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Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 reads "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment". This Article is widely regarded as expressing customary international law. Within the United Nations framework, torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment are explicitly prohibited under a number of international treaties, which are legally binding on those States which have ratified them. Many treaties establish Committees, known collectively as the treaty bodies, which are mandated to monitor States Parties' compliance with their obligations under the treaties. They do this by issuing General Comments or Recommendations, which provide detailed interpretation of specific aspects of the treaty. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the definition and the elements required for an act to be classified as torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, applied within the United Nations system, by considering the General Comments and jurisprudence of the treaty bodies, in particular the Human Rights Committee (HRC), which monitors compliance with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the Committee against Torture (CAT), which monitors compliance with the United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (UNCAT). The paper focuses on States Parties' obligations under the main treaties, by considering the scope of application of these obligations. DOI:10.5901/ajis.2013.v2n8p61

United States common law --Introduction to American legal research and the federal system -- Legal reasoning and objective legal writing : IRAC, the hypothetical exam, and the interoffice memo -- The legal process --The research process -- Researching and updating case law -- Researching and interpreting constitutions, statutes, regulations, and international law -- Rewriting and style -- Technology in U.S. Law and non-fee CALR -- Advanced objective writing -- Persuasive writing : drafting contracts.

1. Introduction -- 2. A history of thought about culture and economy -- 3. The re-emergence of culture in economics -- 4. Methods and methodology of culture and economics -- 5. Culture and cross-country differences in institutions -- 6. Culture and economic performance -- 7. Religion as culture -- 8. Mapping the landscape of social capital : the need for a two-level approach -- 9. International relations and coordination -- 10. Conclusions and recommendations.

The multiple interpretations in international law of ICHL's neutrality vis-à-vis religion in the case of sites with multiple religious/historical layers and the concept of "specially affected" state are explored with the latest issue of the transformation of Hagia Sophia into a mosque in mind.

Der Beitrag zur Frauen- und Geschlechterforschung widmet sich der Förderung von Eliten auf dem Feld der Hochschulpolitik und Wissenschaft. So werden im ersten Schritt zunächst drei maßgebliche Positionen der Frauen- und Geschlechterforschung zur Elitediskussion und -forschung dargestellt: (1) eine grundsätzliche kritische, (2) eine pragmatisch-kritische sowie (3) eine alternativ-konstruktive. Gestützt auf Ergebnisse eines Forschungsprojektes zur Konstruktion von wissenschaftspolitischen Steuerungseliten wird der pragmatisch-kritischen Position eine besondere Aufmerksamkeit zuteil. Im zweiten Teil wird die Internationale Frauenuniversität (ifu) als Hochschulreformprojekt mit Exzellenzanspruch beispielhaft für eine alternativ konstruktive Position vorgestellt. Im dritten Schritt wird abschließend der Exzellenz-Begriff der ifu als ein reflexives Eliteverständnis diskutiert. (ICG2).

Der Beitrag zur Frauen- und Geschlechterforschung widmet sich der Förderung von Eliten auf dem Feld der Hochschulpolitik und Wissenschaft. So werden im ersten Schritt zunächst drei maßgebliche Positionen der Frauen- und Geschlechterforschung zur Elitediskussion und -forschung dargestellt: (1) eine grundsätzliche kritische, (2) eine pragmatisch-kritische sowie (3) eine alternativ-konstruktive. Gestützt auf Ergebnisse eines Forschungsprojektes zur Konstruktion von wissenschaftspolitischen Steuerungseliten wird der pragmatisch-kritischen Position eine besondere Aufmerksamkeit zuteil. Im zweiten Teil wird die Internationale Frauenuniversität (ifu) als Hochschulreformprojekt mit Exzellenzanspruch beispielhaft für eine alternativ konstruktive Position vorgestellt. Im dritten Schritt wird abschließend der Exzellenz-Begriff der ifu als ein reflexives Eliteverständnis diskutiert. (ICG2)

Trade protection commonly is viewed as a support—external and perhaps occasional—granted to an industry by government policymakers. Focusing on the steel industry, this study argues that protection is better viewed as a commodity, an input into the production of steel. The development of the market for the protection commodity during the past century is related to the history of regional, national, and international markets for steel.

AbstractThis study focuses on forced migration and interstate violence during international crises, as a major security concern with salient implications for international relations stability. The empirical data consists of 229 crises designated as Forced Migration Crises (FMC), identified within the 374 crises of the International Crisis Behavior (ICB) project. The study outlines a framework for analyzing FMC compared with Non-Forced Migration Crises (NFMC), presents an index of Forced Migration Magnitude (FMM), and probes three hypotheses. It points to transformations in forced migration since WWII, compares crises with and without forced migration, and explores patterns of FMM and violence. Results lead to rejection of hypothesis 1 on similarities between FMC and NFMC, supporting hypothesis 2 on considerable diversity between them. Findings on extended scope, strategic locale, enduring forced migration problems and increased violence support hypothesis 3, challenging the placement of forced migration merely as a social or humanitarian domestic concern. Instead, results show a salient increase in FMM, coupled with more severe interstate violence and war, dangerously destabilizing regions worldwide. These patterns require the integration of forced migration within crisis frameworks, as a new research agenda, to understand the nature of forced migration in the 21st century and its impact.

As is the case with other social science disciplines and sub-disciplines, the field of international relations (IR) is beginning to assume a scholarly identity in China today. In some respects the field is building upon a foundation laid prior to the Cultural Revolution (when in 1964 then-Premier Zhou Enlai ordered the establishment of several IR research institutes and academic training programs), but in a very real sense it is only now being established for the first time. China's current opening to the world has provided additional stimulus to the development of the field as China's leaders and bureaucrats seek policy-oriented analyses of foreign nations. The field is expanding rapidly. This study will assess the current state of the field and will evaluate the potential for and impediments to developing the discipline.Defining the DisciplineVarious complex problems arise in trying to define the scope of the discipline of international relations in the Chinese context. Perhaps the biggest problem is that Chinese IR scholars and specialists have not themselves clearly delineated the parameters of their field. International relations therefore does not yet have a distinct identity as a discipline despite an increasingly strong institutional base of scholarship and analysis.