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AbstractIt is known that the Qajars had their supporters in Dagestan during the Russo-Persian Wars in the early 19th century. This fact is well documented in Persian chronicles and royal decrees (firmāns), as well as in the materials from the Russian archives. However, the number of historical documents originating from the region itself is drastically few. This paper presents three letters in Arabic, without dates, but definitely from the same period, illustrating the political situation of the time in the mountains of Dagestan and the geographical extent of the Qajar influence in the area. The letters were discovered recently in the Archives of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Dagestan Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences in Makhachkala. The English translation is accompanied by the facsimile reproduction of the original texts, and commentaries.

Baseball has long been considered America's game. From images of Kevin Costner playing catch with his father to political thinkers like George Will authoring entire books about it, baseball has always been embedded in America's national psyche. "Pride and patriotism," one author mused required that the game be truly American and unsullied by English influence: thus the American baseball mythos was created. It was not always this way, however, as the game of baseball started among the elite social clubs of New York City and subsequently trickled down to the masses. Thorstein Veblen once said that only the leisure class and delinquents played sports. It was these leisurely and delinquent masses that expanded the game, forcing the innovations that created baseball as we know it today. Salaried players, commercialized contests, and even styles of play were all the products of the lower classes, especially immigrants participating in America's game. German and Irish immigrants changed the game to the extent that the Knickerbockers never would have thought possible, but by 1902 when Major League Baseball was formed, it was an American institution with participation by all classes. Researchers have previously recognized the African-American component to baseball's innovation and that Irish and other immigrant stars dominated the game and contributed to its development by the end of the nineteenth century, but the actual impact of immigrants and lower class ethnic players has never been fully articulated. Immigrants were not just contributors, but were essential to the professional and commercial development of baseball in the 19th century by both their alteration of the commercial and professional structures that defined the game.

This article deals with the reconciliation of modern science with Islam in 19th century India. This is done through a comparative study of two well known intellectuals and reformers: Syed Ahmad Khan and Jamaluddin Afghani. Both believed that science had been central to early Islam from the 8th to the 13th or 14th centuries, but that the situation had since then reversed. While no attempt is made to go into the early period, it never theless provides an important backdrop. Syed Ahmad was a reconstructionist who tried to reinterpret the Quran to assimilate modern scientific knowledge. Afghani, on the other hand, was a pragmatist. Though he stood for the cultivation of modern sciences, he did not approve of the aping of the West. Afghani stayed in India for three years, and had serious differences with Syed Ahmad Khan on the modus operandi of reconciling science with Islam. He denounced the ulema for the strange divide they had created between Muslim science and European science. This discussion may have a bearing on current attempts to provide religion or ethnicity to modern science.

This paper investigates the biological standard of living toward the end of Spanish rule. We investigate levels, trends, and determinants of physical stature from the birth cohorts of the 1860s to the 1890s using data on 23,000 Filipino soldiers enlisted by the U.S. military between 1901 and 1913. We use truncated regression technique for estimating average height and use province level information for investigating the determinants of biological wellbeing. The results indicate a decline of more than 1.5 cm (0.6 inches) in the height of soldiers born between the early 1870s and the late 1880s. The decline in heights at the end of the 19th century occurred at a time when there was an expansion of commercial activity in cash crop production for export. Heights did not regain the level of the 1870s until the late 1930s and early 1940s. We also find that at 159.3 cm (62.7 inches), the average height of soldiers born in the mid-1870s was very short even for the time. The low biological standard of living observed in late 19th century Philippines was not due to the tropical disease environment alone since greater average heights were recorded for the same period in other parts of Asia with a similar climate.

Chinese arrival in Java was encouraged with significant factors both internal and external. Chinese in Java eventually brought shifting in economical, social, and political aspect of Java under Dutch realm. In 19th century, Chinese in Java were differed into two clusters, known as peranakan and totok. These two terms possed different languange, culture, economical conditions. This study aimed to determine the role of Chinese merchants of Java during 19th century. The study engaged literature study which includes planning, selection, extraction, and excution. Literature review tries to review several books, scholarly articles, and other relevant sources which focused on particular area. Under Dutch realm, Chinese in Java portrayed many different roles, such as moneylenders, middlemen, kapitan, opium traders, and etec. Chinese were considered active in and around Java as the settled in Netherland Indies trade withi coastal shipping. Chinese possess priviledge spot under Dutch colonial policy, due to their advance skill in business and their independency of local rulers. In term of trade, the Chinese were ubiquitous and essential, since everyone commited trade in Java had to do business with Chinese. Java's Chinese men and unknown number of peranakan and native Javanese women whom they married or related were almost all participated in the money economy.

Opinions vary about the presence of foreigners in 19th century China with most scholars agreeing that China was a victim of economic imperialism led by Great Britain and other foreign powers. Among the criticisms is that of "cultural imperialism"—a program of imposing foreign cultural values upon China. There is no doubt that "Western" culture has transferred to China and many other countries but the use of 'imperialism" suggests that foreign culture was imposed on the Chinese as a direct product of military force coupled with economic and social pressures. (From first paragraph).

Opinions vary about the presence of foreigners in 19th century China with most scholars agreeing that China was a victim of economic imperialism led by Great Britain and other foreign powers. Among the criticisms is that of "cultural imperialism"—a program of imposing foreign cultural values upon China. There is no doubt that "Western" culture has transferred to China and many other countries but the use of 'imperialism" suggests that foreign culture was imposed on the Chinese as a direct product of military force coupled with economic and social pressures. (From first paragraph).

This article is based on the annual reports of the governors of Estland (Northern Estonia) and Livland. Although the statistical correctness of the information is questionable, it can be used to find out relative tendencies. Especially we are interested in the similarities and differences involved in the economic development of the large estates of Baltic-German landowners.

This study highlights how military-press relations evolved in the 19th century towards institutionalising press accreditation during the armed conflicts with the aim of gaining the public trust and promoting the reputation of military organisations by managing the information release to audiences. A special focus is on the nascent press accreditation practices used by the military when interacting with correspondents sent by European and North American publications to cover, first-hand, the Eastern Question events unfolding on the battlefields of the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), in which Romania fought to win its national independence. The study reveals the crystallisation of Public Relations techniques and procedures in wartime – press officers' appointment, written regulations on the terms and conditions for the press accreditation, ground rules for correspondents' access to press briefings, interviews and documentation activities at combat units as members of press pools or as embedded journalists. These practices are enshrined nowadays in the Public Relations policies on media relations, and their emergence deserves better recognition in the history of communication sciences.

Combining great learning, interpretative originality, analytical sensitivity, and a charismatic prose style, Clifford Geertz has produced a lasting body of work with influence throughout the humanities and social sciences, and remains the foremost anthropologist in America. His 1980 book Negara analyzed the social organization of Bali before it was colonized by the Dutch in 1906. Here Geertz applied his widely influential method of cultural interpretation to the myths, ceremonies, rituals, and symbols of a precolonial state. He found that the nineteenth-century Balinese state defied easy conceptualization by the familiar models of political theory and the standard Western approaches to understanding politics. Negara means "country" or "seat of political authority" in Indonesian. In Bali Geertz found negara to be a "theatre state," governed by rituals and symbols rather than by force. The Balinese state did not specialize in tyranny, conquest, or effective administration. Instead, it emphasized spectacle. The elaborate ceremonies and productions the state created were "not means to political ends: they were the ends themselves, they were what the state was for. Power served pomp, not pomp power." Geertz argued more forcefully in Negara than in any of his other books for the fundamental importance of the culture of politics to a society. Much of Geertz's previous work--including his world-famous essay on the Balinese cockfight--can be seen as leading up to the full portrait of the "poetics of power" that Negara so vividly depicts

In 1882, the Roman Catholic priest in Lakeville, Connecticut, erected a 12 foot crucifix on the lawn of his parish church. The following summer, the local Protestants, offended by this structure, petitinoed him to remove it. His parishioners retaliated by boycotting the Protestant merchants, and the merchants called upon the local iron magnate to fire all his Catholic workers. It happened that the local iron magnate was also Chairman of the Democratic National Committee, and one of the leaders of the irate Protestants was a fomer Governor of Connecticut. Predictably, the story did not end there