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CEPII Working Paper, No 2018-05 - April 2018 ; There has been considerable attention paid to the endogenous nature of regional trade agreements Geography, economic size, or common history help predicting signed agreements. However, not all signed RTAs are "natural" according to economic determinants, as trade negotiations can be used as a tool of external policy. Recent developments in terms of structural gravity help clarifying this debate by taking account of all theoretically relevant determinants of bilateral trade, as well as general equilibrium effects of signing an agreement. Indeed, the endogeneity of trade arrangements has a time dimension and is related to firm strategies. These are the two mechanisms addressed in this paper. We estimate the time-varying probability for a country pair to sign a trade agreement and build upon structural gravity in general equilibrium to determine how the patterns of Global Value Chains shape the evolving geography of optimal trade agreements. Our results confirm that the endogenous geography of RTAs is shaped by the development of GVCs. ; Une grande attention a été accordée à la nature endogène des accords commerciaux régionaux. La géographie, la taille économique ou l'histoire commune aident à prévoir les accords régionaux (ACR) signés. Cependant, tous les ACR signés ne sont pas "naturels" du point de vue des seuls déterminants économiques, dans la mesure où les négociations commerciales peuvent être utilisées comme un outil de politique extérieure.Les développements récents en termes de modèles structurels de gravité des échanges aident à clarifier ce débat en prenant en compte l'ensemble des déterminants théoriques du commerce bilatéral. En effet, l'endogénéité des accords commerciaux a une dimension temporelle et est liée aux stratégies des firmes. Ces deux mécanismes sont abordés ici : nous estimons a probabilité pour chaque paire de pays de signer un accord commercial et utilisons la gravité structurelle en équilibre général pour déterminer comment les chaînes de valeur mondiales façonnent la géographie optimale des accords commerciaux. Nos résultats confirment que la géographie endogène des ACR est façonnée par le développement des chaînes de valeurs mondiales.

Studying the Army in Babylonia between the 6th and the 4th century BCE consists less of a "war study" than an essay on economic, social and institutional history as Cuneiform documentation originating from this period consist essentially of administrative and economic texts. The composition of the military which allowed the emergence and expansion of the Neo Babylonian empire (622 -539 BCE), is studied from the perspective of three social backgrounds which contributed to its establishment: The temples which provided the royal army with support troops, issued from their oblates, a category of individuals denied of freedom who were dedicated to the temple. Some of them were trained in handling weapons. The Babylonian traditional elites who paid a fee to compensate for the service. Their participation developed mainly from the Achaemenid Period Military colonists who were non-Babylonian soldiers receiving an allotment from the Crown in exchange of a fee paid in kind and a duty of military service From 539 BCE onward, the Babylonian army was probably dismantled following the Babylonian conquest by Cyrus the Great and the region was integrated to the new Achaemenid empire (539 -331 BCE). Nonetheless, institutional structures enabling its establishment were maintained or developed in the case of the contribution of the notability, providing soldiers but also workers travelling to Persia to participate in the large construction works of the Royal administration. In a similar way, the Achaemenid kings made use of the rich agricultural lands in order to pursue the policy consisting of allocating lands to soldiers. ; Traiter de l'armée en Babylonie du VIe au IVe siècle av. n. è. consiste moins en une étude sur la guerre qu'en un essai d'histoire économique, sociale et institutionnelle, puisque la documentation cunéiforme produite à cette époque est constituée essentiellement de sources de la pratique. La nature de l'armée qui permit l'émergence et l'expansion de l'empire néo-babylonien (622-539 av. n. è.) a été étudiée à partir de trois milieux sociaux qui contribuaient à sa construction: Les temples qui fournissaient à l'armée royale des troupes d'appoint, formées par leurs oblats, une catégorie d'individus non libres qui leur avaient été dédiés, parmi lesquels certains étaient formés au maniement des armes. Les élites babyloniennes qui payaient une redevance en compensation du service, mais dont la participation se développe surtout à l'époque achéménide. Les colons militaires, des soldats souvent non babyloniens qui avaient reçu une parcelle allouée de la Couronne en échange d'une redevance en nature et d'une obligation de service militaire. À partir de 539 av. n. è. l'armée néo-babylonienne est démantelée suite à la conquête de Babylone par Cyrus le Grand et la région est intégrée au nouvel empire achéménide (539-331 av. 11.-è.). Cependant, les structures institutionnelles qui permettaient sa construction sont maintenues, voire développée dans le cas des notables, non plus uniquement pour fournir des soldats, mais aussi des travailleurs qui allaient se rendre en Perse participer aux grands chantiers organisés par l'administration royale. Pareillement, les souverains achéménides profitèrent du riche espace agricole pour poursuivre la politique d'attribution de terres aux soldats.

Die deutsche Außenpolitik zur Zeit des Kalten Krieges stellt in historischer wie politikwissenschaftlicher Hinsicht einen Gegenstand dar, der mit gutem Gewissen als wissenschaftlich erschlossen bezeichnet werden kann. Zahlreiche Aufsätze, Artikel und Bücher sind in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten erschienen, welche die deutsche Außenpolitik in Europa, Afrika, Asien, Ozeanien, Amerika, oder auch gleich der Welt als Ganzem, in den Blick genommen haben. Dies gilt sowohl für die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland als auch für diejenige der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Früh – wenn nicht sogar von Beginn an – kam hierbei eine zentrale These, eine Kernthese, zum Vorschein, die, ohne auf Widerstand zu stoßen, Eingang in den historischen und politikwissenschaftlichen Forschungskanon fand und ihn bereits nach kurzer Zeit zu dominieren begann. Die Rede ist von der die deutschen Auslandsaktivitäten angeblich bestimmenden Hallstein-Doktrin und dem mit ihr in engem Zusammenhang stehenden deutsch-deutschen Gegensatz. In dieser Arbeit wird dieser Kernthese, diesem ''Mythos'' der deutschen Außenpolitik, vehement widersprochen. Weder die Hallstein-Doktrin, noch der deutsch-deutsche Gegensatz, sondern nationale ökonomische und internationale geostrategische Interessen haben die deutsche Außenpolitik – und darüber hinaus auch die gesamten deutschen Auslandsaktivitäten, der BRD wie der DDR – maßgeblich bestimmt. Zur Stützung dieser Gegenthese werden in der vorliegenden Studie die staatlichen, wirtschaftlichen und gesellschaftlichen Aktivitäten West- und Ostdeutschlands in neun zentralafrikanischen Staaten zwischen 1945 und 1975 kritisch dargelegt, umfassend analysiert und im Hinblick auf mehrere zentrale Thesen zu den deutschen Auslandsaktivitäten ausgewertet. ; For decades articles and books have been published on the history of German foreign policy during Cold War. Regardless of whether Europe, Africa, Asia, Oceania, America or the world as a whole, the foreign affairs of the Western Federal Republic of Germany and the Eastern German Democratic Republic have been researched and analysed in context of a broad variety of locations. However, even though the list of publications continues to grow, the topic''s theses–especially its main thesis–do not show much progress. Already at an early stage, a central thesis–a core thesis–came to light, met no resistance and entered history''s and political science''s research canons on German foreign policy. This thesis reads: Inner German issues and the non-solved German question were so powerful, they dominated West and East German foreign affairs nearly right from the start. German foreign policy, that was the so-called Hallstein doctrine, that was the so-called German-German contradiction. And all studies–whether of history or political science, whether designed as a case study or as a global approach–confirm this thesis, use it as an integral part of their work–until today. But be that as it may. This study contradicts this thesis, this ''myth'' of German foreign policy. Instead it argues that neither the Hallstein doctrine nor the German-German contradiction, but national economic and international geostrategic interests dominated German foreign policy and German foreign activities–regarding the FRG, the GDR, and Germany as a whole. To proof this thesis, West and East German activities–of the two states, their economies and their societies–in nine Central African states between 1945 and 1975 are observed and analysed. More than a million file pages out of more than a dozen German archives were read to tackle this task–and shed some refreshing new light on the foreign policies of the two German states during Cold War.

The article aims at making a first approach to the study of class differentiation in rural communities of contemporary Galiza. First, the author reconstructs the debates on the 'agrarian question' in the history of the Spanish state - from the reformist thought of the late 19th century to the present, focusing on how this question was discussed in the Galizan context, in the field of Galizan agrarian historiography. This field of research developed mainly from the study of the peasants' access to land ownership in relation to various disentailments introduced by the liberal capitalist state. The author pays particular attention to the consequences of the land tenure regime that prevailed in Galiza - foro, a long-term lease: the increasing number of peasants were becoming owners, which agrarian historiography considered a key element of social-economic changes from the late 19th century to the first third of the 20th century. Another interrelated processes were the antiforal agrarian mobilization, growing commercialization of agrarian production, remittances of Galizan migrants from Americas, and technical development of production. The author emphasizes how social inequalities have changed in rural communities, focusing on the consequences of the liberal capitalist state in social structure and referring to different studies that prove the intensification of social inequalities. Finally, the author describes social changes at the last stage of the Franco dictatorship. Thus, this article is a first step in the study of how class inequalities have transformed contemporary peasant communities.

International audience ; When the Cold War started, France found it difficult to choose which side it was on due to the aura that the United States and the USSR had with public opinion after the Second World War and also due to the power of the French Communist Party (FCP). Moreover, Paris did not wish to break off its political and economic ties with Moscow's new satellites and, above all, wanted to broker an agreement with Stalin aimed at stopping Germany from causing any further damage. Although the absence of Soviet support for French ambitions for the Saar River, the development of East-West relations and the Marshall Plan put an end to these hesitations, at least those of the political leaders from the socialist and Christian democrat parties, French interest in the ideas of neutrality and neutralism did not weaken and regularly came back to the fore all through the Cold War.From the outset, although certain groups belonging to the non-communist left advocated "positive neutralism", the Gaullists called for greater independence from Washington and London. The concept of neutrality was never far and partly explains the attention given by some to countries which, voluntarily or forcibly, chose this option. Initially, neutrality was perceived by French diplomats and leaders in the context of their vision of French politics and according to a certain idea of the national interest, not from the angle of an abstract theoretical position of principle.Intrinsically, the neutral countries, with the exception of Switzerland, were of secondary strategic importance for France. But the French vision of European neutrality and of relations between the Neutrals and the Kremlin systematically reflected France's European orientations during the period, i.e. the German question, European construction, maintaining relations with Central and Eastern Europe, the defense of national territory and the concern for independence. From a broader viewpoint, the perception of the Neutrals and their relations with Moscow led the French to question the position of their country in international relations and the way to reinforce European security.Although this perception of neutrality underwent change in line with developments in the international situation, it reveals a certain continuity in French foreign policy from the 1950s to the 1980s. With respect to our particular focus, this continuity was expressed through the constant interest that Paris showed in Finland and Switzerland and in their relations with Moscow, more than with other countries. Sweden and Austria's relations with the USSR also remained under permanent scrutiny, but, as the Quai d'Orsay archives testify, this raised less questions. This paper will be limited to these four countries and will not refer to Yugoslavia which, in view of the importance attributed to it by France, is not comparable with the French vision of the Alpine and Nordic Neutrals. Moreover, as access to the archives is more limited concerning the 1980s, this analysis will cover the 1947-1981 period.How did French diplomacy perceive the relations that Finland, Switzerland, Sweden and Austria had with the Kremlin in fact? How did its vision of neutrality evolve from 1947 to 1981? Did the French consider the neutral status as being viable in the long term? What political and strategic relations did they have with these countries? If strategic questions with respect to the Neutrals-and particularly Switzerland-were above all present during the first years of the Cold War, which corresponded to the French Fourth Republic (1947-1958), Gaullist diplomacy (1958-1969) developed a vision of neutrality which was in line with his plan for a Europe of nations. The repression of the Prague spring then the CSCE created the conditions for a fresh debate on the position of the Neutrals in East-West relations all through the 1970s, at the very time that détente reached its limits and the Cold War entered its final phase.

1. Introduction; G V C Naidu and Kazuhiko Togo 1. - PART I: EAST ASIA: GEOPOLITICAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT. - 2. At the Crossfire: Vietnam's Position toward Big Power Strategies in Emerging Asia-Pacific Architecture; Pham Quang Minh 13. - 3. Some Realist Contemplations on the Territorial Disputes between China, Vietnam and the Philippines at South China Sea; Liu Ming 27. - 4. Managing Wider National Identity Gaps in East Asia without Idealism; Gilbert Rozman 44. - 5. Beyond Power, Interests and Identity: In Search of 'Asian Thinking' to Build Trust in East Asia; Kazuhiko Togo 58. - PART II: MARITIME SECURITY: CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND ACCEPTABLE SOLUTION. - 6. Maritime Security Environment in East Asia: Need for Strengthening Maritime Regimes, Greater Cooperation and Dialogues; Tran Viet Thai and G V C Naidu 74. - 7. Three Complementary Simultaneous Approaches to Maritime Security in the East China Sea: International Law, Crisis Management and Dialogue; Seigo Iwamoto and Kazuhiko Togo 87. - 8. Toward an Acceptable Solution to the East Sea Dispute; Tran Van Doan 103. - PART III: INTERDEPENDENCE: EFFECT AND LIMITATION. - 9. Can Economic Interdependence and Cooperation Mitigate Security Concerns in East Asia?; G V C Naidu 115. - 10. Antagonism Despite Interdependency: Whither China-Japan Relations?; Lam Peng Er 132. - 11. Conclusion; G V C Naidu and Kazuhiko Togo 147

The objective of this thesis is to learn about the history of the social, political and militant cinema archives produced between 1965 and 1975 in Uruguay. These cinematographic practices developed during a period of economic, political and social crisis in Uruguay. In 1973 a coup d'etat finally established a military dictatorship which will be maintained until 1985. The work which follows examines the trajectory of the film archives which were produced within the framework of the production practices of political and militant cinema, given their particular dispersion and their current inaccessibility.The study of these film archives is a prolific and developing field in Uruguay. For this reason, it was first necessary to analyze the history of film libraries from a general point of view as well as their conceptions of what should or should not be preserved in order to understand which productions of political or "militant" cinema had been preserved at the time and how. We thus analyze the conflicts between the traditional conceptions of what should be preserved and the emergence of new cinematographic trends in Uruguay in the 1960s. "Outside the archives".This production of "militant cinema" is part of a broader spectrum of personal and collective trajectories and the longer-term analysis allows these specific productions to be put into context. On the other hand, we will see that "militant" cinema is part of a larger field of political and social cinema and we will see throughout this work how it is confronted with the institutions of the time. We thus seek to understand what were the conditions of production of these films, the controversies which surrounded them and their possibilities or difficulties of permanence in time, in order to open new questions on the persistence or the configuration of certain memories of the national cinematography of the 1960s and 1970s.The first parts of the thesis seek to present the historical context and development of cinephilia in Uruguay and the establishment of the first film libraries in the public and private domain: Cine Arte del SODRE and Cinemateca Uruguaya. We then analyze the history of the archives of political and militant cinema in different fields, looking further into the cases of Mario Handler, Ferruccio Musitelli and the Cinemateca del Tercer Mundo. ; La présente thèse a pour objectif de connaître l'histoire des archives du cinéma à caractère social, politique et militant produites entre 1965 et 1975 en Uruguay. Ces pratiques cinématographiques se sont développées pendant une période de crise économique, politique et sociale en Uruguay. En 1973 un coup d'État finit par instaurer une dictature militaire qui se maintiendra jusqu'en 1985. Le travail qui suit examine la trajectoire des fonds d'archives cinématographiques qui ont été produits dans le cadre des pratiques de productions du cinéma politique et militant, compte tenu de leur particulière dispersion et de leur inaccessibilité à l'heure actuelle.L'étude de ces archives cinématographiques constitue un domaine prolifique et en cours de développement en Uruguay. Pour cette raison, il a fallu analyser dans un premier temps l'histoire des cinémathèques d'un point de vue général ainsi que leurs conceptions de ce qui devait être conservé ou pas dans le but de comprendre quelles productions du cinéma politique ou « militant » avaient été conservées à l'époque et comment. Nous analysons ainsi les conflits entre les conceptions traditionnelles de ce qui devait être conservé et l'émergence de nouveaux courants cinématographiques en Uruguay dans les années 1960. Ensuite, nous étudierons de manière précise les organisations ou archives privées où ont été conservées les films qui étaient « hors des archives ».Cette production du « cinéma militant » s'est inscrite dans un spectre plus large de trajectoires personnelles et collectives et l'analyse à plus long terme permet de mettre ces productions spécifiques en contexte. D'autre part, on verra que le cinéma « militant » s'inscrit dans un domaine plus large du cinéma politique et social et nous verrons tout au long du présent travail comment il est confronté aux institutions de l'époque. On cherche ainsi à comprendre ce que furent les conditions de production de ces films, les controverses qui les entourèrent et leurs possibilités ou difficultés de permanence dans le temps, afin d'ouvrir de nouvelles questions sur la persistance ou la configuration de certaines mémoires de la cinématographie nationale des années 1960 et 1970.Les premières parties de la thèse cherchent à présenter le contexte historique et de développement de la cinéphilie en Uruguay et la mise en place des premières cinémathèques dans le domaine public et privé: Cine Arte del SODRE et Cinemateca Uruguaya. Par la suite, on analyse l'histoire des archives du cinéma politique et militant dans différents domaines, en approfondissant dans les cas de Mario Handler, de Ferruccio Musitelli ou encore de la Cinemateca del Tercer Mundo.

The concept of Hungary as a Volksnation was reaffirmed by the Treaty of Trianon (1920) which left Hungary with the urgent need to redefine the concept of citizenship. To redefine the role of women in the new Hungary the conservative political elite revived the concept of 'cottage industry' as a possible solution for both the pressing economic needs of women to seek for employment and as a response to the concept of the independent, wage-earning 'New Woman'. The metaphor of Hungary as a sick mutilated body after 1920 opened up space for possible alternative definitions of women's role as healers for the first generations of university graduates. The example of women doctors shows the impossibility of harmonizing the rhetoric of employment with women's duties in the family. However, due to the Great Depression the concept of 'bread-winning woman' started to shed its ennobled connotation as wider social strata of women had to start some wage-earning activity. Those female professionals who were not satisfied with the neo-conservative vision of women's employment in cottage industry - employment till marriage if it did not threaten the male-bread-winner model - nor with the alternative version offered by the social democratic and the communist party, found empowerment in the rhetoric of exceptionalism: e.g., exceptional times not only allow but require a select stratum of women to enter the labour force. The rhetoric of women doctors about their profession proves that healing and caring was the self-image appropriated by the first generation of female professionals and that it necessarily pushed them to the extreme right. Analysis of the female membership of the Hungarian Nazi Party, the Arrow Cross Party, shows an over-representation of intellectual women among its members. In this chapter I aim to map varying trends that went to form the 'rhetoric of work' in the special context of the 'Trianon trauma', pointing out the factors which shifted the definition of women's work towards radically racialized body politics.

In 1945 the Soviet Union controlled half of Europe and was a founding member of the United Nations. By 1991, it had an army four-million strong with five-thousand nuclear-tipped missiles and was the second biggest producer of oil in the world. But soon afterward the union sank into an economic crisis and was torn apart by nationalist separatism. Its collapse was one of the seismic shifts of the twentieth century. Thirty years on, Vladislav Zubok offers a major reinterpretation of the final years of the USSR, refuting the notion that the breakup of the Soviet order was inevitable. Instead, Zubok reveals how Gorbachev's misguided reforms, intended to modernize and democratize the Soviet Union, deprived the government of resources and empowered separatism. Collapse sheds new light on Russian democratic populism, the Baltic struggle for independence, the crisis of Soviet finances—and the fragility of authoritarian state power.

The Dutch economy has relied on trade for centuries. During the seventeenth century the Netherlands experienced a Golden Age built largely on commercial enterprise, and trade continues to be the golden link in the supply chain from producers to consumers. Yet we know very little about the business of trade and the people involved in it. What was the nature of their work, and how did it evolve through the ages? In the lavishly illustrated At Home on the World Markets Joost Jonker and Keetie Sluyterman look at mercantile dynasties - such as the Trips and the Van Eeghens - and companies - such as the famous Dutch East Indian Company VOC and the modern trading company Hagemeyer - that have been largely unstudied. They describe the evolution of a unique economic sector that occupies a key position in the supply chain from producers to consumers.

Silicon Valley, California – home of Apple, Facebook, Twitter, Google, and so on – is widely regarded as the epicentre of the information revolution. However, it is not just a technical or economic phenomenon; it has also made a social revolution. The article evaluates Silicon Valley from a normative perspective, seeking toidentify its real societal impact, negative as well as positive. A select review of significant literature is followed by exposition of primary data, based on in situ face-to-face interviews with Valley occupants; these range from the chief technology officer of a global brand to a homeless, unemployed Vietnam War veteran.The article organises its findings under three headings: the nature of information revolution; iCapitalism as a new technoeconomic synthesis; and the normative crisis of the information society. It concludes with a warning about ongoing attempts to clone Silicon Valley around the world.

Introduces a bargaining model to explore the process by which ethnic groups are mobilized & then demobilized, such that the extremity of their demands shifts over time. Two arguments are presented: (1) A group's structural characteristics (including its size & compactness) define the upper limits of goals that groups are capable of pursuing against the center. (2) The extremity of these claims is a joint function of (A) the group's expected political or economic benefits of exercising its 'exit option' (the independent variable) & (B) the bargaining power & activities of a group's lobby state or organization (the intervening variable). Discussion focuses on how & why an ethnic group's demands can shift from extreme goals, such as broad territorial autonomy, to very moderate goals, such as affirmative action policies, & vice versa. How international organizations may intervene to ameliorate the intensity of ethnic conflict is considered in conclusion.

International audience ; Inscriptions dealing with music in Teos (200-160 BCE) show how much musical practices wereinvolved in a cultural policy similar to the one of Attalids after the Apamea treatise. Polythrous' foundationtells us about the high level of lessons and the socio-economic status of teachers who may have belonged tothe tekhnitai settled in Teos. The establishing of a musical cult to the late queen Apollonis indicates that thosepractices had a political and diplomatic function. This point is confirmed by recitals a Teian ambassador gavein Crete: he performed a repertoire which was beloved by the kings of Pergamon. ; Quelques inscriptions relatives à la vie musicale de Téos vers 200-160 montrent que les pratiquesmusicales relèvent d'une politique culturelle proche de celle que les Attalides mettent en oeuvre après Apamée.Si la fondation de Polythrous nous renseigne sur la technicité des disciplines enseignées et le statut socioéconomiquedes professeurs, qui appartenaient peut-être aux technites installés à Téos, l'instauration du cultepour la défunte reine Apollonis indique que ces pratiques avaient une dimension politique et diplomatique, ceque confirment les concerts donnés par un ambassadeur téien en Crète, où il interprète un répertoire appréciéà la cour pergaménienne.

The literature on the history of electricity production have studied the evolution of electricity in both developed and developing countries and its impact on their economies. Some have laid foundations upon which other works are carried out. A close examination of historiography and multidisciplinary research on electricity production in Ghana shows that more efforts are required to improve the electric power landscape in Ghana. From the colonial era, the increasing demand for electricity has been the biggest challenge plaguing the energy sector. Respective governments have made significant strides in ensuring reliable and universal access to electricity throughout Ghana, yet such efforts have been accompanied by different levels of challenges. The study uses a qualitative and exploratory research approach to trace the activities that helped, in many other ways to the creation of a sustainable electric power provision to household and industry in Ghana, particularly in two of Ghana's cities; Accra and Kumasi, within the period 1900 to the1960s. The work focused mainly on archival sources in its quest to arrive at how indigenous Ghanaians provided power for industrial activities and for household purposes. Results from the study show that local and cottage industries relied predominantly on wood, fuel, and biomass for their operations even before the introduction of the more sophisticated means of power generation. Also, the study revealed that in finding solutions to the challenges of electricity production, policymakers have focused more on current issues with little or no effort to trace the historical foundation of electricity production. This notwithstanding, the little efforts that have been made examined the history of energy production, with a limited focus on the immediate post-independence era ; У літературі з історії виробництва електроенергії вивчалася її еволюція як в розвинених, так і в країнах, що розвиваються і її вплив на економіку. Деякі автори заклали основи, на яких основивются інші роботи. Уважне вивчення історіографії виробництва електроенергії в Гані показує, що для поліпшення ситуації з електроенергією в Гані потрібні додаткові зусилля. Зростаючий попит на електроенергію став найбільшою проблемою стоїть перед енергетичним сектором, з часів колоніальної епохи. Відповідні уряду домоглися значних успіхів в забезпеченні надійного і універсального доступу до електрики на всій території Гани, однак такі зусилля супроводжувалися різними рівнями проблем. У дослідженні використовується якісний дослідницький підхід, що дозволяє простежити діяльність, яка у багатьох відношеннях допомогла створити стійке забезпечення електроенергією для домашніх господарств і промисловості в Гані, особливо в містах Аккра і Кумасі, в період з 1900 по 1960 роки. Дослідження було зосереджено, головним чином, на архівних джерелах, з метою з'ясувати яким чином корінні жителі Гани яка забезпечує електроенергією свою промислову діяльність і побутові цілі. Результати цього дослідження показують, що в своїй діяльності місцеві та кустарні підприємства в основному покладалися на деревину, паливо і біомасу ще до введення більш досконалих засобів виробництва електроенергії. Крім того, дослідження показало, що при знаходити власні шляхи розв'язання проблем виробництва електроенергії, розробники більше уваги приділяють поточних питань, практично не докладаючи зусиль для відстеження історичної основи виробництва електроенергії. Незважаючи на це, важливими є невеликі зусилля, які були зроблені для вивчення історії виробництва енергії, з обмеженим акцентом на епоху, що настала відразу після здобуття незалежності. ; В литературе по истории производства электроэнергии изучалась ее эволюция как в развитых, так и в развивающихся странах и ее влияние на экономику. Некоторые авторы заложили основы, на которых основывются другие работы. Внимательное изучение историографии производства электроэнергии в Гане показывает, что для улучшения ситуации с электроэнергией в Гане требуются дополнительные усилия. Растущий спрос на электроэнергию стал самой большой проблемой стоящей перед энергетическим сектором, со времен колониальной эпохи. Соответствующие правительства добились значительных успехов в обеспечении надежного и универсального доступа к электричеству на всей территории Ганы, однако такие усилия сопровождались различными уровнями проблем. В исследовании используется качественный исследовательский подход, позволяющий проследить деятельность, которая во многих отношениях помогла создать устойчивое обеспечение электроэнергией для домашних хозяйств и промышленности в Гане, особенно в городах Аккра и Кумаси, в период с 1900 по 1960 года. Исследование было сосредоточено, главным образом, на архивных источниках, с целью выяснить каким образом коренные жители Ганы обеспечивали электроэнергей свою промышленную деятельность и бытовые цели. Результаты этого исследования показывают, что в своей деятельности местные и кустарные предприятия в основном полагались на древесину, топливо и биомассу еще до введения более совершенных средств производства электроэнергии. Кроме того, исследование показало, что при поиске решений проблем производства электроэнергии, разработчики больше внимания уделяют текущим вопросам, практически не прилагая усилий для отслеживания исторической основы производства электроэнергии. Несмотря на это, важными являются небольшие усилия, которые были предприняты для изучения истории производства энергии, с ограниченным акцентом на эпоху, наступившую сразу после обретения независимости.

Das Stern'sche Konservatorium der Musik zu Berlin ist das älteste Konservatorium der Stadt, welches 1850 mit privaten Mitteln gegründet wurde und 86 Jahre in dieser privaten Form neben der Königlichen Hochschule für ausübende Tonkunst und vielen anderen großen und kleinen privaten Musikinstitutionen bestand. Auf die politischen, wirtschaftlichen, sozialen und kulturellen Umbrüche reagierte das Unternehmen flexibel und sicherte damit sein Bestehen. Unzählige Musikerinnen und Musiker aus allen Teilen der Welt haben hier ihre Ausbildung erhalten und den Ruf des Stern'schen Konservatoriums verbreitet. In Verbindung mit dem Stern'schen Gesangverein und dem Stern'schen Orchesterverein hat es das Musikleben der Stadt entscheidend geprägt, musikgeschichtliche Entwicklungen beschleunigt und Musiker aus den verschiedensten Bereichen miteinander in Verbindung gebracht. Trotz dieser enormen Bedeutung war seine Geschichte bisher nur unzureichend erforscht. Die Rekonstruktion der Geschichte des Stern'schen Konservatoriums stellte aufgrund der Lückenhaftigkeit der überlieferten Quellen eine besondere Herausforderung dar. Anders als bei Institutionen in staatlicher Trägerschaft fanden sich Quellen weniger in öffentlichen Archiven als vielmehr in privaten Nachlässen. Daran zeigt sich die enge Verflechtung der Überlieferungsgeschichte einer privaten Institution mit den Biografien der Personen, die es geleitet haben. Eine methodische Entscheidung war es, die Geschichte dieses Instituts nicht als die eines Wirtschaftsunternehmen zu erzählen, sondern über die Personen einen Blick auf die Institution zu bekommen und dabei Anregungen aus der Genderforschung aufzunehmen. Es ist es tatsächlich historiografisches Neuland, Institutionengeschichte so eng mit Biografik zu verknüpfen. Eine weitere Besonderheit ist, dass alle drei Besitzerfamilien jüdisch waren. Die Zeit des Nationalsozialismus hat die Überlieferungslage deshalb noch zusätzlich verschlechtert. Orientiert an den Methoden aus der Biografik speziell weiblicher Lebensläufe, habe ich für diese Arbeit eine der Materiallage angepasste Darstellungsmethode entwickelt, der das Konzept der "gebrochenen Chronologie" zugrunde liegt: Es gibt zwei Stränge der Darstellung (PHASEN und ASPEKTE), die durch Ziffern und Buchstaben kenntlich gemacht sind und unterschiedlichen Strukturprinzipien gehorchen. Hinzu kommen biografische Exkurse zu den Leitungspersönlichkeiten. Der eine Erzählstrang aus chronologischen Kapiteln (PHASEN) beschreibt jeweils eine zeitlich eingegrenzte Epoche in der der Quellenlage entsprechend möglichen Form, manchmal auch nur einzelne Aspekte daraus. Dabei wird der Fokus auf die jeweiligen Leiter beziehungsweise Besitzer des Konservatoriums und auf die von ihnen in den einzelnen Entwicklungsphasen umgesetzten Konzepte gerichtet. Daneben werden – sozusagen vertikal – an vernetzbaren Stellen thematische Achsen eingezogen (ASPEKTE), die sich überblicksartig speziellen Einzelthemen widmen. Diese betreffen jeweils die Gesamtentwicklung des Konservatoriums und verfolgen die Entwicklung eines Teilbereichs durch die unterschiedlichen Epochen hindurch. Durch das Geflecht aus diesen zwei Erzählsträngen, sozusagen synchronen und diachronen Perspektiven, können die Überlieferungslücken als weiße Flächen im Hintergrund sichtbar bleiben. Diese Arbeit über das Stern'sche Konservatorium versteht sich als Beitrag zur Institutionsgeschichte, angesiedelt an der Grenze zwischen Geschichts-, Musik- und Erziehungswissenschaft, verpflichtet sowohl der Regionalgeschichtsschreibung wie der Biografieforschung. Sie nimmt die Besonderheiten eines privaten Ausbildungsinstitutes in den Blick, legt verschiedene Überlieferungsschichten frei und bestimmt die spezifische Bedeutung des Stern'schen Konservatoriums im Kontext der Institutionalisierung von Musikausbildung. ; The Stern Conservatory of Music in Berlin (Sternsch'sches Konservatorium der Musik zu Berlin) that was founded in 1850 with private funds, is the oldest conservatory of the city and has existed in this private form, alongside the Royal Academy of music and Performing arts (Königliche Hochschule für ausübende Tonkunst), and many other large and small private music institutions, for 86 years. The institution has thereby secured its existence by responding flexibly in the light of political, economic, social and cultural changes. Countless musicians from all over the world have received their training here and have gone on to spread the reputation of the Stern Conservatory. It has moreover in conjunction with the Stern Choral Society (Stern'scher Gesangverein) and the Stern Orchestra Association (Stern'scher Orchesterverein), decisively shaped the musical life of the city, accelerated music history developments and brought musicians together from varied areas. In spite of this enormous importance, its history has hitherto been insufficiently researched. The reconstruction of the history of the Stern Conservatory constitutes a special challenge, on account of the fragmentary nature of the surviving primary sources. Unlike in the case of institutions under state auspices, primary sources tend to be found less in public archives, but rather in private estates. This reflects the close interweavement of the history of the private institution with the biographies of those who have managed it. A methodological decision was to this end made not to recount the history of this institution from the perspective of a commercial enterprise, but rather to provide for a view of the institution based on individuals and thereby further ideas drawn from gender research. The extremely close linking of the institutional history with biographies actually pertains to historiographical new territory. A further special feature is that all three proprietor families were Jewish. The period of National Socialism has as such narrowed the selection of primary sources that have survived from the relevant time period even further. The concept of "broken chronology" that is oriented on methods drawn from biographies, which are specifically female resumes, is the underlying basis for the material adapted representation method that I have developed for this work: There are two strands of representation (PHASES and ASPECTS), which are made identifiable through digits and letters, and are based on different structural principles. The strands moreover also involve biographical digressions with regard to the leading personalities. The narrative strand that pertains to the chronological chapters (PHASES), describes in each case a time-localized epoch, possibly in a form that corresponds to the location of the source, or even in some case only to some aspects of the latter. The focus is thereby directed on the respective director or else proprietor of the conservatory and the various individual development phases of the concepts he has implemented. This is in what one can regard as a vertical sense, done alongside with the involvement of thematic axes which are drawn at locations that are capable of being interlinked (ASPECTS), and are thereby dedicated to providing an overview on specific individual issues. The latter in each case relate to the overall development of the conservatory and follow the development of a partial section through the different epochs. The interweavement of these two narrative strands, which can be regarded as synchronic and diachronic perspectives, make it possible to view the gaps in the primary sources, as white areas that remain visible in the background. This work on the Stern Conservatory, which is categorized as structured on the border line between history, music and science education, is regarded as a contribution to the history of the institution that thereby involves both the obligation to conduct regional historiography as well as biographical research. It focuses on the peculiarities of a private training institution, exposes the different layers of the primary sources and specifies the particular significance of the Stern Conservatory within the framework of the institutionalization of music education.