After studying technical metallurgy for one semester at Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Lenny Pattikawa (1973) decided to pursue a master's degree in economics at the Erasmus University Rotterdam. She specialized in economics and business economics and graduated in May 2000. In September 2000, she became a research assistant at the same university in which she carried out a study on the determinants of new product performance. In October 2002, she joined ERIM as a PhD candidate and started research on the pharmaceutical industry. Lenny has published her work in the European Journal of Marketing, ERIM working paper series, and in several international proceedings. She also presented her research at national and international conferences, including those of Prebem, Marketing Science, the Academy of Management, and the American Marketing Association. ; In de afgelopen jaren is de kritiek op de farmaceutische industrie toegenomen. Marketing uitgaven die groter zijn dan R&D uitgaven, de sterke groei van incrementele innovaties gecombineerd met de hoge winstgevendheid in de industrie hebben de publieke opinie over farmaceutische bedrijven sterk beïnvloed. Tegen deze achtergrond voerden wij drie studies uit naar de farmaceutische industrie in de V.S. De eerste studie presenteert een analyse van de industrie vanuit een theoretisch raamwerk dat is gebaseerd op de economische literatuur. We beschrijven factoren die van invloed zijn op de industrie zoals vraag en aanbod condities, marktstructuur en regelgeving vanuit de overheid. Wij laten zien dat farmaceutische bedrijven hierop reageren met bijvoorbeeld juridische en marketingstrategieën. Wij evalueren tevens de prestaties van de industrie in termen van winstgevendheid, productiviteit en innovatie. De tweede studie tracht de winstgevendheid van de farmaceutische bedrijven in de loop van de tijd te verklaren. Onze bevindingen tonen aan dat de bedrijven op succesvolle wijze hun immateriële activa weten te benutten. Wij vonden dat het grootste deel van prestaties wordt verklaard door de marketing activiteiten van bedrijven. De derde studie richt zich op productdifferentiatie strategieën van farmaceutische bedrijven. Gebruik makend van real-option theorie en een repeated events model veronderstellen wij dat bedrijven de levenscyclus van hun product verlengen als antwoord op onzekerheid over situaties binnen en buiten de organisatie. Wij identificeren een aantal variabelen dat de beslissing van productextensies beïnvloedt zoals de volatiliteit van aandelenprijzen, financiële barrières, concurrentiedruk en de groei van marketing uitgaven. Het proefschrift besluit met een reeks implicaties voor industriebeleid, bedrijfsstrategieën en toekomstig onderzoek. ; Society benefits the most when pharmaceutical industries supply drug products at competitive prices and when they simultaneously maintain optimal innovation rates. Nowadays, however, the U.S. pharmaceutical industry has been under thorough scrutiny. The increasing cost of healthcare, intensive marketing activities, the strong rise of me-too drugs, and, despite all, the high industry profitability have contributed to public skepticism. On the other hand, developing a new drug is a high-risk activity that can only be compensated by market protection schemes and attractive rates of returns. High profitability is needed to fund R&D that can, in turn, advance innovation. Against this background we present three studies on the U.S. pharmaceutical industry. The first part performs an industry analysis by using theoretical frameworks from economics. We describe several forces that have shaped the industry, including supply and demand conditions, market structure, and government regulations. We show how firms respond to these by implementing various conducts such as legal and marketing strategies. Thereafter, we assess performance of the industry in terms of profitability, productivity, and innovativeness. The second part explains the industry's profitability over time as a function of their intangible assets by using a market valuation model. Our results show that firms have successfully utilized their intangible resources to sustain high market performance. Additionally, we found an increasing contribution of advertising on firms' performance. Part three focuses on product differentiation strategies. We use a real option framework that perceives a line extension as a firm's response to uncertainty. Using a repeated events duration model, we identify several determinants that affect firm decisions concerning line extensions. These include uncertainty regarding stock volatility, financial constraints, competitive pressure, and advertising growth. We conclude with implications for public policies, firms' strategies, and future research.
Abstract: This research devoted to analyze relationship between social media political marketing through trust, knowledge & voting intention of youth voters, regarding with Indonesia Presidential Election 2019. In total hundreds of respondents, with 51 women and 49 men, thus majority are Tanjungpura University students. With age 17-35 as young adults, actively on social media, indeed aware with presidential candidates 2019 of political marketing, for at least six months. By using online questionnaire and spread through social media, the data processed with SmartPLS 3.2.8. software. The methods is a causal research, based on Likert seven-point scale. Results, however revealed no significant relationship between social media political marketing with youth voting intention (H3). And four hypotheses is accepted and positively correlated, and trust consider as partially mediation of social media political marketing on youth voting intention.Keyword: social media, political marketing, voter trust, voter knowledge, voting intention, indonesia presidential electionReferencesAbdillah, L. A. (2014, September 22). Indonesian's Presidential Social Media Campaigns.Abdillah, W., & Hartono, J. (2015). Partial Least Square (PLS): Alternatif Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) dalam Penelitian Bisnis. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Andi.Ahmed, M. A. (2017). Political Marketing: Role of Socialization Process In The Evelopment Of Voting Intention. International Academic Conference. London: University of Gujarat.Al-Mohammad, S. M. (2017). The Impacts of Social Websites Over Jordanian Students' Intentions of Active Political Participation: An Application of Theory of Planned Behavior. International Review of Management and Marketing , 1-16.Alreck, P., & Settle, R. (2003). Survey Research Handbook (3rd ed). Newyork: Mcgraw-Hill Education.Andi Alimuddin, S. (2016, August). The Internet and Social Media in Political Participation in Indonesia. International Journal of Management and Applied Science .Aprianingsih, W. G. (2015). Factors Influencing Voting Intention For Indonesian People's Representative Council Election 2019: The Case of First Voter In. Journal of Business and Management, 4, 675-693.Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality nd Social Physchology , 51 (6), 1176.Bathelt, S. (2015). Political Knowledge - Mediator of Political Participation? Montreal, Canada: General Conference of the European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR).Bigi, A. (2017). Political Marketing: Understanding and Managing Stance and Brand Positioning. Doctoral Thesis, Industrial Marketing, Stockholm, Sweden.Biswas, A. I. (2014). Influence of Social Media on Voting Behaviour. 127-155: Journal of Power.Blais, C. H. (2010, September 1-5). Intention to vote, reported vote and validated vote.Boro, V. I. (n.d.). Pemasaran Politik Legislatif Petahana Dalam Memenangkan Pemilu Anggota DPRD Kota Kupang Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur Tahun 2009 (Kajian Strategi Politik dan Bauran Produk Politik).Boulianne, S. (2008). Does Internet Use Affect Engagement?Cangara, H. (2009). Komunikasi Politik: Konsep, Teori dan Strategi. Jakarta: Rajawali Press.Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2014). Business Research Methods. Newyork: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.Dabula, N. The Influence of Social Media Political Marketing on Trust, Loyalty and Voting Intention of Youth Voters in South Africa. South Africa.Dafler, F. (2013, April 23). Terindah. Retrieved from Memahami dan Mempelajari SmartPLS: http://feroniadafler.blogspot.co.id/2013/04/mempelajari-dan-memahami-smartpls.htmlDaniela Dimnitrova, A. S. (2014). The Effects of Digital Media on Political Knowledge and Participation in Election Campaigns: Evidence from Panel Data.Dimock, M. (2019, January 17). Defining generations: Where Millennials end and Generation Z begins. Retrieved December 22, 2018, from Pew Research Center: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/Donner, M. W. (2009). Read-Write-Erase: Mobile-mediated publics in South Africa's 2009 Elections.Effing R., H. J. (2011). Social media and political participation: are Facebook, Twitter and YouTube democratizing our political systems? Electronic Participation Lecture Notes in Computer Science.Firmanzah. (2008). Marketing Politik: Antara Pemahaman dan Realitas. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.Firmanzah. (2008). Marketing Politik; Antara Pemahaman dan Realitas. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.Fung, H. P. (2017). How do you determine the validity and reliability of a new questionaire? {Online}. Available at: https://www.reserachgate.net/post/How_do_you_determine_the_validity_of_a_questioanire , Accessed on 21 January 2019.Garnesia, I. (2018, September 12). Sana Sini Ngaku Milenial Bagaimana Peta Milenial Indonesia. Retrieved January 01, 2019, from Tirto: https://tirto.id/sana-sini-ngaku-milenial-bagaimana-peta-milenial-indonesia-cX5WHair, J., & Celsi, M. (2011). Essentials of Business Reseach Methods. Newyork: M.E Sharpe.Hanlong Fu, Y. M. (2011). Reconsidering Political Cynicism and Political Involvement: A Test of Antecedents. American Communication Journal .Harris, A. L. (1996). Political marketing - vive la difference! European Journal Of Marketing , 14-24.Humsona, S. P. (2017). Social Media in Political Marketing: A Study of Teman Ahok. The 3rd International Conference on Social and Political Science (p. 4). Knowledge E.Husser, H. &. (2012). The ratio of people's evaluation of government performance relative to their normative expectations of how government ought to perform.Irawan, I. A. (2018, August 2). Milenial dan Pilpres 2019. Retrieved December 14, 2018, from Kumparan: https://kumparan.com/erucakra-garuda-nusantara/millenial-dan-pilpres-2019-27431110790558842Jamshed Butt, M. A. (2017). Intention for Voting in Pakistan: The Role of Social Media, Ethnicity and Religiosity. International Journal of Multicultural and Multiregiligous Understanding , 1-15.Jensen, T. H. (2007). Understanding Voters' Decisions: A Theory of Planned Behaviour Approach. Innovative Marketing, LLC "Consulting Publishing Company "Business Perspectives".Jimenez, O. F. (2012). Election campaigns, the media and their impact on civic engagement of Mexicans in the 2012 Presidential Election. Universidad de Guanajuato, Departmento de Estudios Politicos y de Gobierno, Mexico.Juditha, C. (2015). Political Marketing and Social Media: Study of Political Marketing by RI Presidential Candidates 2014 in Facebook. Jurnal Studi Komunikasi dan Media .Kelly Opdycke, P. S. (2013). The Effects of Political Cynicism, Political Information Efficacy and Media Consumption on Intended Voter Participation. 75-97.Kennedy. (2008). The importance of good sampling [Online]. available at: http://www.coronainsights.com/2008/08/the-importance-of-good-sampling/ , Accessed on 21 January 2019.Komiak, S. Y. (2006). The effects of personalization and familiarity on trust and adoption of recommendation agents.Malhotra, N. K. (2010). Marketing Research : An Applied Orientation sixth edition. PEARSON EDUCATION.Marika Steenkamp, N. H.-C. (2014). The use of Facebook for political commentary in South Africa.Marquis, L. (2010). Understanding Political Knowledge and Influence on Voting Preferences in the 2007 Federal Election. Swiss Political Science Review 16(3): 425-56.McMillan, & James, H. (2011). Educational Research:Fundamental for the Consumers, 2nd ed. pp. 258-359.McNeal, C. J. (2003). Unraveling the Effects of the Internet on Political Participation? University of Utah. Sage Publications, Inc.Meet the millennials: Who are Generation Y? (2017, August 28). Retrieved December 14, 2018, from BBC: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-41036361Menon, S. V. (2008). Political Marketing: A Conceptual framework. Munich Personal RePEc Archive .Newman, B. I. (1994). The Marketing of The President: Political Marketing As Campaign Strategy. California, United States of America: Sage Publications, Inc.Nicholas A. Christakis, J. H. (2011). Connected: The Amazing Power of Social Networks and How They Shape Our Lives.Nursal, A. (2004). Political Marketing, Strategi memenangkan pemilu. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama.O'Cass, A. (1996). Political marketing and the marketing concept. European Journal of Marketing , 37-53.Omega. E-commerce: the role of familiarity and trust.Omrod, R. P. (2013). Defining Political Marketing. Denmark: Aarhus University .Pemilihan umum Presiden Indonesia 2019. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2019, from Wikipedia: https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemilihan_umum_Presiden_Indonesia_2019Popham, W. J. (2008). Transformative Assessment. United States: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Prasetyo, B., & Jannah, L. M. (2012). Metode Penelitian Kuantitativ (7th ed). Jakarta: Rajagrafindo Persada.Rahmawati, I. (2014). Social Media, politics and young adults: The impact of social media use on young adults' political efficacy, political knowledge and political participation towards 2014 Indonesia General Election. Master Thesis, University of Twente, Faculty of Behavioral Science, Communication Studies, Media and Communication.Sangwon Lee, M. X. (2018). Social Distraction? Social Media Use and Political Knowledge in Two U.S. Presidential Elections. Computers in Human Behavior.Saraswati, M. S. (2018). Social Media and the Political Campaign Industry in Indonesia. Jurnal Komunikasi ISKI (Ikatan Sarjana Komunikasi Indonesia) .Scheufele, K. E. Finally Informing the Electorate? How the Internet Got People Thinking about Presidential Politics in 2004.Sekaran, U. (2003). Research Method for Business. John Wiley & Son.Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2011). Research Methods for Business: skill-Building approach (1st ed). United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.Serek, J. &. (2015). Changes in late adolescents' voting intentions during the election campaign: Disentangling the effects of political communication with parents, peers and media. European Journal of Communication.Setyowati, D. (2018, July 18). LIPI: 60% Anak Muda Akses Berita Politik Lewat Media Sosial. (P. Aria, Editor) Retrieved November 03, 2018, from katadata.co.id: https://katadata.co.id/berita/2018/07/18/lipi-60-anak-muda-akses-berita-politik-lewat-media-sosialSeyd, B. (2016). How Should We Measure Political Trust. PSA annual conference. Brighton: University of Kent.Shamma, D. F. (2014, March). Factors influencing voting intentions for Egyptian parliament election 2011. Journal of Islamic Marketing .Sheth, B. I. (1985). A Model of Primary Voter Behavior. The Journal of Consumer Research .Sigit Pranawa, R. H. (2016). Social Media in Political Marketing: A Study of Teman Ahok. The Impact of Information Technology on Social and Political Dynamics .Simarmata, S. (2015, October). The Modernization of Election Campaign and its research opportunites in Indonesia's Direct Elections Era. 2nd International Conference on Corporate and Marketing Communication .Stromback, S. G. (2018). Patterns of intra election volatility the impact of political knowledge. Informa, Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties.Sugiyono. (2014). Metode Penelitian Pendidikan Pendekatan Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta.Sutarso, J. (2011). Pendekatan Pemasaran Politik (Political Marketing) Dalam Pemilihan Umum. University of Muhammadiyah, Jurusan Ilmu Komunikasi, Fakultas Komunikasi dan Informatika, Surakarta.Swartley, M. (2018). Political Marketing: How Social Media influenced the 2008-2016 Presidential Elections and Best Practices Associated. Liberty University.Tabroni, R. (2014). Marketing politik: media dan pencitraan di era multipartai. Graha Ilmu.The role played by social media in political participation and electoral campaigns. (2014, December 02). Retrieved December 07, 2018, from European Parliamentary Research Service Blog: https://epthinktank.eu/2014/02/12/the-role-played-by-social-media-in-political-participation-and-electoral-campaigns/Toka, G. Political Knowledge and Voter Inequality. Entral European University, Hungary & University of Oxford, United Kingdom.Toka, G. (2006). Political Knowledge and Voter Inequality. Central European University, Hungary & University of Oxford, United Kingdom. Marie Curie Intra-European Fellowship.Uthe. (2014, July 9). Lebih 200 Juta Interaksi Facebook Warnai Pilpres 2014. Retrieved 5 7, 2019, from Business Lounge Journal: http://blj.co.id/2014/07/09/perang-facebook-warnai-pilpres-2014/Vesnic-Alujevic, L. (2012). Political participation and web 2.0 in Europe: A case study of Facebook. Public Relations Review.Vinzi, V. E., Chin, W. W., Henseler, J., & Wang, H. (2010). Handbook of Partial Least Square: Concepts, Methods and Applications. Newyork: Springer Publication.Ware, A. Political Knowledge and Political Ignorance: a re-examination. University of Warwick, Department of Politics.Wojciech Cwalina, A. F. (2014). Advanced Theory of Political Marketing. In W. K. Tadeusz Marek, Human Factors of a Global Society (pp. 245-248). Boca Raton, London and New York: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.Wojciech Cwalina, A. F. (2015). Political Marketing Theoretical and Strategic Foundations. London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.Yadav, M. S. (2005). Interactivity in the electronic marketplace: an exposition of the concept and implications for research. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science.Zikmund, W. (2010). Business Research Methods (8th ed). Canada: Cengange Learning.
The present work deals with the study of air pollution in Navarra, focusing on the characterisation of particulate matter. To achieve this goal, a sampling study was carried out during 2009 at rural (Bertiz), urban (Iturrama) and traffic (Plaza de la Cruz) stations, located in Bertiz Natural Park and Pamplona respectively. 24-h samples of PM10 and PM2.5 were collected onto quartz fibre filters every three days from January 2009 to December 2009. A total of 561 samples of PM10 and PM2.5 were collected from which about 374 were selected to be chemically analysed The first section of this thesis was focused on the development of a robust method for accurate and precise quantification by ICP-MS of Na, Mg, Al P, K, Ca, Fe, V, Ti, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Cd, Sb, Cs, Ba, La, Ce and Pb, present in MPA sampled on quartz fibre filters, in order to minimize the time of the analysis. Following, the time series of PM10, PM2.5, CO, NO, NO2, SO2 and O3 pollutants were studied at three sampling stations. This study concluded that MPA levels recorded in 2009 in Navarra were similar to those in most of the stations in northern Spain and no MPA concentration exceedances were observed, when compared to limit values established by European legislation (Directive 2008 / 50/CE). However, the average concentration of NO2 reached at Plaza de la Cruz in 2009, exceeded the annual limit set by Directive 2008/50/EC. The chemical characterization of MPA (OM + EC, mineral matter, SIC and sea spray), was consistent with the composition shown by rural, urban and traffic background stations in Spain and Europe. However, metal concentrations showed significantly lower concentrations than those recorded at other stations with similar characteristics. PMF model identified 5 principle sources for PM10 and PM2.5 in Iturrama and Plaza de la Cruz (crustal, secondary sulphate, secondary nitrate, traffic and sea-salt aerosols) and 4 sources for PM10 in Bertiz (crustal, secondary sulphate, secondary nitrate and sea-salt). These factors explained in Iturrama 96% and 98% of the total mass measured in PM10 and PM2.5 fractions respectively, 101% (PM10) and 90% (PM2.5) mass of MPA in Plaza de la Cruz and the 95% of PM10 in Bertiz. From the time series study, a classification of the main sources of MPA high level episodes in Navarra was established as follows: 1) intrusion of air masses of North African origin, 2) transport of air masses from central Europe, 3) local pollution emissions (Pamplona), 4) local pollution episodes in Bertiz, and 5) less frequent episodes of regional pollution. In the same way, the advection of air masses from the Atlantic Ocean was identified as the most frequent meteorological event (60%) in Navarra, and characterised by the presence low concentrations of particulate matter. Samples corresponding to those characteristic episodes of high contamination events in Navarra were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDX). The results indicated that North African influenced samples showed typical particles of Saharan origin, such as fragments of diatoms, quartz and clay particles. In samples related to European influences many spherical carbon particles and clusters of C, Ca and Si were found, related to the use of fossil fuels, as well as soot aggregates emitted from diesel vehicles. In order to complete the chemical characterization of MPA a study concerning the characterization and source apportionment of the Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM10 samples at Bertiz, Iturrama and Plaza de la Cruz was carried out. The limit of 1 ng m-3 of Benzo(a)pyrene set by Directive 2004/107/ was not exceeded in any of the studied areas during 2009. The principal component analysis (PCA) identified the use of fossil fuels (natural gas, Wood and coal) as the main emission source of PAHs in urban station (Iturrama) unlike, in Plaza de la Cruz and Bertiz, the emissions from diesel and gasoline vehicles were the main contribution of PAHs. ; El presente trabajo pretende contribuir a la adquisición de un mayor conocimiento sobre la contaminación atmosférica en la Comunidad Foral de Navarra y, de manera específica del material particulado atmosférico (MPA). Con este objetivo, se realizó un estudio a lo largo del 2009 en tres estaciones de medida: rural, urbana y urbana de tráfico, ubicadas en el Parque Natural del Señorío de Bertiz y Pamplona (Iturrama y Plaza de la Cruz), respectivamente. Se determinaron simultáneamente un total de 561 muestras de PM10 y PM2,5, de las cuales aproximadamente 374 fueron seleccionadas para la realización del análisis físico-químico. El primer bloque de trabajo se centró en el desarrollo y puesta a punto de una metodología de digestión-evaporización robusta, en vaso cerrado, para la cuantificación simultánea de Na, Mg, Al, P, K, Ca, Fe, V, Ti, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Cd, Sb, Cs, Ba, La, Ce y Pb con exactitud y precisión en muestras de PM10 y PM2,5 en filtro de cuarzo, disminuyendo de este modo el tiempo de análisis. A continuación se realizó un estudio de las series temporales de los niveles en aire ambiente de los contaminantes PM10, PM2,5, CO, NO, NO2, SO2 y O3 en las tres estaciones de muestreo. De este estudio se concluye que los niveles de MPA registrados durante 2009 en Navarra fueron similares a los registrados en las numerosas estaciones del norte de España y que en ninguno de los casos se superaron las concentraciones límite de MPA establecidas por la legislación (Directiva 2008/50/CE). Sin embargo, la concentración media de NO2 alcanzada en la estación de Plaza de la Cruz en 2009 superó el límite establecido por la Directiva 2008/50/CE. La caracterización química del MPA en Navarra (OM+EC, material mineral, CIS y aerosol marino) reveló una composición similar a la mostrada por estaciones de fondo rural, urbano y de tráfico de España y Europa. Sin embargo, las concentraciones de metales alcanzaron concentraciones significativamente inferiores a las registradas en otras estaciones de características similares. Mediante la aplicación del modelo Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) se identificaron 5 factores con influencia en la masa de PM10 y PM2,5 en las estaciones de Iturrama y Plaza de la Cruz. Las fuentes obtenidas fueron las siguientes: crustal, nitrato secundario, sulfato secundario, tráfico y aerosol marino. Dichos factores explicaron en Iturrama el 96% y 98% de la masa medida en las fracciones PM10 y PM2,5 respectivamente, y el 101% (PM10) y 90% (PM2,5) de la masa de MPA en Plaza de la Cruz. En la estación de Bertiz se obtuvieron 4 factores, explicando el 95% de la masa de PM10: crustal, nitrato secundario, sulfato secundario y aerosol marino. El estudio de las series temporales permitió identificar las principales fuentes de los episodios de altos niveles de MPA en Navarra, como son: 1) intrusiones de masas de aire de origen norte africano, 2) transporte de masas de aire de centro Europa, 3) emisiones de contaminación local (Pamplona), 4) episodios de contaminación local en Bertiz, y 5) episodios menos frecuentes de contaminación regional. Del mismo modo, se identificó la advección de masas de aire procedentes del océano Atlántico como el episodio meteorológico más frecuente (60%) en Navarra, característico por presentar bajas concentraciones de material particulado. El análisis mediante Microscopía Electrónica de Barrido (SEM-EDX) de las muestras de aquellos episodios de contaminación más característicos, mostraron diferentes resultados. Aquellas muestras con influencia norte africana presentaron partículas de procedencia sahariana, tales como fragmentos de diatomeas, partículas de cuarzo y arcillas. En aquellas muestras relacionadas con intrusiones europeas abundaron las partículas esféricas de carbono y conglomerados de C, Ca y Si, relacionados con el uso de combustibles fósiles, así como agregados de hollín emitidas por los vehículos diésel. La caracterización química del MPA se completó mediante el análisis y evaluación de los niveles de los Hidrocarburos Aromáticos Policíclicos (HAPs) en las muestras de PM10 de Bertiz, Iturrama y Plaza de la Cruz. El límite establecido por la Directiva 2004/107/CE para el Benzo (a)pireno, considerado el más potente cancerígeno de los HAPs, no fue superado en 2009 en ninguna de las áreas estudiadas. El análisis de componentes principales (ACP) identificó el uso de combustibles fósiles (gas natural, madera y carbón) como principal fuente de emisión de los HAPs en la estación urbana de Iturrama, a diferencia de Plaza de la Cruz y Bertiz, donde las emisiones por parte de vehículos diésel y gasolina fueron la principal contribución de HAPs.
Tese de doutoramento em Sistemas Sustentáveis de Energia, apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; This thesis assesses the benefits of using ground source heat pump systems for space conditioning in buildings, in an integrated perspective, in terms of potential impacts such as increasing energy efficiency, increasing the use of renewable energy resources and reducing carbon emissions, as well as their use as a flexible load with thermal storage for balancing demand and supply, namely for the integration of intermittent renewable generation in the context of smart grids. Part of these impacts were evaluated based on the experimental results obtained in the ground source heat pump system installed in a public service building in Coimbra, under the European Project Ground‐Med from the Seventh Research Framework Programme ‐ FP7. The high efficiency of an advanced ground source heat pump system, which integrates state of art components in an optimal manner, was assessed by calculating the seasonal performance factors based on the monitored data of the experimental ground source heat pump system. The results demonstrated the feasibility of high efficiency ground source heat pumps, reaching a seasonal performance of 5.4 for the heating season and 6.4 for the cooling season. A control system was developed to allow programing the daily operation period of the overall system in order to guarantee temperature comfort when users arrive and to implement load control strategies. By the tests performed during summer and winter, it was concluded that the control strategies of adjusting the set point temperature of the ground source heat pump and the velocities of the circulation pumps, are very important to improve the system efficiency, namely during lower thermal needs periods. The thermal response of the building was analyzed and the results showed that the building has a good thermal inertia that delays the building temperature variation, which allows the implementation of space heating load shifting strategies without creating major disturbances in the users thermal comfort. Load shifting strategies by preheating the building and avoiding peak periods, to take advantage from the lower electricity prices and to minimize or even to avoid the energy consumption during the peak periods, were applied. The results showed that applying these strategies, profiting from the thermal mass of the building, significant costs savings can be achieved (about 34%). Additionally, the impacts on the national electric diagram of applying the proposed load shifting strategies to other office buildings were also assessed, assuming that 25% of the total office buildings space heating load in Portugal can be controlled in a centralized way. It was concluded that preheating the buildings can contribute to a larger integration of the renewable electricity generation surplus. The implementation of Demand Response actions by switching off heating loads, during some periods of time, to compensate the variations and forecasting errors of wind ‐ vi ‐ power, was also evaluated with positive impacts. A fuel switching strategy for building space heating at the EU level, by a large scale penetration of high efficiency heat pumps in a scenario where natural gas boilers will be progressively phased out until 2050, was also proposed and assessed. It was found that in European Union in 2050, through the replacement of natural gas space heating by high efficiency heat pumps, around 60% of the primary energy required and 90% of the associated CO2 emissions can be saved. Other positive impacts were achieved concerning decreasing the European natural gas dependency and increasing the renewable energy sources share in the total final energy consumption. A similar scenario was developed for Portugal and large positive impacts were also achieved. In summary, high efficient heat pumps can have an important role towards exploiting the increasing penetration of renewable electricity generation, effectively contributing to the replacement of fossil fuels and to decrease the growing natural gas dependency of European Union from risky and unstable countries. Additionally, high efficient heat pumps, when combined with the building thermal storage capacity, can be used as a flexible load to balance supply and demand, employing load leveling and Demand Response strategies, and to significantly reduce operation costs at the consumer side. ; Esta tese avalia de uma forma integrada os vários benefícios da utilização de bombas de calor geotérmicas na climatização de edifícios. Diversos impactes foram avaliados em termos do seu potencial para o aumento da eficiência energética e da utilização das energias renováveis, para a redução das emissões de CO2, bem como para a sua utilização como carga flexível, quando combinada com armazenamento de energia térmica, para melhorar o equilíbrio entre a oferta e a procura de energia, a partir da integração da geração intermitente de eletricidade renovável no contexto das redes inteligentes. Parte desses impactes foram avaliados com base nos resultados obtidos numa instalação experimental de uma bomba de calor geotérmica que foi instalada num edifício de serviços, em Coimbra, no âmbito do Projeto Europeu Ground‐Med do Sétimo Programa‐Quadro de Investigação (7ºPQ). A eficiência do sistema BCG, que integra componentes de última geração de uma forma otimizada, foi avaliada através do cálculo dos fatores de desempenho sazonal com base na monitorização dos dados do sistema BCG experimental instalado. Os resultados comprovam a alta eficiência destes sistemas BCG, atingindo um desempenho sazonal de 5.4 para a estação de aquecimento e de 6.4 para a de arrefecimento. Foi desenvolvido um sistema de controlo que permite programar o período de funcionamento diário, para garantir o conforto térmico à chegada dos utilizadores ao edifício e que permite implementar estratégias de gestão de carga. Os testes realizados nas estações de aquecimento e de arrefecimento permitem concluir que estratégias de ajuste da temperatura de funcionamento da bomba de calor e da variação de velocidade das suas bombas de circulação são fundamentais para a melhoria da eficiência do sistema, particularmente nos períodos de menor necessidade térmica. A resposta térmica do edifício foi analisada e os resultados evidenciam que o edifício tem uma boa inércia térmica, que atrasa a variação da temperatura interna em relação às condições ambientais, mesmo depois de desligado o sistema de climatização. Esta característica do edifício permite a implementação de estratégias de desvio de consumo associadas à sua climatização, sem perturbar significativamente o conforto térmico dos utilizadores. Para minimizar ou mesmo evitar o consumo de energia elétrica durante as horas de ponta do diagrama de carga elétrico, foram aplicadas estratégias de desvio de consumo, pré‐aquecendo o edifício ainda durante as horas de vazio para aproveitar os preços mais baixos da eletricidade. Os resultados mostraram que a aplicação destas estratégias, tirando partido da massa térmica do edifício, permite alcançar poupanças significativas (cerca de 34%). Adicionalmente foi analisado o impacte no diagrama elétrico nacional da aplicação destas ‐ viii ‐ estratégias de desvio de consumo ao nível dos edifícios de escritórios portugueses, assumindo que em 25% destes edifícios os sistemas de aquecimento podem ser controlados de forma centralizada. Concluiu‐se que o pré‐aquecimento destes edifícios pode contribuir para uma maior integração do excesso de eletricidade renovável produzida durante a noite. Foi também avaliada a implementação de medidas de resposta da procura, através do desligar das cargas de aquecimento, durante alguns períodos de tempo, para compensar as variações e erros de previsão da energia eólica, tendo‐se registado resultados positivos. Foi proposto e avaliado o potencial da substituição progressiva em larga escala de caldeiras a gás natural por bombas de calor na climatização de edifícios, num horizonte até 2050 a nível de toda a União Europeia. Verificou‐se que existe um potencial de poupança de energia primária de cerca de 60% e uma redução de cerca de 90% nas emissões de CO2 associadas. A aplicação desta medida contribui ainda para uma menor dependência do gás natural importado e para o aumento da contribuição das energias renováveis no consumo final de energia a nível da União Europeia. Foi aplicado um cenário similar para o caso particular de Portugal e também se obtiveram resultados muito positivos. Em resumo, as bombas de calor de alta eficiência podem ter um papel muito importante no aumento da penetração de energias de origem renovável, podendo ter um contribuindo efetivo na substituição dos combustíveis fosseis e na diminuição da importação do gás natural proveniente de países politicamente instáveis a nível da UE. Adicionalmente, as bombas de calor de alta eficiência, quando combinadas com a massa térmica de edifícios com elevada capacidade térmica, podem ser usadas como uma carga flexível na gestão do diagrama de carga elétrico, a partir de estratégias de gestão de cargas e de resposta da procura, e também para reduzir significativamente os custos de operação do aquecimento para o consumidor final. ; European Project Ground‐Med - TREN/FP7EN/218895
El método de espectroscopía de absorción atómica (AA) de llama para la determinación de cadmio (Cd) en almendra de cacao (Theobroma cacao) utilizado por Agrocalidad es tóxico para el ser humano y el ambiente; por ello, se pretende utilizar el método de espectroscopia de absorción atómica con horno de grafito (GFAAS) por ser más confiable y seguro. Así, se realizó la verificación de cuatro parámetros de desempeño del método GFAAS para cuantificar Cd en almendra de cacao utilizando material de referencia certificado (MRC) y muestras provenientes de cuatro fincas (A, B, C, D) ubicadas en la zona cacaotera de Ecuador, cantón Flavio Alfaro, provincia de Manabí. Se realizó una prueba inter-laboratorios y finalmente se elaboró el protocolo (PEE/B/14). Sobre el MRC (Cód. 07206B y 07167A) se verificó: linealidad, precisión, veracidad e incertidumbre de acuerdo con la Guía Eurachem de Eurolab España y Morillas (2016), y con el estándar IRAM 35050 (2001) se encontró linealidad entre 0 y 8 ppb con R2=0.9988; desviación estándar de 0.0005 y 0.0022 respectivamente; sesgo en 0.007 y porcentaje de recuperación de 109.75; la incertidumbre estándar de 0.00013 y 0.00082. El contenido de Cd en las muestras de la finca A con 0.54 ppm, las Fincas B-D con 0.26 ppm y 0.15 ppm en la finca C. En la prueba inter-laboratorios se estableció la misma concentración de cadmio para la muestra C3 y, de acuerdo con lo estipulado por la Unión Europea, el cacao de las cuatro fincas podría ser exportado sin restricciones. ; The flame atomic absorption (AA) spectroscopy method for determination of cadmium (Cd) in cocoa almond (Theobroma cacao) used by Agrocalidad is toxic to humans and the environment; that is why we use the atomic absorption spectroscopy method with graphite furnace (GFAAS) because it is more reliable and safer. Thus, we verified four performance parameters of GFAAS method, to quantify Cd in cocoa almond, by using certified reference material (MRC) and samples from four farms (A,B,C,D) located in the most important cocoa area of Ecuador, Flavio Alfaro city, province of Manabi; an interlaboratory test was performed and finally we developed a protocol (PEE/B/14). On the MRC (Code 07806B and 07167) was verified: linearity, precision, veracity and uncertainty in accordance with international standards Eurachem (2016) and IRAM (2010); linearity was between 0 and 8 ppb with R2 = 0.9988; standard deviation was 0.0005 and 0.0022 respectively; slant was 0.007 and the recovery percentage was 109.75; standard uncertainty was 0.00013 and 0.00082. The content of Cd in samples from farm A was 0.54 ppm, B and D farms 0.26 ppm and 0.15 ppm in farm C. In the interlaboratory test, the same concentration of Cd was established for simple C3 and, in accordance with the stipulated by the European Union, cocoa from the four farms could be exported without restrictions. ; O método de espectroscopia de absorção atômica por chama (AA) para a determinação de cádmio (Cd) na amêndoa de cacau (Theobroma cacao) usada por Agrocalidade é tóxico para os seres humanos e meio ambiente. Portanto, portanto, pretende-se utilizar o método de espectroscopia de absorção atômica com forno de grafite (GFAAS), por ser mais confiável e seguro. Assim, foi realizada a verificação de quatro parâmetros de desempenho do método GFAAS para quantificar Cd em amêndoa de cacau utilizando material de referência certificado (MRC) e amostras provenientes de quatro fazendas (A, B, C, D) localizadas na zona cacaueira do Equador, cantão Flavio Alfaro, província de Manabí. Foi realizado um teste interlaboratorial e, por fim elaborado o protocolo desenvolvido (PEE / B / 14). No MRC (código 07206B e 07167A), verificou-se: linearidade, precisão, veracidade e incerteza de acordo com o Guia Eurachem da Eurolab Espanha e Morillas (2016), e com o padrão IRAM 35050 (2001) foram encontradas linearidade entre 0 e 8 ppb com R2 = 0,9988, desvio padrão de 0,0005 e 0,0022, respectivamente, viés de 0,007, taxa de recuperação de 109,75 e incerteza padrão de 0,00013 e 0,00082. O conteúdo de Cd nas amostras da fazenda A com 0,54 ppm, nas fazendas B e D com 0,26 ppm e 0,15 ppm na fazenda C. No teste interlaboratorial, foi estabelecida a mesma concentração de cádmio para a amostra C3 e de acordo com o estipulado pela União Europeia, o cacau das quatro fazendas poderiam ser exportado sem restrições.
Batı Afrika'nın ekonomik büyümesini hızlandırmak ve Euro'nun tek bir para birliği olarak elde ettiği başarı, Batı Afrika Devletleri Ekonomik Topluluğu'na (ECOWAS) üye devletler için ortak bir para birimi olarak hizmet etmek üzere "eko" önermesine ilham verdi. Bu tez, önerilen para birimi Birliğini ve yaratılmasının bölgenin ekonomik büyümesini nasıl etkileyeceğini inceledi. Tez, para birliği teorileri doğrultusunda betimsel bir istatistiksel analiz uygulamış ve aynı zamanda ortak bir para birliğinin öncü olan Avrupa da dikkate alınmıştır. Üye ülkeler arasında GSYİH, enflasyon oranı, faiz oranı ve ticaretler arası para birliği tesis eden faktörler göz önünde bulundurulmuştur. Şu ana kadar bazı ülkeler düşük enflasyon, düşük faiz ve döviz kuru gibi bazı yakınsama kriterleri elde edebilmişlerdir. Bir para birliği alanı oluşturmak için gereken ekonomik eğilimleri ve diğer kriterleri inceledikten sonra, Batı Afrika Devletleri Ekonomik Topluluğu önerilen eko para birliğiyle devam etmemeli ve mevcut dengesizlikleri gidermek için döviz kurunu, ticaret gelişimini, ve ayrica para birliğinin parasal egemenliğini ele geçirmeye çalışan Fransa meselesini dikkate almalıdır.to me İÇİNDEKİLER Teşekkür…………………………………………………………………………………………i Özet ………………………………………………………………………………………….….ii Özet …………………………………………………………………………………………….iii Şekiller Listesi………………………………………………………………………………….ix Tablolar Listesi ………………………………………………………………………………….xi Önsöz ………………………………………………………………………………………….xvi BÖLÜM 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………….6 1. Giriş ……………………………………………………………………………………….….1 1.1 Arka Plan …………………………………………………………………………………….1 1.2 Problemin Açıklaması ………………………………………………………………….…….2 1.3 Araştırma Hedefleri …………………………………………………………………….……3 1.4 Araştırma Hipotezi ……………………………………………………………………….….5 1.5 Analiz Yaklaşımı………………………………………………………………………….….5 BÖLÜM 2 ……………………………………………………………………………………….6 2.1 Optımum Para Alanı …………………………………………………………………………6 2.1.1 R. Mundell'in Perspektifi …………………………………………………………….……8 2.1.2 R.I. McKinnon'in Perspektifi ……………………………………………………….……10 2.1.3 Y.Ishiyama'in Perspektifi………………………………………………………………….11 2.1.4 Y.Ishiyama'nın Perspektifi …………………………………………….………………….13 2.1.5 G.S. Tavlas'ın Optimum Para Birliğinin 'Yeni' Teorisine Bakış Açısı………………. 25 2.2 Avrupa Birliği ……………………………………………………………… . ……….28 2.2.1 AB Tarihi …………………………………………………………………………………27 2.2.2 Maastrıcht Anlaşması……………………………………………………………………. 33 2.2.3 Avrupa Para Sistemi Krizi………………………………………………………………. 35 2.2.4 Neden Bazı Ülkeler Euro Kullanmıyor?. 36 2.2.5 Euro'nin Avantajları………………………………………………………………………37 2.2.5.1 Çeşitli Makroekonomik Faydalar …………………………………………………….37 2.2.5.2 Döviz Kuru İstikrarı……………………………………………………………………. 37 2.2.5.3 Daha Düşük Faiz Oranı………………………………………………………………….37 2.2.5.4 Yatırım ve Ticaret……………………………………………………………………….39 2.2.5.5 Uluslararası Para Birimi Olarak Hizmet Etmek………………………………………. 39 2.2.5.3 Daha Düşük Faiz Oranı………………………………………………………………….39 2.2.5.6 AB'de İstikrar, Hareketlilik ve Büyüme……………………………………………….39 2.2.5.7 Şeffaf ve Demokratik Kurumların Oluşturulması,……………………………………. 39 2.2.5.8 Ticareti Geliştirme, İnsani Yardım, Diplomasi ve Güvenlik…………………………. 40 2.2.6. Euro dezavantajları……………………………………………………………………….41 2.2.6.1 Teminat Para Birimi Olarak Euro…………………………………………………….41 2.2.6.2 Bazı Ülkeleri Avantajlı Bir Konumda Yerleştirmek…………………………………. 41 2.2.6.3 Avrupa İçi Ticaretin Düşüşü…………………………………………………………….42 2.2.6.4 Transfer Ödemelerindeki Düzensizlikler……………………………………………….43 2.2.6.5 Euro'nun Maliye Politikasını Kullanamaması………………………………………….43 2.2.6.6 Finansal İstikrarsızlık………………………………………………………………….44 2.2.7 Avrupa Bir Optımum Para Alanı mı?. 44 2.2.7.1 Enflasyon ……………………………………………………………………………….44 2.2.7.2. Döviz Kuru …………………………………………………………………………….46 2.2.7.3 Ticarette Açıklık………………………………………………………………………. 47 2.2.7.4 Ücretler ve Fiyat Esnekliği……………………………………………………………. 52 2.2.7.5 İşgücü Hareketliliği (Euro)……………………………………………………………. 53 2.2.7.6 Seçilmiş Euro Bölgesi Ülkelerinde GSYH'nin Payı Olarak Cari Açıklar…………….54 2.2.7.7 Seçilmiş Euro Bölgesi Ülkelerinde İşsizlik Oranları……………………………………54 2.2.8 Avrupa Birliğinde Dört Özgürlük……………………………………………………….55 2.2.8.1 Malların Serbest Dolaşımı………………………………………………………………55 2.2.8.2 Hizmetlerin Serbest Dolaşımı………………………………………………………….56 2.2.8.3 Euro Bölgesinde İşçilerin Serbest Dolaşımı…………………………………………….57 2.2.8.4 Sermayenin Serbest Dolaşımı 57 2.3 BATI AFRİKA DEVLETLERİ EKONOMİK TOPLULUĞU (ECOWAS)………………59 2.3.1 ECOWAS'a Genel Bakış………………………………………………………………….59 2.3.2 ECOWAS'nin Amaçları ve Hedefleri…………………………………………………….62 2.3.3 ECOWAS ün Temel Prensipleri………………………………………………………….64 2.3.4 ECOWAS'in İşlevleri…………………………………………………………………….65 2.3.5 ECOWAS'nın Başarıları………………………………………………………………….66 2.3.5.1 Siyasi İşler, Barış ve Güvenlik………………………………………………………….67 2.3.5.2 Gine Bissau'de Ekova'nın Rolü………………………………………………………….67 2.3.5.3 Fildişi Sahili'nde ECOWAS'ın Rolü…………………………………………………….68 2.3.5.4 Mali'de ECOWAS'ın Rolü………………………………………………………………69 2.3.5.5 Liberya'da ECOWAS'ın Rolü………………………………………………………….71 2.3.5.6 ECOWAS Yakınsama Konseyi Tarafından Makroekonomik Yakınsama Raporunun Kabulü……………………………………………………………………………………………73 2.3.5.7 ECOWAS Para Enstitüsü'nün kurulması (EMI).……………………………………….74 2.3.5.8 Tüm Devlet Mali İşlemlerinin Geçmiş Kayıtlarının Tutulması İçin Bir Kılavuzun Sağlanması . . .74 2.3.5.9 Sahel Bölgesinde Bölgesel Güvenliği Artırmak İçin Bir Eylem Planının Uygulanması.75 2.3.5.10 Tekdüzen Ticaret Geliştirme Stratejisine Giriş ………………………… …………….75 2.3.5.11 Ekonomik Kalkınma Belgesinin İmzalanması…………………………………………76 2.3.5.12 Ortak bir Dış Tarife Oluşturmak ……………………………. …………… ………….76 2.3.5.13 ECOWAS vatandaşlarının Bölgesel Güvenliği Artırmak ve Serbest Dolaşımını Kolaylaştırmak için Biyometrik Kart Tanıtımı………………………………………………….76 2.3.5.14 Sınır Yönetiminde Kılavuz Olarak Hizmet Verecek Bir El Kitabının Sağlanması……77 2.3.5.15 Ecolink 78 adlı Bölgesel Bağlantı Projesinin Başlatılması……………………………78 2.3.5.16 Tüm Finansal İşlemlerin Kaydını Tutmak için Entegre Finansal Yönetim Sisteminin Başlatılması . . .78 2.3.5.17 Üye Devletlerde Kalkınma için Çevre Yönetişimini, Genel Çevre Korumasını, Kapasite Oluşturmayı ve Sürdürülebilir Kaynak Yönetimini Geliştirmeye Yönelik Yenilenen Çabalar…79 2.3.5.18 Seme-Krake Ortak Sınır Karakolu İnşaatı Sözleşmesinin Yeniden İmzalanması (Benin - Nijerya)………………………………………………………………………………………….79 2.3.5.19 Nijerya ile Kamerun Arasındaki Bemenda Yolu ve Bir Joınt Sınır Karakolu (JBP) ve Mfum Sınırında Bir Sınırın İnşası……………………………………………………………….79 2.3.5.20 Batı Afrika Doğalgaz Boru Hattı Şebekesi Fizibilite Çalışması Sonuçlandı………….80 2.3.5.21 Düzenleyici ve Ekonomik Ortamın Düzenlenmesi İle Bölgesel Elektrik Piyasasının Gelişimi………………………………………………………………………………………….80 2.3.5.22 Yenilenebilir Enerji ve Enerji Verimliliği Teknolojileri ve Hizmetlerinin Teşviki….80 2.3.5.23 ECOWAS Üye Devletinde Enerji Verimliliği Binalarını Teşvik Etmeyi Amaçlayan Enerji Verimliliği Binası (EEB) Üzerine Bir ECOWAS Direktifi Ecree Tarafından Geliştirildi.81 2.3.5.24 Bölgesel Hastalık Merkezinin Kurulması…………………………………………….81 2.3.5.25 Bölgesel Güvenliği Güçlendirmek İçin Bir Eylem Planının Hazırlanması……………81 2.3.5.26 Ortak Pazar, Ticaret Liberalizasyon Şeması (TIS) ve Kişilerin, Malların ve Hizmetlerin Serbest Dolaşımı Protokolünün Uygulanmasının Konsolide Edilmesi………………………….81 2.3.5.27 Dakar-Abidjan Koridoru İçin Yardımcı Kanunun İmzalanması ve Bölgesel Elektrik Projesi için İlk Taşın Döşenmesi. Proje Cote D'ivoire, Gine, Liberya ve Sierra Leone'yi kapsıyor ……………………………………………………………………………………………………81 2.3.5.28 Abidjan-Lagos Koridor Otoyolu Uygulama Birimi……………………………………83 2.3.6. ECOWAS'ün Zorlukları………………………………………………………….………83 2.3.6.1 Ticaret Faktörü ve Üye Devletlerin Ekonomisi…………………………………………83 2.3.6.2 Mali Sektör Eşitsizlikleri ve Kötü Ödeme Sistemi…………………………………….84 2.3.6.3 Altyapı ve Düzenleyici Rejimin Zorlukları…………………………………………….84 2.3.6.4 Siyasi İrade Eksikliği……………………………………………………………………85 2.3.6.5 Yolsuzluk ve Siyasi İstikrarsızlık……………………………………………………….86 2.3.6.6 Koloni Aşılamasından Kaynaklanan Zorluklar…………………………………………86 2.3.7 EKO PARA BİRLİĞİNİN……………………………………………………………….87 2.3.8 FRANSA VS. ECO……………………………………………………………………….89 2.3.9 ECOWAS EKONOMİK GÖRÜNÜM……………………………………………………90 2.3.9.1 GSYİH………………………………………………………………………………….90 2.3.9.1.1 ECOWAS Bütçe Fazlası (+) Veya Açığı (-)………………………………………….92 2.3.9.2 Enflasyon……………………………………………………………………………….93 2.3.9.3 Faiz Oranı……………………………………………………………………………….94 2.3.9.4 Döviz Kurları……………………………………………………………………………96 2.3.9.5 Ticaret………………………………………………………………………………….97 2.3.9.6 Ecowas İstihdam Durumu…………………………………………………………….104 2.3.9.6.1 İstihdam………………………………………………………………………………104 2.3.9.6.2 İşsizlik……………………………………………………………………………….106 2.3.10 Eko ve Optimum Para Alanı……………………………………………………………107 3.BÖLÜM…………………………………………………………………………………….109 3. SONUÇ VE POLİTİKA ÖNERİLERİ…………………………………………………….109 REFERANSLAR………………………………………………………………………………112 --- In an attempt to accelerate the economic growth of West Africa, and the success made by the euro as a single currency inspired the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to propose "the eco" to serve as a common currency for member states. This thesis looked into the proposed currency Union and how its creation will impact on the economic growth of the region. The thesis applied a descriptive statistical analysis in line with the theories of the currency union, and also Europe being the pioneer of a common currency was also taken into consideration. Factors for establishing a currency union such as GDP, inflation rate, interest rate, and inter-trade between member countries were considered. So far, some countries have been able to achieve some convergence criteria like low inflation, low interest and exchange rate. After reviewing the economic trends and other criteria needed for establishing a currency union area, the Economic Community of West African States should not proceed with the proposed eco currency and should consider the exchange rate and trade development to remove the imbalances that exist and also should address the issue of France who is trying to hijack the monetary sovereignty of the currency. CONTENTSAcknowledgementsiAbstractiiÖzetiiiList Of FiguresixList Of TablesxiiPrefacexviiCHAPTER 171.Introductioni1.1 Background 11.2 Statement of the Problem 21.3 Research Objectives 31.4 Research Hypothesis 51.5 Analysis Approach 5CHAPTER 262.1Optımum Currency Area62.1.1 Perspective of R. Mundell……………………………………………………………….82.1.1 Perspective of R. I. McKinnon…………………………………………………….……102.1.1 Perspective of Kenan: An Electic View.…………………………………………………112.1.4 Perspective of Y.Ishiyama 132.1.5 Perspective of G.S. Tavlas On The 'New' Theory Of Optimum Currency Union 252.2 The European Union……………………………………………………………….……….282.2.1 History of the EU 282.2.2 The Maastrıcht Treaty 332.2.3 The European Monetary System Crisis 352.2.4 Why Some Countries are not Using Euro? 362.2.5 Advantages of Euro 372.2.5.1 Diverse Macroeconomic Benefıts 372.2.5.2 Exchange Rate Stability 372.2.5.3 Lower Interest Rate 372.2.5.4 Investment and Trade 392.2.5.5 Serving as an International Currency 392.2.5.3 Lower Interest Rate 392.2.5.6 Stability, Mobilıty And Growth Within the EU 392.2.5.7 Establishment of Transparent and Democratic Institutions 392.2.5.8 Trade Promotion, Humanitarian Aid, Diplomacy and Security 402.2.6. Disadvantages of the Euro 412.2.6.1 Euro As A Fiduciary Currency 412.2.6.2 Placing Some Countries in an Advantaged Position 412.2.6.3 The Decline of Intra-European Trade 422.2.6.4 Irregularities in Transfer Payments 432.2.6.5 Failure of the Euro to the use of Fiscal Policy 432.2.6.6 Financial Instability 442.2.7 Is Europe An Optımum Currency Area? 442.2.7.1 Inflation 442.2.7.2. Exchange Rate 462.2.7.3 Trade Openess 472.2.7.4 Wages And Price Flexibility 522.2.7.5 Labour Mobılıty (Euro) 532.2.7.6 Current Account Deficits as a Share of GDP in Selected Euro Area Countries 542.2.7.7 Unemployment Rates in Selected Euro Area Countrıes 542.2.8 Four Freedoms in the European Union 552.2.8.1 Free Movement of Goods 552.2.8.2 Free Movement of Servıces 562.2.8.3 Free Movement of Workers in the Eurozone 572.2.8.4 Free Movement of Capital 572.3 ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS) 592.3.1 Overview Of ECOWAS 592.3.2 Aims and Objectives Of ECOWAS 622.3.3 Fundamentals Prıncıples Of ECOWAS 642.3.4 Functions of ECOWAS 652.3.5 Achievements of ECOWAS 662.3.5.1 Political Affairs, Peace and Security 672.3.5.2 The Role Of Ecowas in Guinea Bissau 672.3.5.3 The Role of ECOWAS in Ivory Coast 682.3.5.4 The Role of ECOWAS in Mali 692.3.5.5 The Role of ECOWAS in Liberıa 712.3.5.6 The Adoption of the Macroeconomic Convergence Report by the ECOWAS Convergence Council 732.3.5.7 Establishment of the ECOWAS Monetary Institute (EMI) 742.3.5.8 Provision of a Guide to Keep a Track Record of all Government Financial Transactions.742.3.5.9 Implementation of an Action Plan to Boost Regional Security in the Sahel Region 752.3.5.10 Introduction of a Uniform Trade Development Strategy………………………….752.3.5.11 Signing of the Economic Development Document 762.3.5.12 Establishing a Common External Tariff…………………………….……………. 762.3.5.13 Introducing a Biometric Card to Boost Regional Security and Smooth the Free Movement of ECOWAS citizens……………………………………………………………762.3.5.14 Provision of a Manual to Serve as a Guide in Border Management 772.3.5.15 Launching of the Regional Link Project called Ecolink 782.3.5.16 Launching of an Integrated Financial Management System to Keep Record of all Financial Transactions.782.3.5.17 Renewed Efforts to Enhance Envıronment Governance, General Environmental Protection, Capacity Building as Well as Sustainable Resource Management for Development in the Member States 792.3.5.18 Re-Award of the Contract for the Construction of the Seme-Krake Joint Border Post (Benin – Nigeria) 792.3.5.19 Bemenda Road Between Nigeria and Cameroon and the Construction of a Joınt Border Post (JBP) and a Border at Mfum Border 792.3.5.20 Feasibility Study for the West African Gas Pipeline Network Concluded 802.3.5.21 Development Of Regıonal Power Market With the Settıng Up of Regulatory and Economic Environment 802.3.5.22 Promotion of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Technologies and Services 802.3.5.23 An ECOWAS Directive On Energy Efficıency Building (EEB) Aimed at Promotıng Energy Efficency Buildings in the ECOWAS Member State has Been Developed By Ecree 812.3.5.24 Establishment of a Regional Centre for Disease 812.3.5.25 Provision of an Action Plan to Strengthen Regional Security 812.3.5.26 Consolidating the Implementation of the Common Market, Trade Lıberalızatıon Scheme (TIS) and the Protocol on Free Movement of Persons, Goods and Services 812.3.5.27 Signing of the Supplemantary Act on Dakar-Abidjan Corridor, and Laying of the Fırst Stone for the Regional Electrıcıty Project. The Project Covers Cote D'ivoire, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone 812.3.5.28 Implementation Unit of the Abidjan-Lagos Corridor Highway 832.3.6. Challenges of ECOWAS 832.3.6.1 The Trade Factor and the Economy of Member States 832.3.6.2 Financial Sector Disparities and Poor Payment System 842.3.6.3 Challenges of Infrastructure and Regulatory Regime 842.3.6.4 Lack of Political Will 852.3.6.5 Corruption And Polıtical Instability . 862.3.6.6 Challenges Emanating from Colonıal Hang-Over 862.3.7 ECO CURRENCY 872.3.8 FRANCE VS. THE ECO 892.3.9 ECOWAS ECONOMIC OUTLOOK 902.3.9.1 GDP 902.3.9.1.1 ECOWAS Budget Surplus (+) Or Deficit (-) 922.3.9.2 Inflation 932.3.9.3 Interest Rate 942.3.9.4 Exchange Rates 962.3.9.5 Trade 972.3.9.6 Ecowas Employment Status 1042.3.9.6.1 Employment 1042.3.9.6.2 Unemployment 1062.3.10 Eco and the Optimum Currency Area 107CHAPTER 31093. CONCLUSION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS109REFERENCES113
As a Caribbean institution of Higher Learning, the University of the West Indies is seen as a major contributor to integration efforts in the Region very often mandated by CARICOM to carry out educational missions to that effect. Working in a geographically fragmented and multilingual space, foreign language education is a major preoccupation for academic departments or sections in the respective campuses. The Mona Campus, based in Jamaica, was very one of the earliest to recognize the need to add LSP courses in its curriculum as electives (Business) or as 'service courses' for other programmes (Tourism and Hospitality Management). To these existing LSP courses, the French Section at the Mona Campus added in 2003 a new LSP course geared toward International Relation students. The originality of the course lays its chosen method of delivery by total simulation. The course was offered twice since its approval and under two different schedules (two-week intensive and semester-long). This chapter discusses the impact of these two schedules on the course delivery and learning process. The comparison shows the importance of student's motivation and learning autonomy. The study also comments on the use of blended learning (on-line module complementing face-to-face delivery) and suggests that virtual reality may offer a new addition to Total Simulation for LSP. ; To cite the digital version, add its Reference URL (found by following the link in the header above the digital file). ; TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 73 French for International Conference at The University of the West Indies, Mona: Total Simulation in the Teaching of Languages for Specific Purposes Marie-José Nzengou-Tayo The University of The West Indies, Mona Gilles Lubeth The University of The West Indies, Mona Abstract: As a Caribbean institution of Higher Learning, the University of the West Indies is seen as a major contributor to integration efforts in the Region very often mandated by CARICOM to carry out educational missions to that effect. Working in a geographically fragmented and multilingual space, foreign language education is a major preoccupation for academic departments or sections in the respective campuses. The Mona Campus, based in Jamaica, was very one of the earliest to recognize the need to add LSP courses in its curriculum as electives (Business) or as 'service courses' for other programmes (Tourism and Hospitality Management). To these existing LSP courses, the French Section at the Mona Campus added in 2003 a new LSP course geared toward International Relation students. The originality of the course lays its chosen method of delivery by total simulation. The course was offered twice since its approval and under two different schedules (two-week intensive and semester-long). This chapter discusses the impact of these two schedules on the course delivery and learning process. The comparison shows the importance of student's motivation and learning autonomy. The study also comments on the use of blended learning (on-line module complementing face-to-face delivery) and suggests that virtual reality may offer a new addition to Total Simulation for LSP. Keywords: CARICOM, French for international trade, international conferences, Language for Specific Purposes (LSP), methodology Introduction Language for Specific Purpose (LSP) has developed with the expansion of international trade and the development of multilingual and multicultural working teams. Short language courses are designed at the request of enterprises or institutions in order to meet the specific demands related to the work environment. Though LSP courses have been in existence for more than three decades, their introduction in the academic programs of language majors is quite recent and has been a hot debate for several years at MLA and ADFL meetings. In the Caribbean, with the development of integration, the need for LSP has been felt as the CARICOM (Caribbean Community) started to look beyond the English-speaking Caribbean and opened itself to non-English-speaking territories (Surinam and Haiti joined the organization in 1995 and 2002 respectively while Cuba and the Dominican Republic have observer status). These political trends impacted on our foreign language offerings, stressing the need to open our curriculum to professionally oriented courses. The Department of Modern Languages and Literatures and the language sections of the two other campuses TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 74 had various responses: at the St. Augustine Campus (Trinidad and Tobago), a Latin American Studies program was developed; at Cave Hill (Barbados), a cross-faculty program in Management Studies with a minor in a foreign language was approved; at Mona, LSP courses were developed and students from other faculties were allowed to declare minors in French or Spanish. In this article, we present the circumstances surrounding the design of the latest addition to French for Specific Purpose courses offered at the University of The West Indies, Mona (UWI, Mona), the methodological choices made and their implication for assessment. Because the course has been offered twice since its approval by the University Academic Quality Assurance Committee and with two different schedules, we will compare and discuss these two delivery modes. Language for Specific Purpose at the UWI, Mona At the UWI, Mona, the introduction of French for Special Purpose came out of a pragmatic approach at a time when high schools were experiencing a high turnover of French teachers and a reduction of schools offering A-level French (equivalent to the Baccalauréat). Noting that our graduates were being hired in the insurance and tourism industries, it was thought that equipping them with professional language skills would give a 'practical' touch to our program. The recruitment of a colleague with professional experience in translation led to discussions about a more professionally oriented program. "French for Business" was the first LSP course to be designed in 1991–1992 with the creation of a level III course of French for business or "Business French." The course was developed as an elective in response to a situation in which French graduates were moving toward the business sector instead of education. In the subsequent years, other LSP courses were introduced: "French for Hospitality" in 1998–1999 and "French for International Conferences" in 2003. The introduction of this last course coincided with a drastic overhaul of the French curriculum. The offering of "French for International Conferences" came at a time when the French section of the Department was repositioning itself and revising its offerings. The course was designed with a view to attracting International Relations (IR) students while capitalizing on the latest trend in French foreign language teaching methods. The decision was based on the fact that IR majors and French majors minoring in IR outnumbered students majoring in French only. It was taken at a time when the section was going into a survival mode, taking drastic measures and moving away from the traditional language curriculum (36 credits equally divided between language and literature). The section opted for a mix of language, literature, film and culture, and French for specific purpose courses. It was a drastic choice since the section was moving away of the traditional literary offerings. Though the section has not fully recovered, it has increased its numbers and the majority of students pursuing French are double majors (French and Spanish) with a professional objective of becoming translators or interpreters, followed by IR and Linguistics majors. Total Simulation in French Foreign Language Teaching and Learning Even though Total Simulation in French Foreign Language Education was initiated in the 1970s at the BELC (Bureau d'Enseignement de la Langue et de la Civilisation Françaises à l'Étranger / Office for the Teaching of French Language and Civilization TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 75 Abroad) it did not really become mainstream until the late eighties. This approach to language teaching evolved from role playing and the need to expand role playing over a longer period of time with a view to involving diverse aspects of communication (Yaiche, 1996). Total Simulation was borrowed from continuous professional education where staff received specific training to deal with job-related situations. Total Simulation for French Foreign Language Teaching was first conceptualized by Francis Debyser, a professor at the CIEP (Centre International d'Études Pédagogiques / International Center for Peda-gogical Studies). In the 1980s, Total Simulation became more broadly accepted and moved from experimental to established status. Publishers become interested and several textbooks were published by Hachette between 1980 and 1990 (Yaiche, 1996). By the 1990s, Total Simulation was redirected toward the teaching of French for Specific Purpose (Business French, French for International Relations, Hospitality French). Total Simulation benefits today from IT and its use in the classroom. It is still at the experimental stage as is the case of 'Virtual Cabinet' for the teaching of English, which has been developed by Masters' students at University of Lyon II (http://sites.univ-lyon2.fr/vcab/demo/) or 'L'auberge' developed by University Lille III for incoming French Foreign Language Students (http://auberge.int.univ-lille3.fr/). Characteristics of a Total Simulation Course in Foreign Language Learning Total Simulation in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning could be considered revolutionary in its approach and methodology. First, the role of the teacher is transformed as he or she becomes a facilitator and a participant in the simulation instead of an instructor. For instance, in the International Conference Simulation, the teacher plays the part of the Secretariat. He or she compiles and archives the material needed for the progress of the conference. He or she also provides documents and the linguistic tools needed for the project. Secondly, simulation follows a set pattern of five stages (See Bourdeau, Bouygue, & Gatein, 1992; Yaiche, 1996). The first stage is the creation of the setting. In the case of the International Conference, it means, choosing the theme and the place of the conference. The second stage is to identify the participants. At this point, the role playing starts as the learners have to choose an identity and the country that they will represent. Learners will have to play several roles: delegates from their chosen countries (Minister of Foreign Affairs or High Ranking Civil Servant or Ambassador). At one point, they also play the part of journalists. The countries are fictitious but based on the characteristics of real countries. During this stage, learners choose their identity and civil status; they invent a short biography indicating two physical, moral, psychological, intellectual characteristics, two distinctive objects, (Yaiche, 1996). The third and fourth stages consist in conducting the simulation: the official opening ceremony and the working sessions. At this point, learners are to present their country's respective position paper. Interaction takes place as well as negotiations for a common position and action plan. During this stage, the facilitator plays an important part in ensuring the archiving of all productions and the elaboration of a data bank for the progress of the conference. Students are provided with documents and assisted in acquiring the mastery of the linguistic tools needed for the exercise (e.g., mastery of high language register for official speeches; mastery of diplomatic lexicon for the phrasing of the final resolution and the press release, TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 76 ability to write an abstract or a synthetic report from a news article, etc.). The final stage is geared toward ending the simulation. In the case of the International Conference, it is marked by the writing of the final resolution and a press conference. Since IR students are to be prepared to face and manage diplomatic incidents/crisis during negotiations, elements that could lead to such incident are introduced between the fourth and fifth stage of the simulation when students are drafting the final resolution of the conference. Students are expected to draw on their negotiating skills in order to solve the problem or assuage the potential conflict and bring the conference to a positive closing ceremony. Assessment is blended in the simulation: oral expression is assessed during the opening ceremony (a five-minute presentation) and during the press conference. Students are video recorded and marking takes place afterwards. (See evaluation sheet in appendix B). Both examiners are present to abide by University Examination Regulations. Writing proficiency is assessed through a press release and the conference final resolution, which is done individually during a traditional in-class test. It is also assessed 'outside' of the simulation through the submission of a take-home assignment, the format of which is either a précis writing or a critical review of a newspaper article related to the theme of the conference. Students are provided with a choice of articles from Le Monde Diplomatique, a well-established and recognized reference journal from which they will select an article for review or summary. LSP and Total Simulation in Jamaica and at the UWI, Mona French teachers in Jamaica were introduced to Total Simulation in 1993 thanks to a new French Linguistics Attaché who was also appointed at The University of the West Indies from 1992–1997. A specialist in Total Simulation, she organized two workshops for the Jamaica Association of French Teachers and one for the Tourism Product Development Company (TPDCo), a Jamaican state agency responsible for the training of the workforce in the tourism sector. The co-authors received additional training at the annual training seminar organized by the Centre International d'Études Pédagogiques (CIEP) held in Caen in July 1996 (Nzengou-Tayo) and July 2009 (Lubeth) respectively. The first total simulation course at the UWI was developed in 2003. Two factors contributed to the choice of this methodology. One was the renewed interest in LSP with the review of the French program. After a quality assurance review in 2003, the French section, threatened by low numbers in registration, revised its program with a stronger professional component (introduction of an additional LSP course and translation modules). The second was the institutionalization of summer courses, which offered the possibility of using an intensive format. The idea was to design a course that could imitate a real life situation: an international conference taking into account that such an event is usually limited over a period of time (1–2 weeks) and requires a full work day. The course was submitted to the University Quality Assurance Committee for approval (See course proposal in Appendix A). In the initial submission, evaluation was by 50% coursework and 50% final examination (Appendix A). However, when the course was first taught in 2006, we requested a change of the evaluation scheme to 100% coursework (50% oral presentation and 50% written assignment). The reason for this change was directly related to the philosophy behind total simulation, which required a formative form of assessment that would blend seamlessly in the simulation. TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 77 Case Study: The 2006 and 2009 Experiences Since its creation, French for International Conferences (FREN 3118) has been offered twice: first, in 2006 as an intensive summer course over two weeks, and secondly, in 2009 as a regular semester course over thirteen weeks. These two modes of delivery will be compared and discussed in this section. Course delivery schedule. In 2005–2006, during the two-week period during which the course was offered, the timetable averaged 25 hours per week with 5 daily contact hours. FREN 3118 was the only course attended by the students. Students were put in an immersion situation as they interacted with a native speaker of French during the week. During the second week, ten hours were set aside for independent research in an attempt to give students an opportunity to develop learning autonomy. In 2009–2010, the course was taught during the first semester according to the regular schedule. The timetable featured 3 one-hour sessions per week. In addition to FREN 3118, students were simultaneously registered for four other courses whose demands were competing with the French course. The fast pace of the semester (13 weeks) did not allow for a scheduled independent research. Students had to use their free time for independent research to develop their learning autonomy. The difference between the schedules of the 2006 and 2009 course delivery had an impact on the course management as well as the students' learning experience. It is evident that 2009 students did not have the same learning stimulus as the 2006 ones. They had the pressure of their other courses in term of time and workload. In addition, regular attendance was an issue since students sometimes missed classes either due to timetable clashes or assignment deadlines to meet in other courses. The running of the course was affected as each student had a part to play in the progress of the simulation and absence from class meetings affected the proceedings of the conference. Student profile and number. The course targets third-year students and requires a general language module at level III as a co-requisite. However, the co-requisite can be waived depending on the level of the students. For instance, when the course was offered during the summer 2006, it was waived for second-year students who had received a B+ in the two modules of the level II language courses. In 2009, a third-year International Relations student who had completed level I of the French language courses with A and was reading the level II language course was allowed to register. The waiver was granted based on his outstanding results at level I and also after an interview in which he demonstrated a high level of motivation and learning autonomy. In 2006, the course was offered with 9 students and in 2009 there were 14 registered students. Numbers can be an issue for conducting a total simulation course. For instance, our experience taught us that, even though Cali, Cheval, & Zabardi (1992) suggest a number of 20 participants divided according to a ratio by type of countries1 in La Conférence Internationale et ses Variantes, country-ratio balance can still be observed TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 78 with lesser numbers. Based on our 2006 experience, we recommend a minimum of 8 students. Indeed, a lesser number would not allow their distribution according to the recommended country ratio. In addition, work in commissions, which is part of the simulation process, would be less productive. Similarly, 20 is the maximum manageable number of students during total simulation. The attention to be devoted to students' progress and the group dynamics become a challenge with larger numbers. Therefore, beyond 20, the group would be divided and two concurrent simulations conducted, provided that staffing is not an issue for the institution. Topics and scenarios. On both occasions, the theme of the conference was inspired by current affairs relevant to the Caribbean region. In 2006, the conference was titled "Libre circulation des travailleurs à l'échelle mondiale: Faisabilité et conditions" (Feasibility and Conditions for a Global Free Movement of Labour). The theme was inspired by discussions taking place in the media about the Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME) put in place by CARICOM countries that year. The scenario was developed to involve a group of 9 countries, members of a regional organization seeking to achieve integration through free movement of workers. The 2009 edition of the conference, "Réchauffement climatique: Stratégies et équité" (Global Warming: Strategies and Equity) was inspired by the then ongoing international negotiations on global warming. The course started in September, just three months before the Copenhagen Summit. The scenario was based on the creation of an international organization, the Group of 14 (G14) specially dedicated to addressing the issue of global warming, and therefore holding its first conference accordingly. The choice of topics related to current international or regional issues stimulates the students' interest as they can have access to current reference material. They develop their critical thinking as they are exposed to various diverging opinions and asked to present their country's position at the start of the conference. For example, at the 2009 conference, the delegate of "Bonangue" expressed the country's position as follows: Conscient des graves effets [du réchauffement climatique] sur l'environnement, nous tenons à prendre action immédiatement parce que les effets poseront un problème pour le pays. Par le passé, la Bonangue a donné priorité aux revenus, dans certains cas, au détriment de l'environnement. Le pays est disposé à porter [sic] les changements nécessaires. The delegate of "Kalasie," on the contrary, indicated, "La Kalasie est favorable au recours aux crédits d'émission de gaz utilisables par les investisseurs." Another delegate from "Lisérbie" chose to stress the social impact and the importance to reach a consensus on the matter. The multiple and sometimes diverging country positions will contribute to the life of the conference as the objective is to find a common ground and sign a final resolution, which would bring the conference to a close. TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 79 Resources and methods. The course outline was developed in accordance with the prescribed textbook La Conférence Internationale et ses Variantes (Cali et al., 1992). The authors' recom-mendations were followed with some adjustments, which will be presented below. Since countries have to be fictitious to respect the principle of Total Simulation, two websites, CIA: The World Factbook, and Quid were used to establish the profile of these invented countries.2 Using the principle of 'mots-valises' students invented the name of the countries they were representing. For instance, "Lisérbie," "Kalasie" or "Dukenyah" were obviously created in reference to existing countries or regions. Other names were arbitrary and left to the students' imagination as "Cadeaux d'Ouest," "Amapour" or "Kadia." Other web resources were used in accordance with the theme of the conference and a companion website was developed on the University Virtual Learning Environment (OurVLE) (UWI, Mona "Virtual Learning Environment") to take advantage of information technology at our disposal at the Mona Campus. The 2006 intensive format. We introduced some slight variations from the standard format of the simulation. First, the course started with a screening of the French movie Saint-Germain ou la Négociation (2003) with Jean Rochefort. The objective was to highlight the objectives, modalities of diplomatic negotiations as well as to insist on the high-language register used during negotiations, which the students would have to use. Despite the historical context (the 16th century), the film was particularly suitable as it showed protocol and behind-the-scene events taking place during political negotiations. Secondly, students were given an introductory lecture on the processes of international conferences coupled with a tour of the Jamaica Conference Centre in Kingston. This was facilitated by a colleague and professional translator who worked at international conferences and was familiar with the facility. Various documents were made available online on a range of topics: international organizations pursuing regional integration through implementation of free movement of labor (the European Union, CARICOM) and a compilation of documents on immigration and globalization. In 2006, the course page on OurVLE was used only for archival purposes. The instructor, playing the part of the conference Secretary, uploaded for future reference documents that had been identified as relevant to the conference. Since the students' time were dedicated to the course, it was easy to simulate the rhythm of a conference with meetings in commission and plenary sessions. The course outline was design to be the "agenda" of the conference. The intensive format helped to develop a group dynamic based on solidarity and conviviality, which stimulated weaker students to make efforts to improve their proficiency. The 2009 semester-long format. The semester-long delivery of FREN 3118 differed from the intensive summer course on some points. The presentation by the guest lecturer and the film screening were maintained, but, due to timetable constraints, the tour of the Conference Centre did not take place. The main innovation was in the extensive use of the online module and the exploration of the functionalities offered by the Moodle platform supporting OurVLE TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 80 where all the material necessary for the presentation of the theme and the conduct of the activities of the conference were uploaded. All documents were made available online via OurVLE, expanding from print and website links to audio and video. Students' productions were added to the resources identified by the instructor. The instructor/facilitator provided the following resources: explanatory documents on global warming (its geopolitical implications and the negotiation process); documents with terminology used in diplomatic language; and audiovisual documents from France2, France3, and YouTube. A link to Yann Arthus-Bertrand's documentary Home (2009) was also put on the course portal. As Secretariat, the instructor/facilitator uploaded reports of sessions held during the preparatory phase (the preconference meetings). These reports gave students a regularly updated overview of progress made, a review of notions covered as well as the calendar of events (the schedule of meetings). Using the functionalities offered by Moodle, students were able to contribute to the development of the course portal. Using the 'upload a single file' and the forum features, they uploaded their own production, including country and delegate profiles, reports resulting from the sessions in commission and plenary sessions, and draft resolutions. The course portal was useful for archiving the various activities conducted during the course. Students were able to refer to a central repository outside of the contact hours. This tool also had financial and ecological benefits as it reduced the cost of photocopying. Indeed, whereas all documents had to be printed in 2006, only documents produced during the conference (student-generated commission and plenary reports, agenda and list of speakers) were printed for circulation in 2009. Because of the discontinuity of the timetable (3 hours spread over 13 weeks), the 2009 conference did not flow as harmoniously as the 2006 one. With competing interests, students found it difficult to dedicate themselves to the conference. Running from one class to another, they sometimes lost track of the conference objectives, which in turn had an impact on the group dynamics and progress as indicated by the results of the continuous assessment (i.e., the coursework). Evaluation and students' results. As mentioned earlier, the course assessment was done by 100% coursework. The percentage was equally divided between oral and writing proficiency (50% each). Oral proficiency was assessed as follows: delegate's address at the opening ceremony weighting 25%; delegate's interview at the press conference (15%); and one intervention as a journalist interviewing the delegates at the press conference (10%). Writing proficiency was assessed through a press release (10%), an individual proposal for the final resolution (15%), and one précis writing/critical review of document(s) (25%). Students' oral and written productions were graded using a criterion-referenced assessment grid (See Appendix B for details). In 2006, we got a 100% pass rate with results ranging from A+ to C. In 2009, the pass rate was 71.42%. With the intensive format, students demonstrated their mastery of high-level register. Students who were considered 'weak' based on their low grade in the general language courses, managed to improve their proficiency level and achieve acceptable performances in oral presentations. In 2009, there was a large gap between the TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 81 best and the weakest students (2 students got As, 4 students failed, and 8 students' grades ranged from B+ to D). Group average was 49.79%. When comparing the two groups' results, we have to admit that we had some doubts initially about the intensive format because of the limited time given to students to properly absorb the notions and the various tasks required in the course. Yet, it appears that stretching the process over a semester is not a decisive factor for improved performance. The role of group dynamics in total simulation is yet to be measured though it is generally recognized in class interaction and learning. During the regular semester, the group dynamics did not play a cohesive role as it did in the summer course where more proficient students helped to strengthen the weaker ones. Competing academic interests and irregular attendance during the regular semester also had an impact on students' low performance. Conclusion At the UWI, Mona, we introduced LSP courses in our academic programs as part of our major from a pragmatic standpoint in reviewing our curriculum. Though we are aware that LSP courses generally target professionals already in the field, as a result, the design and offering of such courses is usually preceded by a need analysis and the identification of the language processes (i.e., register, lexicon, syntax, speech acts) needed to achieve the requested proficiency (Mangiante & Parpette, 2004). Both "Business French" and "French for International Conferences" count toward the major, though only one can be taken as a core course, the other being an elective. Because LSP courses have a professional orientation, they give undergraduates the impression of being prepared for the world of work. The use of total simulation comforts this impression because of its task-based approach and the fact that it recreates a work environment with its idiosyncrasies. Combined with information technology (OurVLE), it becomes an original and valuable method. The dual-mode adds flexibility to the course and expands access to authentic material. However, success depends heavily on students' learning autonomy, which is enhanced by a tool like OurVLE. Motivation and participation are essential for the success of students as evidenced by the results of the third-year student who was accepted while doing the first module of level II French and was one of the top two students in the course. Our experience suggests that the intensive format yields better results because it reinforces student concentration, dedication, and performance, which also benefit from the positive impact of the group dynamics. Recent development in the field shows an orientation toward multimedia and information technology to create virtual worlds where Total Simulation is made possible on a large scale. The combination of the two is very promising for language learning and teaching but presents new challenges to foreign language teachers and course developers. Notes 1Cali, Cheval, & Debardi (1992) identify the following categories: developing countries, developed countries, least developed countries, and Central or Eastern European countries in transition towards market economy. The latter category being now obsolete, the decision was made to replace it with countries in the same geographical region. TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 82 2See https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ and http://www.quid.fr. References Arthus-Bertrand, Y. (2009). Home. Home Project. Retrieved (September–November 2009) from http://www.youtube.com/homeprojectFR L'auberge. Retrieved February 21, 2010 from http://auberge.int.univ-lille3.fr/ Bourdeau, M., Bouygue, & M., Gatein, J. J. (1992). Le congrès médical: Simulation globale sur objectifs spécifiques. Ministère des affaires étrangères, sous direction de la coopération linguistique et éducative, CIEP-BELC, 1991/92. Sèvres: CIEP. Cali, C., Cheval, M., & Zabardi, A. (1992). La conférence internationale et ses variantes. Paris: Hachette, Français langue étrangère. Mangiante, J. M., & Parpette, C. (2004). Le français sur objectifs spécifiques: De l'analyse des besoins à l'élaboration d'un cours. Paris: Hachette. Le Monde Diplomatique. 2009. Paris: Editions "Le Monde." Retrieved from http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/ Virtual Cabinet. Retrieved February 21, 2010 from http://sites.univ-lyon2.fr/vcab/demo/ Yaiche, F. (1996). Les simulations globales: Mode d'emploi. Paris: Hachette, Français langue étrangère. TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 83 APPENDICES Appendix A Original submission to the Academic Quality Assurance Committee of the UWI, Mona Campus in 2003–2004. The assessment was subsequently modified to 100 percent coursework in 2005–2006. DEPARTMENT OF MODERN LANGUAGES & LITERATURES COURSE PROPOSAL Course Title: French for International Conferences Course Code: FREN 3118 Level: 3 Semester: 1 Credits: 3 Prerequisite: A Pass in F24A (FREN 2001) Co-requisite: F34A (FREN 3001) Contact hours: 4 hours per weeks (1 lecture, 1 writing tutorial, 1 oral expression, 1 listening comprehension) Rationale: French is one of the major languages of the United Nations and other inter-national institutions. In response to increased demand for specialized foreign language courses, this course will introduce students to the technical French of international relations and negotiations Course description: This course is designed to reproduce an international conference setting during which various aspects of diplomatic negotiations will be envisaged with a view to using French at the formal/foreign affairs level. Objectives: At the end of the course students should be able to Demonstrate understanding of French spoken in a formal/diplomatic setting Read articles in French on international issues. Write press reviews, press releases in French about an international issue. Express a personal view about a topical International issue in French Express a simulated official view about a topical International issue in French Simulate an official address in French Simulate a press conference in French TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 84 ASSESSMENT 50% in-course: 3 one-hour in-class tests: Reading comprehension (15%); Writing (20%); Listening comprehension (15%) 50% Final Examination: Oral presentation (25%) and 2-hour written examination (25%) TEXTS La Conférence Internationale et ses Variantes. Chantal Cali, Mireille Cheval and Antoinette Zabardi. Paris: Hachette Livre, Français Langue Étrangère, 1995. Audio-visual material from TV5 (such as Kiosque, Une fois par mois, Le dessous des cartes). Articles from journals such as Le monde diplomatique. REFERENCES Plaisant, François. (2000). Le ministère des affaires étrangères. Toulouse: Editions Milan, Les Essentiels Milan, 2000. Kessler, Marie-Christine. (1998). La politique étrangère de la France. Paris: Presses de Sciences-Po. http://www.france.diplomatie.gouv.fr Appendix 2. Assessment grid for oral presentation Official Address: (5-minute presentation at the Opening Ceremony). Press Conference Part 1 and 2: Presentation of Country Position followed by Questions and Answer session). Students plays the country official and then the journalist parts. FREN 3118: Oral Presentation Assessment Grid NAME: Grade Comments Relevance of Arguments /5 Fluency /5 Consistent use of high-language register /3 Communicative skills /2 Accuracy and richness of vocabulary /5 Accuracy and use of complex syntactic structures /5 Accurate pronunciation /5 FINAL GRADE (25%) /25 TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 85 FREN 3118: Press Conference Assessment Grid—Presenter NAME: Grade Comments Relevance of Arguments (5 pts. x 3 = 15) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Fluency (5 pts. x 3 = 15) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Consistent Use of High Language Register (3 pts. x 3 = 9) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Communicative skills (2 pts. x 3 = 6) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Accuracy and Richness of Vocabulary (5 pts. x 3 = 15) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Accuracy and Use of Complex Syntactic Structures (5 pts. x 3 = 15) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Accurate Pronunciation /5 marks x 3 = 15 Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Unconverted Total (90 pts.) / FINAL GRADE (15%) TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 86 FREN 3118: Press Conference Assessment Grid—Journalist NAME: Grade Comments Relevance of question (5 pts. x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Fluency (5 pts. x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Consistent use of high-language register (3 pts. x 4 = 12) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Accuracy and richness of vocabulary (5 pts. x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Accuracy and use of complex syntactic structures (5 pts. x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Accurate pronunciation (5 marks x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Unconverted Total (112 pts.) FINAL GRADE (10%)
Lusíada. Direito. - ISSN 2182-4118. - S. 2, n. 19 (2018). - p. 57-67 ; In the global arena where we live, we, citizens of the world, with different nationalities, backgrounds, creeds and cultures, share the same space nevertheless maintaining our identity and cultural heritage. A new concept of citizenship is laid on multiculturalist societies, without, in many cases, engagements of cultural fusion with the host country and, those particular values, creeds and cultural manifestations, that we inherit and cherish, are being maintained abroad. Tolerance and respect for others are the main principles to accomplish and protect, in this cultural patchwork. Distinguishing the individuality and autonomy of each human being and, therefore, his cultural background, his religion, his creeds, in his new home, the country he chose as his own, aiming, in each case, and for all, the intrinsic values universally recognized to man based on the human dignity. Although today we can recognize hostile indicators to globalization, such as some actual protectionist policies mainly dealing with terrorism or the migrant crisis, however, the fact is that itinerant movements around the world have made countries a true cultural mosaic and, in many cases, for that, challenges are modelled, especially legal ones dealing with controversial relations. In this context, the year of 2018 ended with a decision of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), whose critical analysis we propose to engage. The matter is related on the applicability of the Sharia law – the Islamic religious law –, and the Mufti jurisdiction, opposing the applicability of the national law of the State in which the case was judged, in casu, the Greek Law. The Hellenic Court admitted the applicability of the Sharia law and accordingly, the material solution of this Islamic rule in opposition to the Greek Civil Code. The case brought to the ECtHR has also the peculiarity of being, first, a question of international private law considering a multiple localization of the lex rei sitae and, for that fact, the merit of the same case is still being judged, at the present moment, in another country (Turkey). Considering historical reasons and international obligations, the Hellenic Republic allows Greek citizens, of the religious Muslim minority and residents in Western Thrace, to use, in their disputes, the Sharia law and the Mufti jurisdiction. There is, in these cases a real parallel legal system and the Sharia Law can prevail, even if in conflicted solutions. The Court, sitting as a Grand Chamber delivered, on 19 December 2018, the judgment on the case of Molla Sali v. Greece (Application no. 20452/14). Nevertheless, curiously, the Strasburg Court, in this most expected judgment, at the end decided, "not to decide". However, the controversy has been launched and the case raises interesting questions mainly whether, or not, the applicability of national legislation can be excluded and accepted the solution of the Sharia law and the Mufti jurisdiction in the European Space. ; Na aldeia global em que vivemos, nós, cidadãos do mundo, com diferentes cidadanias, credos e acervos culturais, partilhamos o mesmo espaço físico, mas mantendo a nossa identidade e herança culturais. Um novo conceito de cidadania emergiu, assente no multiculturalismo, muitas vezes, sem que haja homogeneização cultural com o país que nos acolhe e, por isso, valores, credos e manifestações culturais próprias do estrangeiro são acarinhadas e mantidas. A tolerância e respeito pelos outros são princípios a cumprir e proteger, nesta manta de retalhos cultural. Distinguindo a individualidade e autonomia de cada ser humano e, por isso, a sua herança cultural, a sua religião, os seus credos, na sua nova casa, aquela que escolheu como sua, mas, em todo o caso, e para qualquer uma das posições em que nos encontremos, dentro dos valores intrínsecos universalmente reconhecidos assentes na dignidade humana. Ainda que hoje se possam identificar manifestações adversas a movimentos de globalização, como em políticas protecionistas muitas relacionadas com o terrorismo ou a gestão da crise migratória, é reconhecido que a itinerância de pessoas à volta do mundo tornou os países verdadeiros mosaicos culturais e, em muitos casos, por isso, desafios são lançados mormente ao nível legal na gestão de relações de conflito. Neste contexto, o ano de 2018 terminou com uma decisão do Tribunal Europeu dos Direitos do Homem (TEDH), cuja análise critica nos propomos fazer. O busílis da questão está relacionado com a aplicabilidade da lei da Sharia – a lei religiosa Islâmica – e a jurisdição Mufti, em detrimento da aplicabilidade da lei do Estado onde o caso foi julgado, in casu, na Grécia. A decisão helénica trazida perante o TEDH está relacionada com a aplicabilidade da lei da Sharia, no Espaço Europeu, que o Estado admitiu e, para além disso, com solução material conflituante com a que resulta do Código Civil Grego. O processo trazido perante o TEDH tem a particularidade de se tratar, primeiro, de um caso de direito internacional privado, uma vez que o conflito é plurilocalizado dando-se cumprimento ao princípio da lex rei sitae e, por isso, o mérito da questão está também (e ainda) a ser julgado noutro país (Turquia). Por razões históricas e consequentes obrigações internacionais o sistema legal grego moldou-se e permite que cidadãos nacionais, da minoria religiosa muçulmana e residentes em Trácia possam, nas suas relações controvertidas, ver aplicadas as soluções da lei Islâmica, sob a jurisdição Mufti. Há, nestes casos, um verdadeiro sistema legal paralelo em que, em caso de conflito, a lei da Sharia pode prevalecer. O Tribunal decidiu a 19 de dezembro de 2018 o caso Molla Sali vs. Grécia (Processo n.º 20452/14). Não obstante, curiosamente, o Tribunal de Estrasburgo, nesta muito aguardada decisão, acabou por "não decidir". Mas, a controvérsia está lançada e o caso suscita interessantes questões sobretudo relacionadas com a aplicabilidade da lei da Sharia, e da jurisdição Mufti, com eventuais soluções díspares com a lei nacional do Estado.
The text is the result of the continuation of studies on "Recognition of Knowledge" initiated by the authors at the Federal Institute of Santa Catarina (IFSC) in 2014. This research emerged from the need for theoretical background on the subject. The objective of this study was to outline the state of the art of recognition of knowledge through a mapping of articles, theses and dissertations that deal with the theme. The scope of the research consisted of eight articles, four dissertations and one thesis, totaling thirteen documents, produced from 2006 to 2016. In the analysis of the documents, it can be seen that the policies of professional certification and recognition of knowledge have gained prominence from the initiatives for the development and certification of skills in European countries. It can be seen that the implemented training and professional certification policies are for the most part strongly oriented towards "competence theory" and "labor market needs," to the detriment of a comprehensive conception of education. It was concluded that the implementation of recognition of knowledge devices does not happen without tensions and carries contradictions that reflect the perspectives of the different groups that make up society, triggering disputes involving important political-epistemological issues. If, on the one hand, the evaluation of competences is strengthened, based on the presuppositions of the theory of human capital, strongly focused on a conception of education for the labor market, then on the other hand, those that take these policies as a mechanism of social justice, focused on meeting the historical demands of social movements with a right to education, are strengthened as well. ; El texto es el resultado de la continuidad de estudios sobre "Reconocimiento de Saberes" iniciado por las autoras en el Instituto Federal de Santa Catarina (IFSC), en 2014. La investigación surgió de la constatación de la necesidad de una mayor profundización teórica sobre el tema. El trabajo tuvo por objetivo demarcar el delineamiento del estado del arte del reconocimiento de saberes mediante un sondeo de artículos, tesis y disertaciones que abarcan la temática. El universo de la investigación está constituido por 8 artículos, 4 disertaciones y una tesis, totalizando 13 documentos, producidos de 2006 a 2016. Mediante el análisis de los documentos se puede constatar que las políticas de certificación profesional y de reconocimiento de saberes ganaron destaque a partir de las iniciativas para el desarrollo y la certificación de competencias en los países europeos. También se constata que las políticas implementadas de formación y certificación profesional son, en su gran mayoría, fuertemente orientadas por la "teoría de las competencias" y por las "necesidades del mercado de trabajo", en una concepción integral de educación. Al final de la investigación fue posible constatar que la implementación de dispositivos de reconocimiento de saberes no se da sin tensiones y que abarca las contradicciones que reflejan las perspectivas de los distintos grupos que componen la sociedad, desencadenando disputas que engloban cuestiones políticoepistemológicas importantes. Si por un lado se fortalece la evaluación por competencias, respaldada en fundamentos de la teoría del capital humano, fuertemente volcados hacia una concepción de la educación para el mercado de trabajo, por otro lado, se fortalecen, también, aquellos que toman esas políticas como un mecanismo de justicia social, orientadas hacia la atención de las demandas históricas de movimientos sociales de derecho a la educación. ; O texto é o resultado de estudos sobre "Reconhecimento de Saberes" iniciado pelas autoras no Instituto Federal de Santa Catarina (IFSC), em 2014. Tal pesquisa surgiu da constatação da necessidade de um maior aprofundamento teórico sobre tema. O trabalho teve por objetivo traçar o delineamento do estado da arte do reconhecimento de saberes por meio de um mapeamento de artigos, teses e dissertações que abordam o tema. O universo de pesquisa ficou constituído de 8 artigos, 4 dissertações e uma tese, totalizando 13 documentos, produzidos de 2006 a 2016. Na análise dos documentos pode-se constatar que as políticas de certificação profissional e de reconhecimento de saberes ganharam destaque a partir das iniciativas para desenvolvimento e certificação de competências nos países europeus. Percebeu-se que as políticas implementadas de formação e certificação profissional são, em sua maioria, fortemente orientadas pela "teoria das competências" e pelas "necessidades do mercado de trabalho", em detrimento de uma concepção integral de educação. Concluiu-se que a implementação de dispositivos de reconhecimento de saberes não se dá sem tensões e comporta contradições que refletem as perspectivas dos grupos distintos que compõem a sociedade, desencadeando disputas que envolvem questões político-epistemológicas importantes. Se por um lado se fortalece a avaliação por competências, apoiada nos pressupostos da teoria do capital humano, fortemente voltado para uma concepção da educação para o mercado de trabalho, por outro, fortalecem-se, também, aqueles que tomam essas políticas como um mecanismo de justiça social, voltado para o atendimento das demandas históricas de movimentos sociais de direito à educação.
ISSUES OF ECONOMIC AVAILABILITY OF MEDICAL DRUGS IN AFRICAO. Ievtushenko, Osama Abuzayid Mohamed Nur AhmedNational University of Pharmacy, Kharkiv city INTRODUCTIONCurrently Africa with its highest index of diseases in the world maintains a serious dependence of imported medical drugs. Imported production comprises from 80 to 100% in some African countries, despite the fact that the incomes of population and medical support system doesn't correspond completely with the consumption of expensive medical drugs (further MD). There is an extremely severe problem of physical and economical availability of MD in theEastern Mediterraneancountries. OBJECTIVE STATEMENT OF THE ARTICLEIn connection with the above mentioned, the purpose of the work is the analysis of economic availability of MD in theEastern Mediterraneancountries, and also the comparison of the received indexes with the indexes of European countries. In the researches it has been participated such countries as Sudan, Egypt, Lebanon, Uganda and Ethiopia. To compare the received indexes of availability and their level determination it has been made the comparison of indexes among themselves and also with the indexes of the developed country of the European continent. As a standard it has been taken Germany as a country with one of the most developed pharmaceutical markets in the world and the strongest health care system, which finances medical and pharmaceutical assurance among all the EU countries.RESEARCH METHODSIn this work it has been taken into account the pharma-economic methods of analysis and methodology of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Health Action International (HAI) «Prices determination of MD, their availability and price of components ", data obtained during this methodology examination [1, 4, 6-11]; information from regional and national sources [12]; and also the scientific publications on this topic [2,3,5]. Data concerning prices for medicines and the cost of treatment course were obtained in studying of retail prices in pharmacies of the above mentioned countries. In the total examination it has been studied the MD which are used for the treatment of chronic diseases and which are included in the international list recommended for the continuous monitoring (study) by the World Health Organization . RESULTS AND IT DELIBERATION According to WHO recommendations, it has been selected the basic MD for the treatment of 14 the most common diseases, which will allow to make the international research. Also it is allowable to include in this list of MD the most important for the treatment of specific diseases in certain countries. Yes, for the African countries such drugs are the remedies for the malaria treatment.In the study it has been participated the generic MD sold at the lowest price. Further it has been determined the economic availability of studied MD, taking into account the ratio of the treatment cost by this drug (according to the international treatment protocols) and the daily wage of unskilled low paid public officer in these countries.During the determination of economic accessibility of medicines it has been used the paying capacity adequacy ratio, which includes the lowest retail price of the drug (or the treatment course price), and the average salary for a certain period of time.The analysis shows that the availability of MD in some African countries is situated at the unsatisfactory level. Regarding the indicators of availability general perception, the lowest indicators hasSudan, the highest accessible indexes has Egypt. By comparison of the availability of MD in African countries and in Germany, for the diclofenac treatment course in Germany it is necessary to spend 0.24 of one day wages, and in Sudan - 5.3, which is higher in 22 times; for the paracetamol treatment the Sudan patients spend more in 10 times.Thus, the availability economic analysis of basic MD confirms thatEgyptandLebanonassist a relatively low cost of basic MD, which is close to the level of the European countries. Especially in Egypt, the major part of economic availability indicators of medical drugs corresponds to parameters of the country with the developed pharmaceutical market and a strong health care system and this is Germany. Thus, the indicators ofEgyptare almost identical with those ofGermanyat the prices of Diclofenac, Atenolol, Captopril, Glibenclamide, Ceftriaxone, Diazepam, and even lower - with Salbutamol, Amitriptyline, the antimalarial medical drugs.Thus, in Sudan is marked with the rather high prices and, consequently, low availability on a number of medical drugs such as Diclofenac, Paracetamol, Captopril, Simvastatin, Amitriptyline. Thus, patient inSudanneed spend in 22 times more of money to the diclofenac treatment than patients inGermany. A treatment will paracetamol will be in10 times more expensive, treatment with captopril will be in 7 times more expensive. Comparison of availability indexes in theSudanwith the African region countries is also accompanied by a situation where the indicators availability of MD are in 3 - 10 times worse than in other countries with similar health care system. The necessity of generic MD availability analyses, especially for the countries with the health care systems which are forming will help to make the fast and low priced determination of the availability level of medicines for the population, the timely reaction in case of indexes deterioration, the regulation of public policy of countries in the pricing field on MD as well as coordination of original and generic drugs use, which allow to reduce the budgetary costs of medical assistance without the quality loss.References1. Vyvchennya spozhyvannya likarsʹkykh zasobiv za anatomo-terapevtychno-khimichnoyu klasyfikatsiyeyu ta vstanovlenymy dobovymy dozamy (AT·S/DDD – metodolohiya): metod. rek. / A. M. Morozov, L. V. Yakovlyeva, A. V. Stepanenko ta in. – Kharkiv: Stylʹ-Yzdat. – 2013. – 34 s.2. Hromovyk B.P. Farmatsevtychnyy marketynh: teoretychni ta prykladni zasady / B.P. Hromovyk, H.D. Hasyuk, O.R. Levytsʹka. – Vinnytsya: Nova Knyha, 2004. – 464 s.3. Dovhun S. S. Otsenka stoymosty y ékonomycheskoy dostupnosty nootropnykh preparatov, naznachaemykh bolʹnym s ynsulʹtom / S.S. Dovhun // Sovremennye problemy nauky y obrazovanyya. – 2012. – № 2. – S. 33-39.4. Dumenko T. M. Vyvchennya dostupnosti osnovnykh likarsʹkykh zasobiv v Ukrayini: rezulʹtaty spilʹnoho proektu VOZ, NAI ta MOZ Ukrayiny / T. M. Dumenko, V. D. Pariy, L. B. Yakovleva, A. B. Zimenkovsʹkyy // Farmakoekonomika v Ukrayini: stan ta perspektyvy rozvytku: materialy VI naukovo-praktychnoyi konferentsiyi (m. Kharkiv, 22 lystopada 2013 r.) / redkol.: V.P. Chernykh ta in. – Kharkiv: Vyd-vo NFaU, 2013. – S. 180-181.5. Perehinetsʹ I. B. Dostupnistʹ osnovnykh likarsʹkykh zasobiv v Ukrayini: rezulʹtaty farmakoepidemiolohichnoho doslidzhennya (spilʹnyy proekt VOOZ, NAI ta MOZ Ukrayiny) / I. B. Perehinetsʹ, T. M. Dumenko. – Kyyiv, 23-24 zhovtnya 2013 roku. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: http://old.dec.gov.ua/site/file_uploads /ua/sem/7_rac_farm/4.pdf 6. Measuring medicine prices, availability, affordability and price components – 2ND edition. World Health Organization and Health Action International. – [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupa:http://www.who.int/ medicines/areas/access/OMS_Medicine_prices.pdf 7. Database of medicine prices, availability, affordability and price components. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupa: http://www.haiweb.org/MedPriceDatabase/8. Medicine prices, availability, affordability & price components.Ukraine. Palliative care. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupa: http://www.haiweb.org/ medicineprices surveys/200709UAP/sdocs/EMP_Ukraine%20palliative%20Final.pdf9. Medicine prices, availability, affordability and price components. Ukraine. Survey date: March 2012. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: http://www.haiweb.org/medicineprices/surveys/201203UAE/sdocs/Summary_report_ukraine_mar2012.pdf 10. Medicine Prices, Availability, Affordability and Price Components in Sudan. Survey date: March 2012, Report date: April 2014. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: http://www.haiweb.org/medicineprices/surveys/201203SD /sdocs/Sudan_report_2012_FINAL.pdf 11. Medicine Prices, Availability and Affordability in Sudan. Report of a survey conducted in February – March 2013. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: [Elektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: http://www.haiweb.org/medicineprices /surveys/201302SD/sdocs/Sudan_survey_report_2013.pdf 12. Salah Ibrahim Kheder. Evaluating medicines prices, availability, affordability and price components inSudan / Salah Ibrahim Kheder, Hassan Mohamed Ali // Sudan Medical Monitor. – 2014. – Vol. 9, Issue 1. – P. 19-30.
ISSUES OF ECONOMIC AVAILABILITY OF MEDICAL DRUGS IN AFRICAO. Ievtushenko, Osama Abuzayid Mohamed Nur AhmedNational University of Pharmacy, Kharkiv city INTRODUCTIONCurrently Africa with its highest index of diseases in the world maintains a serious dependence of imported medical drugs. Imported production comprises from 80 to 100% in some African countries, despite the fact that the incomes of population and medical support system doesn't correspond completely with the consumption of expensive medical drugs (further MD). There is an extremely severe problem of physical and economical availability of MD in theEastern Mediterraneancountries. OBJECTIVE STATEMENT OF THE ARTICLEIn connection with the above mentioned, the purpose of the work is the analysis of economic availability of MD in theEastern Mediterraneancountries, and also the comparison of the received indexes with the indexes of European countries. In the researches it has been participated such countries as Sudan, Egypt, Lebanon, Uganda and Ethiopia. To compare the received indexes of availability and their level determination it has been made the comparison of indexes among themselves and also with the indexes of the developed country of the European continent. As a standard it has been taken Germany as a country with one of the most developed pharmaceutical markets in the world and the strongest health care system, which finances medical and pharmaceutical assurance among all the EU countries.RESEARCH METHODSIn this work it has been taken into account the pharma-economic methods of analysis and methodology of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Health Action International (HAI) «Prices determination of MD, their availability and price of components ", data obtained during this methodology examination [1, 4, 6-11]; information from regional and national sources [12]; and also the scientific publications on this topic [2,3,5]. Data concerning prices for medicines and the cost of treatment course were obtained in studying of retail prices in pharmacies of the above mentioned countries. In the total examination it has been studied the MD which are used for the treatment of chronic diseases and which are included in the international list recommended for the continuous monitoring (study) by the World Health Organization . RESULTS AND IT DELIBERATION According to WHO recommendations, it has been selected the basic MD for the treatment of 14 the most common diseases, which will allow to make the international research. Also it is allowable to include in this list of MD the most important for the treatment of specific diseases in certain countries. Yes, for the African countries such drugs are the remedies for the malaria treatment.In the study it has been participated the generic MD sold at the lowest price. Further it has been determined the economic availability of studied MD, taking into account the ratio of the treatment cost by this drug (according to the international treatment protocols) and the daily wage of unskilled low paid public officer in these countries.During the determination of economic accessibility of medicines it has been used the paying capacity adequacy ratio, which includes the lowest retail price of the drug (or the treatment course price), and the average salary for a certain period of time.The analysis shows that the availability of MD in some African countries is situated at the unsatisfactory level. Regarding the indicators of availability general perception, the lowest indicators hasSudan, the highest accessible indexes has Egypt. By comparison of the availability of MD in African countries and in Germany, for the diclofenac treatment course in Germany it is necessary to spend 0.24 of one day wages, and in Sudan - 5.3, which is higher in 22 times; for the paracetamol treatment the Sudan patients spend more in 10 times.Thus, the availability economic analysis of basic MD confirms thatEgyptandLebanonassist a relatively low cost of basic MD, which is close to the level of the European countries. Especially in Egypt, the major part of economic availability indicators of medical drugs corresponds to parameters of the country with the developed pharmaceutical market and a strong health care system and this is Germany. Thus, the indicators ofEgyptare almost identical with those ofGermanyat the prices of Diclofenac, Atenolol, Captopril, Glibenclamide, Ceftriaxone, Diazepam, and even lower - with Salbutamol, Amitriptyline, the antimalarial medical drugs.Thus, in Sudan is marked with the rather high prices and, consequently, low availability on a number of medical drugs such as Diclofenac, Paracetamol, Captopril, Simvastatin, Amitriptyline. Thus, patient inSudanneed spend in 22 times more of money to the diclofenac treatment than patients inGermany. A treatment will paracetamol will be in10 times more expensive, treatment with captopril will be in 7 times more expensive. Comparison of availability indexes in theSudanwith the African region countries is also accompanied by a situation where the indicators availability of MD are in 3 - 10 times worse than in other countries with similar health care system. The necessity of generic MD availability analyses, especially for the countries with the health care systems which are forming will help to make the fast and low priced determination of the availability level of medicines for the population, the timely reaction in case of indexes deterioration, the regulation of public policy of countries in the pricing field on MD as well as coordination of original and generic drugs use, which allow to reduce the budgetary costs of medical assistance without the quality loss.References1. Vyvchennya spozhyvannya likarsʹkykh zasobiv za anatomo-terapevtychno-khimichnoyu klasyfikatsiyeyu ta vstanovlenymy dobovymy dozamy (AT·S/DDD – metodolohiya): metod. rek. / A. M. Morozov, L. V. Yakovlyeva, A. V. Stepanenko ta in. – Kharkiv: Stylʹ-Yzdat. – 2013. – 34 s.2. Hromovyk B.P. Farmatsevtychnyy marketynh: teoretychni ta prykladni zasady / B.P. Hromovyk, H.D. Hasyuk, O.R. Levytsʹka. – Vinnytsya: Nova Knyha, 2004. – 464 s.3. Dovhun S. S. Otsenka stoymosty y ékonomycheskoy dostupnosty nootropnykh preparatov, naznachaemykh bolʹnym s ynsulʹtom / S.S. Dovhun // Sovremennye problemy nauky y obrazovanyya. – 2012. – № 2. – S. 33-39.4. Dumenko T. M. Vyvchennya dostupnosti osnovnykh likarsʹkykh zasobiv v Ukrayini: rezulʹtaty spilʹnoho proektu VOZ, NAI ta MOZ Ukrayiny / T. M. Dumenko, V. D. Pariy, L. B. Yakovleva, A. B. Zimenkovsʹkyy // Farmakoekonomika v Ukrayini: stan ta perspektyvy rozvytku: materialy VI naukovo-praktychnoyi konferentsiyi (m. Kharkiv, 22 lystopada 2013 r.) / redkol.: V.P. Chernykh ta in. – Kharkiv: Vyd-vo NFaU, 2013. – S. 180-181.5. Perehinetsʹ I. B. Dostupnistʹ osnovnykh likarsʹkykh zasobiv v Ukrayini: rezulʹtaty farmakoepidemiolohichnoho doslidzhennya (spilʹnyy proekt VOOZ, NAI ta MOZ Ukrayiny) / I. B. Perehinetsʹ, T. M. Dumenko. – Kyyiv, 23-24 zhovtnya 2013 roku. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: http://old.dec.gov.ua/site/file_uploads /ua/sem/7_rac_farm/4.pdf 6. Measuring medicine prices, availability, affordability and price components – 2ND edition. World Health Organization and Health Action International. – [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupa:http://www.who.int/ medicines/areas/access/OMS_Medicine_prices.pdf 7. Database of medicine prices, availability, affordability and price components. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupa: http://www.haiweb.org/MedPriceDatabase/8. Medicine prices, availability, affordability & price components.Ukraine. Palliative care. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupa: http://www.haiweb.org/ medicineprices surveys/200709UAP/sdocs/EMP_Ukraine%20palliative%20Final.pdf9. Medicine prices, availability, affordability and price components. Ukraine. Survey date: March 2012. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: http://www.haiweb.org/medicineprices/surveys/201203UAE/sdocs/Summary_report_ukraine_mar2012.pdf 10. Medicine Prices, Availability, Affordability and Price Components in Sudan. Survey date: March 2012, Report date: April 2014. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: http://www.haiweb.org/medicineprices/surveys/201203SD /sdocs/Sudan_report_2012_FINAL.pdf 11. Medicine Prices, Availability and Affordability in Sudan. Report of a survey conducted in February – March 2013. [Élektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: [Elektronnyy resurs]. – Rezhym dostupu: http://www.haiweb.org/medicineprices /surveys/201302SD/sdocs/Sudan_survey_report_2013.pdf 12. Salah Ibrahim Kheder. Evaluating medicines prices, availability, affordability and price components inSudan / Salah Ibrahim Kheder, Hassan Mohamed Ali // Sudan Medical Monitor. – 2014. – Vol. 9, Issue 1. – P. 19-30.
Dupla diplomação com a UTFPR - Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná ; An unprecedented demographic explosion occurred in the last decades at a global level. The negative impacts of this event stand out, affecting the social, economic and mainly environmental spheres. In the environmental aspect, an important consequence is the growing production of solid wastes, due partially to the population increase. However, the development of effective technologies for the treatment of these wastes did not accompany such growth, and currently the most used method for this is landfill disposal. Even with the possibility of alternatives, the use of landfills for the disposal of solid wastes will be necessary over a long period, with the inevitable consequence of the generation of leachate streams. The objective of this work is the development, design and implementation of processes for physicochemical conversion of leachate liquid effluents from a composting process in liquid fertilizers with a standardized and reproducible composition. The leachate sample was collected in February 2019 from the slurry storage tank of the company "Resíduos do Nordeste", EIM (Urjais, Mirandela, Portugal). The stream is produced and recovered from a composting line from a mechanical and biological waste treatment plant. From this original sample, three additional materials were obtained: a filtered sample for the removal of the solid fraction (Filtro 03/04), two concentrated samples by simple distillation, with two concentration levels in volume basis: 1,19x and 1,85x in relation to the original leachate sample. The four samples (the original leachate and the three processed samples) were submitted to a sequence of analyzes, in order to compare its composition and properties with the current Portuguese and European legislation specifications for liquid fertilizers. The selected characterization parameters were: Total Organic Carbon (TOC), pH, Conductivity, Percentage of Dry Matter, Density, and Heavy Metals, Phosphorus, Potassium and Nitrogen contents. Adsorption tests were performed with the Filter 03/04 sample, with two adsorbents of different origin, the first produced from an organic compound, resulting from a centralized composting process, obtained from the same landfill that provided the Original sample. The second adsorbent tested is activated clays, originating from four different deposits in Kazakhstan. After treatment with the adsorbents, the same analyzes were performed previously, aiming to evaluate the efficiency of the adsorbents. The characterization results were then used to verify the framework for later use of the original leachate and/or the processed samples as liquid organomineral fertilizers, and to assess the specific needs of composition tuning for the non-processed leachate sample. A concentration process for the original sample of 1,19x (v/v) has been determined to allow the reaching of at least 3% TOC, a content legally required. Additionally, treatment is required for the removal of nickel and chromium from the samples. The metals zinc, copper, cadmium and lead have been quantified and are within the limits specified in the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council (2019). A flowchart for the proper treatment of this leachate was proposed, with the intention of using it as liquid organomineral fertilizer. ; Uma explosão demográfica sem precedentes ocorreu nas últimas décadas a nível global. Destacam-se os impactos negativos deste evento, afetando as esferas social, econômica e principalmente ambiental. No aspeto ambiental, uma consequência importante é a crescente produção de resíduos sólidos, em parte devido ao aumento populacional. No entanto, o desenvolvimento de tecnologias eficazes para o tratamento desses resíduos não acompanhou esse crescimento, e atualmente o método mais utilizado para isso é o descarte em aterros sanitários. Mesmo com a possibilidade de alternativas, o uso de aterros sanitários para a disposição de resíduos sólidos será necessário por um longo período, com a inevitável consequência da geração de caudais de chorume. O objetivo deste trabalho é o desenvolvimento, proposta e implementação de processos de conversão físico-química de efluentes líquidos lixiviados, de um processo de compostagem, em fertilizantes líquidos com uma composição padronizada e reprodutível. A amostra de lixiviados foi coletada em fevereiro de 2019 a partir do tanque de armazenamento de chorume da empresa "Resíduos do Nordeste", EIM (Urjais, Mirandela, Portugal). O fluxo é produzido e recuperado de uma linha de compostagem de uma estação de tratamento de resíduos mecânica e biológica. Desta amostra original, três materiais adicionais foram obtidos: uma amostra filtrada para a remoção da fração sólida (Filtro 03/04), duas amostras concentradas por destilação simples, com dois níveis de concentração em base volumétrica: 1,19x e 1,85x em relação a amostra original. As quatro amostras (o lixiviado original e as três amostras processadas) foram submetidas a uma sequência de análises, de modo a comparar a sua composição e propriedades com as atuais especificações da legislação portuguesa e europeia para fertilizantes líquidos. Os parâmetros de caracterização selecionados foram: teor de carbono orgânico total (TOC), pH, condutividade elétrica, percentagem de matéria seca, densidade e metais pesados, fósforo, potássio e nitrogênio. Foram realizados testes de adsorção com a amostra Filtro 03/04, com dois adsorventes de origem diferente, o primeiro produzido a partir de um composto orgânico, resultante de um processo de compostagem centralizada, obtido do mesmo aterro sanitário que forneceu a amostra Original. O segundo adsorvente testado, são as argilas ativadas, originárias de quatro depósitos diferentes do Cazaquistão. Após o tratamento com os adsorventes foram realizadas as mesmas análises feitas anteriormente, com o objetivo de avaliar a eficiência dos adsorventes. Os resultados da caracterização foram então utilizados para verificar a estrutura para posterior utilização do lixiviado original e/ou as amostras processadas como fertilizantes organominerais líquidos, e para avaliar as necessidades específicas de ajuste da composição. Um processo de concentração para a amostra original de 1,19x (v/v) foi determinado para permitir o alcance de pelo menos 3% de TOC, um conteúdo legalmente requerido no Regulamento do Parlamento Europeu e do Concelho (2019). Além disso, é necessário um tratamento para a remoção de níquel e cromio das amostras. Os metais zinco, cobre, cádmio e chumbo foram quantificados e estão dentro dos limites especificados no Regulamento do Parlamento Europeu e do Conselho (2019). Um fluxograma para o tratamento adequado desse lixiviado foi proposto, com o intuito de utilizá-lo como fertilizante organomineral líquido. ; This work was carried out under the scope of Project VALORCOMP, funded by FEDER through Programme INTERREG V-A Spain − Portugal (POCTEP) 2014–2020. Finally, to all who have somehow been part of this period and collaborated to carry out this work, I will be eternally grateful.
Inhaltsangabe:Einleitung: Jedes Jahr wird eine Vielzahl europäischer Studierender innerhalb des ERASMUS Programms unter Europas Hochschulen ausgetauscht. Ziele dieses, durch Mittel der europäischen Union geförderten, Austauschs sind die Verbesserung der Qualität der Hochschulbildung, die Förderung grenzüberschreitender Zusammenarbeit und Mobilität zwischen Hochschulen sowie die Schaffung von Transparenz und die Anerkennung von Studienleistungen und Abschlüssen. Weiterhin sollen durch den Austausch von Studierenden ein Abbau von Vorurteilen sowie die Erziehung zu weltoffenen Bürgern erfolgen. Als das ERASMUS-Programm im Jahr 1987 ins Leben gerufen wurde absolvierten 3200 Studierende ein Auslandssemester an einer Europäischen Hochschule und erhielten dafür Mobilitätszuschüsse in Höhe von 3,3 Mio. Euro. Achtzehn Jahre später, im Hochschuljahr 2004/2005, gingen 144.000 Studierende ins Ausland und die Fördersumme betrug 124 Mio. Euro. Dieser rasante Anstieg an Studierenden, die den Schritt wagen und ein Semester in einem europäischen Nachbarland absolvieren, ist den Befürwortern des Programms noch lange nicht genug. Auf der Bologna-Konferenz setzte man sich das Ziel, bis 2013 die 3 Millionenmarke (Akkumulierte Anzahl an ERASMUS-Studierenden) zu erreichen. Natürlich erhofft man sich durch die Förderung von Mobilität auch wirtschaftliche Vorteile gegenüber anderen Wirtschaftsräumen. Somit geht der Bologna-Prozess Hand in Hand mit den Zielen der Lissabon-Erklärung, Europa zum wettbewerbsfähigsten und dynamischsten wissensbasierten Wirtschaftsraum der Welt zu machen. Die Frage, ob die eingangs genannten Ziele tatsächlich erreicht werden oder ob für die Mehrzahl der Studierenden der Auslandsaufenthalt bloß eine interessante Erfahrung darstellt bzw. lediglich dem Erwerb sprachlicher Kompetenz in der Landessprache dient, ist berechtigt. Bei der Beantwortung dieser Fragestellung ergeben sich weitere Fragen: Wie bewerten Studierende ihre Zeit im Ausland? Welche Erfahrungen haben sie gemacht und welche Qualifikationen erlangt? Mit welchen Vorurteilen waren sie konfrontiert? Haben sie den größten Teil ihrer Zeit mit anderen ERASMUS-Studierenden verbracht oder sind sie tatsächlich in die Kultur des Gastlandes eingetaucht? Wurden ihre Scheine an der Heimatuniversität anerkannt? Haben sie ihre persönlichen Ziele erreicht? Gang der Untersuchung: Um all diesen Fragen gerecht zu werden, ist eine genaue analytische Auswertung der Aktivitäten der letzten Jahre im Hinblick auf die Zielsetzungen des Programms nötig. Es soll überprüft werden, was für Austausche stattgefunden haben und welches die Motivation der, von der DSHS entsendeten, Studierenden war. Bisher sind nur wenige wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten zum Thema ERASMUS bekannt. Über Bildungsprogramme der EU existieren einige wenige Arbeiten. Eine davon ist die Diplomarbeit von Donata von Heyden aus dem Jahr 2006 über die LEONARDO DA VINCI-Projekte an der Deutschen Sporthochschule Köln. Die Autorin analysiert und evaluiert darin das europäische Programm für die berufliche Bildung. Wichtige Monographien zum Thema ERASMUS existieren jedoch kaum. Der Großteil der Informationen liegt in Form von Broschüren oder Informationsheften des DAAD, der nationalen SOKRATES/ERASMUS Agentur, oder der EU vor. Das Internet bietet eine wichtige Quelle für die Recherche, da sich hier die Europäische Union und der DAAD sowie ihre Programme selbst darstellen. Die Diplomarbeit mit spezifischem Fokus auf die ERASMUS-Aktivitäten der DSHS ist somit neuartig und soll weiteren Untersuchungen als Ansatzpunkt dienen. Nach einem Einblick in die Bildungspolitik der EU und einer allgemeinen Beschreibung des ERASMUS-Programms, wird ein Blick auf die Aktivitäten an der DSHS Köln zwischen 2000 und 2006 (SOKRATES - Phase II) geworfen. Die Darstellung bezieht sich auf Anzahl, Geschlecht und Alter der Studierenden der DSHS, die im ausgewählten Zeitraum an dem Programm teilgenommen haben sowie deren Zielländer bzw. Partneruniversitäten und weitere relevante Faktoren. Mittels Leitfadengestützter Interviews, die mit ehemaligen ERASMUS Studierenden geführt wurden, soll herausgefunden werden, was die eigentliche Motivation für den Auslandsaufenthalt war und ob die persönlichen sowie die Ziele des ERASMUS-Programms erreicht wurden. Die Ergebnisse der Befragung werden dargestellt und anschließend ausgewertet. Schließlich wird das Programm bewertet. Ein Schwerpunkt der Arbeit liegt auf der Darstellung von Verbesserungsmöglichkeiten aus der Sicht der Studierenden. Im Schlussteil der Arbeit werden die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse zusammengefasst und ein Fazit gezogen.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: AbkürzungsverzeichnisVI AnhangsverzeichnisVIII AbbildungsverzeichnisIX 1.Einleitung1 2.Das ERASMUS-Programm der Europäischen Union4 2.1Der Bildungsbegriff der Europäischen Union4 2.2Die Institutionalisierung der Bildungspolitik in der EU8 2.3Bildungsprogramme der EU13 2.4Die Dezentralisierung des Bildungswesens in der EU16 2.5Das ERASMUS-Programm16 2.5.1Zielsetzungen und Durchführung von ERASMUS18 2.5.2Die Rolle des Deutschen Akademischen Austauschdienstes (DAAD)20 2.5.3European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS)22 2.5.4Der EUROPASS25 2.5.5Die Zukunft von ERASMUS26 3.ERASMUS an der Deutschen Sporthochschule Köln28 3.1Bewerbung29 3.2Anforderungen29 3.3Zusatzqualifikation Europäische Sportstudien30 3.4Partnerhochschulen in Europa30 3.5Austauschaktivitäten während der SOKRATES II Phase33 3.5.1Studierenden - und Dozierendenmobiliät33 3.5.2Stipendien35 3.5.3Zielländer36 3.5.4Zusammensetzung der Studierenden38 3.6ERASMUS im Vergleich - Deutschlandweit und an der DSHS39 4.Interviewmethodik45 4.1Zielsetzungen45 4.2Auswahl der Interviewpartner46 4.3Erläuterung und Begründung des Untersuchungsdesigns48 4.4Methodik der Datenerhebung und –erfassung49 4.5Auswertungsverfahren50 5.Darstellung der Untersuchungsergebnisse54 5.1Gründe für das Auslandssemester54 5.2Zufriedenheit mit der angebotenen Hilfe57 5.3Ängste und Vorurteile59 5.4Verlauf des Studiums60 5.5Beschreibung des Gastlandes62 5.6Integration63 5.7Erwartungen66 5.8Anerkennung der Studienleistungen67 5.9Bewertung des ECTS68 5.10Sonstige Qualifikationen71 5.11Verbesserungsvorschläge73 6.Zusammenfassung und Interpretation77 6.1Die Europäische Union und ihr Bildungsverständnis77 6.2Die Zielsetzung des ERASMUS-Programms78 6.3Methodik der Interviews mit ERASMUS-Studierenden79 6.4Motivationen der Studierenden zu ihrem Auslandssemester80 6.5Qualifikationserwerb durch das ERASMUS-Semester81 6.6Verbesserungsvorschläge für die Organisation des Austauschprogramms an der DSHS Köln82 7.Fazit84 Literaturverzeichnis86 Anhang92Textprobe:Textprobe: Auszug aus Kapitel 2.1, Der Bildungsbegriff in der Europäischen Union: Lebenslanges Lernen schließt zum einen formales Lernen, wie bspw. ein Universitätsstudiengang mit Abschluss, zum anderen aber auch nicht-formales Lernen, wie bspw. der Erwerb von Schlüsselqualifikationen am Arbeitsplatz, und informelles Lernen, wie bspw. das Erlernen eines Musikinstrumentes, ein. Ein gleichberechtigter und ungehinderter Zugang zu hochwertigen Lernangeboten und einer Vielzahl von Lernerfahrungen soll allen Bürgern in ganz Europa ermöglicht werden. Allerdings sind aufgrund des Subsidiaritätsprinzips in der Europäischen Union die Mitgliedstaaten selbst für die Gestaltung ihrer Bildungssysteme verantwortlich. Subsidiarität ist eine politische oder gesellschaftliche Maxime und bedeutet, dass individuelle Verantwortung staatlichem Handeln voranging zu stellen ist. Für die EU und ihre Mitgliedstaaten bedeutet dies, dass die Umsetzung von Gesetzen, die auf EU-Ebene beschlossen wurden eigenverantwortlich auf Staatenebene passiert. Der EU bleibt lediglich die Möglichkeit, die Zusammenarbeit untereinander zu fördern, vor allem mit dem Ziel, 'die europäische Dimension im Bildungswesen zu entwickeln sowie die Mobilität von Lernenden und Lehrenden wie auch die europäische Zusammenarbeit zwischen den Bildungseinrichtungen zu fördern'. Eine gemeinsame Bildungspolitik wird also nicht angestrebt, es gibt jedoch Mittel und Wege die Zusammenarbeit auf europäischer Ebene zu fördern. 'Um dies zu erreichen, muss die allgemeine und berufliche Bildung in Europa grundsätzlich umgestaltet werden. Diese Umgestaltung wird in jedem Land entsprechend der nationalen Rahmenbedingungen und Traditionen stattfinden müssen und sie wird durch die Zusammenarbeit der Mitgliedstaaten auf europäischer Ebene vorangetrieben- vor allem dadurch, dass Erfahrungen ausgetauscht werden, dass an gemeinsamen Zielen gearbeitet wird und dass man von dem, was woanders gut funktioniert, lernt'. Laut Jahrbuch der Europäischen Integration gibt es jedoch trotz des Subsidiaritätsprinzips starke Tendenzen der Europäisierung. Obwohl die bildungspolitische Koordinierung keine vertraglich verpflichtenden Harmonisierungsmaßnahmen auf nationaler Ebene nach sich zieht, entstand durch den Bologna-Prozess vor allem im Hochschulbereich eine Dynamik, derer sich die Mitgliedstaaten kaum entziehen können. Vor allem der Europäische Binnenmarkt bietet Chancen und Möglichkeiten für junge Menschen, ihre Fähigkeiten und Kompetenzen in einem nie da gewesenen Rahmen zu erweitern. Bereits 1993 wurde betont, dass das Bildungswesen auch die Aufgabe hat, Jugendliche auf die Übernahme von Verantwortung in einem erweiterten wirtschaftlichen Raum vorzubereiten. Damit wird es wichtig, dem Bildungswesen eine europäische Komponente zu geben, da sie zur Anpassung des Bildungsprozesses an die neuen wirtschaftlichen, sozialen und kulturellen Gegebenheiten beitragen kann. Insbesondere die 'Förderung der Mobilität von Schülern und Studenten, Lehrern sowie Ausbildungs- und Forschungspersonal sowohl durch eine optimale Nutzung der bestehenden Gemeinschaftsprogramme (Sokrates, Leonardo, Jugend) – durch die Beseitigung von Hindernissen – als auch durch mehr Transparenz bei der Anerkennung von Abschlüssen sowie Studien– und Ausbildungszeiten' soll vorangetrieben werden. Die Einsicht in die Wichtigkeit des lebenslangen Lernens ist nicht auf die Europäische Union beschränkt. Die UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) beauftragte 1996 eine internationale Expertenkommission unter der Leitung von Jacques Delors, sich mit der Frage was Bildung ist zu beschäftigen. Das Ergebnis der Fachleute ist im sog. Delors-Bericht 'Lernfähigkeit: Unser verborgener Reichtum' nachzulesen. Darin wird die Bedeutung einer breit angelegten Grundbildung als Basis für lebensbegleitendes Lernen betont. Auf der von der Europäischen Kommission und dem European Centre for Development (CEDEFOP) sowie in Zusammenarbeit mit führenden Firmen der IT-Branche organisierten sog. European E-Skills Conference im Jahr 2006 in Thessaloniki wurde die Bedeutung moderner Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologie für unsere Gesellschaft und nahezu sämtliche Bereiche der Wirtschaft betont. Die Realisierung der Ziele von Lissabon ist demnach abhängig vom effektiven Einsatz moderner Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien sowie der Schulung mit deren Umgang. Die Institutionalisierung der Bildungspolitik in der EU: Als 1951 die Länder Belgien, Deutschland, Frankreich, Italien, Niederlande und Luxemburg mit dem Vertrag von Paris die Europäische Gemeinschaft für Kohle und Stahl (EGKS bzw. Montanunion) gründeten, hatte man damit primär wirtschaftliche Ziele im Blick. Der unter anderem daraus resultierende wirtschaftliche Aufschwung im kriegszerstörten Europa hatte jedoch auch eine enorme friedensstabilisierende Wirkung. Auch die Weiterentwicklung der gemeinsamen Wirtschaftspolitik und die daraus resultierende Gründung der Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft (EWG, später Europäische Gemeinschaft - EG) sowie Europäischen Atomgemeinschaft (EAG, später EURATOM) im Jahr 1957 (Römische Verträge) hatte noch keine gemeinsame Bildungs- oder Kulturpolitik zum Ziel. Jedoch stellten die Bildungsminister der Mitgliedstaaten bereits 1962 allgemeine Grundsätze für die Durchführung einer gemeinsamen Politik der Berufsausbildung zusammen. Mit dem Fusionsvertrag (Vertrag zur Einsetzung eines gemeinsamen Rates und einer gemeinsamen Kommission der Europäischen Gemeinschaften) schlossen sich 1965 die EGKS, die EAG und die EWG zu den Europäischen Gemeinschaften zusammen. 1968 wurden mit der Verordnung Nr. 1612/68 über die Freizügigkeit der Arbeitnehmer innerhalb der Gemeinschaft bereits wichtige Meilensteine auf dem Weg zur Europäischen Integration, wie die Freizügigkeit von Arbeitnehmern, die Niederlassungsfreiheit sowie die Dienstleistungsfreiheit gelegt. Einem Treffen der Bildungsminister der Mitgliedsstaaten am 16. November 1971 in Brüssel war der Wunsch der Regierungschefs, Europa als eine außergewöhnliche Quelle der Entwicklung, des Fortschritts und der Kultur zu erhalten, voraus gegangen. 1973 wurde in der damaligen Generaldirektion XII für Wissenschaft, Forschung und Entwicklung ein eigenes Bildungsressort unter der Leitung eines Kommissars, des Deutschen Ralf Dahrendorf, eingerichtet. Damit bekam das Bestreben eines gemeinsamen Bildungswesens in der Europäischen Gemeinschaft neue Impulse. 1976 entschloss man sich dann für eine gemeinschaftliche Zusammenarbeit im Bildungsbereich, jedoch unter Berücksichtigung der Traditionen und der Vielfalt der Bildungssysteme jedes Landes. Der Ministerrat forderte im Aktionsprogramm des Bildungsbericht vom 9. Februar 1976, dass die Zusammenarbeit im Bildungswesen nicht nur als Bestandteil des Wirtschaftslebens gesehen werden könne, sondern sich vielmehr auf die Verbesserung der Korrespondenz der Bildungssysteme in Europa, auf die Verstärkung der Zusammenarbeit der Hochschulen, die Verbesserung der Möglichkeiten einer akademischen Anerkennung der Diplome und Studienzeiten, des Fremdsprachenunterrichts sowie der Freizügigkeit und Mobilität der Lehrkräfte konzentrieren sollte.
This research measured Health Literacy in the three levels of the University of Panama: teachers, administrators and students. The term "health literacy", comes from the English Health Literacy, has been gaining relevance through the ages. In health there are terms that can make us think of an approach to the subject (prevention, promotion, early detection, among others), but reality indicates that Health Literacy goes further. It is a condition that allows self-management of health and self-care, through empowerment processes and assertive decision-making, consequently reducing morbidity and mortality of people, improving their living conditions and favoring the general health conditions of the inhabitants of a country; which reduces the expenses in Public Health of a government. It intended to measure the degree of literacy in the university community and manage aspects aimed at improving it. The study was exploratory, the sample of 1,234 subjects, non-probabilistic type. 10.2% were teachers, 11.5% were administrative, and 78.3% were students. It was distributed in 19 faculties. The instrument developed by the European project, which derives from the conceptual model, adapted through a pilot survey, was used. The model is made up of three relevant areas: Health Care, Disease Prevention and Health Promotion and four processing stages related to health, relevant for decision-making and relevant tasks. The results reflected limited health literacy in the three dimensions considered. The survey was applied at the University of Panama, during the second semester of 2015. The research was presented in the work: Promotion, Literacy and Intervention in Health, Experiences from Multidiscipline in 2019, under the publication and dissemination of the University Autonomous National of Mexico. ; Esta investigación midió la Alfabetización en Salud en los tres estamentos de la Universidad de Panamá: docentes, administrativos y estudiantes. El término "alfabetización en salud", proviene del inglés Health Literacy, ha ido tomando relevancia a través de los tiempos. En salud existen términos que nos pueden hacer pensar en una aproximación a la temática (prevención, promoción, detección temprana, entre otros), pero la realidad indica que la Alfabetización en Salud va más allá. Es una condición que permite autogestionar la salud y el autocuidado, por medio de procesos de empoderamiento y toma de decisiones asertivas, trayendo por consiguiente disminución de la morbi-mortalidad de las personas, mejorando sus condiciones de vida y favoreciendo las condiciones generales de salud de los habitantes de un país; lo cual aminora los gastos en Salud Pública de un gobierno. Pretendió medir el grado de alfabetización en la comunidad universitaria y gestionar aspectos tendientes a mejorarla. El estudio fue exploratorio, la muestra de 1,234 sujetos, tipo no probabilística. Un 10.2% eran profesores, 11.5% administrativos y 78.3% estudiantes. Fue distribuida en 19 facultades. Se utilizó el instrumento elaborado por el proyecto europeo, que deriva del modelo conceptual, adaptado a través de una encuesta piloto. El modelo lo integran tres áreas relevantes: Cuidado de la Salud, Prevención de Enfermedades y Promoción de la Salud y cuatro etapas de procesamiento relativas a la salud, pertinentes para la toma de decisiones y tareas relevantes. Losresultados reflejaron una alfabetización en salud limitada en las tres dimensiones consideradas. La encuesta fue aplicada en la Universidad de Panamá, durante el segundo semestre del año 2015. La investigación fue presentada en la obra: Promoción, Alfabetización e Intervención en Salud, Experiencias desde la Multidisciplina en el 2019, bajo la publicación y divulgación de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ; Esta pesquisa mediu a Alfabetização em Saúde nos três níveis da Universidade do Panamá: professores, administradores e alunos. O termo "alfabetização em saúde", provém do inglês Health Literacy, vem ganhando relevância ao longo dos tempos. Em saúde existem termos que podem nos fazer pensar em uma abordagem do assunto (prevenção, promoção, detecção precoce, entre outros), mas a realidade indica que a Alfabetização em Saúde vai além. É uma condição que permite a autogestão da saúde e o autocuidado, por meio de processos de empoderamento e tomada de decisão assertiva, consequentemente reduzindo a morbimortalidade das pessoas, melhorando suas condições de vida e favorecendo as condições gerais de saúde dos habitantes de um país; o que reduz os gastos em Saúde Pública de um governo. Procurou medir o grau de alfabetização da comunidade universitária e administrar aspectos voltados para sua melhoria. O estudo foi exploratório, com amostra de 1.234 sujeitos, do tipo não probabilístico. 10,2% eram professores, 11,5% eram administrativos e 78,3% eram alunos. Foi distribuído em 19 faculdades. Foi utilizado o instrumento desenvolvido pelo projeto europeu, que deriva do modelo conceitual, adaptado por meio de um inquérito piloto. O modelo é composto por três áreas relevantes: Cuidados de Saúde, Prevenção de Doenças e Promoção da Saúde e quatro etapas de processamento relacionadas com a saúde, relevantes para a tomada de decisões e tarefas relevantes. Os resultados refletiram alfabetização em saúde limitada nas três dimensões consideradas. A pesquisa foi aplicada na Universidade do Panamá, durante o segundo semestre de 2015. A pesquisa foi apresentada no trabalho: Promoção, Alfabetização e Intervenção em Saúde, Experiências Multidisciplinares em 2019, no âmbito da publicação e divulgação da Universidade Autônoma Nacional de México.
