks for providing services through the Internet, such as Google Search, Microsoft Hotmail or Google Adsense. Large service providers, together with typical pioneers in adopting new technologies such as financial services and pharmaceutical companies, also apply the architecture of CC in the implementation of private cloud networks protected by firewalls. This mode of use is still in its early stages and is expected to achieve further growth in the corporate database virtualization technologies that are now being introduced. The framework used to describe cloud computing services is known as the acronym SPI (Software Platform Infrastructure) and marks the three major services provided through the clouds: Softwareasa-Service (SaaS), Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) and Infrastructureasa-Service (IaaS). Traditional methods of purchasing software involve software upgrading onto hardware with paying license fees (which is capital expenditure). The user is also able to enter into any contract for maintenance and to get security patches and other services for software support at a certain price. The compatibility of operating systems and the installation of patches is the responsibility of the user. Being a simplified representation of complex, interconnected devices and connections that form the Internet, the term 'cloud' is a metaphor for the Internet. Public and private (external and internal) clouds are the parts of the Internet and are defined (or, rather, they differ) based on the connections formed by institutions. Similar to SaaS, the Security-as-a-Service cloud service model is delivered to customers on a subscription basis. In addition, SaaS is also applied in the Security-as-a-Service. There are three incentives for the development of Security-as-a-Service. The earliest driver is spam which is now more than a decade old. Another driver for the development of Securityasa-Service is a service for managing safety (MSS, Managed Security Services). The impetus for the use of MSS was (and still is) the same as for the use of CC: reduced cost compared to home solutions due to the use of shared resources. Also, the MSS model breaks the informal but powerful barrier of displacement (outsourcing) of the parts of the information security program of an institution. In this case, displacement implies control devices outside the institution (off-premises). It should be noted that, although outsourcing IT security is often an option, initially it can only be used in the relocation of the facility (outsourcing on-premises), ie. to be moved into another room within the same building, as opposed to the relocation outside the building. It should be taken into account that cloud computing changes the existing business models. From the perspective of information security, the biggest change brought by cloud computing is collecting shared resources of multiple users at a centralized location. This change results in a shift of confidence limits; exactly where these limits are is not clear yet. Confidence limits are different for each model of SPI (Software-as-a-Service, Platformasa-Service and Infrastructure-as-a-Service), even when limits vary within each of these models depending on the cloud service provider.

Актуальность и цели. Проведен историко-правовой анализ законодательства и теоретико-правовых исследований по обязательствам, возникающим из правонарушений. В статье говорится о факторах, влиявших на развитие обязательственных отношений. Обязательства развивались благодаря увеличению экономического оборота, который был вызван реформами второй половины ХIХ в. В это время законодательная и правоприменительная практика по обязательствам уже сложилась. Однако в законодательстве имелись многочисленные недостатки. Среди них отмечались пробелы, противоречия, повторения. Кассационная практика в необходимой степени не могла их исправить. Отдел об обязательствах из правонарушений в проекте Гражданского уложения также нуждался в радикальном пересмотре. Нормы обязательственного права в значительной мере основывались на положениях римского права. Они слабо учитывали особенности развития экономического оборота, были оторваны от жизни. Действующее гражданское законодательство и подготовленный проект Гражданского уложения в полном объеме не отграничивали понятия договора и обязательства. Материалы и методы. Использованы работы по обязательствам известных отечественных цивилистов ХIХ столетия. В них отмечается недостаток теоретических исследований обязательственных отношений. Охранительные обязательства возникли раньше договорных обязательств, но оказались изученными в меньшей степени. В научной литературе уточнялись источники обязательств, понятия имущественного и морального вреда, восполнялись недостатки юридической техники. Решение многих проблем регулирования обязательств русские юристы видели в основательной разработке общей части обязательственного права. Законодательные недостатки восполнялись обращением к нормам обычного права. В случае нанесения личных обид закон предоставлял потерпевшему возможность выбора уголовного порядка преследования виновного. В науке гражданского права изучению обязательств из причинения вреда большого внимания не уделялось. Однако сохранившиеся по этой теме работы дореволюционного периода позволяют прийти к достоверным выводам об уровне исследования данного вида обязательств. Методологический потенциал статьи составляют методы сравнительно-правового, историко-правового и формально-юридического анализа. Результаты. Исследованы дореволюционная отечественная теория и законодательная практика по обязательствам, возникающим из правонарушений. Отмечены особенности правового регулирования данного вида обязательств, законодательные пробелы и противоречия, способы их разрешения. Выводы. Изучение обязательственных правоотношений в истории русского права позволяет уяснить тенденции их развития, учесть отечественный опыт в формировании теории и практики обязательственного права, восполнить пробел в историко-правовом исследовании обязательств из причинения вреда. ; Background. The work describes the historical and legal analysis of legislation and legal and theoretical resesrch of liabilities, specifically, the liabilities as a result of causing harm. The article reads about the factors affecting the deve­lopment of the liability relationships. Liabilities have been developing due to the increase of the economical circulation. The reforms of the second part of the XIX century were the cause of the said economical circulation. At this time the liability legislative and law enforcement practice already occurred. But there were many disadvantages in the legislation. The gaps, antagonisms and repetitions were noted between them. The appeal practice in certain degree couldn't correct it. Tort liabilities section in civil code draft needed a radical review. The liability regulations were based on the Roman law. This rule of law poorly took into account the characteristic of economical circulation development. Besides it was isolated from life. The civil legislation and the civil code draft in full scope didn't delimit the notions of contract and liability. Materials and methods. The author used liability works by famous national specialists in civil law. The lack of theoretical research of liability relationships was noted in the course of the study. Protective liability occurred ear­lier than contract liability. But this kind of liability was examined not so thoroughly as the contract liability. The scientific literature specified the liability source, the definition of material and moral damage as well as filled the legal deficiency. Russian lawyers offered to thoroughly develop the general part of the liability law to solve the majority of liability relationship problems. The legislative deficiency was filled up by the appeal to the rule of the common law. In case of personal offence the law rendered to the victim a possibility to choose a type of criminal prosecution of a culpable. There was no adequate consideration of tort liability in the civil law science. However the preserved pre-revolution works aloow us to make a conclusion about the tort liability research level. The methods of comparative, historical and jural and technical review constitute the methodological potential. Results. The work researched pre-revolutionary native theory and legislative practice of tort liabilities. The author described legal regulation characteristics of this kind of liability, legislative gaps and antagonisms and the settlement ways. Conclusions. The research liability relationships the in Russian law history allows to understand the tendency of its development, to take into account native experience in the theories and practice of the liability law formatiom. Finally, the research of liability relationships fills the gap in the historical and legal study of the liabilities as a result of causing harm.

Maģistra darbs ir pētījums par principu, ka likuma (šī vārda plašākā nozīmē) nezināšana neatbrīvo no atbildības, kura divi elementi iezīmējās pasaules vēsturē jau grieķu gudro cilvēku izteicienos un romiešu tiesību praktiskajā raksturā (ar konkrētiem izņēmumiem no apskatāmā principa), caur likuma prizmu saistībā ar Dieva likumiem, dabiskajām tiesībām un noteikto cilvēka saprāta vērtību. Ar tiesību pozitīvisma uzplaukumu 18. gs. beigās pēc Lielās franču revolūcijas, likums un tiesības kļūst identiski jēdzieni, tāpēc tiesības nevar eksistēt bez pozitīvēta likuma (Latvijā – padomju laiks). Šodien, pasaulei attīstīšoties, ievērojami pieaug normatīvo tiesību aktu skaits un apjoms, arī piemērojot normatīvo regulējumu jāņem vērā citus pierakstītos un nepierakstītos tiesību avotus. Normatīvie tiesību akti izsludināti publicējot LR oficiālajā laikrakstā "Latvijas Vēstnesis" (oficiālā versija šobrīd tikai drukātā, kura ierobežoti pieejama brīvā pārdošanā, arī tikai elektroniskā oficiālā versija nevar garantēt drošumu un stabilitāti tehniskajā aspektā), bet bieži vidusmēra cilvēkam par katru savu "pareizu" rīcību (darbība/bezdarbība), lai netikt sauktam pie noteiktā veida atbildības, jākonsultējas ar lietpratēju (kura interpretācijas var atšķirties), jo valsts pati aktīvi nenodrošina reālo likumu apguvi ar pareizo, vienīgo interpretāciju. Arī tiesību normas bieži grozītas nevis faktisko apstākļu maiņas dēļ, bet nespējas dēļ izstrādāt kvalitatīvi augstajā līmenī savstarpēji nepretrunīgo normatīvo tiesību aktu. Tāpēc mūsdienu progresīvajā sabiedrībā līdz ar normatīvo tiesību aktu skaitu un apjomu (kā arī citu tiesību avotu) palielināšanos, likumdevējam jāparedz konkrēti izņēmumi noteiktos ne pašsaprotamos specifiskajos normatīvajos regulējumos, attiecībā uz principu, ka likuma nezināšana neatbrīvo no atbildības, mīkstinot personas atbildību, jo ne persona ar vai bez juridiskās izglītības, ne likumdevējs kā galvenais normatīvo tiesību aktu radītājs nespēj (fizisko iemeslu dēļ) zināt un atcerēties visas rakstītas un nerakstītas tiesību normas. Maģistra darbs izstrādāts, izmantojot dažādu tiesību zinātnes nozaru tiesību avotus, lai veicināt izmaiņas principā, ka likuma nezināšana neatbrīvo no atbildības izpratnē mūsdienu neierobežotā tiesību avotu klāstā, salīdzinot ar iepriekšējiem gadsimtiem. ; Mater paper is the research of the principle, that the ignorance of the law (in the wider meaning of this notion) doesn't exempt from liability, which parts appeared in the world history with the Ancient Greece clever peoples' statements and with the practical nature of the Ancient Rome Laws (precisely providing for the exceptions from the principle researched) thought the prism of the law in connection with the God's laws, the natural rights and the definite human's mind in all this. With the strengthening of the legal positivism at the end of the 18th century after the Great French Revolution, the law and rights became the identical notions, therefore the rights cannot exist without the legal positive law (in Latvia – Soviet Union). Nowadays along with the development of the world, the amount and volume of the normative legal enactments has increased in terms, also shall be taken into consideration other written and not written sources of the rights. Normative legal enactments are promulgated with their publications in the Latvian official newspaper "Latvijas Vēstnesis" (at the moment only the printed version has the official status, which is the limited availability in the free sale, but the electronic official version itself couldn't guarantee the reliability and stability in the technical aspect), but quite often the average person should consult the specialist of the corresponding branch of law (the specialist's interpretation can also differ in some way), concerning each of his/her "right" action (activity/inactivity), in order not to be called to the certain kind of account (liability), because our state doesn't provide real law mastering with right unique interpretation. Also the legislative provisions (principles of law) are being quite often amended not because of the change in the factual circumstances, but due to the incapability qualitatively to elaborate, at the high level, the mutually consistent normative legal enactments. Thus, in the modern progressive society along with the essential increase of the amount and volume of the normative legal enactments (as well as other sources of laws), the legislator should foresee the concrete exceptions in the certain, not obvious, specific cases of the normative regulation pertaining to the principle, that the ignorance of the law doesn't exempt from liability, these exceptions should mitigate a person's liability, because neither a person with or furthermore without the legal education, nor the legislator himself/herself, being the main normative legal enactments maker, can't (because of the physical reasons) know and remember all the written and unwritten legislative provisions (principles of law). In the development of the mater's paper were used the different kinds of the different sources of the rights, to facilitate the changes in the principle that the ignorance of the law doesn't exempt from liability, in the understanding of the modern unlimited spectrum of the sources of the laws, in comparison with the previous centuries.

This thesis identifies and characterizes urban challenges and analyzes springs metropolitan governance. It follows from the analysis of the mechanism of urban development that several processes have contributed to metropolisation Cotonou. First, colonization transformed the once village town while the transfer of skills caused by independence contributed in a second time to shape the urban complex. Democratization of Benin and the process of decentralization in turn gave birth to the metropolis cotonoise along a continuous band of forty miles. The analysis of these mutations revealed that ultimately urban challenges are technical, economic, organizational and methodological concern both the morphology and anatomy of the city. The implementation uncontrolled populations in areas unfavorable then seems to aggravate the deficit successful planning while funding sawtooth urban services disrupts the social equilibrium and degrades the urban adaptability. The magnitude of the issues identified thus requires emergency therapy and hence auscultation of several possible solutions for improving decisions and urban actions. The use of urban engineering practices helped to highlight the skills of all authors and beneficiaries of local public action is a resource capitalizable municipal management. In this process, the need to identify and solve problems through collective repository of common actions led to governance as a point of action. The use of this concept in all directions also forced to replay as well as its history of its foundation and its practices. In this sense, the exploration of different forms of participation has not revealed the information literacy as main criticism urban collective action. Improving the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge necessary for a decision is the path identified to ensure a fair knowledge of topics to discuss. This paved the way for the instrumentation of the governance practices of several experiments. The analysis of these tools of urban governance has entered the obligation observation urban challenges over a long period to track the various trends and thus provide an information base for serious decision. Aware of the multiplicity of urban observation techniques and the delicacy of their effectiveness, the implementation of methodological reflection has led to a conceptual model and a functional model for the operationalization of the observatory of urban change in Cotonou. ; Cette thèse identifie et caractérise les défis urbains et analyse les ressorts de la gouvernance métropolitaine. Ainsi, de l'analyse du mécanisme de l'évolution urbaine, il se dégage plusieurs processus qui ont contribué à la métropolisation de Cotonou. En premier lieu, la colonisation transforma le jadis village en ville alors que les transferts de compétences engendrés par les indépendances ont contribué dans un second temps à façonner le système urbain complexe. La démocratisation du Bénin ainsi que le processus de décentralisation ont quant à eux donné naissance à la métropole cotonoise longeant une bande continue d'une quarantaine de kilomètres. L'analyse de ces mutations révèle in fine que les défis urbains sont d'ordre technique, économique, méthodologique et organisationnel et concernent aussi bien la morphologie que l'anatomie de la ville. L'implantation anarchique des populations dans des zones défavorables semble alors aggraver le déficit de succès de la planification alors que le financement en dents de scie des services urbains désorganise l'équilibre social et dégrade les capacités d'adaptation urbaine. L'ampleur des enjeux identifiés nécessite donc une thérapie d'urgence et de là vient l'auscultation de plusieurs pistes de solution pour l'amélioration des décisions et actions urbaines. Le recours aux pratiques de l'ingénierie urbaine et de l'intelligence territoriale a permis de mettre en évidence que les compétences de tous les auteurs et bénéficiaires de l'action publique locale sont une ressource capitalisable du management municipal. Dans cette dynamique, la nécessité d'identification et de résolution collective des problèmes grâce à un référentiel d'actions communes a conduit à pointer la gouvernance comme mode d'action. L'utilisation tous azimuts de ce concept a aussi obligé à la relecture aussi bien de son histoire que de ses fondements et de ses pratiques. Dans ce sens, l'exploration des différentes formes de participation a révélé la non maitrise de l'information urbaine comme principal reproche à l'action collective. L'amélioration de l'acquisition et la diffusion des connaissances indispensables à la décision est le chemin identifié pour assurer une connaissance équitable des sujets à débattre. Ceci a ouvert la voie à l'instrumentation de la gouvernance par l'expérimentation de plusieurs pratiques. L'analyse de ces outils de gouvernance urbaine a conclu à l'obligation d'observation des défis urbains sur une longue période afin de retracer les différentes tendances et de fournir ainsi, une base informationnelle sérieuse pour la décision. Conscient de la multiplicité des techniques d'observation urbaine et de la délicatesse de leur efficacité, la concrétisation de la réflexion méthodologique a engendré un modèle conceptuel ainsi qu'un modèle fonctionnel pour l'opérationnalisation de l'observatoire des mutations urbaines de Cotonou. ; (BAUR - Art de bâtir et urbanisme) -- UCL, 2013

This publication contains the collection of papers related to the European Seminar on 'Complementarities and synergies between juvenile justice and social services sector' of the European Network of National Observatories on Childhood (ChildONEurope) held in Florence, Istituto degli Innocenti, on 19 April 2012. Throughout a decision of the ChildONEurope Assembly of 24th of February 2012, the ChildONEurope Secretariat convened a European seminar on the issues pertaining to the synergic collaboration between juvenile justice and the social services dedicated to children ended in conflict with the law. Its main aim was to stimulate a wide-ranging discussion on the different criticalities and implications of juvenile justice more sensitive to the child needs and rights. The timing of this Seminar was particularly appropriate. The so-called 'third period' of the history of juvenile justice law, which may be said to date back to the end of the 20th century, is the one characterised by the transformation of institutions (1960-1990) and the drafting of major international documents (Beijing, Riyad and Havana). This period is very rich, it is marked, in turn, by the emphasis on the model of protection, its critical analysis, a tendency towards moving away from the judiciary and having recourse to extra-judiciary solutions. Whereas, some scholars define the period starting from 1990 onwards as the 'implementation period' of these international standards. But several questions on criticalities remain not answered. Therefore, the implementation cannot be so smoothly operated simply on the basis of their formulation in the international standards. Several are the issues at stake, but one is obtaining and increasing attention: how to include and to enhance the social services action in the child best interest. Today's research shows that juvenile justice requires a specific, supple and flexible law that can call upon a range of responses based on aid and education. The development of probation and parole also can be estimated as success in some national experiences. The recidivism and revocation rates have decreased through the use of more constructive and rehabilitative community sanctions. The prevailing new trend on the international scene is to search for alternatives to the deprivation of liberty. Focusing on the reality coming from the European experiences, mainly referring to the context of the European Union, the Seminar represents an attempt to place children at the centre of the debate, focussing attention on the main problems facing the implementation of a juvenile justice national frameworks in line with the International standards and on the role that social services should play in order to reach the final aim of setting up a restorative and reintegrative juvenile justice system. The plenary debate started with the contribution of Renate Winter, Justice Appeals Chamber of the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) who provided a critical overview over the fulfilment of children's rights in the juvenile justice framework and the crucial role of social services for child care and reintegration. The European dimension of the debate was introduced throughout two contributions. The first was an analysis of the European Union Agenda of action on the EU Strategy and aimed at verifying the possible synergies of work with the social services in this specific context. It was provided by Margaret Tuite, EU Commission-Coordinator for the Rights of the Child DG Justice, Fundamental Rights and rights of the child. The second contribution, based on the presentation of the Council of Europe Guidelines on child-friendly justice and on social services friendly to children and families, was carried out by Gioia Scappucci, Council of Europe, Children's Rights Division. The plenary section was concluded with the contribution of Cédric Foussard, Director of the International Juvenile Justice Observatory who delivered a critical introduction of the national dimension through the presentation of a comparative European analysis of national experiences on practices of reintegration. The proceedings reproduced in this publication include as well the outcomes of the three working groups minded to further develop the discussion of three specific issues, namely: (1) the promotion of 7 alternative to detention in Europe; (2) the participation of social services in the youth court and their potential for the prevention of re-offending; (3) unaccompanied migrant children in conflict with the law. Each one of the working groups was opened with the introductive speech of experts coming from academia and international civil society. The expert involved in the working groups' discussion was: Frieder Dünkel, University of Greifswald, Germany, with the coordination of Isabella Mastropasqua, Director of the Study, Research and International Activities Bureau, European Study Center of Nisida, Italy, Stephanie Rap, Researcher, Utrecht University, Netherlands, with the coordination of Benoît Parmentier, Director, Birth and Childhood's Office (ONE), Brussels, Belgium, and Damien Nantes, Director of the Association Hors la Rue, France, with the coordination of Marie-Paule Martin Blachais, Chairperson ChildONEurope Assembly.

В исследовании, сквозь призму творчества Н. Макиавелли, выявляются возможные варианты соотношения морали и политики, среди которых: самого Макиавелли ( только благая политическая цель оправдывает любые средства ), макиавеллистский ( цель оправдывает любые средства ) и гуманистический ( благая цель может быть достигнута только благими методами). Устанавливается принципиальная разница указанных вариантов понимания соотношения политики и морали. Показано, что решение современных глобальных как международных, так и внутренних проблем возможно лишь на основе гуманистической политики ненасилия (несопротивление злу насилием, что не исключает, а иногда нуждается в сопротивлении злу силой), принципы которой открыты еще в «осевое время» мировыми религиями и философией, развиты И. Кантом, Ф. Достоевским, Л. Толстым, Махатмой Ганди, М.Л. Кингом и др. В подробностях раскрывается полемика И. Ильина с доктриной «непротивления злу силой». В статье анализируется продолжающийся уже более века спор в русской философии относительно оправданности применения насилия. ; According to Kant, "two human inventions may be considered the most complicated ones: these are the art of governing and that of educating…"; "Parents take care of their family, whereas rulers take care of their states. The final goal both set is the common advantage and the perfection mankind is destined for…" (On Pedagogy). Violence seems to be the simplest and the most universal way of governing. However, it reduces the human world to the animal-like, barbaric level. In Kant's opinion, it is only morality that makes a man a person, homo sapiens. Yet politics is commonly considered to be outside morality nowadays. Many notable politicians, lawyers, and even philosophers try to convince us that this is true. Still, this persuasion has failed to justify itself in both theoretical and practical aspects. Politics is inconceivable without morality, as it transforms into something else when outside it. I. Berlin has understood it perfectly, as he considers that political theory is a branch of moral philosophy which starts from applying moral categories to political relations ( Berlin Isaiah. In the search of the ideal). Niccolo Machiavelli (1469—1527) is a key figure in the context of analyzing the issue of the interrelation between politics and morality, as his works represent a sort of division line between the classical (Plato and Aristotle) and medieval political thought, on the one hand, and new European and modern ones, on the other hand. Through the prism of his ideas, the issue of the correlation between politics and morality within the history of political philosophy may be considered. Machiavelli is regarded as the first political thinker of the new epoch, as he "has broken off from all the preceding tradition of political philosophy. He has compared his achievements with the acts of such people as Columbus, claiming that he has opened a new continent of morality… The only question is whether this continent is suitable for humans to dwell in", modern political philosopher Leo Strauss asks (What Is Political Philosophy?). We shall therefore examine the four possible variants of the relation between morality and politics. So in the investigation, through a prism of N. Machiavelli's creativity, possible variants of a correlation between violence and non-violence in policy are revealed: especially Machiavelli's ( only the virtue political aim justifies any means ), Machiavellianism ( the aim justifies any means ), humanistic ( the virtue aim can be achieved only by virtue methods) and pacifists (nonresistance to evil by force, — L. Tolstoy). The basic difference of the specified variants of understanding of a correlation between morals and policy is established. It is marked, that Machiavellianism cannot be named a policy at all; as such activity is extremely criminal offence. Limited humanism of Machiavelli can be relatively justified only at a stage of formation the national states, but it is inadmissible in the world becoming global. Pacifist-nonresistance variant also considered as immoral. It is asserted that the decision of modern global both international, and internal problems can be reached only on the basis of a humanistic policy of non-violence, ( nonresistance to evil by violence, that doesn't except, but sometimes need resistance to evil by force) which principles are opened in «axial time» by world religions and philosophy, and which were advanced by I. Kant, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, M. Gandy, M.L. King, etc. In detail I. Il'in's polemic with L. Tolstoy's doctrine of «nonresistance to evil by force» is revealed in details. In the article is analyzed the dispute proceeding already more than century in Russian philosophy, which concerns correctness of using the violence. The polemic developed by I. Il'in concerning L. Tolstoy's doctrine about nonresistance to harm force, has found the ready response as from side N. Berdyaev, and other thinkers of the beginning of the last century. It was not finished even to our days, provoked still N. Makiavelli and I. Cant's creativity. The author, being based on scrupulous perusal of primary sources, aspires to place accents, being based on the concept of a humanistic policy.

The ambiguity of funerary space justifies that we wonder about the validity of a separation between the public sphere and the private one within the space of the Roman city. At first sight, the monument - simple stele or monumental structure - concerns the private sphere, by its primary function of domus Aeterna, intended to preserve the memory of a private individual and to become the center of family meetings at the time of the festivities related to the worship of deads. However, marking out the Roman ways, the monument is registered, in fact, in the landscape of the public sphere; it is thus - much more than the domus - the place of exhibition of an image magnified of the dead one, whose family seeks to print the memory within the collective memoria. However, there isn't a unilateral answer to such questions. The analysis of the corpus that we chose to consider - that of the diffusion of some "political" images in funerary context - reveals a perceptible evolution in the loans to the official iconography at the imperial period. The subject being vast, we propose only some lines of thinking here, thanks to the analysis of examples allowing to illustrate the reception of two key values of the Roman citizen and the imperial figure: virtus and pietas.This article is resulting from the publication of a work edited by A. Dardenay and E. Rosso on the problems of the interactions between public sphere and private sphere within the space of the Roman city. This monograph is based on recent and particularly stimulative work allowing establishing a new approach that would address from several points of view the ongoing exchanges between the two "worlds": they have in common to consider as a priority agents and actors who were the vectors of these transfers. Structured in three parts - "Ambiguity of spaces", "Interactions: reciprocity and complementarity of exchanges ", "From public to private: transfer and appropriation of forms" - this volume brings together the contributions of twelve scholars and offers the result of an interdisciplinary approach, where the contribution of philology and history hinges on that of archaeology and iconography. Thereby, reflection reaches beyond the simple disciplinary framework to feed a global analysis of contexts. Such an approach generates extensive and innovative studies on urban and social dynamics in the Roman city. The book opens with an introduction of A. Dardenay and E. Rosso which presents a historiographical assessment, the recent results and the possible openings. The text is enriched by an index allowing a fluid navigation in the work ; L'ambiguïté de l'espace funéraire justifie qu'on s'interroge sur la validité d'une séparation entre sphère publique et sphère privée dans l'espace de la cité romaine. À première vue, le monument funéraire - simple stèle ou structure monumentale - relève de la sphère privée, par sa fonction primaire de domus Aeterna, destiné à préserver le souvenir d'un particulier et à devenir le centre de réunions familiales lors des festivités liées au culte des morts. Toutefois, jalonnant les voies romaines, le monument funéraire s'inscrit, de fait, dans le paysage de la sphère publique ; il est ainsi - bien plus que la domus - le lieu d'exhibition d'une image magnifiée du défunt, dont les proches cherchent à imprimer le souvenir au sein de la mémoire collective. Or, ainsi que nous le soulignerons ici, il n'existe pas de réponse unilatérale à de telles questions. L'analyse du dossier que nous avons choisi d'envisager - celui de la diffusion de quelques images "politiques" en contexte funéraire - révèle une évolution perceptible dans les emprunts à l'iconographie officielle à l'époque impériale. Le sujet étant vaste, nous ne proposerons ici que quelques pistes de réflexion, grâce à l'analyse d'exemples permettant d'illustrer la réception de deux valeurs clés du citoyen romain et de la figure impériale : virtus et pietas.Cet article est issu de la publication d'un ouvrage édité par A. Dardenay et E. Rosso sur la problématique des interactions entre sphère publique et sphère privée dans l'espace de la cité romaine. Cette monographie s'appuie sur des travaux récents et particulièrement stimulants permettant de fonder une nouvelle approche qui aborderait les échanges permanents et surtout réciproques entre les deux " mondes " de plusieurs points de vue. Structuré en trois parties - "Ambiguïté des espaces", "Interactions : réciprocité et complémentarité des échanges", "Du public au privé : transfert et appropriation de formes" - ce volume regroupe les contributions de douze chercheurs et offre le résultat d'une démarche interdisciplinaire, où l'apport de la philologie et de l'histoire s'articule à celui de l'iconographie et de l'archéologie. La réflexion dépasse ainsi le simple cadre disciplinaire pour nourrir une analyse globale des contextes. Une telle démarche génère des études approfondies et novatrices sur les dynamiques urbaines et sociales dans la cité romaine. Le volume s'ouvre sur une introduction d'A. Dardenay et E. Rosso présentant un bilan historiographique, les résultats des recherches récentes et les ouvertures possibles. Le texte est enrichi d'index permettant une navigation fluide dans l'ouvrage.

This article is about the well-being of Afrikaans as a constitutionalist language. The adjective "constitutionalist" is meant to be a translation of the Afrikaans "grondwetmatig" as opposed to "constitutional" which is the English word for "grondwetlik". The question inspiring this contribution is whether the larger contours as well as the finer nuances of constitutionalist democracy can successfully be verbalised in Afrikaans. The possibility is considered that Afrikaans as potentially a language of constitutionally democratic discourse might have suffered irreparable damage as a consequence of its close association with Apartheid, but the author gives short shrift to this misgiving pointing out that languages such as English and German that were also "oppressors' languages" some time in history, are nowadays very adequate and eminently respectable languages of constitutionaldemocratic discourse. During the prevalence of a Westminster system in a pre-democratic South Africa Afrikaans was a disadvantaged constitutional language compared to, for instance, English. The latter lent direct access to the escalating post-World War II discourse on human rights. The question thus is whether Afrikaans has (or can develop) a constitutional or, more particularly, a constitutionalist register. The author turns to constitutional literature and jurisprudence to look for examples of how Afrikaans can be relied on to give creative expression to constitutionally democratic concepts, ideas and principles. He points out that the Constitution is a genre text, unique as supreme law, but sharing certain attributes with other enacted law-texts such as statutes. All of these texts should, for instance, be respected as products of legislative action meant to be of effect. To read and apply such texts is more like performing music than like reading a newspaper. This process is adequately expressed by the Afrikaans terminology "vertolk(-ing)" which recognises that elements of an interpreter's own personality and skill go into the process of interpretation and are reflected in the interpretive outcome. In the English language "construction" probably verbalises the process more accurately and adequately than "interpretation". The author proceeds to explain why, in certain instances where the term "grondwetlikheid" is usually used (in Afrikaans), he prefers the term "grondwetmatigheid" instead. He also reflects on the possible meanings of "constitutionalism" and the consequences of labelling the constitutional dispensation in South Africa since 1994 with the tag of "constitutionalism". The second part of the article deals with the consequences of constitutional supremacy and the concomitant need for judicial self-restraint. It is shown that section 172(1)(a) of the Constitution read with section 2 provides for the constitutional review of legislation and administrative action in a rather peremptory vein. Section 172(1)(b), however, leaves room for the mitigation of the absoluteness of section 172(1)(a) by authorising any court order which is just and equitable. Specific orders in this category (explicitly mentioned in the section) are orders limiting the retrospective effect of declarations of invalidity or suspending the effect of such declarations in order to give a legislature or organ of the executive the opportunity to rectify the unconstitutional state of affairs complained of. This result can also be achieved by, for instance, severing unconstitutional words and phrases from a text and striking them down or by reading words and phrases into an impugned provision in order to render it constitutional thus safeguarding them against annulment. Various interpretive strategies commensurate with judicial self-restraint are then discussed. The first of these is the interpretation of statutes in conformity with the Constitution which can take the form of either a restrictive or an extensive reading of a statutory provision in the light of the Constitution and its demands. It is pointed out that this reading strategy is to be distinguished from reading in which a court may order as a form of relief in terms of section 172(1)(b) of the Constitution. Subsidiarity, another strategy commensurate with judicial self-restraint, is also discussed. Subsidiarity mainly has to do with deciding on an appropriate forum to decide a case (jurisdictional subsidiarity) or choosing an appropriate legal norm to resolve an issue (adjudicative subsidiarity). It is pointed out that subsidiary constitutional legislation (giving detailed and concrete effect to provisions of the Constitution) has in recent years played an increasingly important role to help put constitutional issues on the agendas of judicial and political discourse. Some observations are also made about how a constitutional neologism, co-operative government, can serve to induce self-restraint in the actions of the various arms of government (legislative, executive and judicial) in the national, provincial and local spheres. The author concludes with the observation that the speakers of South Africa's eleven official languages have a duty to explore the potential of their own language as constitutionalist language not just for the sake of the languages themselves, but also to preserve and promote the treasure of constitutionalism ; http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/tvg/v52n3/01.pdf