Suchergebnisse

Una de las enseñanzas más valiosas de la obra de Norberto Bobbio fue la superación de la situación de separación e incomunicabilidad entre la teoría del derecho y la filosofía política: aunque es cierto que ambas se diferencian por sus respectivos objetos -el derecho y la justicia, distinción que refuta la confusión del derecho con la moral y viceversa, en defensa del positivismo-, entre derecho y política existen cuatro nexos que impiden el aislamiento filosófico de la cultura jurídica y la involución autoritaria de la teoría política: (1) entre democracia y Derecho, (2) entre Derecho y razón, (3) entre razón y paz y (4) entre paz y Derecho (específicamente, derechos humanos). Tales nexos, junto a un quinto, entre política (pasión civil) y cultura (labor científica), permiten caracterizar al pensamiento de Bobbio como una filosofía militante. ; One of the most valuable teachings in the work of Norberto Bobbio was that of overcoming the separation and lack of communication existing between the theory of law and political philosophy: while it is true that they differ with regard to their respective objects –law and justice, a distinction which, in defence of positivism, refutes the confusion between law and morality and vice versa-, four links exist between law and politics which prevent the philosophical isolation of legal culture and the authoritarian involution of political theory: (1) between democracy and law, (2) between law and reason, (3) between reason and peace (4) between peace and law (specifically, human rights). These links, together with a fifth one, existing between politics (civic commitment) and culture (scientific work), lead Bobbio's thinking to be characterized as a militant philosophy.

One of the most valuable teachings in the work of Norberto Bobbio was that of overcoming the separation and lack of communication existing between the theory of law and political philosophy: while it is true that they differ with regard to their respective objects –law and justice, a distinction which, in defence of positivism, refutes the confusion between law and morality and vice versa-, four links exist between law and politics which prevent the philosophical isolation of legal culture and the authoritarian involution of political theory: (1) between democracy and law, (2) between law and reason, (3) between reason and peace (4) between peace and law (specifically, human rights). These links, together with a fifth one, existing between politics (civic commitment) and culture (scientific work), lead Bobbio's thinking to be characterized as a militant philosophy. ; Una de las enseñanzas más valiosas de la obra de Norberto Bobbio fue la superación de la situación de separación e incomunicabilidad entre la teoría del derecho y la filosofía política: aunque es cierto que ambas se diferencian por sus respectivos objetos -el derecho y la justicia, distinción que refuta la confusión del derecho con la moral y viceversa, en defensa del positivismo-, entre derecho y política existen cuatro nexos que impiden el aislamiento filosófico de la cultura jurídica y la involución autoritaria de la teoría política: (1) entre democracia y Derecho, (2) entre Derecho y razón, (3) entre razón y paz y (4) entre paz y Derecho (específicamente, derechos humanos). Tales nexos, junto a un quinto, entre política (pasión civil) y cultura (labor científica), permiten caracterizar al pensamiento de Bobbio como una filosofía militante.

Patricia Wiater behandelt den Status nichtstaatlicher Akteure im Völker- und Europarecht anhand der prozessualen Autonomisierung natürlicher und juristischer Personen. Sie zieht das Wirtschaftsvölkerrecht als Referenzgebiet für eine umfassende rechtsvergleichende und historische Detailanalyse der Klagemacht internationaler Individualkläger heran. Neben der EU betrachtet sie afrikanische und amerikanische Systeme regionaler Wirtschaftsintegration und behandelt das standing von natürlichen und juristischen Personen im Seevölkerrecht und im internationalen Investitionsschutz. Eine Kernerkenntnis ihrer Studie besteht darin, dass Individualkläger in höchst heterogenem Maße mit Funktionen ausgestattet werden, die sich Staaten traditionell selbst vorbehalten hatten. Dagegen lässt sich eine weitgehende Kohärenz in der Spruchpraxis der betrachteten Gerichte ausfindig machen: Systemübergreifend werden Individualklagerechte über reine Rechtsschutzbelange hinaus auf eine Kontrolle staatlicher Legalität erstreckt. Die Autorin weist rechtstheoretische Wege auf, wie sich das derart entfaltete Rechtsprinzip einer »umfassenden Parteifähigkeit des Individualklägers« auch jenseits des Staatenkonsenses als tradierter Legitimationsbasis rechtfertigen lässt.

Justice is the eternal struggle of humans, both theoretically and practically. More than two thousand years ago, Plato saw justice as harmony, both socially and individually. A just society is a society whose members work according to their social functions to ensure mutual prosperity. While a healthy individual is like a fair society, where all his organs function perfectly. Departing from the thought that became the issue of justice seekers towards the problem that most often became a discourse was about the issue of justice in relation to law. This is because the law or a form of legislation that is applied and accepted with a different view, a view that considers the law to be fair, and vice versa the law is not fair. Such problems are often found in concrete cases, such as in a trial process in a defendant in a criminal case (criminal of justice), or in a defendant in a private of justice case or in a defendant in a state administration (justice) case or on the contrary, as plaintiffs feel unjust about the verdict of the judges and on the contrary the judges feel confident that the verdict is fair because the decision has been based on legal considerations written in the form of statutory regulations. Proof theory is based on Positive Law (Positive Wettwlijks theorie). Justice can only be understood if it is positioned as a state that is intended to be realized by law. The effort to bring about justice in the law is a dynamic process that takes a lot of time. This effort is often also dominated by forces that fight within the general framework of the political order to actualize it. Justice is one of the aims of the law. The purpose of the law is not only justice, but also legal certainty and expediency. Ideally, the law must accommodate all three. Even so, there are still those who argue, among the three legal objectives, justice is the most important goal, and some even argue that justice is the only legal goal. If so what is the view of justice according to general rules or rules that govern human relations in society or positive law. In this research, the formulation of the problem in this research is how the concept of law and the idea of justice based on the Concept of Static Law (Nomostatics) presented by Hans Kelsen. In this study the authors used the method of library research (Library Research). This method is carried out by examining library materials or secondary data, which consists of: Primary materials, i.e. materials which are binding and consist of books, journals, and others, which are related to the issues discussed and material- secondary material, namely materials that provide explanations for primary materials in the form of articles of research results, or opinions of other legal experts. The results of this study are Hans Kelsen argues justice as a consideration of values that are subjective. As a stream of positivism also recognizes that absolute justice comes from nature, which is born from the nature of an object or human nature, from human reasoning or God's will. Understanding "Justice" means legality. A general rule is "fair" if it is actually applied, while a general rule is "unfair" if it is applied to one case and not applied to other similar cases.

This article investigates the authorised heritage discourse (AHD) through the lens of conservation planning practice. The AHD is characterised as an exclusionary discourse that privileges the physical nature of 'heritage', defined scientifically by 'experts'. Set within the context of wider international trends towards more inclusive heritage practices, the article advances understanding of the contemporary AHD. Using local heritage designation as an investigatory platform, a thesis is developed to explain professional representations of heritage operating in this setting. In doing so, a pervasive, yet nuanced AHD is exposed. At the same time, a complex variety of contextual factors that constrain radical readjustment of the AHD are also uncovered. These include struggles over the subjectivity and operationalisation of social and cultural heritage values in rational planning environments. The conclusions drawn from this research challenge and subtly refine the AHD, and crucially, propose that wider trends in the heritage discourse cannot be adequately implemented within the current legal apparatus and mind-set of traditional rational planning. The article suggests that further research is required to understand how the multiple and diverse layers of heritage meanings can be emplaced and legitimised within planning settings.

In den verschiedensten Rechtsgebieten greift der Gesetzgeber immer wieder auf den unbestimmten Rechtsbegriff der guten Sitten zurück. Aber was verbirgt sich eigentlich hinter dieser Formel? Gibt es eine Definition des Begriffes? Welchen Zweck erfüllt der Begriff der Sittenwidrigkeit? In meiner Arbeit habe ich versucht diese und noch mehr Fragen zum Thema der guten Sitten zu beantworten. Ausgehend von den unterschiedlichsten Interpretationsmöglichkeiten der guten Sitten im Sinne des Positivismus und des Naturrechts werden die unterschiedlichen Funktionen, welcher der Generalklausel zukommen erörtert. Vor allem im Bereich des Strafrechts, wo grundsätzlich das Bestimmtheitsgebot absolute Geltung hat wird die Generalklausel häufig verwendet. Um die Frage nach der Möglichkeit einer allgemein gültigen Definition beantworten zu können, habe ich mich zuerst mit jeder einzelnen strafrechtlichen Norm beschäftigt, die den Begriff der guten Sitten verwendet. Anhand von Fallbeispielen habe ich versucht eine Gemeinsamkeit zwischen allen Bestimmungen zu erkennen, um diese in einen Katalog, für eine Legaldefintion aufzunehmen. Da die Generalklausel sowohl im bürgerlichen Recht als auch im Wettbewerbsrecht zur Anwendung kommt, habe ich auch diese Bestimmungen genauer unter die Lupe genommen, um eventuell bestehenden Gemeinsamkeiten bzw Unterschiede herauszuarbeiten. Aufgrund meiner Untersuchungen bin ich zu dem Ergebnis gekommen, dass es eine allgemein gültige Definition, die sowohl im Zivil als auch im Strafrecht zur Anwendung kommt, schon auf Grund der unterschiedlichen Interpretationsweisen nicht geben kann. Und auch innerhalb eines Rechtsgebiets ist es kaum möglich, alle Fälle der Sittenwidrigkeit mit einer Definition zu erfassen. Es wird also weiterhin eine Frage des Einzelfalls sein, ob etwas den guten Sitten entspricht oder nicht mit ihnen vereinbart werden kann. ; ABSTRACT to the thesis of Mag.aiur. Eva Maria Högler on the subject THE GOOD CUSTOMS IN PENAL AND IN THE CIVIL LAW In the most different legal areas the legislator falls back on the uncertain legal concept of the good customs over and over again. But what is hidden, actually, behind this formula? Is there a (Legal) definition of the concept? Can there be one? Which purpose fulfils the concept of the good morals? In my work I tried to answer these and even more questions on the subject of the good customs. Outgoing from the most different interpretation possibilities of the good customs for the purposes of the positivism and the natural law, i came to the different functions the blanket clause fulfils. An opening of the right for the value change of the society as well as a gap filling of the existing right is allowed by the use of the concept of the good customs. Above all in the area of the criminal law where basically the principal of certainity has to be obaied, the blanket clause is often used. To be able to answer the question of the possibility of a generally valid definition, I first dealt with every single criminal norm which uses the concept of the good customs. On the basis of case studies I have tried to recognise a common characteristic between all regulations, around this in a catalogue to take up for a Legaldefintion. Because the blanket clause is used in civil law as well as in the competitive right I also looked at these regulations to find out the existing common characteristics or differences. On account of my investigations I have come to the result that there cannot be a generally valid definition for civil law as well as in the criminal law due to the use of the different interpretation manners. And also within a legal area it is hardly possible to grasp all cases of the custom adversity with a definition. It will be furthermore a question of the isolated case whether it corresponds to the good customs or not. ; eingereicht von Eva Maria Högler ; Abweichender Titel laut Übersetzung der Verfasserin/des Verfassers ; Graz, Univ., Diss., 2012 ; OeBB ; (VLID)222419

Outstanding coincidences and also important differences can be found when comparing the theories of Thomas Hobbes and Baruch de Spinoza, They initiate and reveal changes in political theory and practice that occur in a brief period of time but that, at the same time, are decisive. Ancestors of positivism, both shared ontological and methodological bases, which is often interpreted, for chronological reasons, as an influence of Hobbes on Spinoza. The differences between both are about the meaning of religion in relation to its role in politics; the relationships between divine revelation, natural law and reason, and the moral order; the natural law as the foundation of the legal-political system; the meaning and content of the social contract as the basis of the civil obligation. All these divergences lead to the most important of all, and that is that Hobbes is cast in an absolutism that ignores the rights of conscience, while Spinoza stands in defence of the internal forum. ; Entre las teorías de Thomas Hobbes y Baruch de Spinoza hay destacadas coincidencias y también importantes diferencias. Inician y revelan cambios en la teoría y la práctica políticas que ocurren en corto espacio de tiempo pero que son decisivos. Antecesores del positivismo, ambos compartieron bases ontológicas y metodológicas, lo que suele interpretarse, por razones cronológicas, como una influencia de Hobbes en Spinoza. Las diferencias entre ambos versan sobre el sentido de la religión en relación con su papel en la política; las relaciones entre la revelación divina, la ley y la razón naturales y el orden moral; el iusnaturalismo como fundamento del sistema jurídico-político; el sentido y contenido del contrato social como fundamento de la obligación civil. Todas estas divergencias conducen a la más importante de todas, y es que Hobbes se enroca en un absolutismo que desconoce los derechos de la conciencia, mientras que Spinoza se erige en defensor del fuero interno.

This roundtable brings together a diverse group of scholars to ask how a critical engagement with science studies, writ large, might allow us to rethink the modern history of the Middle East. They speak in the name of a number of disciplines, including: archaeology, agriculture, engineering, geography, medicine, natural philosophy, public health, psychology, sociology, and urban planning. And they cover a wide array of local, regional, and even international networks of expertise and experts. These included (to name a few) a British engineer who worked in colonial Egypt and India calculating the future demography of water supplies and sewage systems; American, Palestinian, and Zionist agricultural researchers and proponents of dry-land cultivation and colonization in Ottoman Palestine; Ottoman Arab and Turkish nationalists in Istanbul who debated the metaphysical and political implications of positivism; and, finally, the various experts and political actors who fought over the preservation (and destruction) of antique material artifacts and objects in Iraq and Egypt from the 19th century to the present. What we might claim they have in common, however, is a concern with the rise of the "modern state"—another broad category here encompassing a range of imperial, colonial, and national states in the region, and the multiple claims for legal and political sovereignty that they spawned. Of course, interlacing these questions of sovereignty, particularly in this context, as the essays show, is a further set of questions organized around the various forms of power that both these new states and these new sciences exercised. We could say, therefore, that collectively these essays reflect upon the coterminous rise of epistemic, material, and political orders in the region, and that, in the process, they contribute to our understanding of the ideas and practices claimed on behalf of both "science" and the "state."

En las últimas décadas el derecho ha asistido una serie de cambios en los ordenamientos jurídicos, principalmente en aquellos que adoptan el sistema del civil law. Esos cambios, que culminaran en la formación del movimiento conocido por neoconstitucionalismo, constitucionalismo contemporáneo o postpositivismo acabo por repercutir en una serie de temas centrales de la teoría jurídica. Esa investigación buscará analizar esos cambios ocurridos a partir de tres perspectivas principales: a) la teoría del derecho, de modo a verificar la lógica de ese nuevo modelo jurídico y su compatibilidad con el positivismo jurídico; b) la teoría democrática, con fines de analizar como el protagonismo judicial repercute en el método democrático de toma de decisiones y, finalmente; c) en la teoría de la norma, con el objetivo de hacer un análisis más profundizada sobre el funcionamiento de reglas y principios en los sistemas jurídicos actuales. Tal análisis tiene como objetivo proporcionar bases para el estudio de los derechos sociales prestacionales, los cuales son derechos que reproducen en su complejo proceso de aplicación todas las alteraciones sistémicas traídas por el neoconstitucionalismo. Con eso, procuraremos ofertar más elementos para un análisis de las diversas formas de aplicación de esos derechos encontradas en diferentes ordenamientos jurídicos. __________________________________________ In the last decades is being possible to verify important changes inside legal systems, mostly on systems that follow the civil law system. Those changes have resulted in the creation of a law doctrine known by neoconstitucionalism, contemporary constitucionalism or postpositivism. On the other way can be also said that this theory has caused many changes in central themes of law theory. Due to it, this research wants to analyze those changes from three different perspectives: a) theory of law, to verify the logic presented by this new law model and it's compatibility with positivism; b) democratic theory, to analyze how the judge's activism can affect in the conception of democracy, and finally; c) normative theory, to make clear some points about the functions ruled by principles and rules in contemporary law systems. This analysis intends to clear some important points to study social rights, mostly those that involve material goods. Those rights reproduce in its complex application process, all the changes happened in the system brought by neoconstitucionalismo. Through this perspective, we intend to offer more elements to explain the different applications those rights have had in different legal systems.

In the article the author investigates the problems of civil law regulation of passenger transportation in the aspect of providing passenger rights. Right is characterized by a new wave of popularity of "natural law", a liberal and anthropological concept. It criticizes the theory of positivism as antagonistic to natural human rights.The author, studying the specifics of transport activity (activity of transportation of passengers by various modes of transport), concludes that the complexity of choosing one of the proposed concepts in civil law for the provision of passenger rights is due to a number of factors. Among them: historical traditions and technological features of operation of various types of transport; the specifics of the legal relationship between the carrier and the passenger; the need to secure the rights of the "weak side of the contract (passenger); use of the design of a "public contract" to regulate relations between carriers and passengers; use of means of public legal influence to ensure the balance of the legal status of the carrier and passenger; the orientation of "private law" to the enjoyment of human rights; application of transport and "consumer law".In the course of the analysis, the author concludes that the modern concept of civil law is and should be the concept of "private law". "Private Law" includes a system of complex relationships of various elements, orientations, means of influencing civil legal relations. Its components are the theory of natural law, positive law, utilitarianism, liberalism, and others. This suggests that it is a "synthetic" concept that recognizes the necessary and possible state influence on market relations in a developed civilized civil society, the existence of which is possible only in a democratic, rule-of-law state.Empowering the state to ensure human rights through regulation of legal relationships should not be considered a concession to the ideas of liberalism. On the contrary, the function of the state should be to create conditions for ensuring equal opportunities for all participants in civil legal relations (in the context of the contract of carriage of a passenger - the provision of passenger rights), the realization of their freedoms.Ensure the realization and protection of passenger rights on the basis of the ideas of freedom, justice, security, priority of human rights is possible only by consolidating them in the legislation. Only legislation is a necessary element of a mechanism for legal regulation of legal relations, which contains the necessary levers to ensure the rights of the passenger. Legislation regulates legal relations and forms a market environment and the possibility of using state means of coercion in relation to offenders.Consequently, the concepts of liberalism, utilitarianism, normality, natural law, anthropological approach should be used with caution, knowing that "private law" has already absorbed their achievements. At the same time, this does not rule out the perception and the fact that violations of the rights of passengers, especially in the area of carriage by road, are too frequent. This situation is due to the dominance of the ideas of liberalism. This requires improvement of the transport legislation through the legislative formation of the conditions for the operation of the transport market: by regulating the legal status of the participants (especially carriers, and the emphasis on the passenger's right to safety), the legal mode of operation and operation of vehicles, guarantees of passenger rights (including through the system normative fixing of compensation to passengers), clear criteria exemption from liability for non-compliance or violation of performance contractual obligations. ; Исследуются проблемы гражданско-правового регулирования перевозок пассажиров в аспекте обеспечения прав пассажира. Установлено, что вопрос осложняется, с одной стороны, историческими традициями и технологическими особенностями эксплуатации различного вида транспорта, а с другой – потребностью обеспечить права пассажира как потребителя транспортных услуг. Существующий механизм правового регулирования обусловливает одновременное действие гражданского (для которого базовым является принцип свободы договора) и специального потребительского и транспортного законодательства, нормы которого отчасти конкурируют между собой.Анализ правоотношений и законодательства в указанной сфере выявил необходимость осмысления регулирования отношений с точки зрения обеспечения компромисса интересов как пассажира, так и перевозчика.Стремясь способствовать обеспечению прав пассажира, автор критически оценивает существующие доктринальные подходы в исследуемой сфере и отстаивает позицию о необходимости взвешенного использования умеренного антропологического подхода на основе теории утилитаризма. ; Досліджено проблеми цивільно-правового регулювання перевезень пасажирів в аспекті забезпечення їх прав. Питання ускладнюється, з одного боку, історичними традиціями та технологічними особливостями експлуатації різного виду транспорту, з іншого, – потребою забезпечити права пасажира як споживача транспортних послуг. Існуючий механізм правового регулювання зумовлює одночасну дію цивільного (для якого базовим є принцип свободи договору) та спеціального споживчого і транспортного законодавства, норми якого почасти конкурують між собою.Аналіз правовідносин та законодавства в означеній сфері виявив необхідність осмислення необхідності регулювання відносин з точки зору забезпечення компромісу інтересів як пасажира, так і перевізника.Маючи прагнення сприяти забезпеченню прав пасажира, автор критично оцінює існуючі доктринальні підходи в досліджуваній сфері й відстоює позицію щодо необхідності виваженого використання поміркованого антропологічного підходу на основі теорії утилітаризму.

Досліджено проблеми цивільно-правового регулювання перевезень пасажирів в аспекті забезпечення їх прав. Питання ускладнюється, з одного боку, історичними традиціями та технологічними особливостями експлуатації різного виду транспорту, з іншого, – потребою забезпечити права пасажира як споживача транспортних послуг. Існуючий механізм правового регулювання зумовлює одночасну дію цивільного (для якого базовим є принцип свободи договору) та спеціального споживчого і транспортного законодавства, норми якого почасти конкурують між собою.Аналіз правовідносин та законодавства в означеній сфері виявив необхідність осмислення необхідності регулювання відносин з точки зору забезпечення компромісу інтересів як пасажира, так і перевізника.Маючи прагнення сприяти забезпеченню прав пасажира, автор критично оцінює існуючі доктринальні підходи в досліджуваній сфері й відстоює позицію щодо необхідності виваженого використання поміркованого антропологічного підходу на основі теорії утилітаризму. ; Исследуются проблемы гражданско-правового регулирования перевозок пассажиров в аспекте обеспечения прав пассажира. Установлено, что вопрос осложняется, с одной стороны, историческими традициями и технологическими особенностями эксплуатации различного вида транспорта, а с другой – потребностью обеспечить права пассажира как потребителя транспортных услуг. Существующий механизм правового регулирования обусловливает одновременное действие гражданского (для которого базовым является принцип свободы договора) и специального потребительского и транспортного законодательства, нормы которого отчасти конкурируют между собой.Анализ правоотношений и законодательства в указанной сфере выявил необходимость осмысления регулирования отношений с точки зрения обеспечения компромисса интересов как пассажира, так и перевозчика.Стремясь способствовать обеспечению прав пассажира, автор критически оценивает существующие доктринальные подходы в исследуемой сфере и отстаивает позицию о необходимости взвешенного использования умеренного антропологического подхода на основе теории утилитаризма. ; In the article the author investigates the problems of civil law regulation of passenger transportation in the aspect of providing passenger rights. Right is characterized by a new wave of popularity of "natural law", a liberal and anthropological concept. It criticizes the theory of positivism as antagonistic to natural human rights.The author, studying the specifics of transport activity (activity of transportation of passengers by various modes of transport), concludes that the complexity of choosing one of the proposed concepts in civil law for the provision of passenger rights is due to a number of factors. Among them: historical traditions and technological features of operation of various types of transport; the specifics of the legal relationship between the carrier and the passenger; the need to secure the rights of the "weak side of the contract (passenger); use of the design of a "public contract" to regulate relations between carriers and passengers; use of means of public legal influence to ensure the balance of the legal status of the carrier and passenger; the orientation of "private law" to the enjoyment of human rights; application of transport and "consumer law".In the course of the analysis, the author concludes that the modern concept of civil law is and should be the concept of "private law". "Private Law" includes a system of complex relationships of various elements, orientations, means of influencing civil legal relations. Its components are the theory of natural law, positive law, utilitarianism, liberalism, and others. This suggests that it is a "synthetic" concept that recognizes the necessary and possible state influence on market relations in a developed civilized civil society, the existence of which is possible only in a democratic, rule-of-law state.Empowering the state to ensure human rights through regulation of legal relationships should not be considered a concession to the ideas of liberalism. On the contrary, the function of the state should be to create conditions for ensuring equal opportunities for all participants in civil legal relations (in the context of the contract of carriage of a passenger - the provision of passenger rights), the realization of their freedoms.Ensure the realization and protection of passenger rights on the basis of the ideas of freedom, justice, security, priority of human rights is possible only by consolidating them in the legislation. Only legislation is a necessary element of a mechanism for legal regulation of legal relations, which contains the necessary levers to ensure the rights of the passenger. Legislation regulates legal relations and forms a market environment and the possibility of using state means of coercion in relation to offenders.Consequently, the concepts of liberalism, utilitarianism, normality, natural law, anthropological approach should be used with caution, knowing that "private law" has already absorbed their achievements. At the same time, this does not rule out the perception and the fact that violations of the rights of passengers, especially in the area of carriage by road, are too frequent. This situation is due to the dominance of the ideas of liberalism. This requires improvement of the transport legislation through the legislative formation of the conditions for the operation of the transport market: by regulating the legal status of the participants (especially carriers, and the emphasis on the passenger's right to safety), the legal mode of operation and operation of vehicles, guarantees of passenger rights (including through the system normative fixing of compensation to passengers), clear criteria exemption from liability for non-compliance or violation of performance contractual obligations.

Currently, the jurisdictional model of constitutional justice has been universalized and, at the same time, an increase in its functions has been taking place. This has generated the «counter-majority difficulty» of some doctrinal sectors that question an alleged lack of democratic legitimacy of the constitutional justice bodies. Despite the fact that our Constitutional Court originally enjoyed a high degree of acceptance by all (largely due to the fact that it had been established, like the Tribunal of Guarantees of the Second Republic, after a period of dictatorship) in The last decade has had to face the discredit campaign orchestrated against him by the Catalan independence political class, the lack of prudence (also in the writing of private votes) that some magistrates have recently shown, the denaturation that supposed the functions to he attributed by LO 15/2015, the aggravation of some configuration problems that dragged from its origin (among which stands out the collapse that, from his personal and material means, generates the treatment of all the protection resources that, even after of the approval of LO 6/2007, continue to be registered every year at the headquarters of the Court), and the political-legal problems caused by l way of renewal of magistrates. This paper aims to offer a theoretical and comparative perspective of the challenges of constitutional justice at a global level that serves as a basis for reflection on our Constitutional Court and the possible improvements that, after forty years of operation, it might be advisable to bring finished. Specifically, the political function that, in the sense of protection of political minorities and arbitrator of territorial conflicts, corresponds to the supreme constitutional custodian has been emphasized, since the dominant legal positivism in the constitutional sciences of our country has impeded development of constitutional justice or Constitutional Procedural Law as a scientific discipline, causing the absence of a theoretical body that could serve as a legitimating shield for the Constitutional Court against the attacks recently received. Resolving the most internal issues mentioned above is essential to, a posteriori, face the two most important supranational challenges that our constitutional justice system must face: on the one hand, its insertion into a European system of protection of rights , for which he will have to be more favorable to the dialogue with the Court of Justice of the European Union than he has done in the past; on the other, redefine its position as guarantor of rights before the new roles (including control of conventionality) assumed by ordinary judges and courts. Summary: I. INTRODUCTION. II. THE PERMANENT DEBATE ABOUT CONSTITUTIONAL JUSTICE. III. THE TRIUMPH OF THE JURISDICTIONAL MODEL AND THE STRENGTHENING OF THE COMPETENCES OF THE SPANISH CONSTITUTIONAL COURT. IV. THE (OFTEN FORGOTTEN) POLITICAL FUNCTION OF CONSTITUTIONAL JUSTICE. V. THE NEED TO DEVELOP AN AUTHENTIC CONSTITUTIONAL PROCEDURAL LAW IN OUR COUNTRY. VI. CRITICS AND RECELS (INTERNALS AND EXTERNALS) TO THE COURT' ACTIONS. VII. THE PENDING IMPROVEMENTS OF OUR CONSTITUTIONAL JUSTICE SYSTEM. VIII SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE PERMANENT PROBLEM OF AMPARO. IX. CONCLUSIONS ; Actualmente se ha universalizado el modelo jurisdiccional de justicia constitucional y, al mismo tiempo, se ha venido produciendo un incremento de sus funciones. Ello ha generado la «objeción contramayoritaria» de algunos sectores doctrinales que cuestionan una supuesta falta de legitimidad democrática de los órganos de justicia constitucional. A pesar de que nuestro Tribunal Constitucional gozó en origen de un alto grado de aceptación por parte de todos (en buena medida por el hecho de haberse establecido, al igual que el Tribunal de Garantías de la II República, tras un periodo de dictadura) en la última década ha tenido que enfrentar la campaña de descredito orquestada contra él por parte de la clase política independentista catalana, la falta de prudencia (también en la redacción de votos particulares) que recientemente han mostrado algunos magistrados, la desnaturalización que supuso las funciones a él atribuidas por la L.O 15/2015, el agravamiento de algunos problemas de configuración que arrastra desde su origen (entre los que destaca el colapso que, de sus medios personales y materiales, genera el tratamiento de todos los recursos de amparo que, incluso después de la aprobación de la L.O 6/2007, siguen registrándose cada año en la sede del Tribunal), y los problemas político-jurídicos que provoca el modo de renovación de los magistrados. En este trabajo se pretende ofrecer una perspectiva teórica y comparada de los retos de la justicia constitucional a nivel global que sirva como base a una reflexión acerca de nuestro Tribunal Constitucional y de las eventuales mejoras que, tras cuarenta años de funcionamiento, podría ser recomendable llevar a cabo. En concreto, se ha enfatizado la función política que, en el sentido de protección de las minorías políticas y árbitro de los conflictos territoriales le corresponde al supremo custodio constitucional, ya que el positivismo jurídico dominante en las ciencias constitucionales de nuestro país ha impedido el desarrollo de la justicia constitucional o Derecho Procesal Constitucional como disciplina científica, provocando la ausencia de un corpus teórico que pudiera servir de escudo legitimador al Tribunal Constitucional frente a los ataques recientemente recibidos. Resolver las cuestiones de carácter más interno mencionadas resulta imprescindible para, a posteriori, enfrentar los dos retos más importantes de carácter supranacional a los que debe hacer frente nuestro sistema de justicia constitucional: por un lado, su inserción en un sistema europeo de protección de derechos, para lo que deberá mostrarse más favorable al diálogo con el Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea de lo que lo ha hecho en el pasado; por otro, redefinir su posición como garante de derechos ante los nuevos roles (incluido el control de convencionalidad) asumido por los jueces y tribunales ordinarios.

Our aim is to show that the principle of the axiological neutrality of judges and therefore of their judgment, of revolutionary origin, has had the effect of reducing the law to the rank of a pure and simple instrument of political power; a power whose existence – and therefore that of its law (its "positivity") – fundamentally depends on the effective possession of force. That situation is the consequence of an ideological choice which positivism, de facto the dominant theory in law faculties, has endorsed with a pseudo "scientific" validity. As a result, the vast majority of jurists have long since ceased to wonder about "the Legal being". According to jurists, such a question can only be of interest to theoreticians or philosophers whose speculations have in fact nothing to do with the only true law: that produced by the competent political authorities (according to their law), the application of which can be effectively ensured. And for judges, "to interpret the law" can have no other meaning than to apply as faithfully as possible that law which, in passing from its place of political production into their hands, has purportedly been shed of all moral or ethical content. A law which, for those who implement it, is therefore an object void of any mystery, in accordance with what they have been taught, of "immediate evidence". How indeed can we doubt what the law is, whether one is a specialist in law or even a simple litigant, when State standards are omnipresent and followed by indisputable effects on our minds and bodies? That evidence is in fact misleading and prejudicial in that it hinders any critical reflection. For what professional jurists as a whole believe they know, and what judges "hold" in "interpreting the law" is nothing other, under that name, than a political will in its normative form. For it to be otherwise, for the Law to exist as an autonomous object and discipline, judges, who are the only other possible source of normative legitimacy in the citystate, must open up the law and its ...

The author draws a parallel between these phenomena in line with the spiritual and cultural values of Ukrainian people, traditionalism and national law; enunciate scientific provisions for the future development of criminology. The political tendencies of the Ukrainian society with its corruption component that lead to the division of the country, which is increasing every time, are considered. The further development of political criminology is emphasized. It is argued that the criminology of the future on the basis of spiritual values has a right to exist in view of its diversity and socio-cultural ties. Exemption from ideological pressure and state supervision provided an opportunity for innovative development of Ukraine. At the same time, the epoch of pluralism has led to a diversity of political life. A significant part of the citizens of our state sees themselves as a part of the Russian Federation, and another - in Greater Europe. At the same time, the path to federalization is disastrous. It is emphasized the special role of criminological science in modern conditions, the subject field of which is quite wide. Criminology of the future presupposes the need for its development on the basis of the religious component, in particular the development of alternative types of punishment. A historical retrospective of Christianity from ancient times to the present day is conducted in the context of identifying the causes of crime and ways to overcome it. There is a need to develop a new direction of criminological science - the spiritual values concept of legal consciousness as a socio-cultural phenomenon. It is emphasized that humanism and positivism are gradually collapsing and the spiritual and value principles of mankind are coming to the fore in order to preserve life on the planet. According to the author's opinion, the development of this concept of criminology in the context of global challenges and modern realities involves the study of its interdisciplinary links and the introduction of the best global tendencies in the fight against crime in our country.