Suchergebnisse

In any work of classification, the selection of standards is, of course, of primary importance. In the budget of the League, absurd results appear at various points as a result of arranging the contents thereof now according to one type of standard (subject-matter, as "Mandates"), now according to another (kind of service, as "Liaison"). Without coördinate and mutually exclusive standards, no classification can be complete or satisfactory.One or two of the points made above might, it is obvious, be used as indices of classification if not used as grounds of exclusion. That is, if unofficial international organizations are not excluded entirely, as they logically should be, from this study, they might form one of the two classes of international organizations, along with official organizations. Similarly, organizations may be classified as bilateral and multilateral, in accord with the foregoing discussion, as resting upon mere practice or formal convention, as intended for the observance of some principle or for the taking of some overt action, and finally as relying upon national agencies for their operation or possessing agencies of their own.

La investigación parte del interés por averiguar el grado de promoción y comunicación que las Agencias de Comunicación y RR. PP hacen de sí mismas en el medio digital. Se establece como objetivo general analizar cómo las Agencias de Comunicación y Relaciones Públicas en Portugal se comunican de forma online, es decir, presentan sus servicios a través de las plataformas de comunicación digital comprobando si ejercen la tarea comunicacional que venden al exterior con ellas mismas, o lo que se denomina en este artículo de metacomunicación como una auto referencia, resignificando el propio concepto. Se procede a la elección de la muestra de estudio seleccionando un total de 56 agencias repartidas entre los miembros destacados de APECOM, Asociación Portuguesa de Empresas Consultoras en Comunicación y Relaciones Públicas, y otras agencias seleccionadas que están fuera de esta asociación. Para la recopilación de los datos se elabora una herramienta metodológica, una ficha de análisis digital con los datos más relevantes de cada una de las plataformas seleccionadas; tanto la página web, como las redes sociales más demandadas en la actualidad: LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter y YouTube. Los resultados apuntan que tanto las webs como las redes sociales no están siendo usadas su totalidad, encontrando variaciones. La conclusión indica que las agencias asociadas a APECOM tienen una mayor exposición en algunas redes sociales y trabajan su forma de comunicación de forma más activa.

This paper assesses the rise and decline of international rule of law in the case of non-state armed actors. Both signs of rise and signs of decline of international rule of law show in the case of non- state armed actors. Signs of rise include the expansion of coverage of international humanitarian law (IHL) and international criminal law, as well as international legal argumentation and rhetoric made by non-state armed groups. Some non-state armed actors express that they are governed by IHL in public statements or bilateral agreements with international actors, partly acknowledging universality of international humanitarian norms, and sometimes act as such. Signs of decline in the international rule of law also show – although some of them can be seen as business-as-usual – privileging of military advantage, instrumental use of international law (as justification and local interpretations), as well as conflicting understanding of IHL between local and global norms. The multiplicity of non-state actors also portends the decline of international rule of law, with the proliferation of many non-organized groups without legitimacy-seeking motivations.

Although the promotion of international humanitarian law (IHL) in academic circles is a relatively new activity for the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), it has made rapid progress since the mid 1990s. Today, the organisation is following up on university-related activities in some 130 countries around the world. Overseen and harmonised by the ICRC headquarters in Geneva but implemented primarily by operational and regional delegations in the field, the ICRC's programmes targeting university professors and students are notable for their variety and diversity. Nevertheless, the organisation has made a concerted effort to ensure that all such programmes further the same broad objective and operate according to the same principles of action. In the second section of this paper, we examine the issues related to including IHL courses in the regular curricula of the universities and faculties concerned and present themodus operandiadopted by the ICRC on the basis of 'lessons learned'. In the third section, we highlight the ICRC's experience of promoting IHL in academic circles in the Russian Federation. Section 4 draws some conclusions.

Impact of international capital market integration on economic policies between the 1960s and the 1980s. Identifies a shift away from coordination of balance-of-payments financing and toward coordination of monetary and fiscal policies.

A unique and comprehensive source of information, this book is the only international publication providing economists, planners, policymakers and business people with worldwide statistics on current performance and trends in the manufacturing sector. The Yearbook is designed to facilitate international comparisons relating to manufacturing activity and industrial development and performance. It provides data which can be used to analyse patterns of growth and related long term trends, structural change and industrial performance in individual industries. Statistics on employment patterns, wag

Customs offenses pose a serious threat to the world legal order. Establishment of responsibility for them in international law demands accuracy and formal definiteness. Definition of a customs offense is necessary for consistent approach elaboration to them, establishment of customs authorities' jurisdictions, ensuring the assistance between customs authorities of different countries. The problem of customs offenses definition includes three aspects: differentiation of customs offenses from other offenses; differentiation of customs crimes and customs offenses; differentiation of international crimes and crimes of international character. The definition of customs offenses in international law is carried out at the common, regional and bilateral levels. As a rule, the regional regulation is carried out within Customs unions that have the consistent approach to customs offenses. And this regulation significantly varies on degree of detail. The analysis of international law acts shows the following features of a customs offense: the material – in any case these acts are connected with conveyance of goods across the customs border; the formal – they represent violation of customs legislation; and the procedural – production on these offenses is referred to customs authorities maintenance. The most widespread and dangerous customs crime is smuggling. Smuggling in international legal acts is considered as a crime when they establish the duty of States to qualify these acts in national legislation in a proper way. Also there is another approach when an international law act defines smuggling as an offense and gives the states an opportunity to qualify these acts either as a crime, or as an administrative offense. Merits and demerits of each of the mentioned approaches are noted. The article defines the international customs offense as the act encroaching on the established by the international legislation order relating to the conveyance of goods and other subjects across the customs border that causes administrative or criminal liability according to the national legislation. DOI:10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n3s6p219

AbstractThe Permanent Court of International Justice was the first significant court of justice at the international level. Its active life spanned over two decades and yielded an international judiciary while exploring the merits of international adjudication and international law when put into practice. It was partly due to the legacy of the Permanent Court that the second half of the twentieth century witnessed several other successful projects of international justice. At the same time, the decisions of the Permanent Court indicated some of the pertinent problems of international adjudication, notably the omnipresent risk of judges being influenced by national tendencies and traditions with parochial views of international law in result.

AbstractThis paper examines the impact of externally funded trade policy reforms on firm productivity by combining data from the International Aid Transparency Initiative and World Bank Enterprise Surveys. By specifying baseline and end‐line surveys based on the 2006 to 2020 World Bank Enterprise Surveys, we find that 70 of 83 countries received external funds for trade policy reforms, and primarily use records based on 45,886 firms with data on productivity across these countries. Applying difference‐in‐differences and triple‐difference techniques, this paper finds that the impact of externally funded trade policy reforms is significant, accounting for 12% of firms' average productivity growth in the recipient countries relative to firms in non‐recipient countries. We also show that externally funded trade policy reforms improve firms' international‐trade‐climate in the recipient countries by 0.17 standard deviations, which translates into a 27% increase in the average productivity of firms with a good international‐trade‐climate in recipient countries over that of firms in non‐recipient countries and firms with poor international trade climate in recipient countries. These results suggest that interventions should focus on financing trade policy reforms that are more likely to improve the international‐trade‐climate of firms in the recipient countries.

This article describes the possibility of a classical revival in the common law and situates the revival in its historical context. Part I sets the stage by briefly summarizing a century and a half of common-law development. At the end of the Nineteenth Century, classical legal thought envisioned a highly systematic body of law through which courts could mechanically apply abstract legal concepts to reach determinate results, producing limited liability in contract and tort law and expansive property rights. Critics beginning with Holmes and notably including Progressives and legal realists attacked classical law as incomplete and incoherent. Their critique was absorbed into the mainstream of the law, and by the 1970s a new body of neoclassical law was dominant. Part II describes the changes already adopted and currently proposed in contract, tort, and property law-the un-making of neoclassical law-and the distinctive structure and method of the classical revival. In contract law, the classical revival aims to reinstate the principle that courts should simply enforce the contracts people make, through formalistic rules of formation and interpretation, and should not impose terms or evaluate the fairness of bargains. In tort, the revival seeks to restore corrective justice based on fault as the prime objective by rolling back the generalization of liability for negligence, narrowing products liability, and reducing the scope of compensatory and punitive damages. In property, the revival focuses on expanding the law of takings to limit the ability of the government to regulate property owners in pursuit of the common good. All the individual changes fit within a broader structure in which the boundaries among contract, tort, and property are sharply defined, the market-focused subjects (contract and property) are primary, and a revived formalist method is prescribed for judicial decision. The conclusion synthesizes the ideology of law, market, and society that animates the classical revival, and situates the ...

My retrospective study, published in the twenty-fifth anniversary volume of this Yearbook, attempted a critical survey of post-war Soviet general theory of international law, and noted the signs of an intellectual changing of the guard and the emergence of a new generation of Soviet international legal theorists. Is it possible today to speak of a post-war U.S. general theory of international law, and, if so, can we speak of a generational change, in the late 1980's, similar to that in the Soviet Union?