Do digital means are no longer merely complementary to threats. They are increasingly used as direct means of attacks that can lead to material destruction. How to deal with? The origins of the Tallinn Manuals make it possible to highlight the relevance of the method adopted — that of 'soft law' — to meet increasingly changing, heterogeneous and complex needs. By prioritising the consensus rule, Tallinn's work contributes to the emergence of a number of axes for asserting the full applicability of international law to cyberspace. ; International audience From now on, digital means are no longer only complementary elements to threats. They are increasingly used as direct means of attack that can lead to material destruction. How to deal with it? The genesis of the Tallinn Manuals makes it possible to highlight the relevance of the method adopted - that of "soft law" - to meet increasingly changing, heterogeneous and complex needs. By favoring the consensus rule, the Tallinn work contributes to the emergence of several axes allowing the affirmation of the full applicability of international law to cyberspace. ; Do digital means are no longer merely complementary to threats. They are increasingly used as direct means of attacks that can lead to material destruction. How to deal with? The origins of the Tallinn Manuals make it possible to highlight the relevance of the method adopted — that of 'soft law' — to meet increasingly changing, heterogeneous and complex needs. By prioritising the consensus rule, Tallinn's work contributes to the emergence of a number of axes for asserting the full applicability of international law to cyberspace. ; Désormais les moyens numériques ne sont plus seulement des éléments d'appoint aux menaces. Ils sont de plus en plus employés comme des moyens directs d'attaques pouvant entraîner des destructions matérielles. Comment faire face ? La genèse des Manuels de Tallinn permet de mettre en évidence la pertinence de la méthode adoptée - celle de la « soft law » -, pour répondre à des ...
The current situation presents the risk of a proliferation of competing pockets of rights in the Great Lakes region and the risk of opening an era of legal rivalry between the legal systems to which CEPGL member countries belong. This situation of legal balkanisation is not such as to promote either the free movement of goods, services and capital or the harmonisation of business law in the Great Lakes Region. To remedy this situation, this article recommends the adoption of harmonised law by OHADA. This will allow member countries to have a harmonised right without abandoning its legal tradition. ; La situation actuelle présente le risque de voir se multiplier dans la région des grands lacs des poches de droits concurrents et celui d'ouvrir une ère de rivalité juridique entre les systèmes juridiques auxquelles appartiennent les pays membres de la CEPGL. Cette situation de balkanisation juridique n'est pas de nature à favoriser ni la libre circulation des marchandises, des services et de capitaux ni l'harmonisation du droit des affaires dans la Région des Grands Lacs. Pour remédier à cette situation, cet article recommande l'adoption du droit harmonisé par l'OHADA. Cette adoption, permettra aux pays membres d'avoir un droit harmonisé sans être amené à renoncer à sa tradition juridique.
This paper looks at dialogue and collective learning across borders through personal networks of judges. We focus on judges participating in the Venice Forum, bringing together European patent judges involved in institutional lobbying for the construction of a European Patent Court. Empirical observation shows that personal networks of discussion with foreign judges, reading of their work and references to their decisions do exist in this milieu and can be mapped. Our network study shows that judges from some European countries are more active in this dialogue than judges from other countries. The learning process is driven, to some extent, by a small subset of super-central judges who frame this dialogue and can be considered to be opinion leaders in this social milieu. We measure a strong level of consensus among the judges on several controversial issues surrounding the procedure of a possible future European Patent Court. But strong differences between them remain. Dialogue and collective learning do not, by themselves, lead to convergence towards a uniform position in these controversies.
Summary The present work sets out, under the strategy of historical institutionalism, the judicial reform processes in Bolivia over the past 26 years, explaining the changing institutional contexts, rival developments and sequences emerging at the time of 'Agreed Democracy', the 'Constituent Process' and the 'Mandate of the Summit of Justice'; developing arguments on the increasing and decreasing trajectories of judicial reform or recasting processes, on the dynamics of feedback from the legal system, on the type of slow or accelerated results of the institutionalisation of justice, and on the prospects of a legal policy geared towards the independence of the judiciary and impartiality of the judge in the Plurinational State of Bolivia. ; Resumen El presente trabajo expone, bajo la estrategia del institucionalismo histórico, los procesos de reforma judicial en Bolivia durante los últimos 26 años, explicando los contextos institucionales cambiantes, las coyunturas y secuencias rivales emergentes en la época de la "Democracia Pactada", en el "Proceso Constituyente" y en el "Mandato de la Cumbre de Justicia"; desarrollando argumentos sobre las trayectorias crecientes y decrecientes de los procesos de reforma o de refundación de la justicia, sobre la dinámica de retroalimentación del sistema jurídico, el tipo de resultados lentos o acelerados de la institucionalización de la justicia y, las perspectivas de una política jurídica orientada a la independencia de la justicia e imparcialidad del juez en el Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia.
national audience This text provides a general reflection on the development of juvenile delinquency in contemporary France. In the first methodological part, he first discussed the question of the statistical data which could be mobilised on the subject. He then asked the category 'young people', stated that there was an age curve of delinquency, identified the use of the concept of criminal 'career' here and discussed possible changes in that regard. In a second part, the text analyses the quantitative and qualitative data available to try to measure and interpret the role of young people (at different ages) in four sets of criminal practices: theft, attacks on persons, road crime and major public order problems. In particular, this examination makes it possible to seriously place minors (or even young people in general) in these practices and to invite a general reflection on their social reasons. ; National audience Ce texte propose une réflexion générale sur l'évolution des délinquances juvéniles dans la France contemporaine. Dans une première partie méthodologique, il discute d'abord la question des données statistiques mobilisables sur le sujet. Il interroge ensuite la catégorie "jeunes", indique qu'il existe une courbe par âge de la délinquance, situe ici l'usage de la notion de "carrière" délinquante et discute les éventuelles modifications intervenues à cet égard. Dans une seconde partie, le texte analyse les données quantitatives et qualitiatives disponibles pour tenter de mesurer et d'interpréter le rôle de la jeunesse (à différents âges) dans quatre ensembles de pratiques délinquantes : les vols, les atteintes aux personnes, la délinquance routière et les principaux troubles à l'ordre public. Cet examen permet notamment de relativiser sérieusement la place des mineurs (voire de la jeunesse en général) dans ces pratiques et d'inviter à une réflexion générale sur leurs raisons sociales.
National, European and international commitments have been made to maintain and restore the connectivity of natural habitats to face habitat loss and fragmentation. Meanwhile, environmental policies in different countries worldwide have proposed the mitigation hierarchy to reach the goal of "no net loss (NNL) of biodiversity". The mitigation hierarchy aims at assessing all the ecological impacts of a development project, but the impacts on landscape connectivity are not properly addressed. We propose an operational framework to assess the environmental impacts of a development project on landscape habitat connectivity. This framework is based on graph theory and the equivalent connectivity index EC of "amount of reachable habitat", which takes into account the total amount of habitat, the spatial configuration of habitat patches and the dispersal capacities of the species. We redefine the three main issues of the mitigation hierarchy regarding "no net loss of connectivity". Then, this framework was applied to a simple, virtual network case where several scenarios of impact avoidance, reduction and compensation were tested and compared. We discuss the benefits and limitations of this approach for the mitigation hierarchy and provide practical recommendations for implementation. In conclusion, we advocate and justify a better integration of the three main biodiversity conservation policies in France : the law for the recovery of biodiversity, nature and landscapes, the SRADDET and the strategy for the establishment of protected areas. ; Des engagements nationaux, européens et internationaux ont été pris pour maintenir et restaurer la connectivité entre habitats naturels face à la perte et à la fragmentation de ces habitats. Dans le même temps, les politiques environnementales dans différents pays mettent en oeuvre la séquence Eviter-Réduire-Compenser (ERC) pour atteindre l'objectif d'absence de perte nette de biodiversité (PPN). La séquence ERC a pour principe d'évaluer l'ensemble des impacts écologiques d'un ...
Las investigaciones sobre la agricultura venezolana entre 1899-1908 durante el Gobierno del general Cipriano Castro, conocido como el período de la Restauración Liberal, son fragmentarias. Las limitaciones de estadísticas seriadas han constituido una severa restricción para ello. Esta época reviste singular importancia para la vida política y económica, dado su significado particular en el curso del país: fue en este período de transición cuando se sentaron las bases para la conformación del Estado Nacional. El cese de la fragmentación política, la orientación del gasto público hacia fines sociales y productivos y la instauración del monopolio de la fuerza en manos del Estado, son fenómenos iniciados en aquel régimen. A pesar de la estabilidad política, la agricultura poco avanzó en su modernización; aspectos como la transformación de su asimétrica estructura de tenencia y propiedad, la modificación de sus relaciones de trabajo, el cambio en el nivel técnico basado en el fomento y la investigación, la disponibilidad de capital y su acceso a precios no especulativos, la comunicación regional y las mejoras en la distribución de productos, cuando no ausentes, tuvieron escaso avance. Inmersa en esta situación, con una recesión internacional en su producto principal (el café) y a una de políticas que la estimularan, la agricultura no pudo erigirse en competitiva. En este trabajo se devela este curso de la agricultura y tiene como objetivos principales: i) reconstruir el marco económico y político en que se inscribió, a fin de facilitar la comprensión de su evolución; ii) caracterizar la agricultura venezolana del período Castrista, a partir de un análisis de sus principales producciones; y, iii) identificar las medidas de política pública aplicadas y su impacto sobre la agricultura. ; The period between 1899-1908 in the government of general Cipriano Castro, called The «Restauración Liberal», agriculture had been precarious studied. Due to there is not statistic information, is very difficult to do research, but the political and economic life it was significative for the national transformation. This time was a transitional period, because began the national organization state. Under Cipriano Castro government Venezuela had politic stability. Besides it was political centralization; moreover, the public spend was directed to social and economic investment and the control of military forces was in the State. Besides the agriculture modern did not advance: there were not changes in the land tenure structure, neither the work relations. The technological change has not support in the agricultural research and the public policy. The capital was scarce and its speculative price; was very difficult to translate by the roads and the commercialization of the merchandise was bad. Bellow these circumstances and with the international coffee recession the agriculture was not competitive. We analyze in this work the agricultural sector, by: the study of the economic and politic context; to make analysis of the basic production; identify the public politics and we establish its effect on the agriculture. ; Recherche sur l'agriculture vénézuélienne entre 1899-1908 dans le gouvernement du général Cipriano Castro, connu comme la période de la Restauration libéral sont fragmentaires. Les limites des statistiques de série ont été une restriction. Cette fois, pour la vie politique et économique est important pour son sens dans le cadre du pays. En cette période de transition à la base de la formation de l'État national ont été portées. La cessation de la fragmentation politique, l'orientation des dépenses publiques vers des fins sociales et productives et la création du monopole du pouvoir détenu par l'État, sont des phénomènes commencé dans son régime Malgré le peu de progrès politiques de l'agriculture de la stabilité dans sa modernisation: la transformation de sa structure de propriété foncière et asymétrique, en changeant leurs relations de travail, le changement dans le niveau technique basée sur la promotion et la recherche, la disponibilité de capitaux et l'accès à des prix non spéculatifs, la communication régionale et amélioration de la distribution de produits, lorsque peu de progrès avaient pas absente. Immergé dans cette situation, avec une récession mondiale dans son produit principal: café, rapide et politiques qui stimulent, l'agriculture ne pouvait pas être érigé compétitifs. Dans ce travail, nous avons dévoilé son cours, nous allons: reconstruire le cadre économique et politique dans lequel il est inscrit, dans le but de faciliter la compréhension de son évolution; caractériser ce à travers une analyse de ses productions clés; et identifier les mesures appliquées politique publique et son impact sur l'agriculture. ; Os estudos sobre a agricultura venezuelana entre 1899-1908, no governo do general Cipriano Castro, conhecido como o período da Restauração Liberal, são fragmentados. As limitações nas séries estatísticas tem sido uma séria restrição para isso. Essa época tem uma grande importância para a vida política e econômica do país, dado para o seu significado no curso do país: neste período de transição foram estabelecidas as bases para a formação do Estado nacional. O fim da fragmentação política, a orientação das despesas públicas para fins sociais e produtivas e o estabelecimento do monopólio do poder em poder do Estado, são fenômenos começaram nesse regime Apesar da estabilidade política, a agricultura pouco avançou na sua modernização: aspectos como a transformação de sua estrutura de posse e propriedade assimétrica, mudando suas relações de trabalho, a mudança no nível técnico com base na promoção e pesquisa, a disponibilidade de capital e acesso a preços não especulativos, de comunicação regionais e melhorias na distribuição do produto, progrediram pouco ou nada no período. Imerso nesta situação, com uma recessão global em seu principal produto, o café, a agricultura perdeu competitividade. Neste trabalho buscou-se: reconstruir o quadro econômico e político, a fim de facilitar a compreensão da sua evolução; caracterizar isso através de uma análise de suas produções fundamentais; e identificar políticas públicas utilizadas e seu impacto na agricultura. ; 81 - 102 ; pachecogerman@hotmail.com ; Semestral
The inclusion in a law of the construction of the Seine-Nord Europe Canal for an amount of EUR 4 billion is surprising as the socio-economic profitability of such a project is far from proven. It is even more surprising that it is enshrined in the "Grenelle I" law as it is unlikely that the carbon balance of this project will be positive, as this article seeks to establish. The main reason for this is that the traffic that might be taken over to other modes of transport would come mostly from rail and not from road, contrary to what is stated by Voies Navigables de France. ; International audience ; The inclusion in a law of the construction of the Seine-Nord Europe Canal for an amount of EUR 4 billion is surprising as the socio-economic profitability of such a project is far from proven. It is even more surprising that it is enshrined in the "Grenelle I" law as it is unlikely that the carbon balance of this project will be positive, as this article seeks to establish. The main reason for this is that the traffic that might be taken over to other modes of transport would come mostly from rail and not from road, contrary to what is stated by Voies Navigables de France. ; L'inscription dans une loi de la construction du canal Seine-Nord Europe pour un montant de quatre milliards d'euros est surprenante dans la mesure où la rentabilité socio-économique d'un tel projet est bien loin d'être avérée. Il est plus surprenant encore que ce soit inscrit dans la loi « Grenelle I » dans la mesure où il y a bien peu de chances pour que le bilan carbone de ce projet soit positif, ainsi que cet article s'efforce de l'établir. La raison principale tient à ce que le trafic qui serait éventuellement repris aux autres modes de transport proviendrait très majoritairement du rail et non de la route, contrairement à ce qu'affirment les prévisions de Voies Navigables de France.
Antecedentes: Las redes Ad hoc son un nuevo paradigma dentro de las redes inalámbricas debido a sus características dinámicas y de auto configuración, aparecen como respuesta de conectividad para diferentes situaciones donde se requieren características adicionales a las ofrecidas por las redes convencionales, como protocolos de enrutamiento eficientes, interoperabilidad entre los dispositivos móviles y propiedades como el cambio de rol de los nodos dentro de la red. Objetivo: El objetivo del presente trabajo es generar diferentes entornos simulados en el software Network Simulator 2, variando los protocolos de enrutamiento, los servicios prestados y el tráfico en general para validar el rendimiento de una red Ad hoc. Métodos: Se presenta una detallada descripción de las características del simulador y de las abstracciones usadas para modelar cada uno de los elementos de red, resaltando la abstracción del nodo móvil quien hace las veces de terminal o enrutador con atributos de movilidad, consumo energético, manejo de protocolos de enrutamiento y cobertura, simulando todas las capas de red de un sistema real, se usan protocolos de enrutamiento reactivos y proactivos como lo son el AODV y el DSR, de la misma manera el protocolo FEBA en redes Mesh. Resultados: Al validar el rendimiento de los escenarios se utilizó una estructura Mesh para evaluar el efecto de redundancia multicanal, respecto a las arquitecturas tradicionales en redes Ad hoc y el número de saltos requeridos para la transmisión es mayor a las Mesh, lo cual genera latencia en las comunicaciones, las métricas mejoran con protocolos reactivos y aumentan con redundancia. Generando canales dedicados para el tráfico producido por los servicios, mejorando notablemente en más de 5 veces el rendimiento de una red ad hoc convencional. Conclusión. El simulador NS-2 de código abierto es una herramienta vital, para modelar y simular redes de cualquier tipo, con la ventaja de poder modificar y crear las librerías existentes para crear ambientes simulados, más reales y que respondan a una necesidad de comunicaciones como lo es en situaciones de emergencia.Palabras Clave: Redes Ad Hoc, Redes Mesh, Simulador de Redes 2(NS-2), Simulación Abstract Background: The Ad hoc networks are a new paradigm in wireless networks due to its dynamic characteristics and autoconFiguration, appear in response connectivity to different situations where additional to those offered by conventional networks such as protocols for efficient routing features are required, interoperability between mobile devices and properties as the changing role of the nodes within the network. Objective: The objective of this work is to generate different environments simulated in the Network Simulator 2 software, varying routing protocols, service and overall traffic to validate the performance of an Ad hoc network. Methods: A detailed description of the characteristics of the simulator ISSN 0122-820X and abstractions used to model each of the network elements is presented, highlighting the mobile node abstraction who acts as a router or terminal mobility attributes, energy consumption management protocols routing and coverage, simulating all network layers of a real system, reactive and proactive protocols routing are used as AODV and DSR, in the same way the FEBA protocol in Mesh networks. Result: To validate the performance of the scenarios one Mesh structure was used to evaluate the effect of multichannel redundancy, compared to traditional architectures in Ad hoc networks and the number of hops required for transmission is greater than the Mesh, which generates latency in communications, metrics improve with reactive protocols and increase redundancy. Generating dedicated for traffic produced by the services, improving considerably more than 5 times the performance of a conventional Ad hoc network channels. Conclusion: The NS-2 simulator open source is a vital tool for modeling and simulating networks of any type, with the advantage of being able to modify and create existing libraries to create simulated environments more realistic and responsive to a need for communications as it is in emergency situations.Keywords: Ad Hoc Networks, Mesh Network, Network Simulator 2(NS-2), Simulation. Resumo Antecedentes: As redes Ad hoc são um novo paradigma dentro das redes sem fio devido a suas características dinâmicas e de autoconfiguração, aparecem como resposta de conectividade para diferentes situações onde se requerem características adicionais as oferecidas pelas redes convencionais, como protocolos de encaminhamento eficientes, interoperabilidade entre os dispositivos móveis e propriedades como a troca de rol dos nodos dentro da red. Objetivo: O objetivo do presente trabalho foi gerar diferentes entornos simulados no software Network Simulator 2, variando os protocolos de encaminhamento, os serviços prestados e o tráfico em geral para validar o rendimento de uma rede Ad hoc. Métodos: Se apresenta uma detalhada descrição das características do simulador e das abstrações usadas para modelar cada um dos elementos de rede, ressaltando a abstração do nodo móvel quem fez às vezes de terminal ou router com atributos de mobilidade, consumo energético, manejo de protocolos de encaminhamento e cobertura, simulando todas as camadas de rede de um sistema real, se usam protocolos de encaminhamento reativos e proativos como são o AODV e o DSR, da mesma maneira o protocolo FEBA em redes Mesh. Resultados: Ao validar o rendimento das etapas se utilizou uma estrutura Mesh para avaliar o efeito de redundância multicanal, respeito às arquiteturas tradicionais em redes Ad hoc e o número de saltos requeridos para a transmissão é maior as Mesh, o qual gera latência nas comunicações, as métricas melhoram com protocolos reativos e aumentam com redundância. Gerando canais dedicados para o trafego produzido pelos serviços, melhorando notavelmente em mais de cinco vezes o rendimento de uma rede ad hoc convencional. Conclusão: O simulador NS-2 de código aberto é uma ferramenta vital, para modelar e simular redes de qualquer tipo, com a vantagem de poder modificar e indicar as livrarias existentes para criar ambientes simulados, mais reais e que respondam a uma necessidade de comunicações como é em situações de emergência. Palavras-Chave: Redes Ad Hoc, Redes Mesh, Simulador de redes 2 (NS-2), Simulação.
Between 1948 and 1959, several laws were implemented in order to introduce a first coherence in the adult education device. In the same time, a new idea, this of éducation permanente (permanent education) was emerging and getting sense in different social spheres. Before detailing the content, the dissemination then the decline of this idea, we would like to stress the tremendous hope of social transformation that many social actors put in the permanent education project. Through permanent education it was question to take up the challenge of the educative system crisis, to change the pedagogic relation, to "awake", to open to a richer life. Permanent education, that was for some of these actors the main of 1971 law will, under economical pressure and stakes, be relegated in the background, then progressively forgotten to the benefit of other more narrow and immediate aims
This article provides an overview of the federal administrative justice system in Argentina. It begins with an explanation of how the power to enact procedural law and to organize administrative courts is distributed between the federal state and the local states. It then describes the core constitutional and statutory principles and structures of administrative jurisdiction and the courts, and discusses the lack of a general special procedure to deal with actions involving the federal state and federal subject matter issues (except for interim measures and 'amparo' proceedings). The article goes on to provide an explanation of what is currently happening regarding class actions within this context, and it ends with remarks by the author on some provisional conclusions. ; Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Sociales
International audience The diffusion of books published in Strasbourg is indeed a quantitatively minor phenomenon. It reflects though the international reputation of the city's university. In the middle of the eighteenth century, this reputation was renewed and transformed thanks to personal and institutional relations between famous Strasbourg professors and aristocrats at the Viennese court, especially those involved into the politics in the Holy Roman Empire. During the 1780's thus, few booksellers and publishers seized the opportunity of the expansion and liberalization of book market in the Hapsburg Monarchy to provide books and services to a bilingual elite whose tastes and needs they long knew very well. ; La diffusion des livres strasbourgeois est certes un phénomène quantitativement minoritaire, mais elle reflète le rayonnement de l'université de cette ville. Ce rayonnement est réinvesti au milieu du siècle grâce aux relations personnelles et institutionnelles entretenues par des professeurs éminents de l'Université avec les milieux de cour viennois, particulièrement avec les aristocrates engagés dans les affaires politiques du Saint-Empire. Ainsi, dans les années 1780, certains libraires strasbourgeois sont-ils particulièrement réactifs, saisissent l'opportunité de l'expansion du marché et parviennent, dès avant la libéralisation de leur profession, dans les années 1790, à procurer leurs services à une élite bilingue dont ils connaissent parfaitement les centres d'intérêt, les besoins et les goûts.
Architecture as musical metaphor If Stanley Kubrick's Shining (1980) is seen, it is clear that the large repeated design spaces are asombran and fear. The principle of CREDO (colour balanced rhythm direction in order), or the broader combination of compositional rules, which are several and often extend and rebound each other (they range from the laws of: axial and radial symmetries, balance law, mass composition law, uniformity of masses, and the Caucasus section, up to long enumerations, including, for example, plastic, equilibrium, harmony, weight, space, rhythm, proportion, etc., are not sufficient to explain correctly the aesthetic value of harmony. If we compare architecture with music (what we did, in the sense of historical symbology in our book: A Modern History of the XII-XVIII Siglas Architecture), we will see the weaknesses of the aesthetic approach to contemporary architecture, but its more intrinsic values, which are functionalism and rationalism. The contemporary architecture, in these two movements, which went back to school, and the paradigm of architectural design, hence urban, are accelerating. In other words, they do not escape, or are not extraneous to, the aesthetic (or aesthetic) attempt of the straight line of the building, by repeating the same motif, whether window, door, or balcony. Thus, we can clearly say that, like rap, it has a rhythm. But also, like rap, it has only one rhythm box without harmony. Unlike classical symphony, rap does not go so far as to create agreements that develop, except when it takes some riff of another genus, which replaces the meldic absence of which this genus is absolutely suffering. It is thus as extraneous to rap, the melsodium principle, as it is to the rationaliser-functionalist architecture. ; La arquitectura como metáfora musical Si se ve The Shining (1980) de Stanley Kubrick, es claro que los grandes espacios de diseño repetido asombran y dan miedo. El principio del CREDO (color ritmo equilibrio dirección orden), o la combinación más amplia de las ...
The records of the English High Court of Admiralty offer an outstanding primary source for the study of C17th social, material and economic history. The geographic scope of the Court's jurisdiction was international, and the Court's records are of relevance to the study of English, continental European, Mediterranean, Atlantic and Asian history. Substantial archival records of the Court survive at the National Archives, Kew, but have been relatively neglected by historians. The main reasons for this neglect have been a lack of metadata, poor finding aids, and the absence of published transcriptions. The MarineLives project was established in 2012 to collaboratively transcribe, annotate and link the records of the Court from 1650-1669. This seminar paper introduces the MarineLives project, presents and characterises the High Court of Admiralty archive, shows examples of research based on the archive, and suggests areas for scholarly research and collaboration
national hearing The constant upgrading of the powers of the European Parliament is one of the most significant features of the evolution of the institutional system of the Union from the outset. It is now a powerful assembly, and above all open, capable of influencing normative production and effectively undermining the Commission. However, the assessment of Parliament's influence is hampered by the development of practices such as 'trilogues', which promote the mainstreaming of agreements in the area of Islamic law and obscure the relations of power between the institutions. ; National audience La revalorisation constante des pouvoirs du Parlement européen est l'un des traits les plus marquants de l'évolution du système institutionnel de l'Union depuis les origines. C'est aujourd'hui une assemblée puissante et surtout très indépendante, capable d'influer réellement sur la production normative et de contrôler effectivement la Commission. Toutefois, l'évaluation de l'influence du Parlement se heurte au développement de pratiques telles que les " trilogues ", qui favorisent une généralisation des accords précoces en matière législative et occultent les rapports de forces entre les institutions.
