Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir RF3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 783 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 270 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 375 ha is covered by rock outcrops, 9 ha is covered by mining industry and 129 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 3 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 270 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 28 per cent of area is very shallow (150 cm). About 28 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils and 6 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 28 per cent area is very low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil. About 13 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium content, 337 kg/ha). Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 25 per cent and deficient in an area of 10 per cent in the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc content is deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of 24 per cent of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 1 (<1) Guava - - Maize - 1 (<1) Sapota - - Bajra - 1 (<1) Pomegranate - - Groundnut - - Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - 1 (<1) Amla - - Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - - Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - - Marigold - - Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - - Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-3 is located at North latitude 160 53' 50.107" and 160 52' 9.624" and East longitude 770 11' 26.349" and 770 9' 1.192" covering an area of about 782.52 ha coming under Motanahalli, Hattikuni and Yakkihalli villages of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-3 micro watersheds of Yadgir RF subwatershed, yadgir taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 30 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 16 (53.33%) were marginal, 11 (36.67%) were small and 3 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 65 (54.62%) men and 54 (45.38 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.33, marginal farmers were 3.81 and small farmers were 4.36. Majority of the respondents (41.18%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 56.30 per cent illiterates, 38.65 per cent pre university education and 5.04 per cent attained graduation. About, 86.67 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture. Agriculture was the major occupation for 67.23 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 93.33 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 3.33 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 96.67 per cent possess TV, 86.67 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.00 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.33 per cent possess tractor, 13.33 per cent possess bullock cart and 10.00 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 20.00 per cent possess local cow and 6.67 per cent possess buffalo. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.33, women available in the micro watershed was 1.37, hired labour (men) available was 7.83 and hired labour (women) available was 6.83. Further, 6.67 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 90.91 per cent (24.31 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 9.09 per cent area is irrigated land. 2 There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 16.67 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Paddy, Redgram, Cotton, Jowar and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. Out of the sample households 90.00 percent possessed bank account and 83.33 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 86.67 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 23.08 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 30.77 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank. Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Paddy, Redgram, Cotton, Jowar and Groundnut was Rs.171591.87, 46601.38, 59159.89, 18201.65 and 44055.61 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.70, 1: 1.30, 1: 0.90, 1: 1.80 and 1:1.30 respectively. Further, 33.33 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 23.33 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 90756.67 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 42590.00 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 73 horticulture trees and 3053 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. Regarding marketing channels, 43.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 46.67 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 60.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. Majority of the farmers (53.33%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 90.00 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 30.00 per cent of the households and 70.00 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 103.33 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 103.33 per cent of the households. In the study area, 26.67 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 3.33 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards. 3 Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (96.67%), pulses (96.67%) and oilseeds (50.00%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (90.00%) wild animal menace on farm field (90.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (90.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (90.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (93.33%), high rate of interest on credit (90.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (90.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (40.00%), inadequate extension services (90.00%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (86.67%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hatti-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 461 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soils and four per cent by rock out crops and 150 cm). About 25 per cent of the area is sandy at the surface, 53 per cent loamy and 17 per cent area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface. About 37 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 1 per cent nearly level (0-1%), 84 per cent very gently sloping (1-3%) and 10 per cent has gently sloping (3-5%) lands. An area of about 24 per cent is slightly eroded (e1), 69 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands and 2 per cent is severely (e3) eroded. An area of about 52 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 43 per cent neutral (pH 6.5- 7.3) and 0.75%) in 16 per cent of the soils. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 88 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 7 per cent area of the soils. Entire area in the microwatershed is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in available iron. Entire area in the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area. The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 55(12) Pomegranate 6(1) 158(34) Maize - 55(12) Guava - 153(33) Bajra 6(1) 163(35) Jackfruit 6(1) 147(32) Redgram - 50(11) Jamun - 164(36) Bengal gram - 55(12) Musambi 6(1) 158(34) Groundnut - 318(69) Lime 6(1) 158(34) Sunflower - 50(11) Cashew - 191(41) Cotton - 55(12) Custard apple 6(1) 394(85) Chilli - 44(10) Amla 6(1) 394(85) Tomato - 44(10) Tamarind - 50(11) Drumstick 6(1) 237(51) Marigold - 55(12) Mulberry 6(1) 389(84) Chrysanthemum - 55(12) Mango - 50(11) Jasmine - 44(10) Sapota 6(1) 147(32) Crossandra - 44(10) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Hatti-3 is located at North latitude 160 27' 0.462" and 150 26' 9.452" and East longitude 760 12' 57.153" and 760 10' 46.635" covering an area of about 461.26 ha coming under Hatti, Talakanapura, Kalakeri and Gudashettynala villages of Koppal taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Hatti-3 micro watersheds of Kalakeri sub-watershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 9 (25.71 %) were marginal, 8 (22.86%)were small, 7 (20.00 %) were Semi medium and 5 (14.29 %) were medium farmers. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 101 (58.72%) men and 71 (41.28 %) were women. Majority of the respondents (48.26%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 43.60 per cent illiterates, 0.58 percent were functional literates, 50.59 per cent pre university education and 4.65 per cent attained graduation. About, 91.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 40.12 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 51.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 11.43 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.57 per cent possess TV, 51.43 per cent possess mixer grinder, 80.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 28.57 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent possess bullock cart and 28.57 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 10.94 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.83. Further, 45.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 48.89 per cent (41.57 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 51.11 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 13.00 live bore wells and 2.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2 Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 37.14 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Groundnut, Bajra, Sunflower and Navane and cropping intensity was recorded as 89.78 per cent. Out of the sample households 57.14 percent possessed bank account and 31.43 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 57.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 30.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 55.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank. Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 41.18 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Groundnut, Bajra, Sunflower and Navane was Rs.37090.01, 42821.44, 26730.46, 17849.18 and 28152.30 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.90, 1: 1.70, 1: 1.20, 1: 2.50 and 1:1.00 respectively. Further, 45.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 82985.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 54911.43 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 302 horticulture trees and 135 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1714.29 for land development and Rs. 800.00 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 20.00 per cent depends on own funds. Regarding marketing channels, 57.14 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 25.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 80.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. Majority of the farmers (65.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 62.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 91.43 per cent of the households and 11.43 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 85.71 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. 3 Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (91.43%) and oilseeds (17.14%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (65.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (68.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (37.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (14.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (31.43%), high rate of interest on credit (22.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (20.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (37.14%), inadequate extension services (17.14%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (45.71%), Less rainfall (34.29%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (31.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf5 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 489 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 135 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 353 ha by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 3 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 135 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 19 per cent area is very shallow (0.75%) in organic carbon, 6 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha). About 5 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 23 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha). Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 24 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 2 (<1) Guava - - Maize - 2 (<1) Sapota - - Bajra - 2 (<1) Pomegranate - - Groundnut - 2 (<1) Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - - Amla - 2 (<1) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - 2 (<1) Jamun - - Tomato - 2 (<1) Custard apple - 2 (<1) Brinjal - 2 (<1) Tamarind - - Onion - 2 (<1) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 2 (<1) Marigold - 2 (<1) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 2 (<1) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-5 is located at North latitude 160 53' 42.564" and 160 51' 52.846" and East longitude 770 12' 52.575'' and 770 10' 56.058" covering an area of about 489.15 ha coming unde Motanahalli, Hattikunni and Katagi Shahapura Villages of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-5 micro watersheds of Yadgir Rf subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 38 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-5 micro-watershed among households surveyed 24 (63.16%) were marginal, 6 (15.79%) were small and 6 (15.79 %) were semi medium farmers. 2 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 108 (55.67%) men and 86 (44.33 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.5, marginal farmers were 4.9, small farmers were 5.7 and semi medium farmers were 5.8. Majority of the respondents (45.36%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 26.29 per cent illiterates, 76.80 per cent pre university education and 2.06 per cent attained graduation. About, 94.74 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.63 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 61.86 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 76.32 per cent of the households possess katcha house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 47.37 per cent possess TV, 31.58 per cent possess mixer grinder, 92.11 per cent possess mobile phones and 2.63 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 15.79 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.63 per cent possess tractor, 2.63 per cent possess bullock cart. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 15.79 per cent possess local cow. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.18, women available in the micro watershed was 1.18, hired labour (men) available was 5.24 and hired labour (women) available was 9.87. Further, 15.79 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. In the study area, about 1.55 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 500.00 kms for about 12.00 months. 2 Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 96.20 per cent (37.23 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 3.80 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 1.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 2.63 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundut, Cotton, Paddy and Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 101.31 per cent. Out of the sample households 52.63 percent possessed bank account and 26.32 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 100.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 64.29 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 35.71 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank. Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundut, Cotton, Paddy and Jowar was Rs.31534.77, 131798.00, 50760.68, 81385.82 and 37219.51 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.90, 1: 0.60, 1: 1.02, 1: 0.72 and 1:0.71 respectively. Further, 31.58 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 56444.74 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 28155.26 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 316 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. About 31.58 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7210.53 for land development. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 55.26 per cent depends on own funds and 39.47 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. Regarding marketing channels, 97.37 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants. Further, 2.63 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. Majority of the farmers (60.53%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 76.32 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 92.11 per cent of the households and 7.89 per cent households has LPG connection. 3 Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 92.11 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 47.37 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (73.68%), pulses (68.42%) and oilseeds (47.37%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (89.47%) wild animal menace on farm field (60.53%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (76.32%), inadequacy of irrigation water (60.53%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (89.47%), high rate of interest on credit (89.47%), low price for the agricultural commodities (94.74%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (92.11%), inadequate extension services (34.21%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (86.84%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project.
Tutkimuksen tavoitteena on kuvata ja tarkastella avun hakemista ja yhteydenottoa eri palveluihin silloin, kun avunhakijana on äiti, jolla on samanaikaisesti sekä mielenterveyden vaikeuksia että päihteiden käytöstä juontuvia vaikeuksia eli niin kutsuttu kaksoisdiagnoosi. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on kehittää hoitoa, sillä lisätietoa tarvitaan avun hakemisen esteistä, niiden osatekijöistä ja kiinnittymisestä avun hakemisen vaiheessa. Teoreettinen tieto voi antaa tarvittavaa lisäymmärrystä sekä tuoda näkyväksi ja avata avun hakemisen monimutkaisuutta ja hoitoa, kun äidillä on samanaikaisia mielenterveyden vaikeuksia ja päihteiden käytöstä juontuvia vaikeuksia. Psykiatrisen hoitotyön ja mielenterveyshoitotyön kehittämiseksi tarvitaan uutta tietoa. Erityiset tutkimuskysymykset ovat: 1) Mitä esteitä palveluihin hakeutumisessa on, kun kaksoisdiagnoosiäiti hakee apua? 2) Mistä osatekijöistä palveluissa syntyy kiinnittyminen, kun kaksoisdiagnoosiäiti hakee apua? 3) Kuinka tutkija vaikuttaa aineistoon avoimissa laadullisissa haastatteluissa? ja 4) Mikä on kiinnittymisen ja esteiden teoreettinen rakenne, kun kaksoisdiagnoosiäiti hakee apua? Tutkimuksen taustana on kaksoisdiagnoosiasiakkaiden monimutkainen elämäntilanne. Äidit, joilla on kaksoisdiagnoosi, saattavat päättää olla hakematta ammatillista apua, mikä on ristiriitaista palveluiden järjestämisen näkökulmasta, sillä palveluiden merkittävänä tavoitteena on taata lasten hyvinvointi. Äidin erilaisten vastoinkäymisten historiaan liittyy monia tekijöitä, joiden vuoksi esteitä voi syntyä. Apua haettaessa palvelut voivat tuottaa lisäesteitä. Tutkimuksen kontekstina ja teoreettisena tarkastelukulmana käytetään mielenterveyden mallia, ja mallia avun hakemisen kulttuurisista taustatekijöistä. Avun hakemista ja kiinnittymistä ei ole riittävästi käsitteellistetty psykiatrisessa hoitotyössä ja mielenterveyshoitotyössä. Mielenterveystyön välineistöä voisi edelleen kehittää siten, että poistettaisiin esteitä ja edistettäisiin mukaan ottamista, mikä on tasavertaisten palveluiden järjestämisen tavoitteena. Avun hakemisen monimutkaisuutta tarkasteltiin monimenetelmäisellä lähestymistavalla, jotta voitiin tunnistaa esteiden ja kiinnittymisen osatekijöitä. Aineistona on tapaustutkimus (n = 1), henkilökunnan haastattelut (n = 104) tietyllä maantieteellisellä alueella ja etnografinen kenttätutkimus matalan kynnyksen hoitopaikassa. Kenttätutkimusaineisto sisältää havaintoja, kenttämuistiinpanoja sekä henkilöstön (n = 12) ja asiakkaiden (n = 2) haastattelut. Menetelminä käytettiin Giorgin fenomenologiaa, perinteistä sisällönanalyysia ja Leiningerin etnografista analyysimenetelmää. Tutkimukset syntetisoitiin Noblitin ja Haren meta-etnografialla. Lisäksi toteutettiin kirjallisuuskatsaus sulkeistamisesta avoimissa laadullisissa haastatteluissa. Tuloksena on tilannesidonnainen kiinnittymisen ja esteiden malli kaksoisdiagnoosiäitien avun hakemisesta. Näiden asiakkaiden haavoittunut tausta luo esteitä asiakkaan, henkilökunnan ja palveluiden järjestämisen näkökulmasta. Avun hakeminen voi olla pitkäaikainen prosessi. Se edellyttää asiakkaalta toimintaa, mutta kaikilla asiakkailla ei ole sanallistettavia toiveita ja odotuksia. Kiinnittyminen syntyy äitien kokemuksellisella tasolla ja vaatii erityistä herkkyyttä rajapinnoilla ja niissä pienissä hetkissä eri rajapinnoilla, kun asiakkaat ovat yhteydessä palveluihin. Asiakkaan kokemuksellinen ja tunnetason kiinnittyminen eroavat käytännön tason kiinnittymisestä. Sisäistä kokemuksellista kiinnittymistä kuvataan siemenen metaforalla, jossa tunnustetaan ympäristön ja asiakkaan kokemuksen arvostamisen merkitys. Esteet ja kiinnittyminen syntyvät äitien ja henkilöstön vuorovaikutuksessa ja henkilöstön mahdollisuuksista hyväksyä asiakkaiden tausta. Esteet voivat estää kontaktin syntymisen. Kiinnittyminen on mahdollisesti toistuva vaihe, jossa hoidollista suhdetta ei vielä ole olemassa. Rajapinnat syntyvät kaikista erilaisista yhtymäkohdista ja tilanteista, joissa asiakas kohtaa palvelut. Tässä yhteydessä rajapinnoilla tarkoitetaan sanallisen viestinnän lisäksi myös muita palveluiden ulottuvuuksia, kuten henkilökunnan saatavuutta. Mielenterveystyöhön ehdotetaan yksilöllistä, perheisiin suuntautunutta, tietoon pohjaavaa ja inhimillistä otetta, jota voidaan soveltaa erittäin laajojen rajapintojen ja ajallisesti lyhyiden hetkien keskellä. Tarvitaan riittävää resursointia ja kestävyyttä. Sulkeistamiseen kiinnitettiin erityistä huomiota, sillä tutkijat vaikuttavat tutkimuksen kulkuun. Sulkeistamista eli aikaisemman tiedon poissulkemista tai esiymmärryksen tietoista hyödyntämistä käytetään, jottei osallistujan käsitykseen ilmiöstä vaikutettaisi. Sulkeistaminen ja ei-tuomitseva lähestymistapa lisäävät tieteellisen tutkimuksen täsmällisyyttä ja oikeellisuutta. Tutkijan välineinä toimivat itsetuntemus, herkkyys ja joustavuus. Monimenetelmäinen lähestymistapa toimi siten, että tutkimuskysymyksiin saatiin vastaus ja monimutkaiset todellisen elämän prosessit mallinnettiin vahvistavien vaiheiden kautta. Koko tutkimuksen aikana käytettiin itsekorjaavina välineinä reflektiota ja herkkää reagointia korjausliikkeiden avulla. Metasynteesin vahvuutena lähestymistapana on, että sen avulla voidaan käsitellä monimutkaisia ilmiöitä ja huomioida samalla myös konteksti. Eräs tutkimuksen rajoitus on kerätyn tiedon syvyys, sillä mallin eri käsitteiden ymmärtämiseksi ja vaikuttavien palveluiden kehittämiseksi tarvitaan lisätutkimusta. On keskeistä etsiä ratkaisuja politiikan ja palveluiden järjestämisen tasolla, jotta näitä äitejä voidaan auttaa. Tutkimus osoittaa olennaisen prosessin palveluissa: asiakkaita ei voida auttaa ilman heidän omaa kiinnittymistään ja motivaatiotaan. Eräs syy esteisiin voi olla, että henkilöstö voi vain osittain hyödyntää osaamistaan ja koulutuksensa tuomaa asiantuntijuutta, sillä organisaatioiden toimintatavat ja ammatinharjoittajien aikapaineet voivat synnyttää esteitä. Henkilöstö voisi palauttaa käyttöön eettiset vaatimukset, joissa ennakkoehtona on jokaisen asiakkaan auttaminen. Politiikan tasolla tulee edistää mukaan ottamisen ja osallistumisen välineitä, sillä niiden avulla voidaan edistää positiivista mielenterveyttä. Lisäksi on tärkeää päättää, kenellä on lopullinen vastuu. Tutkimuksen tuloksia voidaan hyödyntää hoitokäytäntöjen parantamisessa, terveys- ja sosiaalipoliittisten linjausten muotoilussa, palveluiden kehittämisessä ja suunnittelussa sekä henkilökunnan ja asiakkaiden kohtaamisissa. ; The aim of this study is to describe and explore help-seeking and connecting with different services by mothers suffering simultaneously from mental health and substance-abuse problems, a so-called dual diagnosis. The purpose of this study is to develop care, for which more knowledge is needed about the elements of engagement and barriers in the help-seeking phase. Theoretical knowledge can explicate and give a better understanding of the complexity of help-seeking and care for mothers with simultaneous mental health and substance-abuse problems. New information is needed for the development of psychiatric and mental health nursing. The specific research questions are as follows: 1) What kinds of barriers exist in regard to help-seeking in the service delivery system when a dually-diagnosed mother is seeking help? 2) What creates engagement in the service delivery system when a dually-diagnosed mother is seeking help? 3) How does the researcher influence data in open-ended qualitative interviews? 4) What is the theoretical structure of engagement and the barriers in help-seeking of dually-diagnosed mothers? The background of the study is comprised of the complex life situations of persons with a dual diagnosis. Mothers with a dual diagnosis may decide not to seek professional help, which is controversial from the service delivery standpoint, as a fundamental goal of the service delivery system is to ensure the well-being of children. A history of adversity reveals many reasons for why barriers may emerge and services designed to assist clients may result in additional barriers to care. The context and the theoretical lens utilised are the model of mental health and the model of cultural determinants of help seeking. Help-seeking and engagement have not been sufficiently conceptualised in psychiatric and mental health nursing. The tools within mental health care could be further developed to eliminate barriers and promote inclusion as the goal of equitable service provision. A multi-methods approach was used to explore the complexity of help-seeking and to identify the elements contributing to barriers and levels of engagement. The materials consist of a case study (n=1), staff interviews (n=104) in a specific geographical area and an ethnographic field study at a low threshold service, including observations, field notes and interviews with staff (n=12) and clients (n=2). The methods utilised are Giorgis's phenomenology, conventional content analysis and Leininger's ethnographic analysis method. The studies were synthesised using Noblit and Hare's meta-ethnography. Additionally, a literature review was conducted on bracketing in open-ended qualitative interviews. The result is a situation-specific model of engagement and the barriers in help-seeking faced by dually-diagnosed mothers. The results show that the vulnerable background of clients creates barriers from the standpoint of the client, staff and service delivery system. Help-seeking may be a long-term process. It requires action on behalf of the client, when not all clients have verbalisable wishes and needs. Engagement is formed at the experiential level of mothers, and it requires specific sensitivity concerning the interfaces and the micro-moments and different interfaces where clients connect with services. The mother's experiential and emotional level of engagement differs from her practical level of engagement. The inner experiential level of engagement is described via the metaphor of a seed recognising the client experience being valued and the importance of the environment. Barriers and engagement are co-created between the mothers and staff and the staff's potential to approve of their client's past. Barriers may operate in such a way that connections cannot be formed. Engagement is the phase when a therapeutic alliance does not yet exist, and it can occur repeatedly. Interfaces consist of all types of boundaries or settings where the client encounters the delivery services. It consists also of interfaces other than just verbal communication, such as the availability of the staff. The tool suggested for mental health care is an individualised, family-oriented, knowledge-based and humane approach within a wide variety of interfaces and micro-moments in time. Sufficient time resources and perseverance are needed. Special attention was given to bracketing, since researchers affect the research process. Bracketing, disclosing the past or using pre-understanding intentionally are implemented not to influence the participant's understanding of the phenomenon. Bracketing and acting non-judgmentally add scientific rigour and validity to any study. The researcher's tools are self-knowledge, sensitivity and reflexivity. The multi-method approach worked such that the research questions could be answered, and complicated real-life processes were modelled via confirmatory steps. Reflection and responsiveness were used throughout the study as self-correcting tools. One strength of the meta-synthesis approach was that it had the ability to handle complex phenomena while not losing sight of the context. A limitation of the study is that the breadth of the data collected necessitates further research to better understand the separate concepts of the model and to enhance the development of effective services. Finding the solutions at a policy and service delivery level to help these mothers is a priority, and the study demonstrates a core process within the services: the clients cannot be helped without their own engagement and motivation. One reason for the presence of barriers may be that the staff can only partly make use of their knowledge and expertise obtained from training, since organisational functioning and the time pressures placed on practitioners may build walls rather than eliminate them. Staff could revisit their ethical requirements as a prerequisite to helping each client. On a policy level, while the tools for enhancing the inclusion and participation of dually-diagnosed mothers as well as their positive mental health do exist, it is central to decide who bears the ultimate responsibility. The study results can be utilised to improve care practice and impact health and social care policy, in the development and planning of services, and in staff encounters with clients.
Few genome-wide association studies (GWAS) account for environmental exposures, like smoking, potentially impacting the overall trait variance when investigating the genetic contribution to obesity-related traits. Here, we use GWAS data from 51,080 current smokers and 190,178 nonsmokers (87% European descent) to identify loci influencing BMI and central adiposity, measured as waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio both adjusted for BMI. We identify 23 novel genetic loci, and 9 loci with convincing evidence of gene-smoking interaction (GxSMK) on obesity-related traits. We show consistent direction of effect for all identified loci and significance for 18 novel and for 5 interaction loci in an independent study sample. These loci highlight novel biological functions, including response to oxidative stress, addictive behaviour, and regulatory functions emphasizing the importance of accounting for environment in genetic analyses. Our results suggest that tobacco smoking may alter the genetic susceptibility to overall adiposity and body fat distribution. ; A full list of acknowledgments appears in the Supplementary Note 4. Co-author A.J.M.d.C. recently passed away while this work was in process. This work was performed under the auspices of the Genetic Investigation of ANthropometric Traits (GIANT) consortium. We acknowledge the Cohorts for Heart and Aging Research in Genomic Epidemiology (CHARGE) Consortium for encouraging CHARGE studies to participate in this effort and for the contributions of CHARGE members to the analyses conducted for this research. Funding for this study was provided by the Aase and Ejner Danielsens Foundation; Academy of Finland (41071, 77299, 102318, 110413, 117787, 121584, 123885, 124243, 124282, 126925, 129378, 134309, 286284); Accare Center for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry; Action on Hearing Loss (G51); Agence Nationale de la 359 Recherche; Agency for Health Care Policy Research (HS06516); ALF/LUA research grant in Gothenburg; ALFEDIAM; ALK-Abelló A/S; Althingi; American Heart Association (13POST16500011); Amgen; Andrea and Charles Bronfman Philanthropies; Ardix Medical; Arthritis Research UK; Association Diabète Risque Vasculaire; Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (241944, 339462, 389875, 389891, 389892, 389927, 389938, 442915, 442981, 496739, 552485, 552498); Avera Institute; Bayer Diagnostics; Becton Dickinson; BHF (RG/14/5/30893); Boston Obesity Nutrition Research Center (DK46200), Bristol-Myers Squibb; British Heart Foundation (RG/10/12/28456, RG2008/08, RG2008/014, SP/04/002); Medical Research Council of Canada; Canadian Institutes for Health Research (FRCN-CCT-83028); Cancer Research UK; Cardionics; Cavadis B.V., Center for Medical Systems Biology; Center of Excellence in Genomics; CFI; CIHR; City of Kuopio; CNAMTS; Cohortes Santé TGIR; Contrat de Projets État-Région; Croatian Science Foundation (8875); Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation; Danish Council for Independent Research (DFF-1333-00124, DFF-1331-00730B); County Council of Dalarna; Dalarna University; Danish Council for Strategic Research; Danish Diabetes Academy; Danish Medical Research Council; Department of Health, UK; Development Fund from the University of Tartu (SP1GVARENG); Diabetes Hilfs- und Forschungsfonds Deutschland; Diabetes UK; Diabetes Research and Wellness Foundation Fellowship; Donald W. Reynolds Foundation; Dr Robert Pfleger-Stiftung; Dutch Brain Foundation; Dutch Diabetes Research Foundation; Dutch Inter University Cardiology Institute; Dutch Kidney Foundation (E033); Dutch Ministry of Justice; the DynaHEALTH action No. 633595, Economic Structure Enhancing Fund of the Dutch Government; Else Kröner-Fresenius-Stiftung (2012_A147, P48/08//A11/08); Emil Aaltonen Foundation; Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam; Erasmus MC and Erasmus University Rotterdam; the Municipality of Rotterdam; Estonian Government (IUT20-60, IUT24-6); Estonian Research Roadmap through the Estonian Ministry of Education and Research (3.2.0304.11-0312); European Research Council (ERC Starting Grant and 323195:SZ-245 50371-GLUCOSEGENES-FP7-IDEAS-ERC); European Regional Development Fund; European Science Foundation (EU/QLRT-2001-01254); European Commission (018947, 018996, 201668, 223004, 230374, 279143, 284167, 305739, BBMRI-LPC-313010, HEALTH-2011.2.4.2-2-EU-MASCARA, HEALTH-2011-278913, HEALTH-2011-294713-EPLORE, HEALTH-F2-2008-201865-GEFOS, HEALTH-F2-2013-601456, HEALTH-F4-2007-201413, HEALTH-F4-2007-201550-HYPERGENES, HEALTH-F7-305507 HOMAGE, IMI/115006, LSHG-CT-2006-018947, LSHG-CT-2006-01947, LSHM-CT-2004-005272, LSHM-CT-2006-037697, LSHM-CT-2007-037273, QLG1-CT-2002-00896, QLG2-CT-2002-01254); Faculty of Biology and Medicine of Lausanne; Federal Ministry of Education and Research (01ZZ0103, 01ZZ0403, 01ZZ9603, 03IS2061A, 03ZIK012); Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; Fédération Française de Cardiologie; Finnish Cultural Foundation; Finnish Diabetes Association; Finnish Foundation of Cardiovascular Research; Finnish Heart Association; Fondation Leducq; Food Standards Agency; Foundation for Strategic Research; French Ministry of Research; FRSQ; Genetic Association Information Network (GAIN) of the Foundation for the NIH; German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF, 01ER1206, 01ER1507); GlaxoSmithKline; Greek General Secretary of Research and Technology; Göteborg Medical Society; Health and Safety Executive; Healthcare NHS Trust; Healthway; Western Australia; Heart Foundation of Northern Sweden; Helmholtz Zentrum München—German Research Center for Environmental Health; Hjartavernd; Ingrid Thurings Foundation; INSERM; InterOmics (PB05 MIUR-CNR); INTERREG IV Oberrhein Program (A28); Interuniversity Cardiology Institute of the Netherlands (ICIN, 09.001); Italian Ministry of Health (ICS110.1/RF97.71); Italian Ministry of Economy and Finance (FaReBio di Qualità); Marianne and Marcus Wallenberg Foundation; the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports, the Netherlands; J.D.E. and Catherine T, MacArthur Foundation Research Networks on Successful Midlife Development and Socioeconomic Status and Health; Juho Vainio Foundation; Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International; KfH Stiftung Präventivmedizin e.V.; King's College London; Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation; Kuopio University Hospital; Kuopio, Tampere and Turku University Hospital Medical Funds (X51001); La Fondation de France; Leenaards Foundation; Lilly; LMUinnovativ; Lundberg Foundation; Magnus Bergvall Foundation; MDEIE; Medical Research Council UK (G0000934, G0601966, G0700931, MC_U106179471, MC_UU_12019/1); MEKOS Laboratories; Merck Santé; Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports, The Netherlands; Ministry of Cultural Affairs of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; Ministry of Economic Affairs, The Netherlands; Ministry of Education and Culture of Finland (627;2004-2011); Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, The Netherlands; Ministry of Science, Education and Sport in the Republic of Croatia (108-1080315-0302); MRC centre for Causal Analyses in Translational Epidemiology; MRC Human Genetics Unit; MRC-GlaxoSmithKline pilot programme (G0701863); MSD Stipend Diabetes; National Institute for Health Research; Netherlands Brain Foundation (F2013(1)-28); Netherlands CardioVascular Research Initiative (CVON2011-19); Netherlands Genomics Initiative (050-060-810); Netherlands Heart Foundation (2001 D 032, NHS2010B280); Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMW) (56-464-14192, 60-60600-97-118, 100-001-004, 261-98-710, 400-05-717, 480-04-004, 480-05-003, 481-08-013, 904-61-090, 904-61-193, 911-11-025, 985-10-002, Addiction-31160008, BBMRI–NL 184.021.007, GB-MaGW 452-04-314, GB-MaGW 452-06-004, GB-MaGW 480-01-006, GB-MaGW 480-07-001, GB-MW 940-38-011, Middelgroot-911-09-032, NBIC/BioAssist/RK 2008.024, Spinozapremie 175.010.2003.005, 175.010.2007.006); Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam; NHS Foundation Trust; National Institutes of Health (1RC2MH089951, 1Z01HG000024, 24152, 263MD9164, 263MD821336, 2R01LM010098, 32100-2, 32122, 32108, 5K99HL130580-02, AA07535, AA10248, AA11998, AA13320, AA13321, AA13326, AA14041, AA17688, AG13196, CA047988, DA12854, DK56350, DK063491, DK078150, DK091718, DK100383, DK078616, ES10126, HG004790, HHSN268200625226C, HHSN268200800007C, HHSN268201200036C, HHSN268201500001I, HHSN268201100046C, HHSN268201100001C, HHSN268201100002C, HHSN268201100003C, HHSN268201100004C, HHSN271201100004C, HL043851, HL45670, HL080467, HL085144, HL087660, HL054457, HL119443, HL118305, HL071981, HL034594, HL126024, HL130114, KL2TR001109, MH66206, MH081802, N01AG12100, N01HC55015, N01HC55016, N01C55018, N01HC55019, N01HC55020, N01HC55021, N01HC55022, N01HC85079, N01HC85080, N01HC85081, N01HC85082, N01HC85083, N01HC85086, N01HC95159, N01HC95160, N01HC95161, N01HC95162, N01HC95163, N01HC95164, N01HC95165, N01HC95166, N01HC95167, N01HC95168, N01HC95169, N01HG65403, N01WH22110, N02HL6‐4278, N01-HC-25195, P01CA33619, R01HD057194, R01HD057194, R01AG023629, R01CA63, R01D004215701A, R01DK075787, R01DK062370, R01DK072193, R01DK075787, R01DK089256, R01HL53353, R01HL59367, R01HL086694, R01HL087641, R01HL087652, R01HL103612, R01HL105756, R01HL117078, R01HL120393, R03 AG046389, R37CA54281, RC2AG036495, RC4AG039029, RPPG040710371, RR20649, TW008288, TW05596, U01AG009740, U01CA98758, U01CA136792, U01DK062418, U01HG004402, U01HG004802, U01HG007376, U01HL080295, UL1RR025005, UL1TR000040, UL1TR000124, UL1TR001079, 2T32HL007055-36, T32GM074905, HG002651, HL084729, N01-HC-25195, UM1CA182913); NIH, National Institute on Aging (Intramural funding, NO1-AG-1-2109); Northern Netherlands Collaboration of Provinces; Novartis Pharma; Novo Nordisk; Novo Nordisk Foundation; Nutricia Research Foundation (2016-T1); ONIVINS; Parnassia Bavo group; Pierre Fabre; Province of Groningen; Päivikki and Sakari Sohlberg Foundation; Påhlssons Foundation; Paavo Nurmi Foundation; Radboud Medical Center Nijmegen; Research Centre for Prevention and Health, the Capital Region of Denmark; the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly; Research into Ageing; Robert Dawson Evans Endowment of the Department of Medicine at Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center; Roche; Royal Society; Russian Foundation for Basic Research (NWO-RFBR 047.017.043); Rutgers University Cell and DNA Repository (NIMH U24 MH068457-06); Sanofi-Aventis; Scottish Government Health Directorates, Chief Scientist Office (CZD/16/6); Siemens Healthcare; Social Insurance Institution of Finland (4/26/2010); Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; Société Francophone du 358 Diabète; State of Bavaria; Stiftelsen för Gamla Tjänarinnor; Stockholm County Council (560183, 592229); Strategic Cardiovascular and Diabetes Programmes of Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm County Council; Stroke Association; Swedish Diabetes Association; Swedish Diabetes Foundation (2013-024); Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation (20120197, 20150711); Swedish Research Council (0593, 8691, 2012-1397, 2012-1727, and 2012-2215); Swedish Society for Medical Research; Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics; Swiss National Science Foundation (3100AO-116323/1, 31003A-143914, 33CSCO-122661, 33CS30-139468, 33CS30-148401, 51RTP0_151019); Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation; Technology Foundation STW (11679); The Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Vlaanderen, Ministry of the Flemish Community (G.0880.13, G.0881.13); The Great Wine Estates of the Margaret River Region of Western Australia; Timber Merchant Vilhelm Bangs Foundation; Topcon; Tore Nilsson Foundation; Torsten and Ragnar Söderberg's Foundation; United States – Israel Binational Science Foundation (Grant 2011036), Umeå University; University Hospital of Regensburg; University of Groningen; University Medical Center Groningen; University of Michigan; University of Utrecht; Uppsala Multidisciplinary Center for Advanced Computational Science (UPPMAX) (b2011036); Velux Foundation; VU University's Institute for Health and Care Research; Västra Götaland Foundation; Wellcome Trust (068545, 076113, 079895, 084723, 088869, WT064890, WT086596, WT098017, WT090532, WT098051, 098381); Wissenschaftsoffensive TMO; Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation; and Åke Wiberg Foundation. The views expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); the National Institutes of Health (NIH); or the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ; Peer Reviewed
L'analisi condotta nel presente studio si è sviluppata descrivendo innanzi tutto la procedura di Valutazione di Impatto Ambientale. La VIA si basa sul principio dell'azione preventiva, in base al quale la migliore politica ambientale consiste nel prevenire gli effetti negativi legati alla realizzazione dei progetti anziché combatterne successivamente i risultati. La struttura della procedura viene concepita per dare informazioni sulle conseguenze ambientali di un'azione, prima che la decisione venga adottata, per cui si definisce nella sua evoluzione come uno strumento che cerca di introdurre a monte della progettazione un nuovo approccio che possa influenzare il processo decisionale negli ambienti imprenditoriali e politici, nonché come una procedura che possa guidare il processo stesso in maniera partecipata con la popolazione dei territori interessati. Obiettivo del processo di VIA è evitare, ridurre e mitigare gli impatti secondo il concetto di Sviluppo Sostenibile, definito come "uno sviluppo che soddisfi le nostre esigenze d'oggi senza privare le generazioni future della possibilità di soddisfare le proprie". La VIA nasce quindi come strumento per individuare, descrivere e valutare gli effetti diretti ed indiretti di un progetto sulla salute umana e su alcune componenti ambientali quali la fauna, la flora, il suolo, le acque, l'aria, il clima, il paesaggio e il patrimonio culturale e sull'interazione fra questi fattori e componenti. Essa si prefigge di proteggere la salute umana, contribuire con un migliore ambiente alla qualità della vita, provvedere al mantenimento delle specie e conservare la capacità di riproduzione dell'ecosistema che è una risorsa essenziale per la vita. In questo lavoro di tesi l'attenzione si è focalizzata sulla risorsa suolo e come essa viene trattata negli studi di impatto ambientale. A tale scopo, nel capitolo III è stato approfondito il problema del consumo di suolo in Italia attraverso una ricerca promossa dall'Università dell'Aquila. L'esito degli studi effettuati ci mostra come in Italia sia in atto un consumo di suolo di notevole intensità che incide in termini di erosione diretta particolarmente sugli agro-ecosistemi, ma indirettamente crea disturbi e minacce su un'altra grande quantità e tipologia di ambienti naturali a causa dell'enorme frammentazione generata dagli interventi di urbanizzazione e, in particolare modo, dalle necessarie infrastrutture di collegamento. La perdita di suolo, in particolare quello agricolo, è stata maggiore dell'aumento del suolo urbanizzato a seguito della disseminazione insediativa (sprawl), che ha determinato una sottrazione di superfici agricole per una nuova urbanizzazione dispersa e a bassa densità che ha richiesto di conseguenza lo sviluppo di una diffusa rete di strade ed infrastrutture. La riduzione maggiore di terreno agricolo riguarda la superficie a seminativi e i prati permanenti, ossia i due ambiti da cui provengono i principali prodotti di base dell'alimentazione degli Italiani: pane, pasta, riso, verdure, carne, latte. Questo porta l'Italia ad un'insufficienza della produzione agricola per il proprio fabbisogno alimentare e quindi ad un aumento della dipendenza dalle importazioni. Lo studio è proseguito focalizzando l'attenzione sugli studi di VIA per la realizzazione delle Infrastrutture stradali di trasporto con particolare riferimento al tema del consumo di suolo e della salvaguardia delle risorse agricole. Il settore delle infrastrutture riveste un ruolo strategico e fondamentale per lo sviluppo economico nazionale ma è altresì uno dei settori che sicuramente esercita le più forti pressioni sulle risorse ambientali e naturali, capace di modificare totalmente interi ambiti territoriali con effetti sul consumo di suolo, sulla frammentazione del territorio e sull'intero contesto ambientale e paesaggistico. Sono stati analizzati i seguenti progetti: 1. Riqualifica con caratteristiche autostradali della SP46 Rho - Monza (Regione Lombardia) 2. Autostrada A4-A5 Torino Quincinetto - Ivrea - Santhià – Nodo Idraulico di Ivrea (Regione Piemonte) 3. Autostrada A1 – Adeguamento tratto di attraversamento appenninico Sasso Marconi - Barberino del Mugello (Regione Emilia Romagna) Dall'analisi dei tre casi emerge che esiste sempre un "fine superiore" che giustifica il sacrificio di porzioni di territorio agricolo (e fertile) e, di conseguenza, le eventuali attività agricole ivi presenti. In particolare, nei quadri di pianificazione, regionali e provinciali, ecc., gli obiettivi del miglioramento dei flussi di traffico, della mobilità, ecc. sono ancora "vincenti" nei confronti della salvaguardia dei suoli agricoli e della sicurezza alimentare finendo per avallare la dipendenza nazionale al trasporto su gomma. Aspetto rilevante emerso da quest'analisi è che il consumo di suolo non è molto considerato neppure in termini quantitativi e solo in alcuni casi ci si preoccupa di determinare l'occupazione effettiva da parte di nuove infrastrutture viarie, tralasciando o non considerando la inevitabile conseguenza della perdita o riduzione delle funzioni agricole dei terreni circostanti. Per una corretta analisi degli impatti reali del consumo di suolo con riferimento, ad esempio, alla produttività agricola, è necessario avere una visione più ampia che oltre al consumo di suolo effettivo, deve considerare anche quella parte di consumo qui definita "sommersa" e che si riferisce alla perdita di funzionalità per i terreni agricoli limitrofi (contigui) alle nuove opere infrastrutturali realizzate. Co questo si vuole sottolineare che, oltre alla singola porzione di terreno occupata, devono essere prese in considerazione le conseguenze e le perdite indirette che si generano nelle aree limitrofe. Per consumo sommerso s'intende quindi l'individuazione e la quantificazione delle aree che vengono a perdere o ridurre le loro funzioni originarie a causa del contatto con aree interessate in modo diretto dal consumo di suolo. Il presente lavoro si è posto l'obiettivo di proporre una metodologia di stima del consumo sommerso da utilizzare nelle procedure di VIA, in modo da fornire informazioni più adeguate e rispondenti riguardo l'effettivo consumo di suolo. Per la messa a punto della metodologia è stato analizzato il caso studio del progetto Sistema Tangenziale di Lucca. Per effettuare lo studio sul consumo di suolo è stato utilizzato il software Q-GIS (Geographical Information System) che ha consentito sovrapposizioni di strati informativi e , con operazioni di overlay, estrapolare i dati dalle cui elaborazioni è stato ricavato il consumo effettivo e il consumo sommerso di suolo con riferimento agli appezzamenti condotti da aziende agricole professionali. La proposta metodologica per la rilevazione del consumo sommerso di suolo è strutturata su due livelli di analisi. Il primo livello riguarda gli impatti sui terreni agricoli, cioè sulle singole particelle ARTEA; mentre il secondo rileva gli impatti sulle unità produttive, cioè sulle aziende agricole. Per quanto riguarda il primo livello di analisi, ovvero l'impatto sui terreni agricoli, è stata fatta una classificazione in termini dimensionali che ne determina la specifica funzionalità. La classificazione in base alla superficie S delle particelle è la seguente: • S 4000 mq: particelle adatte allo svolgimento di attività agricola professionale Le 269 particelle attraversate dal nuovo asse viario sono state quindi raggruppate per classi di superficie e per percentuale di impatto ed è stato notato che la maggior parte di esse si trova nella fascia con finalità intermedie, sia hobbistiche che professionali per l'agricoltura. I singoli terreni agricoli possono essere impattati in modi diversi dalla nuova infrastruttura prevista. Il primo modo prevede una detrazione di suolo tale da mantenere la precedente funzionalità, quindi la particella permane nella classe originaria. Il secondo modo implica invece una perdita di terreno agricolo causa di declassamento, ad esempio una particella con una superficie originaria compresa tra i 1000 e i 4000 mq dopo il passaggio della Tangenziale avrà una porzione residua di suolo inferiore ai 1000 mq e quindi subirà un passaggio da finalità intermedie a hobbistiche. Il terzo e più grave modo di impatto conduce alla perdita completa di funzionalità, si ha quindi un consumo di suolo così elevato da non permettere alcun tipo di attività. Le tre classi di terreni agricoli sono state analizzate considerando i tre modi di impatto descritti. Il secondo livello di analisi riguarda l'impatto sulle aziende agricole, classificate per superficie e per ordinamento produttivo. Le aziende agricole della Piana di Lucca che vedranno sottratti parte dei loro terreni per la costruzione del nuovo asse viario sono 98, distribuite su 269 particelle. Per una stessa azienda, infatti, vi possono perciò essere più particelle colpite. Sono state analizzate, quindi, le situazioni di specifiche aziende colpite in maniera significativa dalla realizzazione dell'infrastruttura e che hanno cioè registrato un'elevata frammentazione e/o un consumo di suolo notevole. In particolare sono confluite nel conteggio di consumo sommerso quelle porzioni di terreno che, in seguito al passaggio del Sistema Tangenziale, avranno una superficie inferiore agli 0,05 ettari. Le aziende agricole con gli impatti più rilevanti sono quelle che hanno una superficie assai ridotta, compresa tra 1 e 3 ettari per sei di esse e addirittura inferiore a 1 ettaro per quattro di esse. Siamo quindi in presenza di aziende che, anche in assenza di consumo sommerso, presentano un impatto molto significativo che può metterne in discussione la loro sopravvivenza. Per le aziende di dimensioni superiori l'impatto dipende dalla loro superficie complessiva ma anche dalla dispersione sul territorio. Ci sono infatti casi di aziende costituite da singole particelle sparse, la cui frammentazione determina un danno rilevante nonostante l'estensione totale dell'azienda ne garantisca la sopravvivenza. Infine si può affermare che la quasi totalità delle aziende che subiscono un impatto rilevante hanno territori agricoli adibiti a seminativi; ciò conferma la tendenza nazionale di riduzione maggiore di quella parte di terreno agricolo da cui provengono i principali prodotti di base dell'alimentazione degli Italiani. È importante sottolineare che alcuni passaggi operativi per la stima del consumo di suolo sono stati condotti "a mano", portando ad inevitabili errori. I dati ottenuti non pretendono quindi di essere numericamente corretti ma lo scopo è quello di illustrare una metodologia procedurale per una valutazione di impatto che dia una stima del danno quanto più realistica possibile. Il metodo proposto ha quindi permesso di evidenziare efficacemente il consumo di suolo sommerso, la perdita di funzioni produttive dei terreni agricoli e l'impatto sulle imprese agricole. La stima del danno tuttavia è esclusivamente di tipo qualitativo, motivo per cui, un possibile miglioramento della metodologia proposta, potrebbe essere l'introduzione di un indice che consenta una valutazione di carattere quantitativo. Nell'analisi condotta è stato fondamentale l'uso di un software gis (Q-GIS) che ha permesso di valutare in modo "automatico" i diversi impatti utilizzando i dataset (Catasto, Artea, uso suolo, ortofoto, ecc.) disponibili. Per concludere possiamo quindi affermare che la metodologia proposta potrebbe essere integrata a procedure di VIA per le infrastrutture stradali.
During the years, neuroprosthetic applications have obtained a great deal of attention by the international research, especially in the bioengineering field, thanks to the huge investments on several proposed projects funded by the political institutions which consider the treatment of this particular disease of fundamental importance for the global community. The aim of these projects is to find a possible solution to restore the functionalities lost by a patient subjected to an upper limb amputation trying to develop, according to physiological considerations, a communication link between the brain in which the significant signals are generated and a motor prosthesis device able to perform the desired action. Moreover, the designed system must be able to give back to the brain a sensory feedback about the surrounding world in terms of pressure or temperature acquired by tactile biosensors placed at the surface of the cybernetic hand. It in fact allows to execute involuntarymovements when for example the armcomes in contact with hot objects. The development of such a closed-loop architecture involves the need to address some critical issues which depend on the chosen approach. Several solutions have been proposed by the researches of the field, each one differing with respect to where the neural signals are acquired, either at the central nervous systemor at the peripheral one,most of themfollowing the former even that the latter is always considered by the amputees amore natural way to handle the artificial limb. This research work is based on the use of intrafascicular electrodes directly implanted in the residual peripheral nerves of the stump which represents a good compromise choice in terms of invasiveness and selectivity extracting electroneurographic (ENG) signals from which it is possible to identify the significant activity of a quite limited number of neuronal cells. In the perspective of the hardware implementation of the resulting solution which can work autonomously without any intervention by the amputee in an adaptive way according to the current characteristics of the processed signal and by using batteries as power source allowing portability, it is necessary to fulfill the tight constraints imposed by the application under consideration involved in each of the various phases which compose the considered closed-loop system. Regarding to the recording phase, the implementation must be able to remove the unwanted interferences mainly due to the electro-stimulations of themuscles placed near the electrodes featured by an order of magnitude much greater in comparison to that of the signals of interest amplifying the frequency components belonging to the significant bandwidth, and to convert them with a high resolution in order to obtain good performance at the next processing phases. To this aim, a recording module for peripheral neural signals will be presented, based on the use of a sigma-delta architecture which is composed by two main parts: an analog front-end stage for neural signal acquisition, pre-filtering and sigma-delta modulation and a digital unit for sigma-delta decimation and system configuration. Hardware/software cosimulations exploiting the Xilinx System Generator tool in Matlab Simulink environment and then transistor-level simulations confirmed that the system is capable of recording neural signals in the order of magnitude of tens of μV rejecting the huge low-frequency noise due to electromyographic interferences. The same architecture has been then exploited to implement a prototype of an 8-channel implantable electronic bi-directional interface between the peripheral nervous system and the neuro-controlled hand prosthesis. The solution includes a custom designed Integrated Circuit (0.35μm CMOS technology), responsible of the signal pre-filtering and sigma-delta modulation for each channel and the neural stimuli generation (in the opposite path) based on the directives sent by a digital control systemmapped on a low-cost Xilinx FPGA Spartan-3E 1600 development board which also involves the multi-channel sigma-delta decimation with a high-order band-pass filter as first stage in order to totally remove the unwanted interferences. In this way, the analog chip can be implanted near the electrodes thanks to its limited size avoiding to add a huge noise to theweak neural signals due to longwires connections and to cause heat-related infections, shifting the complexity to the digital part which can be hosted on a separated device in the stump of the amputeewithout using complex laboratory instrumentations. The system has been successfully tested from the electrical point of view and with in-vivo experiments exposing good results in terms of output resolution and noise rejection even in case of critical conditions. The various output channels at the Nyquist sampling frequency coming from the acquisition system must be processed in order to decode the intentions of movements of the amputee, applying the correspondent electro-mechanical stimulation in input to the cybernetic hand in order to perform the desired motor action. Different decoding approaches have been presented in the past, the majority of them were conceived starting from the relative implementation and performance evaluation of their off-line version. At the end of the research, it is necessary to develop these solutions on embedded systems performing an online processing of the peripheral neural signals. However, it is often possible only by using complex hardware platforms clocked at very high operating frequencies which are not be compliant with the low-power requirements needed to allow portability for the prosthetic device. At present, in fact, the important aspect of the real-time implementation of sophisticated signal processing algorithms on embedded systems has been often overlooked, notwithstanding the impact that limited resources of the former may have on the efficiency/effectiveness of any given algorithm. In this research work it has been addressed the optimization of a state-of-the-art algorithmfor PNS signals decoding that is a step forward for its real-time, full implementation onto a floating-point Digital Signal Processor (DSP). Beyond low-level optimizations, different solutions have been proposed at an high level in order to find the best trade-off in terms of effectiveness/efficiency. A latency model, obtained through cycle accurate profiling of the different code sections, has been drawn in order to perform a fair performance assessment. The proposed optimized real-time algorithmachieves up to 96% of correct classification on real PNS signals acquired through tf-LIFE electrodes on animals, and performs as the best off-line algorithmfor spike clustering on a synthetic cortical dataset characterized by a reasonable dissimilarity between the spikemorphologies of different neurons. When the real-time requirements are joined to the fulfilment of area and power minimization for implantable/portable applications, such as for the target neuroprosthetic devices, only custom VLSI implementations can be adopted. In this case, every part of the algorithmshould be carefully tuned. To this aim, the first preprocessing stage of the decoding algorithmbased on the use of aWavelet Denoising solution able to remove also the in-band noise sources has been deeply analysed in order to obtain an optimal hardware implementation. In particular, the usually overlooked part related to threshold estimation has been evaluated in terms of required hardware resources and functionality, exploiting the commercial Xilinx System Generator tool for the design of the architecture and the co-simulation. The analysis has revealed how the widely used Median Absolute Deviation (MAD) could lead o hardware implementations highly inefficient compared to other dispersion estimators demonstrating better scalability, relatively to the specific application. Finally, two different hardware implementations of the reference decoding algorithm have been presented highlighting pros and cons of each one of them. Firstly, a novel approach based on high-level dataflow description and automatic hardware generation is presented and evaluated on the on-line template-matching spike sorting algorithmwhich represents the most complex processing stage. It starts from the identification of the single kernels with the greater computational complexity and using their dataflow description to generate the HDL implementation of a coarse-grained reconfigurable global kernel characterized by theminimumresources in order to reduce the area and the energy dissipation for the fulfilment of the low-power requirements imposed by the application. Results in the best case have revealed a 71%of area saving compared tomore traditional solutions,without any accuracy penalty. With respect to single kernels execution, better latency performance are achievable stillminimizing the number of adopted resources. The performance in terms of latency can also be improved by tuning the implemented parallelismin the light of a defined number of channels and real-time constraints, by using more than one reconfigurable global kernel in order that they can be exploited to perform the same or different kernels at the same time in a parallel way, due to the fact that each one can execute the relative processing only in a sequential way. For this reason, a second FPGA-based prototype has been proposed based on the use of aMulti-Processor System-on-Chip (MPSoC) embedded architecture. This prototype is capable of respecting the real-time constraints posed by the application when clocked at less than 50 MHz, in comparison to 300 MHz of the previous DSP implementation. Considering that the application workload is extremely data dependent and unpredictable due to the sparsity of the neural signals, the architecture has to be dimensioned taking into account critical worst-case operating conditions in order to always ensure the correct functionality. To compensate the resulting overprovisioning of the system architecture, a software-controllable power management based on the use of clock gating techniques has been integrated in order tominimize the dynamic power consumption of the resulting solution. Summarizing, this research work can be considered a sort of proof-of-concept for the proposed techniques considering all the design issues which characterize each stage of the closed-loop system in the perspective of a portable low-power real-time hardware implementation of the neuro-controlled prosthetic device.
L'impostazione generale della presente ricerca si sostanzia in una lenta ricostruzione del tema delle future generazione, dal loro studio prettamente teorico-filosofico alla trasposizione nel campo del diritto passando attraverso il percorso geo-politico della loro giuridificazione. Dal momento infatti in cui il termine generazione e la sua semantica rilevante sono fuoriusciti dall'indiscriminato del linguaggio ordinario per entrare nella cultura giuridica si è creato uno spazio normativo nuovo e si è dato l'avvio ad un processo che possiamo definire di Verrechtlichung. Ovvero ad una operazione normativa di "incorporazione" attraverso cui il diritto decostruisce l'originario significato di" future generazioni" per tradurlo in un lessico per sé rilevante e perciò governabile. La paradossalità però risiede nel fatto che ogni cambiamento all'interno di un sistema non si pone mai come neutro ma crea sempre problemi di compatibilità , nel nostro caso col diritto e con le classiche categorie giuridiche. Da qui la necessità : A) da un lato di seguire le tracce che il diritto ed i suoi testi hanno lentamente seminato per ricomporre una sorta di percorso geopolitico (che va dalle prime Costituzioni illuministiche ai testi legislativi più attuali, dalle Carte, Dichiarazioni, Convenzioni, Trattati ai riconoscimenti normativi delle generazioni future a diversi livelli ordinamentali ) capace di mostrare le forme, i luoghi ed i contenuti propri della giuridificazione. Attraverso una griglia cronologicamente orientata del materiale normativo Internazionale, Comunitario, Costituzionale, Statale, Infra-statuale è stato possibile allargare la nostra prospettiva oltre la direzione temporale, dentro uno spazio stratificato, pluridimensionale che il diritto, forse per primo, ha saputo racchiudere. B) di ricomporre, o almeno tentare di farlo, le discrasie esito di compiuti o mancati esercizi di compatibilità. Mi riferisco a problemi di : Definizione /identità. Le molteplici teorizzazioni dell'identità/soggettività condividono tutte l'intensione di definire quelli delle future generazioni: Diritti, senza prendere coscienza del fatto che se pure ci si riuscisse non si uscirebbe da alcune questioni paradossali -la fissazione di diritti precostituiti oggi per le generazioni di domani potrebbe risultare non utile alla realizzazione di una garanzia che varia nel tempo -la strategia rimediale potrebbe arrivare a definire ipertroficamente fattispecie giuridicamente tutelate - il legislatore sarebbe costretto a decidere in fretta su una questione che attengono invece ad un ambito più grande di quel che può regolare in un lasso di tempo relativamente breve. Azionabilità/ rappresentanza. L'azionabilità rappresenta uno dei punti più delicati del sistema del diritto applicabile alla categoria " future generazioni", che, pur definendosi diritti per via della tradizione , sono inevitabilmente senza soggetto , senza azionabilità, senza lobbies, quindi senza tutela o a tutela debole ed eventuale. Se anche paventassimo un sistema di superamento della categoria "future generazioni." dai limiti spazio-temporali e ci tirassimo quindi fuori dalla dialettica diritti doveri, ci troveremmo a dover creare un tutore, un rappresentante dei diritti/interessi futuri che alle generazioni abbiamo attribuito. Si correrebbe il pericolo che dietro la parvenza di una tutela si creino invece sistemi e finzioni marcatamente etnocentriche .Il diritto dovrebbe invece servire a lasciare alle future generazioni campi di scelte, non a scegliere in suo nome, al suo posto. L'unico vero modo per dare realmente tutela alle future generazioni è quello di lasciarle libere di auto-determinarsi. Gli ambiti che più risentono dell'intervento dell'uomo e che quindi più avrebbero bisogno di tutela sono quello :GENETICO (PROTEZIONE DELLA BIODIVERSITÀ E DEL GENOMA UMANO) AMBIENTALE (PRESERVAZIONE DEGLI ECOSISTEMI) CULTURALE (CONSERVAZIONE DELLA DIVERSITÀ DEL PATRIMONIO CULTURALE) Reciprocità -la necessaria corrispondenza tra diritti e doveri che ostacola la possibilità di includere le future generazioni nei testi di diritto cogente. -il problema della scomposizione di un meccanismo di imputazione, che ha legato nella cultura occidentale l'idea di rispondere di qualcosa solo all'idea di rispondere a qualcuno, nel senso che deve esserci sempre qualcuno a cui rispondere. Bisognerebbe cercare di sganciarsi da una dimensione giusrazionalistica di stampo negativo, puntando sui doveri dell'attuale generazione invece che sui possibili interessi/diritti di soggetti ancora non presenti1. Il sistema della politica non può non assumersi le sue responsabilità, prima fra tutte quella di darne attuazione, avviandosi all'effettività della loro tutela ,altrimenti non saremo certo in grado di lasciare aperte alle generazioni future opzioni almeno non minori di quelle che abbiamo noi oggi. Laddove la Costituzione italiana al comma 1 dell'art. 2 ribadisce il proprio fondamento nei «doveri inderogabili di solidarietà politica, economica e sociale». Responsabilità e Giustiziabilità C) Fino a giungere ad un tentativo di costruzione di un' Etica nuova. Una volta infatti che la categoria di "Generazione futura" si è immessa nel discorso giuridico e si è mostrata cambiata, libera da chiusure spazio temporali, ha mostrato la sua indipendenza rispetto al tempo. Mi riferisco alla impossibilità di parlare di giustizia dentro una generazione senza doversi necessariamente riferirsi alle generazioni. La questione inter-generazionale3 diviene questione intertemporale di equità.4 Un nuovo imperativo etico, distante da quello kantiano diretto all'individuo nella dimensione presente del suo agire, che evoca una coerenza di tipo metafisico e non logico, non dell'atto in se, ma dei suoi "effetti ultimi con la continuità dell'attività umana nell'avvenire": agisci in modo che le conseguenze delle tue azioni siano compatibili con la permanenza di un'autentica vita umana sulla terra. Tutto ci riporta infatti alla costruzione di uno spazio di libertà consentita in presenza di altri, ad una dimensione universalizzante. Tale luogo, in cui tutte le generazioni convivono senza delimitazioni spazio temporali e che attiene alla radice più profonda dell'appartenere all'umanità, si è cercato di ricostruire e ricomporre nel lungo lavoro qui riportato. Esso rappresenta da un lato uno spazio inedito, in cui la giustizia è declinabile solo nella sua dimensione di inclusività, dall'altro la cornice di riferimento dentro cui si è delineato il problema della teoria normativa delle generazioni future. Nel difficile rapporto tra giustizia, etica e diritto si è assistito a momenti di compatibilità, di corretta traduzione tra un sistema e l'altro. Ma più spesso paradossi linguistici ed ambivalenze ermeneutiche non sono stati del tutto risolvibili. Uno tra tutti il fatto che a parlare in nome delle future generazioni e a rappresentarle è comunque il presente. Per quanto la cognizione della capacità di influire sul futuro sia effettiva, ogni scelta del presente nasconde una quota inevitabile di etnocentrismo e quindi corre il rischio di rappresentare la vita di altri sulla base di parametri proprio- così come - di destinare agli altri modelli propri5. Il conseguente paradosso teorico, che lo studio delle generazioni ha prodotto, è stato quello di aver voluto ricostruire la teoria normativa delle generazioni future sulla falsa riga di quella dei soggetti presenti, prestando così il fianco alle critiche di quella parte della dottrina che nega la possibilità dell'esistenza ora di diritti per le future generazioni. Partendo infatti dalla premessa che per poter ascrivere ad un individuo un diritto è necessario che esso esista e sia in grado di far valere una tale pretesa, le persone esistenti oggi, non solo non avrebbero obblighi giuridici, ma neanche sarebbero gravate da obblighi morali. Ma il diritto stesso spesso trova il modo di aggirare limitazioni categoriali e definitorie. In realtà la dimensione della giustizia formale per prima si è resa conto che per essere garantita essa si sarebbe dovuta ridescrivere attraverso il concetto di intertemporalità. Come ci ricorda Rawls infatti per riuscire a perseguire i principi di giustizia " non c'è concesso trattare le generazioni in modo differente solo per il motivo che vengano prima o dopo nel tempo6". E questo perché una società ben ordinata , uno Stato che voglia perseguire regole efficaci e giuste, dovrà organizzarsi come sfera pubblica in cui l' "equo sistema di cooperazione sociale si estenda nel tempo da una generazione alla successiva.7 La sfida che questo lavoro ha accettato senza indugio è stata quella di indagare il non semanticamente accertato, il limite estremo tra giustizia e diritto come tra teoria e prassi , tra dimensioni descrittive e prescrittive come tra cognitivo e normativo. Il problema della non completa compatibilità della questione generazionale con le categorie esistenti è stato supplito attraverso ricerche di modelli e tecniche decisionali capaci di regolare l'agire collettivo e di disporre i presupposti per scelte il più possibile eque. "Questi termini equi, che sono tali in quanto specificano i diritti e i doveri fondamentali, modellano quella forma di cooperazione che è la struttura di base della società nelle sue istituzioni principali, quali la costituzione, il regime economico, l'ordinamento giuridico. Tutto ciò si configura come un sistema unico di cooperazione8". Insieme ad una diversa concezione dalla società, più attenta ai bisogni dell'umanità tutta scorre un sotterraneo eppur necessario discorso metagiuridico capace di trasformare l'essere umano in uomo che possiede umanità. D) Di cercare di costruire teoricamente una vera e propria Teoria delle future generazioni , del loro tempo stratificato ed intertemporale e del loro lessico rilevante. I soggetti nella loro "originaria" co- appartenenza ( dentro lo spazio comune dell'umanità)realizzano contemporaneamente un "compimento" delle e nelle relazioni fattuali ed una "destinazione" delle e nelle relazioni potenziali. Questo perché la destinazione non è metafisicamente prestabilita, è in divenire, è il vivere una vita orientata al futuro del suo destino che ci accomuna. . I soggetti che condividono un arco temporale, una generazione, e che non sembrano possedere nessuna convergenza di vita o valori, innegabilmente non possono non convenire sul fatto di essere obbligati a con-vivere. La condizione di fatto del convivere di generazioni o di uomini diversi dentro una generazione deve necessariamente dar luogo a forme nuove di coesistenza, non basate sulla ricerca di una comune fondazione o di una comune origine, quanto su un comune destino. Come dire, non rivolgendo lo sguardo indietro alla ricerca di un comune passato10, ma avanti. Il futuro, il destino, la progettazione dell'essere è ciò che nella più diversa possibilità di esito ci accomuna. Heidegger11 ci ricorda infatti che la Storia costituita dal destino " non ha il suo centro di gravità ne' nel passato, ne' nel presente, e nella sua connessione col passato, ma nell'accadere autentico dell'esistenza quale scaturisce dall'avvenire dell'esserci. La storia. getta le sue radici nel futuro[…]" A dare speranza che le questioni etiche e quelle giuridiche, in continua ed evolutiva inferenza tra loro, possano finalmente parlare un linguaggio comune sarà proprio la responsabilità, ovvero la possibilità di rispondere ad un dialogo che accomuna "coloro che non hanno comunità". Coloro che cioè non condividono aspetti esclusivi, ma che si appellano a ciò che si ha in comune: il senso di umanità che la giustizia, fosse anche solo formale, potrà tradurre in agire pratico.
Author's introductionWhile sociologists have paid a great deal of attention to how political elites matter for the emergence and development of social movements, they have focused less explicitly on how political elites matter for the culture of social movements. Considering the amount of attention paid to culture in the field of social movements, this issue is an important one to address. This essay reviews work that directly and indirectly addresses this relationship, showing how political elites matter for various aspects of movement culture, like collective identity and framing. It also reviews literature that suggests how movement culture comes to impact political elites. The essay concludes by drawing from very recent scholarship to argue that to best understand political elites and the culture of social movements, we need to think about culture and structure as intertwined and to understand how relations matters in the construction of meaning.Author recommendsArmstrong, Elizabeth, and Mary Bernstein 2008. 'Culture, Power and Institutions: A Multi‐Institutional Politics Approach to Social Movements.'Sociological Theory 26(1): 74–99.This is a very recently published article that advances a fairly complex understanding of the relationship between culture, power, and institutions. The authors conceptualize social movements as phenomena that emerge in a society where power is distributed, enacted, and challenged across multiple institutional contexts. While they review a range of empirical cases to illustrate their concerns about the power of the political process model, they largely focus on gay and lesbian activism to illustrate the application of their 'multi‐institutional politics approach'.Davenport, Christian 2005. 'Understanding Covert Repressive Action: The Case of the U.S. Government against the Republic of New Africa.'Journal of Conflict Resolution. 49(1):120–40.Davenport's article is a good place to think about how cultural aspects of social movements impact repression. He examines how covert intelligence‐gathering activities were directed against the Republic of New Africa, a Black Nationalist organization, in Detroit, Michigan and finds that the racial identity of the challengers was a significant factor in determining who was targeted. Importantly, he shows how the identity of groups, along with their strategy and goals, affect the way they are perceived and treated by political elites.Johnston, Hank and Bert Klandermans 1995. Social Movements and Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.This volume remains one of the best edited collections of readings on the relationship of social movements and culture. Top scholars in the field of social movements review the conceptualization of culture in movement studies, cultural processes in movements, and methods for studying culture and collective action.Laraňa Enrique, Hank Johnston, and Joseph R. Gusfield, eds. 1994. New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.This is an important edited volume in which leading scholars in the field present both case study of movements (for example, of the women's movement and student movements) and theoretical and conceptual assessments of the role of culture and identity in movements.McCammon Holly J., Karen E. Campbell, Ellen M. Granberg, and Christine Mowery. 2007. 'Movement Framing and Discursive Opportunity Structures: The Political Successes of the U.S. Women's Jury Movements.'American Sociological Review 72: 725–49.McCammon and her co‐authors examine factors that explain activists' state‐level success in winning women the legal right to serve on juries. One of their key findings is that activists' use of particular frames was more successful when those frames resonated with the current state of legal discourse. In other words, to win, activists must advance claims that resonate with discourse established by political elites.Meyer David S., Nancy Whittier, and Belinda Robnett, eds. 2002. Social Movements: Identity, Culture and the State. New York: Oxford University Press.This is another excellent edited volume that offers essays by leading scholars on the relationship between identity, culture, and the state. Meyer's introduction is particularly useful for the topic at hand, as he points out the ways that state action and polities often create the basis for a challenging group's collective identity.Polletta, Francesca. 1998. 'Legacies and Liabilities of an Insurgent Past.'Social Science History 22(4): 479–512.In this article, Polletta examines the different ways in which members of the United States Congress commemorate Martin Luther King, Jr., and finds that they most often emphasize King's legacy of community service and institutional politics over disruptive insurgency. For black legislators, however, the story is more complicated, as they must also carefully caution that King's legacy has not been fully realized. Polletta shows that how the culture of movements gets integrated into the discourse of elites is shaped by how elites are situated in a network of relationships—with other elites, with their own social groups, and with challengers.Online materials Social Movements and Culture http://www.wsu.edu/~amerstu/smc/smcframe.html Sponsored by the American Studies program at Washington State University, this site provides great links to bibliographies, movement websites, and other resources. Speech Prepared for March on Washington, 1963 http://www.crmvet.org/info/mowjl.htm Read the text of Congressman John Lewis' speech at the March on Washington, referred to at the beginning of the article. Sociology Eye http://sociologycompass.wordpress.com/ This website, associated with Sociology Compass, is a great site for thinking about how a range of contemporary issues are sociologically important. Check it out to look for posts related to social movements, culture, and political elites. Though a post may not directly seem to address the issue, oftentimes you can think about the ways in which a discussed subject implicitly tells you something about how the three things relate.Sample syllabusBelow I provide suggestions for topics and readings that might be assigned in a range of courses, including: a general social movements course, a course focused on social movement culture, or a sociology of culture course with a unit on social movements.Topic: Culture and Social MovementsMcAdam, Doug 1994. 'Culture and Social Movements.' Pp. 36–57 in New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity, edited by Enrique Laraňa, Hank Johnston, and Joseph R. Gusfield. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Swidler, Ann. 1995. 'Cultural Power and Social Movements.' Pp. 25–40 in Social Movements and Culture, edited by Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Snow, David A., E. Burke Rochford, Jr., Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford 1986. 'Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation.'American Sociological Review 51: 464–81.Williams, Rhys H. 2004. 'The Cultural Contexts of Collective Action: Constraints, Opportunities, and the Symbolic Life of Social Movements.' Pp. 91–115 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule, and Hanspeter Kriesi. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.Topic: Political Elites and Social MovementsGamson, William 1988. 'Political Discourse and Collective Action.' Pp. 219–144 in International Social Movement Research, vol. 1, edited by Bert Klandermans, Hanspeter Kreisi, and Sidney Tarrow. Greenwich, CT: JAI.Kriesi, Hanspeter 2004. 'Political Context and Opportunity.' Pp. 67–90 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule, and Hanspeter Kriesi. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.McCarthy, John D. and Mayer N. Zald 1977. 'Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory.'American Journal of Sociology 82:1212–1241.Meyer, David S. 2002. 'Opportunities and Identities: Bridge‐Building in the Study of Social Movements.' Pp. 3–21 in Social Movements: Identity, Culture and the State, edited by David S. Meyer, Nancy Whittier, and Belinda Robnett. New York: Oxford University Press.Rucht, Dieter 2005. 'Movement Allies, Adversaries, and Third Parties.' Pp. 197–261 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule, and Hanspeter Kriesi. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.Topic: Political Elites and the Culture of Social MovementsArmstrong, Elizabeth, and Mary Bernstein 2008. 'Culture, Power and Institutions: A Multi‐Institutional Politics Approach to Social Movements.'Sociological Theory 26(1): 74–99.Fantasia, Rick and Eric L. Hirsch 1995. 'Culture in Rebellion: The Appropriation and Transformation of the Veil in the Algerian Revolution.' Pp. 144‐ 159 in Social Movements and Culture, edited by Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Irons, Jenny 2009. 'Political Elites and the Culture of Social Movements.'Sociology Compass 3/3: 459–74.McCammon, Holly J., Karen E. Campbell, Ellen M. Granberg, and Christine Mowery 2007. 'Movement Framing and Discursive Opportunity Structures: The Political Successes of the U.S. Women's Jury Movements.'American Sociological Review 72: 725–49.Polletta, Francesca 1998. 'Legacies and Liabilities of an Insurgent Past.'Social Science History 22(4): 479–512.Skrentny, John 2006. 'Policy‐Elite Perceptions and Social Movement Success: Understanding Variations in Group Inclusion in Affirmative Action.'American Journal of Sociology 111(6):1762–1815.Topic: Movement Culture, Political Elites, and RepressionBoudreau, Vincent 2002. 'State Repression and Democracy Protest in Three Southeast Asian Countries.' Pp. 28–46 in Social Movements: Identity, Culture and the State, edited by David S. Meyer, Nancy Whittier, and Belinda Robnett. New York: Oxford University Press.Cunningham, David 2004. There's Something Happening Here: The New Left, The Klan, and FBI Counterintelligence. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Cunningham, David and Barb Browing 2004. 'The Emergence of Worthy Targets: Official Frames and Deviance Narratives Within the FBI.'Sociological Forum 19(3):347–369.Davenport, Christian 2005. 'Understanding Covert Repressive Action: The Case of the U.S. Government against the Republic of New Africa.'Journal of Conflict Resolution 49 (1):120–140.Noonan, Rita K. 1995. 'Women Against the State: Political Opportunities and Collective Action Frames in Chile's Transition to Democracy.'Sociological Forum 10: 81–111.Focus questions
In what ways do political elites matter for the development of a social movement's culture—in terms of the development of movement frames, discourse, and collective identity? (You might focus on a particular movement to address this question) How do those same aspects of a movement's culture impact political elites? Can you think of examples in which we can see elites reflecting meaning produced by social movements? What do you think are the most effective ways that social movements can impact political elites on a cultural level? What factors shape the relationship between movement cultures and political elites? What do you think are the best ways to conceptualize "political elites" and "social movement culture"?
In: Vermeulen , P 2009 , ' Hydrogen storage in Mg-Ti thin film alloys : an in situ characterization study ' , Doctor of Philosophy , Chemical Engineering and Chemistry , Eindhoven . https://doi.org/10.6100/IR641658
Depleting fossil fuel reserves and growing climate threats urge us towards a sustainable society. Moreover, we should preferably not solely rely on fossil fuels for our primary energy needs as part of the fossil fuels is imported from politically unstable regions. We should therefore think of new ways to ensure our energy needs are met in the near future. Most likely, a mixture of different sources will be used. These resources are preferable renewable in nature, e.g. solar, biomass, wind, water and geothermal, which can typically be used for stationary applications. For mobile applications, however, the use of an on-board energy storage system is indispensible. Especially for the latter, hydrogen is expected to play a dominant role. One of the important aspects of hydrogen is that only environmentally friendly products are emitted in the exothermic reaction of hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell. However, the feasibility of hydrogen production, storage and finally the use in fuel cells are still under debate. In prototype applications, such as fuel cell-driven automobiles, hydrogen is generally stored in high-pressure cylinders. New lightweight composite cylinders have been developed that are capable of withstanding pressures of up to 800 bars. Even though hydrogen cylinders are expected to withstand even higher pressures in the near future, their large volumes and the energy required to compress hydrogen will limit their practical applicability. As opposed to storing molecular hydrogen it can also be stored atomically in a metal hydride (MH), which can reduce the volume significantly. In addition, MHs provide relatively safe storage as they can be handled without extensive safety precautions unlike, for example, compressed hydrogen gas. Currently, the foremost problem of solid state hydrogen storage is to find a metal-hydrogen system with a gravimetric capacity that exceeds 6 wt.% H and absorbs/desorbs hydrogen at atmospheric pressures at ambient temperatures. One of the most promising elements that can reversible absorb and desorb a significant amount of hydrogen is magnesium, which has an intrinsic gravimetric storage capacity of 7.7 wt.% H. In spite of its excellent gravimetric storage capacity, the high desorption temperature (279 °C) and extremely slow hydrogen (de)sorption kinetics prevent Mg from being employed commercially. Mg is, however, often a large constituent of new hydrogen storage materials as it lowers the weight of the material and therefore increases the gravimetric capacity, which is necessary to fulfill the weight restrictions. In this thesis the hydrogen storage characteristics of Mg alloyed with other metals are addressed. The primary aim is to enforce a high absorption and desorption rate, and limit the weight of the alloys. Chapter 2 describes the experimental settings of the thin films preparation methods and characterization techniques. The thin films were prepared by means of electron beam deposition and magnetron co-sputtering and hereafter investigated by means of Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy to accurately determine the film thickness and composition. Electrochemistry was used as the main tool to investigate the hydrogen storage properties of the films in detail. One of the advantages of using electrochemistry is that the electrochemical equilibrium potential can be used to calculate the equivalent hydrogen partial pressure, which gives information about the thermodynamics of the metal-hydrogen system. The electrochemical setup is not straightforward as it requires a special three-electrode setup to obtain reliable experimental data. The experimental pitfalls and solutions, like for instance the need of an oxygen scrubber, to avoid incorrect electrochemical analyses are described in detail. By applying a fixed current, which is equivalent to a fixed (de)hydrogenate rate, the possibility to rapidly insert or extract hydrogen from the hydrogen absorbing medium can be addressed. Electrochemical control also offers the possibility to calculate and tune the hydrogen content in the films with high precision. The former was used to determine if the materials are interesting from a gravimetric point-of-view, while the latter was adopted in combination with other characterization techniques, like for example X-ray diffraction, which provides new insights into the effects of the hydrogen content on the host material. The theoretical background and experimental settings of several electrochemical techniques, e.g. amperometry, cyclic voltammetry, Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique and impedance spectroscopy, were discussed. X-ray diffraction was used throughout the thesis to resolve the crystallography of the phases in the as-prepared samples. To acquire crystallographic data as a function of the hydrogen content custom made in situ X-ray diffraction setups were used. The theoretical background of X-ray diffraction and a detailed description of the experimental setups and settings are described. A Pd topcoat is often applied to hydride-forming thin film materials to protect them from oxidation and catalyze the dissociation of H2 or electrocatalyze the reduction of H2O. As a 10 nm Pd caplayer was applied to all Mg-based alloys described in this thesis, it is useful to determine its thermodynamic and electrocatalytic properties separately, which is presented in Chapter 3. A lattice gas model was presented recently and successfully applied to simulate the absorption/desorption isotherms of various hydride-forming materials. The simulation results are expressed by parameters corresponding to several energy contributions, e.g. interaction energies. The use of a model-system is indispensable in order to show the strength of these simulations. The palladium-hydrogen system is one of the most thoroughly described metal hydrides found in the literature and is therefore ideal for this purpose. The effects of decreasing the Pd thickness on the pressure-composition isotherms were monitored experimentally and subsequently simulated. An excellent fit of the lattice gas model to the experimental data was obtained and the corresponding parameters were used to describe several thermodynamic properties. It was found that the contribution of H-H interaction energies to the total energy and the influence of the host lattice energy are significantly and systematically changing as a function of Pd thickness. Conclusively, it was verified that the lattice gas model is a useful tool to analyze the thermodynamic properties of hydrogen storage materials. Also, the electrocatalytic properties of a 10 nm thick Pd film were determined by means of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, which revealed that the best electrocatalytic properties are found for ??-phased Pd hydride. Determining the properties of a single-layer 10 nm thick Pd film was valuable as it was used to determine its influence on the Pd-coated Mg-based thin film alloys that were the topic of investigation for the remainder of the thesis. Recently, a thin film approach revealed that new lightweight alloys of Mg with Ti, V or Cr can be prepared that cannot be synthesized via standard alloying techniques, because the alloys are thermodynamically unstable. Electrochemical measurements showed that especially the Mg-Ti system possesses the ability to reversibly store a considerable amount of hydrogen, which can be absorbed and desorbed at relatively high rates compared to pure Mg. The systematic investigation of hydrogen storage properties of the binary MgyTi1-y alloy composition is described in Chapter 4. It is shown from X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements that as-prepared electron-beam deposited and sputtered MgyTi1-y thin films with y ranging from 0.50 to 1.00 are crystalline and single-phase. Galvanostatic (de)hydrogenation measurements were performed to unveil the effects of the Mg-to-Ti ratio on the hydrogen absorption and desorption rates. Increasing the Ti-content up to 15 at.% does not change these rates much and hydrogen can only be desorbed at a relatively low rate. Beyond 15 at.% Ti, however, the hydrogen desorption rate increases substantially. A superior reversible hydrogen storage capacity that exceeds 6 wt.% H, along with excellent hydrogen absorption and desorption rates, was found for the Mg0.80Ti0.20 alloy. The close analogy of the electrochemical behavior of MgyTi1-y and MgySc1-y alloys points to a face-centered cubic-structured hydride for the alloys showing fast hydrogen uptake and release rates, whereas for the hydrides of alloys rich in Mg (>80 at.%), that show a slow desorption rate, probably crystallize into the common MgH2 body-centered tetragonal structure. The cycling stability of electron-beam deposited and sputtered thin film Mg0.80Ti0.20 alloys was found to be constant over the first 10 cycles, hereafter it decreased sharply caused by delamination of the film from the substrate. The intrinsic cycling stability is therefore expected to be higher. Isotherms of MgyTi1-y thin films showed that the desorption plateau pressure is not strongly affected by the Mg-to-Ti ratio and is almost equal to the equilibrium pressure of the magnesium-hydrogen system. Impedance analyses showed that the surface kinetics can be fully attributed to the Pd-topcoat. The impedance, when the MgyTi1-y thin film electrodes are in their hydrogen-depleted state, was found to be dominated by the transfer of hydrogen across the Pd/MgyTi1-y interface. In Chapter 4 it was argued that the symmetry of the crystal lattice of the host material probably strongly affects the hydrogen uptake and release rates. The largest difference for the (de)hydrogenation rates was found for MgyTi1-y alloys containing 70 to 90 at.% Mg. Therefore, the crystallography of these alloy compositions was resolved by in situ XRD and the results are presented in Chapter 5. Firstly, in situ gas phase XRD measurements were performed to identify the crystal structures of as-deposited and hydrogenated MgyTi1-y thin film alloys. The preferred crystallographic orientation of the films in both the as-prepared and hydrogenated state made it difficult to unambiguously identify the crystal structure and therefore the identification of the symmetry of the unit cells was achieved by in situ recording XRD patterns at various tilt angles. The results reveal a hexagonal closed packed structure for all alloys in the as-deposited state. Hydrogenating the layers under 1 bar H2 transforms the unit cell into face-centered cubic for the Mg0.70Ti0.30 and Mg0.80Ti0.20 compounds, whereas the unit cell of hydrogenated Mg0.90Ti0.10 has a body-centered tetragonal symmetry. The (de)hydrogenation kinetics changes along with the crystal structure of the hydrides from rapid for face-centered cubic-structured hydrides to sluggish for hydrides with a body-centered tetragonal symmetry and emphasized the influence of the symmetry of the crystal lattice on the hydrogen transport properties.
2007/2008 ; La tesi di dottorato si propone di esaminare la portata e la natura della competenza dell'Unione europea in materia di immigrazione in relazione alla residua competenza degli Stati membri. Quello dell'immigrazione è un tema che, soprattutto negli ultimi anni, ha acquisito particolare rilievo divenendo sempre di più oggetto della normativa internazionale e comunitaria. Malgrado il grande interesse suscitato dal fenomeno presso molti studiosi di diritto comunitario ed internazionale, ancora risultano poco esplorate la natura e i limiti della competenza dell'Unione europea in tale materia. Il presente lavoro pertanto intende non tanto e non solo analizzare il contenuto della normativa comunitaria e della giurisprudenza rilevanti nel settore ma, attraverso questi ultimi, indagare sulla natura della competenza dell'Unione europea e sull'interagire di tale competenza con i poteri che gli Stati membri mantengono e/o intendono mantenere in materia di immigrazione. La classificazione della competenza dell'Unione europea e l'individuazione dei suoi limiti in rapporto alle competenze statali si presentano infatti piuttosto problematiche per quanto riguarda la materia in commento e ciò a motivo di numerosi fattori che vengono debitamente evidenziati nel corso della trattazione. In linea generale, ad un'analisi di carattere globale in cui si esaminano le caratteristiche e la natura della competenza dell'Unione in questo ambito, si affianca un'indagine che mira ad analizzare l'esercizio di queste competenze sul piano interno da un lato, e sul piano esterno, dall'altro lato. In effetti, dopo il Consiglio europeo di Tampere del 1999 - nel corso del quale è stato approvato un piano d'azione per la definizione di una politica comune dell'Unione europea in materia di asilo e immigrazione - la Comunità ha esercitato le competenze attribuitele dal Trattato di Amsterdam, adottando diverse misure comunitarie in materia. Tuttavia nel settore in esame ancora forte è il ruolo degli Stati membri e la Comunità, in alcuni ambiti, ha incontrato notevoli difficoltà nell'esercitare le proprie competenze a causa delle resistenze degli Stati stessi. Si consideri inoltre come, la nuova competenza comunitaria sia stata conciliata con il c.d. acquis di Schengen rispetto al quale occorre tenere presente la posizione di quegli Stati membri che, pur potendone prendere parte, non ne sono vincolati (Regno Unito e Irlanda) o che, ne sono vincolati, ma possono decidere se accettare o meno misure adottate a norma del Titolo IV TCE (Danimarca). Nei quattro capitoli del presente lavoro, nonché nelle conclusioni generali, l'attenzione rispetto alla politica comunitaria in materia di immigrazione si è dunque focalizzata sulle difficoltà che sussistono nello stabilire quali siano i confini tra competenze comunitarie e competenze degli Stati membri. Non sempre infatti è agevole comprendere quali siano gli spazi per un'autonoma attività normativa da parte degli Stati membri e in ogni caso, quale sia la natura di tale competenza (esclusiva o concorrente). A questo fine, dopo un'analisi delle origini e dello sviluppo della politica dell'Unione europea in materia di immigrazione vengono esaminate, nel secondo capitolo, le procedure decisionali prescritte in questo settore, in specie il progressivo passaggio alla codecisione e l'utilizzazione del metodo aperto di coordinamento, la tipologia di atti che le istituzioni possono emanare in materia e le relative basi giuridiche, il ruolo che i principi di proporzionalità e sussidiarietà hanno al riguardo. Oggetto di analisi è altresì il regime applicabile agli stranieri per i quali vige una disciplina speciale di fonte comunitaria o convenzionale. Difatti, la disciplina sull'immigrazione si contraddistingue per il suo aspetto residuale, in quanto costituisce il diritto comune in mancanza di norme speciali. Quanto al riparto di competenze tra Unione e Stati membri in materia, vengono individuati i settori di competenza esclusiva degli Stati membri e quelli in cui la competenza è invece di tipo concorrente. Con riguardo a quest'ultimi si evidenzia, oltre all'applicazione del principio di sussidiarietà, l'operatività di due clausole contenute nel TCE che fanno riferimento ad interventi degli Stati membri e che consentono a quest'ultimi da un lato, di mantenere o introdurre proprie misure nel campo dell'immigrazione dall'altro lato, di esercitare le responsabilità loro incombenti per il mantenimento dell'ordine pubblico e la salvaguardia della sicurezza interna. (artt. 63, II co., 64 TCE). Gli Stati membri sono inoltre competenti ad adottare misure nazionali in caso di afflusso improvviso di cittadini di Paesi terzi ( art. 64, par. 2 TCE). Si chiariscono inoltre gli obblighi di cooperazione e di rispetto del diritto comunitario che gravano sugli Stati membri nell'esercizio delle competenze non attribuite alla Comunità. Rivolgendo l'attenzione alla normativa attuata a livello comunitario sulla base delle norme del Trattato CE rilevanti in materia di immigrazione, si sono analizzati i principali atti di diritto derivato sulla disciplina del trattamento dei cittadini non comunitari entro il territorio dell'Unione che sono stati adottati e che hanno reso possibile ricostruire un regime giuridico generale, e vari regimi settoriali, di cui i cittadini di Stati terzi, legalmente soggiornanti entro il territorio comunitario, sono beneficiari. In particolare, si sono analizzate le direttive sul ricongiungimento familiare, sui soggiornanti di lungo periodo, nonché le direttive riguardanti le condizioni di ammissione dei cittadini di Stati terzi che intendano fare ingresso entro il territorio comunitario per motivi di studio, scambio di alunni, tirocinio non retribuito o volontariato nonché a fini di ricerca scientifica. Attraverso un'analisi del contenuto di tali direttive si è tentato di individuare quali siano i risultati raggiunti soprattutto in riferimento al livello di armonizzazione realizzato e quale l'incidenza che su di esso hanno le disposizioni che fanno rinvio al diritto nazionale. (v. cap. III, parr. 2.1 - 2.2 - 2.3 -5). Un ulteriore ambito di indagine ha riguardato le competenze comunitarie in materia di migrazione economica e di diritti dei cittadini di Stati terzi che soggiornano legalmente nel territorio degli Stati membri. Si è cercato di porre in rilievo come la migrazione economica abbia sempre rappresentato e, rappresenti tutt'ora, uno dei settori in cui l'intervento comunitario incontra i limiti più consistenti. (v. cap. III, par. 3). Si è in presenza infatti di un ambito in cui non è stata ancora raggiunta l'armonizzazione delle regole sull'ammissione e soggiorno per motivi di lavoro, se non per taluni aspetti settoriali. Allo stato attuale infatti, nonostante sia in discussione l'adozione di una serie di atti riguardanti specifiche categorie di immigrati, nonché una proposta di direttiva quadro relativa al rilascio di un permesso unico di soggiorno e lavoro, gli Stati membri - fatta eccezione per i limiti derivanti da accordi internazionali conclusi dalla Comunità con Stati terzi - sembrano intenzionati a conservare la loro competenza in materia e a decidere sulle modalità e sulle conseguenze inerenti la sussistenza o la decadenza del contratto di lavoro. Inoltre, per gli aspetti relativi all'integrazione degli immigrati, si applica il metodo aperto di coordinamento, non vincolante, e trovano spazio solo misure di incentivazione finanziaria, con esclusione di ogni armonizzazione legislativa (art. 79, par. 4 TFUE). Quanto al profilo esterno della competenza interna dell'Unione in materia di immigrazione, in particolare in riferimento al potere di concludere accordi internazionali con Stati terzi, è opinione comune che, in base al noto principio del parallelismo di poteri, la Comunità, pur in mancanza di un'espressa attribuzione di poteri, è competente a concludere accordi internazionali in materia di immigrazione. Si è tentato a tal fine, di individuare il carattere esclusivo o concorrente di tale competenza. Si è osservato come, in linea generale, non sia possibile riconoscere in capo alla Comunità una competenza di tipo esclusivo. Da un lato infatti, la prassi applicativa seguita per la conclusione dei suddetti accordi è quella degli accordi misti, dall'altro lato, posto che la Comunità, in taluni ambiti, deve limitarsi a stabilire norme minime, gli Stati membri sono, in linea di principio, lasciati liberi di concludere accordi con Stati terzi che prevedano norme maggiormente garantiste di quelle comuni. In ogni caso, la sussistenza della competenza esterna degli Stati è prevista in maniera espressa in materia di controlli sulle persone alle frontiere. In particolare, il Protocollo n. 31 sulle relazioni esterne degli Stati membri in materia di attraversamento delle frontiere esterne, prevede che le competenze comunitarie non pregiudichino la competenza degli Stati membri a negoziare o concludere accordi con gli Stati terzi, semprechè tali accordi rispettino il diritto comunitario e gli altri accordi internazionali pertinenti. A ciò si aggiunga la prassi in materia di rimpatrio e immigrazione illegale, in cui accordi degli Stati membri con gli Stati terzi di origine o di transito coesistono con quelli conclusi dalla Comunità e con accordi che contengono clausole di riammissione. (v. cap. II, parr. 1 e 4). Relativamente invece, al contrasto dell'immigrazione irregolare si è sottolineato come, sebbene occorra prendere in considerazione le posizioni prevalenti a riguardo degli Stati membri, si registra un buon potenziamento dell'acquis di Schengen il quale si pone in stretta connessione con la cooperazione per il controllo delle frontiere. Ciò sostanzialmente deriva dalla constatazione dell'inadeguatezza degli strumenti nazionali di contrasto del fenomeno rispetto alle esigenze generali di sicurezza. Da ultimo, nella parte finale del presente lavoro, si sono analizzate le principali modifiche prospettate in materia dal Trattato di Lisbona e dalla più recente normativa comunitaria adottata nel settore. In particolare, si è evidenziato come l'entrata in vigore del Trattato di Lisbona dovrebbe comportare indubbi vantaggi per il settore dell'immigrazione sia per l'estensione della procedura di codecisione, che consentirebbe di consolidare il livello di integrazione e di superare il deficit democratico attraverso un maggior coinvolgimento del Parlamento europeo e un maggior dialogo tra le istituzioni, sia soprattutto per il venir meno dei limiti della competenza della Corte di giustizia previsti dall'attuale art. 68 Trattato Ce. Si ritiene dunque, che le novità introdotte dal Trattato di Lisbona nei settori in parola, possano non solo favorire un rilancio della politica di immigrazione dell'Unione europea attraverso un maggior livello di armonizzazione legislativa, ma anche contribuire ad una ridefinizione del sistema di tutela giurisdizionale dei diritti al fine di garantire una parità di trattamento tra cittadini comunitari e non comunitari. Inoltre, il Trattato di riforma oltre a gettare le basi per una futura adesione dell'Unione europea alla Cedu, determinerà un significativo passo in avanti nella tutela dei diritti soprattutto grazie alla norma che rende vincolante la Carta dei diritti fondamentali dell'Unione europea. Tale strumento potrà infatti favorire oltre che un generale rafforzamento dei diritti, una più ampia tutela degli immigrati. ; XXI Ciclo ; 1977
I Max Bill is an intense giornata of a big fresco. An analysis of the main social, artistic and cultural events throughout the twentieth century is needed in order to trace his career through his masterpieces and architectures. Some of the faces of this hypothetical mural painting are, among others, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, Ernesto Nathan Rogers, Kandinskij, Klee, Mondrian, Vatongerloo, Ignazio Silone, while the backcloth is given by artistic avant-gardes, Bauhaus, International Exhibitions, CIAM, war events, reconstruction, Milan Triennali, Venice Biennali, the School of Ulm. Architect, even though more known as painter, sculptor, designer and graphic artist, Max Bill attends the Bauhaus as a student in the years 1927-1929, and from this experience derives the main features of a rational, objective, constructive and non figurative art. His research is devoted to give his art a scientific methodology: each work proceeds from the analysis of a problem to the logical and always verifiable solution of the same problem. By means of composition elements (such as rhythm, seriality, theme and its variation, harmony and dissonance), he faces, with consistent results, themes apparently very distant from each other as the project for the H.f.G. or the design for a font. Mathematics are a constant reference frame as field of certainties, order, objectivity: 'for Bill mathematics are never confined to a simple function: they represent a climate of spiritual certainties, and also the theme of non attempted in its purest state, objectivity of the sign and of the geometrical place, and at the same time restlessness of the infinity: Limited and Unlimited '. In almost sixty years of activity, experiencing all artistic fields, Max Bill works, projects, designs, holds conferences and exhibitions in Europe, Asia and Americas, confronting himself with the most influencing personalities of the twentieth century. In such a vast scenery, the need to limit the investigation field combined with the necessity to address and analyse the unpublished and original aspect of Bill's relations with Italy. The original contribution of the present research regards this particular 'geographic delimitation'; in particular, beyond the deep cultural exchanges between Bill and a series of Milanese architects, most of all with Rogers, two main projects have been addressed: the realtà nuova at Milan Triennale in 1947, and the Contemporary Art Museum in Florence in 1980. It is important to note that these projects have not been previously investigated, and the former never appears in the sources either. These works, together with the most well-known ones, such as the projects for the VI and IX Triennale, and the Swiss pavilion for the Biennale, add important details to the reference frame of the relations which took place between Zurich and Milan. Most of the occasions for exchanges took part in between the Thirties and the Fifties, years during which Bill underwent a significant period of artistic growth. He meets the Swiss progressive architects and the Paris artists from the Abstraction-Création movement, enters the CIAM, collaborates with Le Corbusier to the third volume of his Complete Works, and in Milan he works and gets confronted with the events related to post-war reconstruction. In these years Bill defines his own working methodology, attaining an artistic maturity in his work. The present research investigates the mentioned time period, despite some necessary exceptions. II The official Max Bill bibliography is naturally wide, including spreading works along with ones more devoted to analytical investigation, mainly written in German and often translated into French and English (Max Bill himself published his works in three languages). Few works have been published in Italian and, excluding the catalogue of the Parma exhibition from 1977, they cannot be considered comprehensive. Many publications are exhibition catalogues, some of which include essays written by Max Bill himself, some others bring Bill's comments in a educational-pedagogical approach, to accompany the observer towards a full understanding of the composition processes of his art works. Bill also left a great amount of theoretical speculations to encourage a critical reading of his works in the form of books edited or written by him, and essays published in 'Werk', magazine of the Swiss Werkbund, and other international reviews, among which Domus and Casabella. These three reviews have been important tools of analysis, since they include tracks of some of Max Bill's architectural works. The architectural aspect is less investigated than the plastic and pictorial ones in all the main reference manuals on the subject: Benevolo, Tafuri and Dal Co, Frampton, Allenspach consider Max Bill as an artist proceeding in his work from Bauhaus in the Ulm experience . A first filing of his works was published in 2004 in the monographic issue of the Spanish magazine 2G, together with critical essays by Karin Gimmi, Stanislaus von Moos, Arthur Rüegg and Hans Frei, and in 'Konkrete Architektur?', again by Hans Frei. Moreover, the monographic essay on the Atelier Haus building by Arthur Rüegg from 1997, and the DPA 17 issue of the Catalonia Polytechnic with contributions of Carlos Martì, Bruno Reichlin and Ton Salvadò, the latter publication concentrating on a few Bill's themes and architectures. An urge to studying and going in depth in Max Bill's works was marked in 2008 by the centenary of his birth and by a recent rediscovery of Bill as initiator of the 'minimalist' tradition in Swiss architecture. Bill's heirs are both very active in promoting exhibitions, researching and publishing. Jakob Bill, Max Bill's son and painter himself, recently published a work on Bill's experience in Bauhaus, and earlier on he had published an in-depth study on 'Endless Ribbons' sculptures. Angela Thomas Schmid, Bill's wife and art historian, published in end 2008 the first volume of a biography on Max Bill and, together with the film maker Eric Schmid, produced a documentary film which was also presented at the last Locarno Film Festival. Both biography and documentary concentrate on Max Bill's political involvement, from antifascism and 1968 protest movements to Bill experiences as Zurich Municipality councilman and member of the Swiss Confederation Parliament. In the present research, the bibliography includes also direct sources, such as interviews and original materials in the form of letters correspondence and graphic works together with related essays, kept in the max+binia+jakob bill stiftung archive in Zurich. III The results of the present research are organized into four main chapters, each of them subdivided into four parts. The first chapter concentrates on the research field, reasons, tools and methodologies employed, whereas the second one consists of a short biographical note organized by topics, introducing the subject of the research. The third chapter, which includes unpublished events, traces the historical and cultural frame with particular reference to the relations between Max Bill and the Italian scene, especially Milan and the architects Rogers and Baldessari around the Fifties, searching the themes and the keys for interpretation of Bill's architectures and investigating the critical debate on the reviews and the plastic survey through sculpture. The fourth and last chapter examines four main architectures chosen on a geographical basis, all devoted to exhibition spaces, investigating Max Bill's composition process related to the pictorial field. Paintings has surely been easier and faster to investigate and verify than the building field. A doctoral thesis discussed in Lausanne in 1977 investigating Max Bill's plastic and pictorial works, provided a series of devices which were corrected and adapted for the definition of the interpretation grid for the composition structures of Bill's main architectures. Four different tools are employed in the investigation of each work: a context analysis related to chapter three results; a specific theoretical essay by Max Bill briefly explaining his main theses, even though not directly linked to the very same work of art considered; the interpretation grid for the composition themes derived from a related pictorial work; the architecture drawing and digital three-dimensional model. The double analysis of the architectural and pictorial fields is functional to underlining the relation among the different elements of the composition process; the two fields, however, cannot be compared and they stay, in Max Bill's works as in the present research, interdependent though self-sufficient. IV An important aspect of Max Bill production is self-referentiality: talking of Max Bill, also through Max Bill, as a need for coherence instead of a method limitation. Ernesto Nathan Rogers describes Bill as the last humanist, and his horizon is the known world but, as the 'Concrete Art' of which he is one of the main representatives, his production justifies itself: Max Bill not only found a method, but he autonomously re-wrote the 'rules of the game', derived timeless theoretical principles and verified them through a rich and interdisciplinary artistic production. The most recurrent words in the present research work are synthesis, unity, space and logic. These terms are part of Max Bill's vocabulary and can be referred to his works. Similarly, graphic settings or analytical schemes in this research text referring to or commenting Bill's architectural projects were drawn up keeping in mind the concise precision of his architectural design. As for Mies van der Rohe, it has been written that Max Bill took art to 'zero degree' reaching in this way a high complexity. His works are a synthesis of art: they conceptually encompass all previous and –considered their developments- most of contemporary pictures. Contents and message are generally explicitly declared in the title or in Bill's essays on his artistic works and architectural projects: the beneficiary is invited to go through and re-build the process of synthesis generating the shape. In the course of the interview with the Milan artist Getulio Alviani, he tells how he would not write more than a page for an essay on Josef Albers: everything was already evident 'on the surface' and any additional sentence would be redundant. Two years after that interview, these pages attempt to decompose and single out the elements and processes connected with some of Max Bill's works which, for their own origin, already contain all possible explanations and interpretations. The formal reduction in favour of contents maximization is, perhaps, Max Bill's main lesson.
Čitanjem poznatih i dosad nepoznatih arhivskih dokumenata otkriva se logičniji slijed događaja na gradilištu trogirske kapele, a podcrtava se uloga Koriolana Ćipika u njenom projektiranju. Analizom Duknovićevog kipa sv. lvana (kojeg autor datira oko 1482. godine i identificira kao Alviza, Koriolanova sina, izabranog od trogirskog Velikog vijeća za biskupa) unutar majstorovog opusa uvodi se logičan intermezzo - s ne bas kratkim boravkom u rodnom Trogiru početkom 80-ih godina - bez kojega bi inače teško bilo objasniti izvanredna ostvarenja koja je izradio za Ćipika na njegovoj palači i u kapeli bl. Ivana, kao i na palači Andrije Cege. ; Con l'identificazione ipotetica di un ritratto che si cela sotto le vesti della statua di San Giovanni Evangelista nella cappella del beato Giovanni Ursini nella cattedrale di Traù - si cercha di rafforzare il ruolo che poté avere nell'intero progetto l'umanista traurino Coriolano Cippico. I contemporanei lo chiamavano il Grande ( 1425-inizi 1493). È l'autore dell'opera latina Petri Mocenici imperatoris gestorum libri III (Venezia 1477), più nota sotto il titolo De Bello Asiatico, nella quale descrisse le operazioni militari veneziane ( 1470-74) contro i Turchi È importante sottolineare che Coriolano ricoprì un ruolo attivo nei cantieri e nella sistemazione dell'interno della cattedrale per ben quattro decenni e sempre quando i lavori riprendevano. Proprio in rapporto alla Cappella del beato Giovanni Ursini, dirò che Coriolano vi lavorò in qualità di "operario" per un intero anno ( 1466-67) prima del Contratto ricordato per la sua costruzione, nel quale egli figurava come procuratore di Niccolò Fiorentino. La costruzione della cappella si svolse a più riprese per un periodo inusualmente lungo: i lavori iniziarono, in verità, appena dopo il ritorno di Coriolano dalla guerra, nel1475. Dal libro dei conti risulta operario nel 1482 quando, finalmente, ebbe inizio la decorazione della cappella con le statue. La cappella fu ultimata nella parte architettonica solo nel 1488, al tempo in cui era nuovamente operario Coriolano. Considerato il suo ruolo guida nelle controversie con i vescovi traurini Torlon e Marcello, suo successore, proprio intorno alle competenze dell'opera (questioni che, per es., nel 1490, dovettero risolvere il legato papale e lo stesso doge), non vi è dubbio alcuno che Coriolano sorvegliò di persona i lavori fino al termine della sua vita. Si deve notare che tra l'arrivo di Marcello nel 1489 (prima di questa data furono svolti lavori importanti - in assenza del vescovo precedente che si era trattenuto a Roma per cinque anni) e la morte di Coriolano nel 1493, non sono documentati nuovi lavori né nuove statue nella cappella. L'importante svolta iconografica che si verificò all'interno della cappella, quando il precedente Cristo del Fiorentino fu sostituito con uno nuovo, e quando la composizione dietro l'altare ottenne un nuovo significato ic01iologico, segue i lavori successivi alla morte di Coriolano nel 1493. I Cippico potevano avere anche un motivo particolare per legarsi alla cappella: Giovanni Ursini, vescovo traurino nell'XI-XII sec. era giunto a Traù da Roma, e i Cippi co esaltavano le loro origini romane più insistentemente di quanto fosse di moda allora, nella Dalmazia umanistica. E importante avvertire che gli architetti e gli scultori di tutti i principali progetti comunali del tempo di Coriolano lavorarono ai palazzi Cippico- per primo l'Alessi dopo la metà degli anni 50, poi il Fiorentino negli anni 70, e Ivan Duknović negli anni 80. A Traù Coriolano, evidentemente secondo un programma definito, riuscì a occupare tutto il lato ovest della piazza principale della città con i suoi due palazzi - di fronte al palazzo comunale, alla cattedrale e agli altri edifici pubblici, provvedendoli di numerosi stemmi della sua famiglia, con chiare pretese principesche. I figli di Coriolano erano ugualmente stimati come umanisti. Nella parte sita della scala situata nel cortile del "Palazzo Cippico Piccolo" a Traù, realizzato da Niccolò Fiorentino probabilmente alla metà degli anni '70, si trova il rilievo di un poeta incoronato che i critici hanno interpretato finora come il ritratto del re Mattia Corvino, oppure di un amico di Coriolano, il noto storico Marc'Antonio Coccio, detto Sabellico. Il rilievo, secondo autore, rappresenta Alvise, il figlio di Coriolano. Alvise Cippico, nato il 17 settembre 1456, già nel 1470 si recò a Padova per intraprendere gli studi di teologia e diritto, nonché letteratura. In chiusura delle Commoediae di Terenzio (Venezia 1473), curate dal suo professore Rafael Regio, Alvise- allora sedicenne- pubblicò una poesia in latino di dieci versi, dedicata ai lettori dell'opera. Da Padova, dove conseguì il dottorato in utroque iure, in occasione della guerra di Venezia con Ferrara inviò, il 12. XII. 1482, un panegirico di 257 esametri al doge Giovanni Mocenigo, o più propriamente al senato veneziano (Aloysii Cipici iurisconsulti et poetae panegyricus in Senatum Venetiarum). Giovanni era il fratello di Pietro Mocenigo sotto il quale Coriolano aveva combattuto. Si tratta di una poesia di argomento storico, di un'esaltazione mitologica della missione storica di Venezia. Nello stesso anno (1482) Alvise era a Roma. Lo videro con il fratello Giovanni nel circolo di Pomponio Leto. Ottenne alcuni benefici da Innocenza VIII; è qualificato come "familiaris nostris". Nel 1488 divenne vescovo di Famagosta su Cipro. Fu nominato segretario "ab epistolis" di papa Alessandro VI, Rodrigo Borgia. Nel 1500 gli furono negati il vescovato e le rendite, ma alla fine del 1503, il suo nuovo protettore Giulio della Rovere, Papa Giulio II, lo nominò arcivescovo di Zara. Lo celebrò Giovanni Aurelio Augurello. Morì il 2.III.1504 mentre era ancora arcivescovo di Zara. Fu seppellito in San Pietro. Quest'identificazione del rilievo di Palazzo Cippico, è sostenuta dal ritratto della stessa persona che è 'camuffata' sotto la toga della statua di San Giovanni Evangelista, realizzata per la cappella traurina da lvan Duknović. Considerato che la statua è lavorata anche nella parte posteriore si ritiene che originariamente non fosse stata pensata per la nicchia in cui si trova oggi, ma per un altare. Si fa inoltre notare che il Fiorentino, già nel 1482, aveva collocato nella cappella del beato Giovanni Ursini il suo San Giovanni. Nello stesso tempo Coriolano si adoperava per assicurare la cattedra vescovile traurina al figlio Alvise e, suppongo poté ordinare un ritratto identificatorio di questo tipo. Il Gran Consiglio traurino, in verità, prescelse Alvise Cippico come vescovo il 27. XI. 1483, ma la Signoria non confermò questa scelta né la sottopose alla curia. Nonostante tutti i meriti del padre nei confronti dello stato e la fedeltà dichiarata dal figlio (nell'enfatico panegirico al Senato del 1482), la Signoria sicuramente valutò le ambizioni di Coriolano come troppo pretenziose. In epoca rinascimentale, inoltre, Venezia si atteneva al principio che i vescovi e i conti delle città dalmate fossero prescelti fuori dalla Dalmazia. È interessante che il papa più tardi nominò Alvise vescovo di Famagosta a Cipro, dove suo padre quindici anni prima aveva svolto una nota missione diplomatica; Marcello, invece, vescovo locale fu trasferito a Traù, dove si scontrò subito con il Gran Consiglio e gli "operari", rappresentati proprio da Coriolano. L'ipotesi, dunque, sarebbe che in un primo momento il San Giovanni di Duknovié, con il volto di Alvise, proprio per questa identificazione non poté essere accettato, soprattutto non in presenza del vescovo Torlon (†1483) ancora vivo e con il quale Coriolano come procuratore degli interessi comunali in relazione alla cattedrale era in rapporti tesi, e che per questo motivo fosse stato ordinato ex novo al Fiorentino. All'ipotesi presentata si può obiettare che la statua di Duknović è lavorata anche dalla parte posteriore. Allo stesso modo, tuttavia, sono lavorate anche altre statue dello stesso maestro che erano originariamente previste per essere collocate nelle nicchie, come il putto-reggifiaccola che aveva realizzato sempre per Coriolano. Inoltre, al centro della schiena in questo caso non si sarebbe trovato il foro per assicurare ed elevare la statua, che vediamo nel San Giovanni Evangelista. Terminus ante quem per la statua di Duknović è da ritenere il 1489 quando è documentata la realizzazione del San Filippo del Fiorentino, il cui modello, come ha notato Štefanac, è proprio il San Giovanni di Duknović che gli stava di fronte. San Tommaso apostolo del Duknović se osserviamo il sistema dei drappeggi- è ugualmente confrontabile con il San Giovanni. Anche se fosse stato creato per una collocazione esterna alla cappella- alle cui nicchie del resto si adatta meglio delle sculture del Fiorentino- entrò per tempo nella cappella, in ogni caso prima del notevole rifacimento in epoca barocca che vide proprio nel San Giovanni del Duknović la statua più pregevole di tutto l'insieme, e l'attribuì ad Alessandro Vittoria di cui furono innalzate quattro statue accanto alla piramide del campanile, nel XVII secolo. Possiamo però ricordarci che il tipo fisionomico aquilino è uno dei tipi più famosi di ritratto eroico. Già la teoria fisionomica antica e medievale riteneva che l'aspetto di ogni animale fosse determinato dalla sua natura. Di conseguenza: una persona dal naso schiacciato e carnoso simile al leone dovrebbe essere generosa, virile, forte, ma anche incline all 'ira- come il leone; l'aquila, invece, nell'arte profana rinascimentale è portatrice di una varietà di significati simbolici -con associazioni alla regalità, all'acutezza visiva, all'elevatezza del pensiero. È allo stesso tempo attributo della speranza, della virtù e del ringiovanimento. L'identificazione di Alvise Cippico dal naso aquilino con San Giovanni poté stabilirsi proprio attraverso l'aquila attributo dell'Evangelista. Nel caso traurino, oltre a tutta la pretenziosità del ritratto che oggi ravvisiamo, Cippico voleva rappresentare il figlio nell'atto di ossequiosa imitazione delle virtù del santo (imitatio exempli virtutis). Con questo contributo (pubblicato in altra versione negli Atti del Convegno Internazionale: Michefozzo, scultore e architetto (1396-1472), a cura di G. Moroli , Firenze 1998: 287-296) si apre l'interrogativo se il San Giovanni di Duknović fosse destinato proprio ad essere il primo nella cappella. All 'interno dell 'opus del Duknović s'introduce un logico intermezzo con il soggiorno nella nativa Traù ai primi degli anni '80, senza il quale sarebbe difficile spiegare le eccezionali creazioni realizzate per il Palazzo Cippico. Soprattutto, leggendo i documenti noti e quelli finora non noti dell'archivio della cattedrale traurina si scopre la logica successione degli avvenimenti nel cantiere della cappella di Traù, e si pone in rilievo il ruolo di Coriolano Cippico sia nella sua progettazione, sia all'interno del circolo umanistico traurino della seconda metà del XV secolo.
As a normative principle, federalism describes "the method of dividing powers so that the general and regional governments are each, within a sphere, co-ordinate and independent" (Wheare 1963: 10). The federal principle thus prescribes subnational self-rule on matters of local and regional scope and shared rule of the subnational units and the federal government on matters that transcend regional capabilities and jurisdiction (Elazar 1987). To not confuse federalism with other means and ways to territorially distribute power, e.g. decentralization, the vertical division and diffusion of jurisdiction needs to be constitutionally enshrined and cannot be unilaterally altered (Hueglin 2013). The constitutional safeguard is the core of federations that are the empirical embodiments of the normative principle of subnational autonomy on the one hand and federally shared jurisdiction on the other. Hence, federations are states that possess a federal constitution, i.e. a written agreement enshrining the basic political order of a state (who does what), that necessitates the approval of all constitutive parts, i.e. the federal government and the subnational units (Watts 2008: 8–9). Since "federalism is some one or several varieties of political philosophy or ideology and […] federation […] some type of political institution" (King 1982: 75), the constitution and its political institutions are only the formal framework within which actors of different levels of government work. Thus, federalism does not only encompass structure (polities) but also processes and culture (politics). The latter describes the political actors' behavior according to the logic of compromise and accommodation but also a commitment of the people as a whole towards territorial power sharing and the aforementioned logic of "thinking federal" (Elazar 1987: 192–197; see also Duchacek 1970). Especially, processes and practices within and beyond the federal frame stand out. One procedural characteristic in multi-tiered, federal systems are intergovernmental relations (IGR) that describe "ways and means of operationalizing a system of government" (Elazar 1987: 16). In its broadest terms, IGR are formal and informal interactions of government units between and within layers of government (Poirier and Saunders 2015a). Intergovernmental agreements (IGAs) and intergovernmental councils (IGCs), the two central embodiments of IGR, come into play when self-rule or shared rule is granted but cannot be sufficiently or satisfactorily fulfilled (for a general introduction see Poirier et al. 2015; for an encompassing discussion of IGCs see Bolleyer 2009 and Behnke and Mueller 2017; for an introduction to IGAs see country specific literature). The dissertation project "Federal Reform and Intergovernmental Relations in Switzerland. An Analysis of Intercantonal Agreements and Parliamentary Scrutiny in the Wake of the NFA" starts from the conceptual dualism of federalism and IGR. It aims at answering crucial questions on the most recent developments in the Swiss federal system with respect to horizontal IGAs and the role of subnational legislatures when such IGAs are at stake. The basic and overall research question of the dissertation is directly derived from the underlying research project1 on "[t]he hidden political effects of the Swiss federal reform: The NFA and the changing power relations in the Swiss cantons": To what extent has the NFA affected the cantons and their political systems? The research strategy is twofold and so is the research question further split in two: A first preparatory part approaches the research objects at hand and a second part then aims at answering the basic research question. First, the dissertation asks for the significance of horizontal IGAs between the Swiss cantons and for the factors that explain their occurrence: (I) What is the state of intercantonal cooperation by means of IGAs and what explains the intensity of their use? While literature in the international (Parker 2015) and the Swiss context (Bochsler and Sciarini 2006) assign crucial importance to IGAs, barely anything is known about their empirical significance as well as the factors that drive it. Two exceptions stand out: the investigations by Frenkel and Blaser (1981) and Bochsler (2009) address both questions – state and explanatory factors of IGAs – within the Swiss federal system. However, research on the topic resides in the shadow. Answering research question (I) adds another point in time to the two existing ones – Frenkel and Blaser (1981) analyze IGAs as of 1980 and Bochsler (2009) as of 2005. The subsequent analysis checks whether the state of horizontal IGAs has changed and whether the explanatory factors tested are still of significance. Both is by no means certain: The most recent and encompassing federal reform, the Neugestaltung des Finanzausgleichs und der Aufgabenteilung zwischen Bund und Kantonen (NFA), took force on 1 January 2008 and, among others, strengthened intercantonal cooperation especially with reference to the conclusion of IGAs providing public goods and services that require the sharing of costs and burdens. Art. 48a para. 1 lit. a.–i. Cst prescribes the use of IGAs in certain policy areas, e.g. school and higher education, cultural infrastructure but also waste management and waste water treatment. The further institutionalization of IGAs by its strong codification in the federal constitution and the enshrined federal enforcement mechanisms were widely expected to spur intercantonal cooperation (see Bochsler and Sciarini 2006: 36). After around ten years since the NFA has taken force, the subsequent analysis investigates whether this expectation was right and whether the logic behind the conclusion of IGAs has changed or remained the same. Hence, it provides for the better understanding of state and occurrence of IGAs in general. Furthermore, it puts a special focus on such addressed by the NFA in particular. First, the descriptive analysis shows that there is no clear answer to the question on the development of IGAs: While the mere number of IGAs has not significantly changed of late but consolidated on a high level, other (fiscal) indicators point towards enhanced intercantonal cooperation. With respect to the explanatory model, applying cross-sectional regression analysis as well as the Quadratic Assignment Procedure (QAP) on dyadic data of intercantonal contracting, the subsequent analysis replicates but also expands the analysis of Bochsler (2009). One of the main findings is that intercantonal cooperation by IGAs mainly takes place within functional, geographically demarcated areas. Mobility plays a crucial role and is one of the main predictors of the intensity of horizontal contractual cooperation. To abstract from the Swiss case, a comparative analysis of the German Bundesländer and the U.S. states is conducted. The crucial question here is whether it exists a similar state and a common logic behind IGAs in other federations as well or whether country specific differences occur. The second part of the dissertation project deals with specific political effects of the NFA, namely effects on the cantonal parliaments as one of the core political institutions on the subnational level (Vatter 2002). While the first part approaches the topic by clarifying state and logic behind IGAs to assess its overall significance for the cantons, the second part directly addresses the basic research question on the political effects of the NFA on power relations within the cantons: (II) How do cantonal parliamentary rights of participation and scrutiny in intercantonal affairs have developed over time and what explains this development? Research on the Swiss cantons provides not only specific descriptive knowledge on singular cases (see Iff et al. 2010 for the canton of Berne and Schwarz et al. 2015 for the canton of Uri) but also on all cantons (Strebel 2014). However, both approaches lack a quantitative comparative and explanatory perspective. Towards answering question (II), it is hypothesized that the NFA and the accompanying public debates and executing national legislation2 triggered change in cantonal parliamentary rights of participation and scrutiny. As already pointed out, the reform heightened the expectation of more executive-driven intercantonal cooperation. Additionally, the federal government settled minimal standards for the conclusion of IGAs that lie within Art. 48a para. 1 lit. a.–i. Cst. Strebel (2014: 231ff.) discusses reforms on the cantonal level towards better parliamentary participation and scrutiny against the background of the NFA. However, a quantitative comparative analysis of the specific factors explaining institutional change stands out: Did the NFA trigger parliamentary reforms in the cantons and what role did other factors play, e.g. the institutional context and the parliaments itself as well as partisan actors within the cantonal arenas? The analysis builds on approaches testing similar effects in other contexts, e.g. the effects of increased activity of state officials on the European level on more parliamentary scrutiny of national governments 'at home' (Raunio and Hix 2000, O'Brennan and Raunio 2007, Winzen 2012, Auel et al. 2015). Methodically, the investigation in this second part makes use of time-series analysis on panel data to isolate the factors explaining institutional change. Besides, an in-depth discussion on a typical case (Lieberman 2005) gives further insights on the workings of the explanatory mechanisms. The dissertation closes by discussing the major implications that can be drawn from the analyses. While the first analysis addressed a trend within federations, i.e. increasing horizontal interactions, the second investigated a major challenge, i.e. efficiency versus democratic accountability (Poirier and Saunders 2015b). The concluding discussion links the two parts of the dissertation and hypothesizes the following: it was the very development towards enhanced parliamentary participation (second analysis) that has hampered the intensity of intercantonal contracting most recently (first analysis). Furthermore, the capability of cantonal political systems is critically discussed. 1 See the abstract of the research project The hidden political effects of the Swiss federal reform: The NFA and the changing power relations in the Swiss cantons (SNSF No. 159343; http://p3.snf.ch/Project-159343, accessed 31 March 2020). 2 i.e. the Bundesgesetz über den Finanz- und Lastenausgleich (FiLaG), in force since 1 April 2005, and the Rahmenvereinbarung über die interkantonale Zusammenarbeit mit Lastenausgleich (IRV), passed for ratification on 24 June 2005.
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Name $ WEAVER ORGAN AND PIANO CO., MANUFACTURERS, f | YORK, PA , U S A. | Address \v '■I-' I I II 1II Students' Headquarters —FOR— HATS, SHOES, AND GENT'S FURNISHINGS. Sole Agent for WALK -OVER SHOES ECKERT'S STORE. Prices Always Right TJie Lutheran PuWicdtioij Society No. 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY 8. BONER, Bupt, THE KA ERCURV The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1909 No. 5 CONTENTS. ARTICLE I.—TENNYSON" CENTENARY, AUG., 1809- 1909.—Tennyson and In Memoriam 2 REV. CHARLES WILLIAM HEATHCOTE, '05, A.M., B.D. GETTING EVEN 5 E. C. STOUFFER, '11. CULTURE S G. F. POFFENBERGER, '11. NOBLE CHARACTER OUR NATIONAL SAFEGUARD. 9 PAUL S. MILLER, '10. IS THE GRANTING OF ATHLETIC SCHOLARSHIPS GOOD POLICY? 12 PAUL M. MARSHALL, '10. A COMPLETED PLAN 13 TAXIS, '09. THE WORLD IS OVER-ORGANIZED 16 ROT V. DERR, '10. WHAT IS SUCCESS? 21 E. W. HARNER, '12. OUR SYMBOL—OUR IDEAL 23 RALPH E. RUDISILL, '10. AN INDIAN SOLILOQUY 25 1911. EDITORIALS 28 BOOK REVIEWS 31 2 THE MEEOUEY ARTICLE I.—TENNYSON CENTENARY AUG. 1809-1909.- TENNYSON AND IN MEMORIAM. BY EEV. CHAELES WILLIAM HEATHCOTE, '05, A.M., B.D. |ANY problems have disturbed the human race from the very early ages. We have had men in the past history of the world, and in fact through all periods of later development and even now, asking such questions as. Does death end all ? Whence is the origin of evil ? Why do we have suffering ? Is the soul immortal ? Poets, philosophers, prophets, priests, aye in fact all humanity, have grappled and continue to grapple with these deep problems. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were not the only ancient philoso-phers who sought to know the cause and effect of things. Thus the problem of life, death and immortality have puzzled sages. We have many poets seeking to bring to light various thoughts to explain these things. The Great Master has pointed out to us, and has revealed to us, that if we are true to God, fellowman and self, we shall inherit eternal life. He has revealed to us the con-ditions, how we may be saved, and thus receive immortality. However, with this revelation each generation is able to meet these various problems and with the spirit of truth to be able to understand them in part at least. Also where true understanding is impossible we have a faith in the Christ, which is firm and strong, for, though now we see through a glass darkly, then we shall see face to face, and we shall be known even as we are known. Thus the poets have struggled with these perplexing problems. They probably give us a better insight into the religious consci-ousness of each generation than do the theological writers. They seem to have a deeper prophetic insight into nature. Thus Mil-ton struggled with the same problems. Though his poetry is not popular, nevertheless it is classic. We find there is a deep in-sight into the problems that have confronted the human race. As Alfred Tennyson mourns the loss of his beloved friend and college mate, Arthur Henry Hallam, in the immortal poem, la Memoriam," so Milton has written "Lycidas," a poem, mourning the loss of Edward King of Christ's College. He had perished THE MBHCOKT. 3 in a shipwreck off the coast of Wales on the 10th of August, 1637. Of him Milton writes: "Weep no more woeful shepherds, weep no more, For Lycidas, your sorrow, is not dead, Sunk though it be beneath the watery flood: So sinks the day-star in the ocean bed, And yet anon repairs his drooping head. And tricks his beams, and with new spangled ore, Flames in the forehead of the morning sky." Again, Thomas Gray in his beautiful poem, "The Elegy Writ-ten in a Country Church Yard, points out the tribute to the hum-ble ones who are the strength and power of a nation and who de-part from their loved ones and the world in time seems to forget them. They are deserving of the highest praise and emulation. Thus he writes: "Let not ambition mock their useful toil, Their homely joys, and destiny obscure; Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful smile The short and simple annals of the poor. The boast of Heraldry, the pomp of Pow'r, And all that Beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike th' inevitable hour The paths of glory lead but to the grave. Nor yet ye proud, impute to these the fault, If memory o'er their tomb no trophiees raise, When through the long-drawn aisle and fetted vault The pealing anthem swells the note of praise. Emerson, our own beloved poet, came face to face with the great problem of death when his son, Waldo, died January, 1842. He wrote the beautiful poem, "Threnody," about the loss of his child. As we read this poem our hearts go out in sympathy to the poet, for we feel every word of the poem vibrating, as it were, with his sorrow. , GETTYSBURG COLLEGE f I Gettysburg, Pa. 1 | - LIBRARY - § 4 THE MEKCDBY. The first part of the poem is a true picture of the poet's grief. He writes: "And, looking over the hills, I mourn The darling who shall not return." In conclusion he writes: "Silent rushes the swift Lord Through ruined systems still restored, Broad sowing, bleak and void to bless, Plants with worlds the wilderness; Waters with tears of ancient sorrow Apples of Eden ripe to-morrow. House and tenant go to ground, Lost in God, in Godhead found." Of the poem Dr. Holmes said, "It has the dignity of Lycidas without its refrigerating classicism, and with all the tenderness of Cowper's lines on the receipt of his mother's picture. Thus when Tennyson wrote "In Memoriam," great grief filled hisieart for the loss of his dear friend and college chum, Arthur Henry Hallam. Tennyson was a man of strong character, pure and noble ideals. He is a philosopher, poet, sage and prophet. His poetry though deep and classic is also popular. He has a living mes-sage for each one. His poetry comes from a deep sympathetic heart and is therefore living and true. Alfred Tennyson, the English poet-laureate, was born at Som-ersby Eectory, Lincolnshire, Aug. 6, 1809. He graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge, the same institution from which Hallam was graduated. Tennyson won the chancellor's medal in 1829 for the poem "Timbuctoo." Tennyson began to write poetry at a very early age. In 1830 appeared a volume of well written verse. In 1842 he published another volume of poems, which showed deep thought and con-templation and which won for him a high place among the Eng-lish poets. In 1847 appeared the "Princess," and in 1850 the world was THE MERCURY. given the immortal elegy, "In Memoriam." In 1855 the poem "Maud," appeared in a volume together with the "Charge of the Light Brigade," and an ode on the death of the Duke of Welling-ton, part of which reads as follows: "Lo the leader in those glorious wars Now to glorious burial slowly borne, Follow'd by the brave of other lands, He, on whom from both her open hands Lavish honor show'd all her stars, And affluent Fortune emptied all her horn. Yea, let all good things await Him who cares not to be great, But as he saves or serves the State." During the remaining years of his life he published the "Idylls of the King," "Enoch Arden," "The Northern Farmers," "Ti-resias," "Demeter" and other poems, "Akbor's Dream," "The Death of Oenone," "Queen Mary," "Harold," "Becket," "The Cup," "The Promise of May," and "The Foresters." He was raised to the peerage in 1874 on account of his ability and also as a tribute to his work. He died Oct. 6, 1892, aged 83 years, at his home Aldworth Surrey. GETTING EVEN. E. C. STOUFFEE, '11. | HEN Eoger Craig received an appointment on the re-porters' staff of the "New York Journal," all his friends and neighbors predicted a bright future for him, and at the beginning of his career it seemed as though their predictions would come true. His willingness to work, keen per-ception and native courteousness made him a favorite with every-one, and at the same time an invaluable member of the staff. The hardest work was assigned to him but he invariably accom-plished it successfully. AVhen he was sent to interview a man he 6 THE MERCURY. usually had a story for his paper. As a result one promotion fol-lowed another in such rapid succession that, any other young man they would have caused to swell up with pride, but Craig only determined to work harder and rise still higher. He had now been in the employ of the great newspaper four years and during that time had risen to the front rank as a re-porter. Occasionally during those four years a letter went from him to the old editor of the only weekly newspaper which his native New England town. boasted. These the old man pub-lished gladly and the townspeople read them eagerly. At the village store when Roger's name was mentioned and his success discussed, old men between streams of tobacco juice, used to say, "I told you that he'd git along." While Craig was getting along in this happy wajr, the morning came when the entire world was shocked by the news that our President, Win. McKinle}1, had been, perhaps, fatally wounded hy an anarchist while shaking hands with him at the Pan-Ameri-can exposition at Buffalo. Eoger heard the news and then thought a moment. A letter wouldn't reach his home town for two days and that would be too late for that week's issue of the paper. Thinking to do a kindness to the old man he sent a tele-graph dispatch to him telling him of the cowardly attempt on the President's life. The old editor was astounded. In all his life as an editor he had never received a telegram. Carefully adjusting his spectacles he read it again and again. This surely must be a mistake. It cannot be possible. Surely no one would try to take President McKinley's life. Wo one could do that. This must, therefore, be a mere joke of young Craig's. And it was plainly his duty to advise the young man against such foolishness. Accordingly two letters left his office that day. One was addressed to Craig at his rooms in New York. It contained a warning against the danger, and a little fatherly advice concerning practical jokes. "A mat-ter of the importance of his recent telegram was entirely too serious for a joke," etc. The other letter went to the managing editor of the "New York Journal" and said that a watch ought to be kept on young Craig, for he must be somewhat beside himself. Then followed a detailed account of the telegram. In the Mid-dleberg "Chronicle" there appeared a long article saying that THE MERCURY. young Craig must have suddenly lost his reason, for this week he became seized with the notion tht President McKinley was assas-sinated, and telegraphed the same to us. Of course we are very sorry for the man and sympathize deeply with him in his afflic-tion, etc. The next morning when the postman brought in the old man's mail he saw the rival newspaper of the neighboring town had its entire front page taken up by an account of the attempt on Mc- Kinley's life. The old man was dumfounded. He might doubt Craig's telegram, but he never could doubt that newspaper. He saw where his rival had beaten, whereas if he had not been so foolish the advantage might have been his. That afternoon he was kept busy cancelling subscriptions to his paper. That night a weary heavy hearted old man wrote a long letter to the young reporter. He offered profuse apologies for the treatment which had been given him and ended by saying that he never would doubt his word again no matter what news item he might send him, he would publish without for a moment questioning as to its truth. Meanwhile the two letters reached their destinations. Eogers received his with a feeling of amusement. His mental comment was merely, "Blamed old fool. He's crazier than I am." But when the managing editor read his a frown crossed his forehead. He pondered a moment and then summoned young Craig. When the young man appeared a stern-faced manager faced him. The manager motioned him to a chair and then said: "I am sorry that I must inform you that your services are no longer required by us. I have here a letter from the editor of your home paper in which he informs me that you have been sending news matters from our office. We pay enormous sums yearly to maintain private wires, so of course we cannot allow our employees to send away what we pay so dearly for." The young man's head swam. Before all looked bright to him. In a moment all was changed. A feeling of intense anger towards the old man, whose ignorance had caused his misfortune, took possession of him and a desire to get even filled his mind. He went to the nearest telegraph sta-tion and sent the following telegram to the old editor: "At last the long-standing dispute between Emperor William and Edward VII concerning the Imperial Crown has been settled. The two 8 THE MERCURY. rulers decided to fight a duel and thus decide. The weapons were automobiles run toward each other at full speed. Santos Dumont in his airship carried Edward VII, the one who was found to be the nearer alive, to Eome, where he was crowned amid loud acclamations from the people." The next morning the little weekly came out with a full page account of the affair and two days later the sheriff closed the little office forever. And so far as young Craig was concerned, the last that was heard of him he was shucking oysters in a wholesale oyster house down along the Chesapeake Bay. *£• *&• CULTURE. G. F. POFFENBERGER, '11. |UCCESS to-day demands both natural ability and cul-ture. In the past, men have risen to the summit of human achievement through their natural ability alone. But the strenuous, vigorous and active life of the pres-ent requires every contestant in the race to be fully trained.Ig-norance in responsible positions is a thing of the past. Nature often endows a man with one talent which if developed, produces a man of genius, if neglected, degenerates him into an abnormal being. Upon one man may be bestowed strong intel-lectual abilities at the expense of his physical nature; to another may be given the vigor with small attention to intelligence; many in the present age are possessed of both qualities. To equalize the gifts of nature culture should be given the office of mediator and instructor. Culture to-day is within the grasp of everyone, whether he be of high or low birth. To all the schools of the country are open; to all the colleges and universities of the land offer their oppor-tunities. Nor is self-culture less practical; for its end is the same though its means are more severe and trying. The reading of choice literature and the associations with great works of art produce an effect upon the character to be marked as the test of the fully trained mind. Critical power in litera- THE MERCUEY. » ture is a degree of cultivation rarely attained, but when attained, it places its possessor in a position almost superhuman. The perception of beauty is another test of culture. Only a small part of this earth is given over to one's needs; the whole universe however, is within the hand of the fortunate one who perceives beauty in nature. Beauty is an all-pervading presence. It unfolds itself in the myriad blossoms of the springtime; it is beneath the dark shade of the summer trees; it haunts even the depths of the earth and sea. The uncultured man looks upon all these with a hardened heart. To the man of culture it is a reve-lation of the proper course of human action not only here, but even through eternity. The greatest attribute of culture is its power not only to in-duce impressions but to produce expressions. The cultured man is an artist. Expression may be made to the world through the medium of the brush, the pen, or a higher medium still, the hu-man voice. Speech is one of our greatest distinctions from the brute, and its highest cultivation marks the highest type of man. Our power over others depends less upon the amount of thought within us, than our power to bring it out. The ages of the world have been marked by the gradually widening breach between man and beast, the physical and the spiritual. The past is behind us, we must keep up with the pres-ent only. Future years will produce still greater changes, and through the influence of culture, mental and spiritual man will attain that perception which his Creator intended for him. NOBLE CHARACTER OUR NATIONAL SAFEGUARD. PAUL S. MILLER, '10. |HEN we speak of character and its influence it is neces-sary first that we know what is meant by character. By character is meant the composite of definite moral and personal traits which serves to distinguish an indi-vidual and to mark the type to which he belongs. Therefore, 10 THE MEKCUEY. noble character is that which, in the highest sense constitutes the man. It is very evident then, that the men who fill our executive chairs must possess noble characters in order that they may be true to themselves, true to the instincts which, with our race seem to go hand in hand with freedom,—love of order and respect for law. A man to possess a noble character need not be a great man as the world classes great men, but the man who has a true, noble character, who uses his gifts rightly and does his duty in whatever station of life he is situated. One of the most important factors to be considered in the de-velopment and acquisition of a noble character, by which the moral nature must be subjected and brought under control, is the will, by which the mental faculties are directed and energized. It is through a strong will that bad habits are overcome and habits of truthfulness, honesty and obedience are established in their stead. It is through a well controlled will that self-respect, self-control and strength of character is obtained. One of the greatest forces in the world is man; and one of the most determinate and irresistible forces in man is his will. When the will collects its forces and makes a final resolution to accomplish some act it is then that man has the power on the one hand to poison the very springs of national life or on the other to become in reality the agent of God. This nation of ours stands as it is to-day because of such reso-lutions as the latter being carried out by men of strong wills and noble characters. With such powerful forces as Washington and Lincoln to guide and urge us on, it is not only right, but it is the duty of every one of us to attain the highest possible standard of noble character. It is from the young men of to-day, those who are now in the course of their education, that our future governors, senators, statesmen and presidents must be chosen. We may assume, then, that if the seed of a noble character is sown in youth we may ex-pect the rising generation to enter this world prepared to fight the battles of life, and our higher offices filled by men who will strive for the betterment of themselves and their posterity and men who may be entrusted with the government of this grand and glorious nation. TUB MEKCURY. IT If the Englishman is proud of his country, scattered as it w all over the world, so that, as he boasts, "the beat of the morning, drum encircles the earth," if the Swiss peasant loves his moun-tain heights, if the Scotchman delights in his desolate moor, and the Irishman thinks his little island of poverty the dearest spot on earth; if even the despised Chinaman dreads to die outside of his native land, what should be the devotion of Americans to this the grandest land the sun has ever shown upon, a land where hu-man happiness is so widely disseminated, where human govern-ment is so little abused, so free from oppression, so invisible, in-tangible and yet so strong. The world is asking the young American to-day what may we' expect of you when you are called upon to take the place of re-sponsibility made vacant by the deaths of those who now occupy them. Are we going to disappoint the world and make a failure of our lives? Or will we meet the demand of the times and profit by the failures and successes of our predecessors. A nation must also possess a character if it would endure; and this is obtained only through the character of the individual. When national character ceases to be upheld, a nation may be regarded as next to lost. When such a state is reached that honor and obedience are seemingly lost, the only remedy is the restoration of individual character, and if this is irrecoverably lost, all is lost. Then let us, as a rising generation, be marked with that great feature of noble character, that moral worth and intelligence that we may have the power to erect a bulwark which shall prove im-pregnable in that hour of trial, when fleets and fortifications shall be vain. If, therefore, it is in our power to preserve this precious heri-tage, let us cling to it with a patriot's love, with a scholar's en-thusiasm, and with a Christian's hope and may this grand nation which is still part of the great universe be as an ornament of a' free people and continue to be free and which God may preserve-till time shall be no more. iETTYSBURG COLLEGE Gettysburg, Pa. LIBRARY 12 THE MEHCURY. IS THE GRANTING OF ATHLETIC SCHOLARSHIPS GOOD POLICY? PAUL M. MARSHALL, '10. HE problem of the athletic scholarship confronts every college or university of prominence to-day; in most cases it is not a question of dollars and cents but a ques-tion of principle and the future welfare of the college. Whether the moral and mental side of an institution is benefitted by the presence of men that an athletic scholarship has brought to its campus is probably debated in the faculty meetings of every school. The true and original purpose of such a scholarship was to help those students athletically inclined who were financially un-able to get through college; it was intended not for the lazy, happy-go-lucky athlete that is never a credit to any college but for the earnest student whose only hope of education lies in his athletics. Such men, working hard for an education, would probably be compelled to resort to summer ball or professional sport of some kind to carry on their college work and then if they attempted to engage in school athletics there would be the cry of "professional-ism" and "impure sports." This is the man to whom an athletic scholarship is a salvation, an inspiration that will goad him on in every line of work; the duty to his college comes first, and in after life any alumnus can point to him -with pride as a fellow-graduate. He is a credit to the institution he represents. But in these attempts to aid the worthy, the bounds have been over-stepped and the college has forgotten the kind of men the athletic scholarship was designed for; an insight into the man's character is overlooked, not a thought is given to his personality;: there is but one thought and that is the athletic ability of the applicant. Credentials of good character and moral worth are not asked for; all that is needed is a recommendation from some former team-mate or coach to insure the receipt of such a scholar-ship. This man, in his few years at college, whilst he may have been instrumental in a few victories, will probably have had a demoral- THE MEECUBY. 13 izing effect on the student body; the tendency to loaf is prevalent., for he is not interested in college work and the result is that in most cases he is classed as a special student. These specials are a drag to the institution and are seldom a credit to their Alma Mater. The man who does not have graduation in view will never take the interest in his work that should be characteristic of every college man. A college is known by its alumni. Are the men who were in college the beneficiaries of athletic scholarships, fit persons to in-fluence increased attendance and bring credit upon the college? The fact that athletic prominence brings success to an institution is undisputed, but the fact carries with it the provision that only men strong in every line of work shall be allowed to represent the college. On the whole the athletic scholarship discourages study and aptitude in any phase of work other than the athletic; is is mis-used and has become rather an easy way of spending four years than an encouragement to deserving students. To the poorly en-dowed small college that must strive in every way to exist where a few such loafers may have an infinite influence on the student body, the athletic scholarship is the cause of a lowering of every standard of the school's worth. In the university the plan may not reflect on the general student life, but no matter where or what may be the school concerned, the granting of athletic scholarships is indiscreet and not in harmony with the best poli-cies of the institution. A COMPLETED PLAN. TAXIS, '09. HE directors of The Slicem Packing Co. Limited had gathered together and had been discussing the rumors relative to the investigation of their business by the government deputies. The board room was filled with. the smoke from their cigars, and a hush pervaded the chamber. Each man was thinking deeply of the approaching storm. "WelL 14 THE MERCURY. fellows, this city is too hot for me, and I am going to take a trip abroad for my health," finally declared the youngest, and most promising director. "But, Des, that'll never do. You see that will put us in a poor light and we can't afford it," apologetically said one of the others. "Oh shucks Gordon! Poor light or not, I am going abroad. Now gentlemen, you have heard my de-cision. Do as you think best; I shall do as I have just said." So saying H. G. Desmond Vanderpew abruptly left the heated room and directed his steps to his palatial home in Madison Square. Here he made all preparations for his intended trip. Soon after Vanderpew's arrival a cab was seen to stop at his door. Vanderpew descended the wide, white, highly polished marble steps, entered the waiting vehicle and gave a last glance at his father's beautiful mansion, surrounded with artistically arranged flower beds. The carriage, after a half hour's time, finally stop-ped in front of the Past Line Steamship Co. Vanderpew step-ped out, paid the cabby and, handing his suit case to the porter, crossed the gang plank. Soon he felt the movement of the great ship and he began to breathe easier. During the entire trip he remained in his state-room, partly on account of illness, but more especially that he might not encounter any of the government officers who might have decided that they likewise needed recuperation. Vander-pew consulted maps and catalogues to occupy his time. He de-liberated as to the best course to pursue. At last he decided to go to a little town in Germany by the name of Stoburg. "Here," he reasoned with himself, "I can be incognitio, free from molesta-tion, and it will be the last place that those sleuths will stick their noses." Accordingly when the ship was docked at Queenstown, he sought the next departing vessel for the continent, where he boarded a train for Leipsic. When he ultimately reached the station, night had already settled over the quiet town and many of the inhabitants had already obtained a few hours' sleep. Hav-ing refused the assistance of a cabman, Vanderpew trudged along over a well paved street in search of a hotel. Finally, after a painfully long walk he located one and going to the assigned apartment retired, weary, yet with a mind free from fear of the tieputies. THE MEKCUBr. 15 When he awoke the next morning, the sun was high in the heavens. After his necessary toilet had been performed ,he de-scended to the large room, which was used as a bar room, dining room and general parlor. Here he met the fat, cheerful, rosy-cheeked proprietor, who inquired about his welfare. "Oh, I feel fine, and I shall take advantage of this fine weather, and go walk-ing." Vanderpew strolled slowly down the street, idly looking into the shops. At last he found himself at the end of the paved street and at the beginning of a road. "I guess I'll keep right on," he murmured. So saying he stooped, picked up a stone, ex-amined it curiously, then resumed his walk. Soon he was in the midst of one of those renowned forests of Germany. The trees stood in parallel rows. The underbrush so common to American forests had been cleared away and at intervals were benches for • the comfort of the passerby. At the beginning of the forest the State Forester was directing his busy assistants to mark this or that tree which he deemed ready for the ax. After watching the operation so new to him, Vandepew resumed his walk. Gradu-ally the place became forsaken. The sun heated the aisles be-tween the tall cedar trees, while the stirring breeze prevented the heat from becoming too intense. The trees shaded the edges of the paths and the birds filled the air with their songs. In a meditative mood Vandepew strolled on and on. Suddenly he espied a girl sitting on a bench directly to his right. Her tall figure, with its broad shoulders, plump arms and gibson waist betrayed an American lineage, as also did her almond eyes and high pompadour. "Gee! what a beaut!" he muttered, "wonder if there's any wrong in a casual acquaintance. I guess she's Dutch, but I'll be darned if she doesn't look like the best Ameri-can beauty I've ever seen. Well, here goes." In the meanwhile he had approached her. He stopped, summoned courage, and then blurted out, "Sprechen sie Deuteh?" The girl raised her eyes from her book in surprise and asked, "Pardon me, but did you speak to me ?" "Er-er ye-e-s, that is to sayy—yes!" "Are you acquainted here?" he continued meekly. "Just a little," she answered, "you see I am staying at the Hotel and am out for pastime." "How miraculous! I should say how delightful! I am also a guest at the same place. How would you like to 16 THE MERCURY. have a companion in the indulgence?" "Well, I suppose that since we are both Americans, it will not matter if we don't have a formal introduction, just this once. Do you think it will ?Oh, no," he quickly answered, sliding his arm around her slender waist, "of course not." We are co-admirers of nature." "Oh well," he continued, "I shall introduce myself and you can tell me who you are and we will be over Mrs. Grundy's objections. My name is Henry Griswald Desmond Vanclerpew of New York City, twenty-five years of age, secretary of The Slicem Packing Co., millionaire, a free and accepted Mason of the thirty-second degree, Knight Templar, a lover of sports and an admirer of Kipling, et cetera, and you? "Well, Desmond, it is strange you do not remember your old sweetheart, Inda Audrey Meredith, the possessor of nineteen American summers and two German winters, the maker of your twenty odd cushions, also your old yacht mate." "Audrey! How changed! Let's do now what we had plan-ned before your trip abroad. Will you dear?" Their lips met in common consent and silence prevailed. THE WORLD IS OVER-ORGANIZED. ROT V. DERR, '10. I HE inherent meaning of the word "organization," is al-most as old as Time itself. The principles of organiza-tion form the basis of society and government. When-ever a number of people desire to establish a principle, foster an idea or promote an interest, they must first organize. Thus a system of work is laid; disorder and inequality are pre-vented; concentration of effort, and harmony prevail. But the question that concerns us for the present is, whether or not the tendency is toward too much organization. Never in the history of the world has there been so much or-ganization. This is true in Church, in State, in Industry, but especially in social and fraternal life. To be convinced of the growing tendency toward organization, we need only to look at THE MEHODIty. 17 the Church. The average modern city organization counts its organizations by the dozen. There are societies for the old, the middle-aged, the 3'oung; for the men and for the women, old and young. There are missionary organizations, temperance, social, charitable and sometimes individual organizations. That the aims and purpose of all these organizations are praiseworthy and right, is not denied. But the question is whether there is too much organization for the moral and spiritual force necessary to keep it in smooth running order. Is the machinery becoming too huge and unwieldly ? Are we going too far ? It is evident that to carry out successfully these different or-ganizations, their plans and methods of work, each one must be regulated by its system of officers, meetings and routine of work. The regime of just one organization to be executed with any de-gree of success demands a considerable outlay of time, money and energy. How can so many survive? Some must suffer. This accounts for the failure of so many organizations. Not because the aim of the society may not be worthy nor its plans commen-dable, but the expenditure of time and talent necessary to insure its success, is too much, considering the other important and more necessary organizations to which one may belong. One cause of over-organization is the attempt to execute a prin-ciple or policy that is already being enforced, only in a more general way. To be more clear, the tendency is to counteract every particular evil, or to promote every particular virtue by a corresponding organization with its whole system of work. To attack the vice, profanity, the Anti-profanity League is organized. The smoking of cigarettes is assailed by the Anti-cigarette Asso-ciation. Organizations of this nature exist without number. Certainly some of them are absolutely necessary and constitute the best way to fight a foe or promulgate a principle. They are sometimes more effective than an organization having a broad, genial scope. An example of this type would be the Anti-Saloon League, now working wonders by its sane principles and com-mon sense methods. The scope and mission of these organiza-tions vary. Let us ask the question. Is an organization justi-fiable whose purpose and aims are already covered by another greater, more inclusive and comprehensive organization? For example, does the desecration of the American Sabbath demand is THE MEKCUBT. an organization whoso purposes shall be to mitigate its abuse or to give the laborer his rest, and so on, when the State or the Church should properly regulate these matters. This is not per-haps a good concrete example, but it will suffice to illustrate the point in question. It must not be understood that organization is not essential to moral and social reform. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals has its place; the Civic Asso-ciation for Public Improvement is certainly a good thing; Purity organizations, Peace organizations and Charity organizations— all may be productive of immense good. But it is the sub-di-visions of these ideas and principles into so many corresponding small organizations that are hurtful. The trouble is not in or-ganization but in excessive organization. Another field in which too many organizations are undouhtedly "responsible for the destruction of the real usefulness of their gen-eral principles, is that of the fraternal secret orders. These, too, like the church and reform organizations have multiplied with great rapidity in recent years. The principles of these various orders are mostly of a patriotic, fraternal, or charitable nature; their emblems are such words as these: Virtue, Liberty, Pa-triotism, Mercy, Charity or Fraternity. One especial feature of the majority of such orders, is the sickness and death benefits. This feature really forms the basis for the large membership. With some exceptions of course, there can hardly be any seri-ous charge brought against the principles of these secret orders. Here, too, the harmful results ensue from the fact that there are too many being organized. They can not compete with the in-surance companies and the already existing secret orders of an established reputation. Frequently men unite with as many as six or more of these orders. These societies like all other orga-nizations must have their regular meetings, whether weekly or monthly, to maintain interest. Evidently faithfulness in dis-charging duties and pledges necessitates neglect of other import-ant business or home relations. As a result of this complexity many a one drops out. Consequently for lack of membership and financial strength, many organizations of this type "go un-der," in common parlance. Hence there is almost absolute loss of the money paid in. This condition needs no further comment. The multiplication of secret fraternal orders without a very ., THE MERCURY. 19 strong, practical, financial basis, is bound to demonstrate the evil effects of over-organization. Tliere is an economic aspect to this problem of organization. And the disastrous effects of over-organization frequently find their causes in economic conditions. The financial side is espe-cially referred to. The carrying out of the principles of an or-ganization incurs more or less expense, depending upon its na-ture. If it is an association for moral, social or civic reform, or if a fraternal order, it must have its official newspaper organ, its corps of workers and representatives in the field. The exten-siveness of the various systems and processes of work vary. In any case the financial funds must be raised to insure the welfare and safety of the organization. Very frequently many must suffer and finally fail through lack of monetary resources. The newspapers representing church denominational interests and moral reform are constantly making strenuous appeals for in-creased subscription lists in order to maintain their existence. The demands upon the average man's poeketbook made by the innumerable organizations are great. Only the most practical, beneficial and important organizations can survive. The others eke out a miserable existence and become a parasite on society. It is pitiable to see an organization launch out with seemingly bright prospects and worthy ideals, soon to be overwhelmned by the more solid, sturdy ones already in existence. Yet this oc-curs somewhere nearly every day. Another feature of nearly all organizations is to hold conven-tions, assemblies and so forth. These may occur annually, bien-nially or in a few cases less often. It may on the surface seem of little value to refer to this fact. But the increase of all sorts of organizations has occasioned so many such gatherings that the. people at large are coming to view them with dissatisfaetiou'- Pree entertainment at even church assemblies is no longer pos-sible at many places. The demands upon good nature and hos-pitality become too excessive. This is but one phase of the man • agement of the convention prohlem. Too much needless organi-zation with its array of conventions and external manifestations, will soon find a complaining public. As stated at the outset the whole world is full of organiza-tions. It is impossible to enter detailedly into all the different I GETTYSBURG COLLEGE 1 f Gettysburg, Pa. LIBRARY 20 THE MEECUBY. fields and discuss this problem of over-organization. Thus fir I have pointed out the tendencies along certain lines and shown the evils thereof. Perhaps in other lines of activity the danger of over-organization is not yet to be feared. The organization in political life certainly cannot be ques-tioned. The safety and welfare of a nation depends largely upon the interest of the people in the government. The sub-divisions of our own country into parts ranging from the grand federal to the county, district or municipal, form the basis for the people's share in government. Let us observe conditions among the industries and professions. Every branch of industry is thoroughly organized, and has its official organs, its conventions, its officers, routine of work, and so forth—all to advance their representative interests. These include all trades and business professions, which are numbered by the hundreds. It would be useless to enumerate them. It is only by the above methods that they can further their interests. The conditions and needs of the age demand such organizations. Take for example, the great agricultural industry: possibly no industry has ever made such strides. The methods of farming are assuming a scientific coloring, through Experimental Sta-tions, State Agricultural Schools, Farmers' Institutes and other organizations. As yet organization does not seem to be produc-ing harmful results along this line of industry. And perhaps the same thing could be said of the other indus+ries and occupa-tions. In like manner the educational and professional fields are im-proving their methods of work. Jfot thus to organize and mutur ally assist each other by new plans and good ideas, would be a cause of selfishness. Hence it is not difficult to undertsand why every week has its record of assemblies of educators, medical men, and the other professions. The tendency along the educational line may perhaps need restraint, lest too many chatauquas over-flow us with methods of work and instruction, and confuse our better judgment. A similar tendency within the past few years is the idea .of reunions. Every day in the summer season is scheduled for some sort of a reunion, varying in extent from a church denominational affair to a Sunday School picnic. Again, THE MERCURT 21 we repeat, the motive and aim are right. But are we carrying the idea too far? To summarize briefly the content of our discussion, we first note that the opposition is not against organization in itself. Over-organization tends to despise rather than marshal concen-tration of effort; it is impossible to devote the required amount of time and money to many organizations, though all may be more or less worthy. Too often over-organization becomes a matter of formal externality and lacks moral or spiritual earnestness. We need but cite the methods of modern evangelism to impress this fact. In conclusion it can be said that the formation of an or-ganization whose purpose shall be to prevent the formation of useless organizations, would be hailed as a great blessing to man-kind. WHAT IS SUCCESS. E. W. HARNER, '12. UCCESS, as generally defined, means the attainment of a proposed object. In this sense the man who makes it the object of his life to win a great fortune and does so, is successful, in that, he accomplishes what he has aimed for. This too, is the worldly conception of the subject. Hence, the man who starts in business, whatever his circumstances may be when he begins, and who, amasses a great fortune, is said to be successful. The politician who reaches out into-the political world and grasps the full glory of a politician, is said to be a successful man, in that he attains that which he has had in view. The young lawyer, who is admitted to the bar and performs his duties with great skill is looked upon by the world as being successful. But what is a successful life? It is not the amassing of wealth only, nor the attainment of high position, nor yet the win-ning of fame in one form or another. Life is made up of many-interests and the reaching of no one particular goal will neces-sarilv mean success. 22 THE MERCURY. "Wealth is not always a synonym of success." Many men whom the world delights to honor, attained their lofty heights of grandeur without ever acquiring anything of wealth. The truly successful are those who have achieved the greatest good in their respective callings, whether that success has brought them riches or not. Honor and fame are not requisites to success. Many men have reached positions of wealth, of high honor and fame, and yet their lives in the true sense have been failures. "Honor and Fame, from no conditions rise, Act well your part, there, all the honor lies." What, then, is true success ? No better answer could be given than that success is the faithful performance of all the duties of life that devolve upon us. God brings every human being into the world for a purpose, and he who comes the nearest to the ful-filment of that purpose is successful, whether he dies rich or poor, occupies a high or humble position, whether his name be known or unknown to the world. The successful are those who can surmount all difficulties, who can govern their own lives and Avho can say to the devil when tempted, "Get thee behind me Sa-tan." Men of great physical strength or those who are great in battle are not always successful, but those who are the architects of their own fortunes, and whose lives are full of kind deeds and noble acts. "It calls for something more than brawn, or muscle to overcome, An enemy that marches not with banner, plume or drum, A foe forever lurking nigh in silent, stealthy tread, Forever near thy board by day, at night thy bed. All honor, then, to that brave heart, though poor or rich he be, Who struggles with his baser part who conquers and is free. He may not wear a hero's crown nor fill a hero's grave, But truth will place his name among the bravest of the brave." THE MERCURY. 23 OUR SYMBOL—OUR IDEAL. RALPH E. RUDISILL, 'lO.* N all ages the achievements of man and his aspirations have been represented in symbols. Eaces have disap-peared and no record remains of their rise or fall, but by their symbols we know their history. The mono-liths of the Assyrians and the pyramids of the Egyptians tell their stories of forgotten civilization. They teach us sad lessons of the vanity of ambition; cruelty of arbitrary power, and the miseries of mankind. The Olympian Jupiter enthroned in the Parthenon expressed in ivory and gold the awful majesty of the Greek idea of the King of the Gods; the bronze statue of Minerva on the Acropolis was a magnificent symbol of the protection of the patron Goddess of Athens to the mariners who steer their ships by her helmet and spear. But these are all dwarfs in com-parison to our symbol. Greater than the monument in St. Paul's Cathedral commemorating the victories of Wellington upon land; greater than the monuments upon this very battlefield where lay buried the shackles of nearly four millions of men. Greater than these is our symbol—the fruit of political equality, of intelligence and virtue, of private sovereignty and public duty: it is the free, true, harmonious man of America. America. Ah! what a name! To-day we stand a nation that has uprooted slavery; a nation that has crushed anarchy; a nation that has overcome bankruptcy. How we rejoice in our principles of government! How they represent to the world the best results of liberty. De-mocracy is our nation's symbol. Manhood is the symbol of our people. Manhood is the Gibraltar of our Eepublic. Manhood, that which no ancient nation has ever fostered. Walk thoughtfully, kind friends, among the nations of to-day. You are tramping upon the fallen graves of centuries. Why have they gone? They died, not of old age but from the results of injustice and wrong. They died for want of manhood. Na-tional power is nothing. Universities are nothing. Colleges are nothing without manhood. Can America be added to this long list of republics. Can she thus betray herself ? Assuredly not. 'Winner of Junior Oratorical contest. 24 THE MEKCUBY. Search the creation round and where can you find a country that represents so sublime a view as America in equality. What noble institutions! What a comprehensive policy! What a wise equalization of every political advantage! ISTo fairer prospect of success could be presented. This is a land where competition is free. This is a republic which Mammon shall not rule. This is a nation where anarchy shall not sway. Equal rights and common opportunities have been the spurs of ambition and the motors of success. The American asks for a fair field and he becomes a Eoosevelt or a Lincoln. "Our only path is duty, our lamp is truth, our goal is victory." Who, then, are the truest Americans of our country to-day? Not the man who allows the glitter of gold to blind him; not the man who stands back and sees the liberty and happiness of thou-sands of women and children sacrificed upon the altars of Mam-mon, not he who corrupts the legislature. But he who has chosen a high ideal. Our country's appeal to-day goes forth to the humblest citizen. She has thrust upon everyone the most sacred privilege that she can give to man,—the privilege of sharing in the government and guarding her welfare. She asks of him in return to live a heroic life. No victory can be lasting, no reform can be permanent, unless the citizen back of it is just and virtu-ous. For the noblest ideal we look to Him above. He it was who taught this principle of equality. Was it not He who taught that man is worth more than money. Was it not this ideal that builded the foundations of free government as broad and as deep as this continent. Was it not this that stayed the tide on this heroic field. Such must be the active ideal of the American to-day. "Eight is right—since God is God, And right the day must win. To doubt would be disloyalty, To falter, would be sin." As Antaeus in battle renewed his strength whenever he touched his Mother Earth, so shall this Eepublic live, as long as its citi-zens follow and imitate the examples of our makers of the con-stitution and the Prince of Peace. THE MERCURY. 25 Assuredly we have reason to look into the future with hope. A hope not built upon the shadow of a glorious past, but rather upon the integrity of the average American citizen. A hope built upon the principles of equality and justice. May our citizens march clown the ages with the symbol of liberty and with the Bible for their guide in morals and conduct, let them as they lead the grand procession to that land beyond where shall be the union of all mankind, exclaim: "Forever float that standard sheet, Where breathes the foevbut falls before us, With freedom's soil beneath our feet And freedom's banner streaming o'er us." AN INDIAN SOLILOQUY. 1911. T was a beautiful night, such as is seldom seen, even in the warm summer months, in the valley of the majestic Susquehanna. The sun had set over an hour ago with a clear sky and the western horizon, formed by the dis-tant mountain tops, was still a shade brighter than the rest of the heavenly dome. Not a zephyr was stirring, not even on tha bosom of the broad river, whose surface was as calm and placid as a sea of glass. One by one the stars were beginning to peep from the heavens and smile upon the drowsy earth. Far away in the east, over the top of the mountain like a great silver ball sus-pended from the lofty home of the gods, hung the moon in all her beauty, shedding upon the earth a soft mellow light. To add to the beauty of the scene, far to the north could be heard the soft rippling of the stream, as it rushed between the rocks at the falls. The water-gods seemed to be doing their best to excel all na-ture, and to the ear of the silent listener, the noise of the waters bore something of the divine in nature. Such was the scene be- 26 THE MERCURY. fore Splashing Water as he lay upon the ground, before the old wigwam. Splashing Water was the son of the chief of the Wiconisco In-dians. Long ago his father's braves had intruded upon the hunt-ing grounds of the great Susquehannas, who claimed all the land bordering upon the great river which still bears their name. The Susquehannas resented the intrusion, but Splashing Water's father, after counselling with all his warriors, decided to make good his claim with the arrow and the tomahawk. Preparations for war were made and one dark night when all was ready, the Wiconisco braves stole forth from their camp to meet the Susque-hannas in deadly conflict. Early in the morning, long before the face of the Great Spirit began to light up the eastern sky, the battle was fought. The Wiconiscos were defeated. Twenty of their braves fell by the arrows of the enemy, but by far the great-est loss to the whole tribe was that of Splashing Water. Splash-ing Water, the pride of the camp, was captured and taken far away to the great camp of the Susquehannas on the Island of the Bald Eagle. That was many moons ago and tonight as he lay before the wigwam of his guard, he pictured to himself the sight of his father's camp. "It is true," thought he, "this camp is much bigger and this tribe is much stronger than my father's, and then too, they have the Great Eiver, but still I would rather be home on the great mountain." "What are they doing at home," he wondered, "perhaps they are planning how to come and free me from these awful men." He then pictured his father's camp. There were the wigwams of the braves arranged in order around the clear, cool spring and the great trees casting their soft shadows over the ground. There were the camp-fires, just dying out and around them lay the forms of many sleeping warriors. "How fine it would be to be there," thought he. Here he glanced around and noticed that the fires of his cap-tors were also dying out. Here and there among the wigwams the form of a dusky warrior moved about, but otherwise all was quiet, responding to the beautiful night the Great Spirit had given. "A little longer," thought Splashing Water," and they will all be asleep. Then why can't I escape?" He decided to THE MERCURY. 27 wait, for he saw that his guard, who was lying near him, was be-ginning to doze. In about an hour everything was quiet. Not a moving figure could be seen, and Splashing Water decided that now was the time to make a dash for home. Cautiously raising himself, he crept to the entrance of his guard's wigwam. All was still within. He crept a few steps farther and felt about for the bow and quiver of his guard. He grasped the bow in his hand and quietly hung the quiver over his shoulder. Peering out of the entrance, he made sure that the track was clear, then slowly crept forth in the direction of the shore, stopping every few paces, and straining every nerve to hear the faintest sound of alarm. But not a sound did he hear. Finally he arrived in the clump of willow trees overhang-ing the shore, under whose protection the bark canoes of his cap-tors were moored. Quietly creeping into the nearest one he grasped a pole and gently pushed it from the shore. When the boat was far enough from shore to be controlled by the current, he lay flat on the bottom of it and allowed it to drift down stream, in order that he might not make the least noise. When he had drifted for some time, he arose to his feet, grasped the pole and pushed the frail canoe to the shore with great speed. "Good-bye to the Island of the Bald Eagle," thought Splashing Water as he leaped upon the shore and plunged forward under cover of the thick forest. He traveled all night, and at the first signs of dawn drew near to the camp of his father. Great was the rejoicing as the fires of the tribe were kindled, amid the talk and laughter of the braves and squaws, when into the camp strode the athletic form of Splashing Water, the pride of the Wiconiscos. I H E HE RC U RV Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1909 No. 5 Editor in-Chief SAMUEL FAUSOLD, 'IO. Exchange Editor G. E. BOWERSOX, 'io Business Manager PAUL S. MILLER, 'IO Ass't Bus. Managers ROY R. ALLEN, 'II RUFUS N. WENRICK, 'II Assistant Editor RALPH E. RUDISILL, 'IO Associate Editors E. J. BOWMAN, 'II C. M. DAVIS, 'II Advisory Board PROF. G. F. SANDERS, A. M. PROF. P. M. BIKLE, PH. D. PROF. C. J. GRIMM, PH. D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary Societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be ac-companied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. IN this, the first number of the MEBCUEY, since the opening of college, we take the opportunity of impressing upon the student body the importance of the liter-ary societies. The literary so-cieties hold out to every man at Gettysburg a golden opportunity for self-development. True it is, the class room is the place for in-tellectual training, but the liter-ary societies are a most useful adjunct for the training of a dif- THE MERCURY. ferent sort, though of no less importance, is here received. No col-lege man who cannot express his thoughts to the best possible advantage, measures up to the standard which the world sets up for him. To meet this demand for correct expression of thought is the purpose of the literary societies. For certain reasons, how-ever, during the past year, the college community has been very indifferent to literary work. The various phases of college life were emphasized to such a degree, that apparently the work of the societies was excluded and consequently literary spirit was very low. Now at the opening of the new collegiate year let us firmly resolve that this shall not be the case in the future. Let us go to work and strive to raise the standard up to its old mark. To the new men, we would say, join a literary society early in your course. We do not presume to dictate which society you should join. Each one of the societies needs you, and your so-ciety will be for you just what you help to make it. But what-ever else you do, join one of the literary societies. However, when you have joined, fall to work. No society will do you any good whatever, unless you work for it. Let us all, both old men and new, work for the glory of Phrena and Philo and strive to make this a banner year in literary work at Gettysburg. IT is a terrible thought that the "very glory of our civilization is the danger of our times." In the utilization of all the agencies of nature in every line of development, in the multiplication of the sources of wealth and prosperity, this country is unparalleled, and yet every element of progress carries with it the agencies of destruction. Along with the best of benefits march dangerous evils. For "vice and immorality sweep over this land like black clouds." Simply turn to the politicians of New York and we see them attacking the Governor, thus making it hard for young men to do right and easy for them to do wrong. After we have been launched into the world to win our way as best we can, the State takes no further action than to provide for a policeman to arrest us if we go astray. And then there is before us the saloon, pool-room and gambling den to invite us as participants. We have to but ask ourselves, how many men have fallen to such a degradation and answer by referring to Sing Sing where 30 THE MERCURY. seventy per cent, of the prisoners are college and university grad-uates. Why have such men of splendid opportunities fallen to such a state? We find it is because they have never endeavored to cultivate their morals or to strive for manliness. It seems to be the tendency of college men to be pusillanimous and discourage rather than encourage the aspirants to an exalted character, to taunt him with assertions hard for a sensitive boy to bear, as to his rusticity and state of being unsophisticated. How often does one learn too late that liberty with friends causes ruin, that in-dulgence is only to burst the restraints of the Ten Command-ments, the Golden Eule and the teachings of home. In this day of twentieth century hustle—in this CULTURE age Qj! fgygj-igh haste, culture has trouble to hold its own. Culture which means a liberal education, broad-minded-ness and refinement, is rivalled by our modern all-pervading lust for gold. Disregarding morality and final destin\r, what shall you do? Shall you spend your life in hot pursuit of the almighty dollar or seek those indefinable yet so easily recognized qualities, the sum total of which constitutes culture. This is the question so often confronting the young man just out of High School. He necessarily ponders, "Shall I take a purely technical course preparing me for one line of work or shall I take a general college course with the view of developing the all-around man. The temptation to follow the first alternative is hard to over-come. This fact is exemplified in men in the business world who are experts in their own departments of work, yet are lamentably ignorant as to all other subjects. These men do not have a true sense of values. They do not have the right perspective of life. They too often spend their whole lives in the pursuit of dollars for the dollar's sake and cannot enjoy what we call the higher things, because of lack of culture. As an illustration, these one-sided men can not enjoy music because they do not understand music. This fact fortifies the truism that a man gets out of a thing what he puts in it. TUP: MERCURY. 31 A man should be true to himself. If a man is true to himself, he will find time to develop his aesthetic and moral natures. Thus he can enjoy life in the full and besides the busy hours spent in attaining a livelihood can snatch a few moments from his busy life to enjoy nature and all her beauties. No matter what your profession will be, build upon the solid foundation of a collegiate course. This will insure knowledge, efficiency and cul-ture. DON'T forget the Bloomhardt literary prizes to be awarded next spring. These prizes will be awarded on the basis of literary merit. Get busy! Use your literary talent. Thus help your-self and immediately help us retain the high standard of the MERCURY. STUDENTS patronize our advertisers! The MERCURY adver-tisers are friends of the college and of you. Show your appre-ciation by helping them, even as they help us. A BOOK REVIEWS. HE Testing of Diana Mallory, by Mrs. Humphrey Ward. —Philo. Here is an interesting picture of English life. The authoress depicts the political and social life of England as few novelists can. We are led by easy stages to a realization of England's greatness as an empire and learn something of the domestic problems which concern her. To be sure, a love tale is the binding thread of the story. Diana Mallory is a true heroine. We love her from start to finish— sympathize with her in her troubles and rejoice with her in her joys. The other characters of the story are representative of every phase of English life. The Englishman in his favorite past-time—hunting—is seen hot on the chase and the parliamen-tarian playing with might and main the uncertain but always in- 32 THE MERCURY. teresting game of politics engages our rapt attention. Incident-ally we are given a picture of beautiful Italy and interesting glimpses of India and other parts of the world are obtained. The Diva's Ruby, by P. Marion Crawford. . Philo-—is a narra-tion of the winning of Diva, an English primadonna, by Win. Van Torp, an American cowboy millionaire. The scene is laid chiefly upon the continent and in London. However we are first introduced to a little Tartar city in Central Asia from which comes the ruby which gives the book its title. The book portrays the moving of that master passion, love, showing the terrible con-flict which takes place in the hearts of both men and women, the conflict between true love and the obligations of honor. The characters are of a high type except where the oriental thirst for revenge betrays itself in the person of Baraka. The plot is com-plex in that it centers about three characters instead of the or-dinary one or two. The style is clear but retarded by unimport-ant details. Moreover the language used by the various charac-ters is not altogether in harmony with themselves as the writer portrays them. We find very little difference between the con-versation of the learned Greek scholar, Logotheti, and the rough, uncultured American financier, Van Torp. All things consid-ered, it deserves to stand among the modern works of fiction. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. I•N this Drama of Tour Year's Course, Play your part without dad's horse ; This to do is up to you With just a little tact between each yearly act, In some domain take a stroll And sell ALUMINUM for next year's Role (roll). Every summer hundreds of students raake BIG MONEY selling Aluminum Cooking Uteusils. For particulars address LOUIS HETZEL, Gettysburg College, GETTVSBURB, PA. THE STEWART & STEEN CO., COLLEGE ENGRAVERS, 1024 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA. MAKERS OF INVITATIONS, PROGRAMS, MENUS, VISITING CARDS, DANCE CARDS, MONOGRAMS, CLASS AND FRATERNITY STATIONERY. P. S. MILLER, 'TO, Representative, Who has a full line of samples. kl^H, EDUCATION The times an 1 the Schools demand that the best things shall be done and in the best manner. Watermans@)FountamPen accomplishes everything that can be required of a good writing in-strument. Made to last for years of service and give its owner the satisfaction which comes with owning "the best." W From all dealers. The Globe trade-mark is our guarantee *~—^-^ school SI. Bo.lon 209 Sl.lc Si ChU."> Q V 742 Morkel Si-. San Franci*co. 1.10 5t. Jemci Si. Montreal 12 Cold«n L*n«. London GR. do Hono^-e Paris PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FUfJJVTTU^E Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. H. B. BENDER. 37 Baltimore Street, Gettysburg, Pa EDGAR C. TAWNEY BAKER West Middle Street. J. B. WINEMAN, DEALER IN CHOICE FAMILY GROCERIES, PROVISIONS AND FRUITS, BOARDING CLUBS A SPECIALTY. L. WEIGAND, DEALER IN FRESH AND CURED MEATS OF ALL KINDS-Boarding Clubs a Specialty. Sou^p's f^estaupant, No. 7 Chambersburg Street. J PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EMIL ZOTHE, College Emblems, Engraver, Designer and Manufacturing Jeweler, 722 Chestnut St, Philadelphia. Specialties: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through G. F. Kieffer. Charles S. Mumper, DEADER IN FURNITURE, PICTURE FRAMES OF ALL SORTS REPAIR WORK DONE PROMPTLY I will also BUY or EXCHANGE any SECOND-HAND FURNITURE No. 4 Chambersburg street, Gettysburg, Pa. OHLER BRO.'S RESTAURANT, First National Bank Bld'g. The place to eat the best Ice Cream. QUICK LUNCH and Oysters in season. D. J. Swartz, DEALER IN COUNTRY PRODUCE, GROCERIES, CIGARS AND TOBACCO. GETTYSBURG. J. i MUMPER Your Photographer, If not, why not? 41 Baltimore St., Gettysburg. FLEMMING X BAIR'S LIVERY, Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg-, Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arrange-ments by telegram or letter. Lock Bock 257. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. WINDSOR HOTEL, W. T. BEDBAKEE, Manager. Midway between Broad St. Station and Beading Terminal on Filbert St. A convenient and homelike place to stay while in the city shopping. An excellent restaurant where good service combines with low prices. BOOMS $1.00 PEE DAY AND UP. The only moderate priced hotel of reputation and consequence in PHILADELPHIA. The Modern Steam Laundry . . OF YORK . . Offers the COLLEGE STUDENTS first-class work at Special Low Prices. E. C. STOUPFER, Local Agt. C. D. SMITH, Prop. The Baltimore Medical College Preliminary Fall Course begins September ist. Regular Winter Course begins September 20th. Liberal teaching facilities ; Modern college buildings ; Comfortable lecture hall and amphitheatres ; Large and complete equipped laboratories; Capacious hospital and dispensary; Lying-in department for teaching clinical obstetrics ; Large clinics. Send for catalogue. Address DAVID STREETT, M. D., Dean, N. E. Cor. Madison St., and Linden Ave., Baltimore, Md. COMPILER IMPRINT ON JOB WORK MEANS TASTY WORK CAREFULLY DONE. MENU CARDS WINDOW POSTERS LETTER HEADS ENVELOPES DANCE CARDS TICKETS Programs of all kinds. Everything the College Man wants in Paper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper, done in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. Catalog and Book work. The Gettysbutg Compiler will keep old and new students in touch with town and college life.