Suchergebnisse

This paper uses new data on agricultural policy interventions to examine the political economy of agricultural trade policies in Sub-Saharan Africa. Historically, African governments have discriminated against agricultural producers in general (relative to producers in non-agricultural sectors), and against producers of export agriculture in particular. While more moderate in recent years, these patterns of discrimination persist. They do so even though farmers comprise a political majority. Rather than claiming the existence of a single best approach to the analysis of policy choice, the authors explore the impact of three factors: institutions, regional inequality, and tax revenue-generation. The authors find that agricultural taxation increases with the rural population share in the absence of electoral party competition; yet, the existence of party competition turns the lobbying disadvantage of the rural majority into political advantage. The authors also find that privileged cash crop regions are particular targets for redistributive taxation, unless the country's president comes from that region. In addition, governments of resource-rich countries, while continuing to tax export producers, reduce their taxation of food consumers.

Using data from the Ecuadorian private banking system for the period 2000-2017, this paper analyses macroeconomic and bank specific variables as determinants of credit risk, evaluated through a panel data with random effects. The findings highlight that macroeconomic and financial conditions of the country can explain credit banks quality in Ecuador. In particular, the factors that influence the credit risk in private banking system are the unemployment, government variables, the growth rate of loans, provisions, profitability and size. Keywords: Credit risk, banking system, macroeconomic factors, institutional factors. URL: http://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/842 DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.31164/bcoyu.23.2019.842 References: Ahmad, N., & Ariff, M. (2007). Multi-country study of bank. The International Journal of Banking and Finance, 135-152. Alfaro, R., Calvo, D., & Oda, D. (2008). Riesgo de Crédito de la Banca. Banco Central de Chile Documentos de Trabajo, 1-29. Asobanca. (2019). Informe técnico: Banco Vs Cooperativas. Quito: Asobanca. Obtenido de www.asobanca.org.ec Banco mundial. (Julio de 2018). Banco de datos Indicadores mundiales de buen gobierno. Obtenido de https://databank.bancomundial.org/Governance-Indicators/id/2abb48da Berger, A., & DeYoung, R. (1997). Problem loans and cost efficiency in commercial banks. Journal of Banking and Finance, 21, 849-870. Obtenido de https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/1997/199708/199708pap.pdf Boudriga, A., Boulila, N., & Jellouli, S. (2009). Banking supervision and nonperforming loans: a cross-country analysis. Journal of Financial Economic Policy, 1(4), 286-318. doi:10.1108/17576380911050043 Boudriga, A., Boulila, N., & Jellouli, S. (2010). Bank Specific, business and institutional environment determinants of banks nonperforming loans: Evidence from Mena countries. Economic Researc Forum(547), 1-28. Obtenido de http://erf.org.eg/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/547.pdf Castro, V. (2013). Macroeconomic determinants of the credit risk in the banking system: The case of the GIPSI. Economic Modelling, 31, 672-683. Obtenido de econpapers.repec.org/article/eeeecmode/v_3a31_3ay_3a2013_3ai_3ac_3ap_3a672-683.htm Chaibi, H., & Ftiti, Z. (2014). Credit risk determinants: Evidence from a cross-country study. Research in International Business and Finance, Volume 33(33), 1-16. Flórez, R. (2007). Análisis de los determinantes del riesgo de crédito en presencia de carteras de bajo incumplimiento. Una nueva propuesta de aplicación. Revista Europea de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, 71-92. Fondo Monetario Internacional. (2016). La solidez del sistema financiero. Washington: Departamento de Comunicaciones FMI. García-Marco, T., & Robles-Fernández, M. (2007). Risk-taking behaviour and ownership in the banking industry: The Spanish evidence. García-Marco, T., & Robles-Fernández, M. D. (2008). Risk-taking behaviour and ownership in the banking industry: The Spanish evidence. Journal of Economics and Business, 60(4), 332–354. doi:10.1016/j.jeconbus.2007.04.008(60), 332-354. doi:10.1016/J.JECONBUS.2007.04.008 Hoang, T. T., Vo, K. T., & Ha, N. T. (2019). Analysis of the Factors Affecting Credit Risk of Commercial Banks in Vietnam. Springer Nature Switzerland, 522-532. Obtenido de link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-04200-4_38 Jara, M., Arias, J., & Rodríguez, A. (2011). Diversificación y determinantes del desempeño bancario: una comparación internacional. Estudios de Administración, 1-48. Jeanneau, S. (2007). Banking systems: characteristics and structural changes . Bank for International Settlements, 1-65. Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A., & Mastruzzi, M. (2010). The Worldwide Governance Indicators: Methodology and Analytical Issues. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 5430, 31. Obtenido de http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1682130 King, R., & Levine, R. (1993). Finance and growth: Schumpeter might be right. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 108(3), 717-737. Labra, R., & Torrecillas, C. (2014). Guía CERO para datos de panel. Un enfoque práctico. UAM-Accenture Working Papers, 1-61. Obtenido de www.catedrauamaccenture.com/documents/Working%20papers/WP2014_16_Guia%20CERO%20para%20datos%20de%20panel_Un%20enfoque%20practico.pdf Louhichi, A., & Boujelbene, Y. (Septiembre de 2016). Credit risk, managerial behaviour and macroeconomic equilibrium within dual banking systems: Interest-free vs. interest-based banking industries. Research in International Business and Finance, Volume 38(38), 104-121. Louhichi, A., & Boujelbene, Y. (September de 2016). Credit risk, managerial behaviour and macroeconomic equilibrium within dual banking systems: Interest-free vs. interest-based banking industries. Research in International Business and Finance, Volume 38(38), 104-121. Louzis, D., Vouldis, A., & Metaxas, V. (2012). Macroeconomic and bank-specific determinants of non-performing loans in Greece: A comparative study of mortgage, business and consumer loan portfolios. Journal of Banking & Finance, 1012-1027. doi:10.1016/j.jbankfin.2011.10.012 Mayorga, M., & Muñoz, E. (Septiembre de 2000). Documento de trabajo del Banco Central de Costa Ric. Obtenido de https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/8300249/mayorga%20y%20munoz%20tecnica%20de%20datos%20de%20panel.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1552261226&Signature=UWniEpUeI3dEFEdY8Nb%2B2WIFkvY%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20 Messai, A., & Jouini, F. (2013). Micro and macro determinants of non-performing loans. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 3(4), 852-860. Montero, M. (2011). Efectos fijos o aleatorios: test de especificación. Documentos de Trabajo en Economía Aplicada, 1-5. Obtenido de https://www.ugr.es/~montero/matematicas/especificacion.pdf Mpofu, T., & Nikolaidou, E. (2018). Determinants of credit risk in the banking system in Sub-Saharan Africa. Review of Development Finance, 1-13. Nkusu, M. (2011). Nonperforming Loans and Macrofinancial Vulnerabilities in Advanced Economies. IFM working paper, 1-28. Red de Instituciones Financieras de Desarrollo. (04 de Octubre de 2019). RFD. Obtenido de http://rfd.org.ec/docs/estadisticas/capcolo.pdf Reinhart, C., & Rogoff, K. (2010). From finantial to crash to debt crisis. National Bureau of economic research, 1-46. Sagner, A. (2012). El influjo de cartera vencida como medida de riesgo de crédito: Análisis y aplicación al caso de Chile. Revista de Análisis Económico, 27-54. Salas, V., & Saurima, J. (2002). Credit risk in two institutional regimes: Spanish commercial and savings banks. Journal of Finantial Services Research, III(22), 203-224. Sánchez, C., Mogro, S., & Cruz, J. (2017). Estructura de mercado del sistema bancario ecuatoriano: concentración y poder de mercado. Revista Cumbres, 09-16. Subgerencia de Programación y Regulación Dirección Nacional de Riesgo Sistémico. (Mayo de 2017). Monitoreo de los principales indicadores monetarios y financieros de la economía ecuatoriana. Obtenido de Banco Central del Ecuador: contenido.bce.fin.ec/documentos/PublicacionesNotas/Datos.xlsx Superintendencia de Bancos . (Abril de 2018). Superintendencia de Bancos Portal Estadístico. Obtenido de http://estadisticas.superbancos.gob.ec/portalestadistico/portalestudios/?page_id=415 Superintendencia de Bancos. (4 de Octubre de 2017). Estadísticas.superbancos. Obtenido de http://estadisticas.superbancos.gob.ec/portalestadistico/portalestudios/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/downloads/2019/01/Memoria_2017.pdf The World Bank Group. (28 de Agosto de 2018). Global Finantial Development. Obtenido de http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=global-financial-development# Titelman, D. (2003). La banca de desarrollo y el financiamiento productivo. Serie Financiamiento del Desarrollo, 1- 35. Uquillas, A., & Gozáles, C. (2017). Determinantes macro y microeconómicos para pruebas de tensión de riesgo de crédiro: un estudio comparativo entre Ecuador y Colombia basado en la tasa de morosidad. Ensayos sobre Política Económica, 35, 245-259. Urbina, M. (Julio de 2017). Tesis Uchile. Obtenido de http://repositorio.uchile.cl/bitstream/handle/2250/149796/Urbina%20Poveda%20Myriam.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Vallcorba, M., & Delgado, J. (2007). Determinantes de la morosidad bancaria en una economía dolarizada. El caso uruguayo. Documentos de trabajo. Banco de España, 1-45. Vera, C., & Titelman, D. (2013). El sistema financiero en América Latina y el Caribe. Financiamiento para el Desarrollo, 1-40. Obtenido de https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/35880/1/LCL3746_es.pdf Vuslat, U. (2016). A dynamic approach to analysing the effect of the global crisis on nonperforming loans: evidence from the Turkish banking sector. Applied Economics Letters, 186-192. Waemustafa, W., & Sukri, S. (2015). Bank Specific and Macroeconomics Dynamic Determinants of Credit Risk in Islamic Banks and Conventional Banks. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 476-481. Obtenido de econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/view/1105/pdf ; Utilizando datos del sistema bancario ecuatoriano del periodo 2000-2018, se analizan variables macroeconómicas y efectos propios de las instituciones bancarias como factores determinantes del riesgo de crédito, evaluado a través de un enfoque de datos de panel estático. Los resultados indican que las condiciones macroeconómicas y financieras del país son un medio para explicar la probabilidad de default de los préstamos otorgados por los bancos. En particular, los factores que influyen en el riesgo de crédito del sistema privado bancario ecuatoriano son la tasa del crecimiento del PIB, variables gubernamentales, tasa de crecimiento de los créditos, las provisiones y la rentabilidad. Palabras clave: Riesgo de crédito, sistema bancario, factores macroeconómicos, factores institucionales. URL: http://revistas.uta.edu.ec/erevista/index.php/bcoyu/article/view/842 DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.31164/bcoyu.23.2019.842 Referencias: Ahmad, N., & Ariff, M. (2007). Multi-country study of bank. The International Journal of Banking and Finance, 135-152. Alfaro, R., Calvo, D., & Oda, D. (2008). Riesgo de Crédito de la Banca. Banco Central de Chile Documentos de Trabajo, 1-29. Asobanca. (2019). Informe técnico: Banco Vs Cooperativas. Quito: Asobanca. Obtenido de www.asobanca.org.ec Banco mundial. (Julio de 2018). Banco de datos Indicadores mundiales de buen gobierno. Obtenido de https://databank.bancomundial.org/Governance-Indicators/id/2abb48da Berger, A., & DeYoung, R. (1997). Problem loans and cost efficiency in commercial banks. Journal of Banking and Finance, 21, 849-870. Obtenido de https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/1997/199708/199708pap.pdf Boudriga, A., Boulila, N., & Jellouli, S. (2009). Banking supervision and nonperforming loans: a cross-country analysis. Journal of Financial Economic Policy, 1(4), 286-318. doi:10.1108/17576380911050043 Boudriga, A., Boulila, N., & Jellouli, S. (2010). Bank Specific, business and institutional environment determinants of banks nonperforming loans: Evidence from Mena countries. Economic Researc Forum(547), 1-28. Obtenido de http://erf.org.eg/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/547.pdf Castro, V. (2013). Macroeconomic determinants of the credit risk in the banking system: The case of the GIPSI. Economic Modelling, 31, 672-683. Obtenido de econpapers.repec.org/article/eeeecmode/v_3a31_3ay_3a2013_3ai_3ac_3ap_3a672-683.htm Chaibi, H., & Ftiti, Z. (2014). Credit risk determinants: Evidence from a cross-country study. Research in International Business and Finance, Volume 33(33), 1-16. Flórez, R. (2007). Análisis de los determinantes del riesgo de crédito en presencia de carteras de bajo incumplimiento. Una nueva propuesta de aplicación. Revista Europea de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, 71-92. Fondo Monetario Internacional. (2016). La solidez del sistema financiero. Washington: Departamento de Comunicaciones FMI. García-Marco, T., & Robles-Fernández, M. (2007). Risk-taking behaviour and ownership in the banking industry: The Spanish evidence. García-Marco, T., & Robles-Fernández, M. D. (2008). Risk-taking behaviour and ownership in the banking industry: The Spanish evidence. Journal of Economics and Business, 60(4), 332–354. doi:10.1016/j.jeconbus.2007.04.008(60), 332-354. doi:10.1016/J.JECONBUS.2007.04.008 Hoang, T. T., Vo, K. T., & Ha, N. T. (2019). Analysis of the Factors Affecting Credit Risk of Commercial Banks in Vietnam. Springer Nature Switzerland, 522-532. Obtenido de link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-04200-4_38 Jara, M., Arias, J., & Rodríguez, A. (2011). Diversificación y determinantes del desempeño bancario: una comparación internacional. Estudios de Administración, 1-48. Jeanneau, S. (2007). Banking systems: characteristics and structural changes . Bank for International Settlements, 1-65. Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A., & Mastruzzi, M. (2010). The Worldwide Governance Indicators: Methodology and Analytical Issues. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 5430, 31. Obtenido de http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1682130 King, R., & Levine, R. (1993). Finance and growth: Schumpeter might be right. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 108(3), 717-737. Labra, R., & Torrecillas, C. (2014). Guía CERO para datos de panel. Un enfoque práctico. UAM-Accenture Working Papers, 1-61. Obtenido de www.catedrauamaccenture.com/documents/Working%20papers/WP2014_16_Guia%20CERO%20para%20datos%20de%20panel_Un%20enfoque%20practico.pdf Louhichi, A., & Boujelbene, Y. (Septiembre de 2016). Credit risk, managerial behaviour and macroeconomic equilibrium within dual banking systems: Interest-free vs. interest-based banking industries. Research in International Business and Finance, Volume 38(38), 104-121. Louhichi, A., & Boujelbene, Y. (September de 2016). Credit risk, managerial behaviour and macroeconomic equilibrium within dual banking systems: Interest-free vs. interest-based banking industries. Research in International Business and Finance, Volume 38(38), 104-121. Louzis, D., Vouldis, A., & Metaxas, V. (2012). Macroeconomic and bank-specific determinants of non-performing loans in Greece: A comparative study of mortgage, business and consumer loan portfolios. Journal of Banking & Finance, 1012-1027. doi:10.1016/j.jbankfin.2011.10.012 Mayorga, M., & Muñoz, E. (Septiembre de 2000). Documento de trabajo del Banco Central de Costa Ric. Obtenido de https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/8300249/mayorga%20y%20munoz%20tecnica%20de%20datos%20de%20panel.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1552261226&Signature=UWniEpUeI3dEFEdY8Nb%2B2WIFkvY%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20 Messai, A., & Jouini, F. (2013). Micro and macro determinants of non-performing loans. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 3(4), 852-860. Montero, M. (2011). Efectos fijos o aleatorios: test de especificación. Documentos de Trabajo en Economía Aplicada, 1-5. Obtenido de https://www.ugr.es/~montero/matematicas/especificacion.pdf Mpofu, T., & Nikolaidou, E. (2018). Determinants of credit risk in the banking system in Sub-Saharan Africa. Review of Development Finance, 1-13. Nkusu, M. (2011). Nonperforming Loans and Macrofinancial Vulnerabilities in Advanced Economies. IFM working paper, 1-28. Red de Instituciones Financieras de Desarrollo. (04 de Octubre de 2019). RFD. Obtenido de http://rfd.org.ec/docs/estadisticas/capcolo.pdf Reinhart, C., & Rogoff, K. (2010). From finantial to crash to debt crisis. National Bureau of economic research, 1-46. Sagner, A. (2012). El influjo de cartera vencida como medida de riesgo de crédito: Análisis y aplicación al caso de Chile. Revista de Análisis Económico, 27-54. Salas, V., & Saurima, J. (2002). Credit risk in two institutional regimes: Spanish commercial and savings banks. Journal of Finantial Services Research, III(22), 203-224. Sánchez, C., Mogro, S., & Cruz, J. (2017). Estructura de mercado del sistema bancario ecuatoriano: concentración y poder de mercado. Revista Cumbres, 09-16. Subgerencia de Programación y Regulación Dirección Nacional de Riesgo Sistémico. (Mayo de 2017). Monitoreo de los principales indicadores monetarios y financieros de la economía ecuatoriana. Obtenido de Banco Central del Ecuador: contenido.bce.fin.ec/documentos/PublicacionesNotas/Datos.xlsx Superintendencia de Bancos . (Abril de 2018). Superintendencia de Bancos Portal Estadístico. Obtenido de http://estadisticas.superbancos.gob.ec/portalestadistico/portalestudios/?page_id=415 Superintendencia de Bancos. (4 de Octubre de 2017). Estadísticas.superbancos. Obtenido de http://estadisticas.superbancos.gob.ec/portalestadistico/portalestudios/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/downloads/2019/01/Memoria_2017.pdf The World Bank Group. (28 de Agosto de 2018). Global Finantial Development. Obtenido de http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=global-financial-development# Titelman, D. (2003). La banca de desarrollo y el financiamiento productivo. Serie Financiamiento del Desarrollo, 1- 35. Uquillas, A., & Gozáles, C. (2017). Determinantes macro y microeconómicos para pruebas de tensión de riesgo de crédiro: un estudio comparativo entre Ecuador y Colombia basado en la tasa de morosidad. Ensayos sobre Política Económica, 35, 245-259. Urbina, M. (Julio de 2017). Tesis Uchile. Obtenido de http://repositorio.uchile.cl/bitstream/handle/2250/149796/Urbina%20Poveda%20Myriam.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Vallcorba, M., & Delgado, J. (2007). Determinantes de la morosidad bancaria en una economía dolarizada. El caso uruguayo. Documentos de trabajo. Banco de España, 1-45. Vera, C., & Titelman, D. (2013). El sistema financiero en América Latina y el Caribe. Financiamiento para el Desarrollo, 1-40. Obtenido de https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/35880/1/LCL3746_es.pdf Vuslat, U. (2016). A dynamic approach to analysing the effect of the global crisis on nonperforming loans: evidence from the Turkish banking sector. Applied Economics Letters, 186-192. Waemustafa, W., & Sukri, S. (2015). Bank Specific and Macroeconomics Dynamic Determinants of Credit Risk in Islamic Banks and Conventional Banks. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 476-481. Obtenido de econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/view/1105/pdf

Renuncia de Pervez MusharrafEn medio de una grave crisis política y acorralado por la oposición, el presidente de Paquistán, Pervez Musharraf, anunció el pasado lunes su renuncia para evitar un juicio político.Después de derrocar al primer ministro Nawaz Sharif en octubre de 1999, Musharraf comenzó su presidencia con el apoyo de un público harto de una década de gobierno civil débil y corrupto.Estuvo nueve años frente a un gobierno cuya legitimidad democrática fue fuertemente cuestionada y, a pesar de eso, se convirtió en uno de los más férreos aliados de Estados Unidos en la "guerra contra el terrorismo". Varios medios informan al respecto:"New York Times":"Musharraf Announces His Resignation":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/19/world/asia/19pstan.html?ref=world"Musharraf Walked a Tightrope":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/19/world/asia/19assess.html?ref=world"Time":"Why Musharraf Failed":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1833820,00.html"Time" presenta página con fotografías: "The Rise and Fall of Pervez Musharraf":http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1833621_1752568,00.html"CNN":"Musharraf's resignation accepted":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/08/18/musharraf.address/index.html"Coalition charts Pakistan's future":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/08/19/pakistan.nextstep/index.html"Pakistan hospital bomb kills 23":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/08/19/pakistan.blast/index.html"La Nación":"La renuncia de Musharraf: Un arma de doble filo":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1041155"La India teme una escalada de terror en Cachemira: Advierten sobre un vacío de poder":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1041048"Musharraf dejó el poder en Paquistán: El mandatario, uno de los principales aliados de Bush, presentó la renuncia para evitar un juicio político; dudas sobre su sucesor":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1041046"Para EE.UU. un aliado crucial pero incómodo":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1041047"Times":"Pakistani coalition in crucial stability talks after Pervez Musharraf's resignation":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4563675.ece"Pervez Musharraf resigns as Pakistani President":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4555777.ece"After nine years in a dangerous job, where can Pervez Musharraf hide now?":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4561318.ece"Pervez Musharraf's speech: the key extracts. Key quotes from the emotional resignation speech of Pervez Musharraf, the former president and ally of the West":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4556726.ece"Q&A: what next for Pervez Musharraf and Pakistan?":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4556746.ece"El Mercurio":"Pakistán es el principal socio de Washington en esa región: Renuncia de Musharraf hace tambalear alianza con EE.UU.":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/08/19/internacional/internacional/noticias/A240D029-C057-4C2C-980D-518E43347867.htm?id={A240D029-C057-4C2C-980D-518E43347867}"Inestabilidad en Pakistán, aliado clave de EE.UU. contra el terrorismo: Tras caída de Musharraf, gobierno entra en crisis por disputa interna":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/08/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/7213839A-DFCD-4055-ADA1-E8424AF85CF5.htm?id={7213839A-DFCD-4055-ADA1-E8424AF85CF5"The Economist":"Exit Musharraf: Pakistan's president, Pervez Musharraf, jumps before he is pushed":http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displayStory.cfm?story_id=11950470&source=features_box2"Time's up, Mr Musharraf : Enemies of Pakistan's president smell blood":http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11921205"Miami Herald":"Week ahead may be key for Musharraf: President Pervez Musharraf and the Pakistan government are headed for a decisive showdown this week.":http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/story/646219.html"Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf resigns":http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/story/646341.html"Pakistan upheaval clouds future for U.S.: Pervez Musharraf bid a tearful farewell as Pakistan's president as the future of the country and its role as an ally in the U.S. war against terrorism remains unclear.":http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/story/647478.html"El País" de Madrid:"Musharraf deja el poder en Pakistán: El presidente intenta evitar el procesamiento impulsado por sus rivales políticos - La renuncia abre la transición en un país con bombas atómicas y muy inestable":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Musharraf/deja/poder/Pakistan/elpepuint/20080819elpepiint_1/Tes"El brazo ejecutor de Bush: Los paquistaníes dieron la espalda hace tiempo al hombre que se entregó de lleno a Washington en la lucha contra los grupos islámicos radicales":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/brazo/ejecutor/Bush/elpepuint/20080819elpepiint_3/Tes"El Gobierno indio teme una escalada de violencia en Cachemira: Nueva Delhi asegura que la marcha del general beneficiará a los radicales":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Gobierno/indio/teme/escalada/violencia/Cachemira/elpepuint/20080819elpepiint_2/TesAMERICA LATINA"El País" de Madrid informa: "Chávez expropia la filial de la cementera mexicana Cemex: El Gobierno venezolano nacionaliza también a las empresas Holcim y Lafarge":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/Chavez/expropia/filial/cementera/mexicana/Cemex/elpepueco/20080819elpepueco_1/Tes"El Universal" publica: "Reeditan jóvenes cubanos invasión de 1958 por 50 años de revolución: Jóvenes estudiantes, combatientes y trabajadores conformarán dos columnas como las que dirigieron los comandantes Ernesto Che Guevara y Camilo Cienfuegos":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/531209.html"The Economist" analiza: "Evo's big win: A recall referendum strengthens the socialist president, but fails to knock out his opponents in a still-divided country": http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11920813"El Mercurio" anuncia: "Evo refuerza guarnición militar de Santa Cruz":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/08/19/internacional/internacional/noticias/96536F05-B06D-4101-9614-B4F693AF3951.htm?id={96536F05-B06D-4101-9614-B4F693AF3951}"CNN" publica: "Argentina grants gay couples partner pensions":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/08/19/argentina.gay/index.html"El Mercurio" de Chile anuncia: "Agrarios vuelven a las rutas y amenazan con un nuevo paro": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/08/19/internacional/internacional/noticias/7E786FA3-0DF3-45D1-A873-B96F2707386C.htm?id={7E786FA3-0DF3-45D1-A873-B96F2707386C} "El Universal" de México analiza: "Suspenden temporalmente construcción del 'muro virtual'. La instalación de varias torres de vigilancia en la frontera entre EU y México no recibió los permisos necesarios por parte del Departamento del Interior": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/531231.html"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Presidente de Paraguay inicia gestión de gobierno: Lugo firma cien decretos y se enfoca en problemas sociales":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/08/19/internacional/_portada/noticias/7E7DA240-2CB7-4F0D-8266-920F93222AEB.htm?id={7E7DA240-2CB7-4F0D-8266-920F93222AEB}"The Economist" publica: "Peru: Lessons from an earthquake": http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11920805"La Nación" publica informe de Andrés Oppenheimer: "La concentración de riqueza en la región":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1041051ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADA"New York Times" informa: "Export Boom Helps Farms, but Not American Factories":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/18/business/economy/18export.html?_r=1&ref=business&oref=slogin"El País" de Madrid publica: "Obama entra en la hora de la verdad: El aspirante demócrata se ve presionado para concretar su oferta de cambio - La campaña se convierte en un referéndum sobre su aptitud para gobernar": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/entra/hora/verdad/elpepuint/20080818elpepiint_1/Tes"Time" anuncia: "Obama Sharpens the Message":http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1833849,00.html"Time" informa: "McCain and Obama on Abortion":http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1833496,00.html"El Mercurio" de Chile analiza: "Obama crea consejo para latinos en búsqueda de votantes":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/08/19/internacional/_portada/noticias/A842100D-7376-4358-96E1-CD719EF5321F.htm?id={A842100D-7376-4358-96E1-CD719EF5321F}"Time" publica sitio con links a artículos sobre elecciones estadounidenses:http://thepage.time.com/"The Economist" analiza: "Technology and the campaigns: "Flickring here, twittering there":http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11920873EUROPAContinua conflicto entre Rusia y Georgia, varios medios informan al respecto: "El País" de Madrid:"Rice: "Rusia está jugando un juego muy peligroso".EE UU pretende que la OTAN reafirme hoy en una reunión extraordinaria en Bruselas su apoyo a Georgia": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Rice/Rusia/jugando/juego/peligroso/elpepuint/20080819elpepuint_5/Tes"El Kremlin incumple su compromiso de retirar las tropas. Los blindados rusos permanecen apostados a 40 kilómetros de Tbilisi":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Kremlin/incumple/compromiso/retirar/tropas/elpepiint/20080819elpepiint_9/Tes"La retirada que no llega. Georgia sigue denunciando que los rusos se resisten a abandonar el país.- Moscú sostiene que el repliegue llevará días.- Rusos y georgianos intercambian prisioneros":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/retirada/llega/elpepuint/20080819elpepuint_7/Tes"Moscú advierte que aplastará a todo el que ataque a ciudadanos rusos. "El crimen de Tbilisi no quedará impune", dice el presidente Medvédev - Rusia despliega misiles en Osetia del Sur, según el espionaje de EE UU": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Moscu/advierte/aplastara/todo/ataque/ciudadanos/rusos/elpepuint/20080819elpepiint_8/Tes"CNN":"NATO officials meet over Russia-Georgia crisis":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/08/19/georgia.russia.war/index.html"La Nación": "Rusia advierte que necesita más tiempo para retirar sus tropas: Dijo que necesita otros dos días para el repliegue en Georgia; se realizó un canje de prisioneros entre ambos países":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1041163"Rusia refuerza su despliegue militar en Osetia del Norte. La OTAN analizará hoy una respuesta":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1041087"El Tiempo" de Colombia:"La Otan endurece su postura y revisará sus relaciones con Moscú":http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/home/la-otan-endurece-su-postura-y-revisara-sus-relaciones-con-moscu_4455099-1"Times":"Cross us and we will crush you, warns Medvedev":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4557369.ece"La France "très déçue" par l'absence de retrait russe":http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2008/08/19/l-otan-durcit-le-ton-face-a-la-russie_1085355_3214.html#ens_id=1036786"Time":"Wounded NATO Grapples with Russia":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1833830,00.html"The Economist":"NATO and Russia: No more business as usual?. NATO foreign ministers issue a warning to Russia, telling it to withdraw troops from Georgia":http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?story_id=11955660&source=features_box_main"The week ahead: Seeking an end to the conflict in Georgia, and other news":http://www.economist.com/world/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=11922405&source=features_box_main"El Mercurio" de Chile:"Conflicto en el Cáucaso: Rusia rechaza la propuesta de resolución francesa en el Consejo de Seguridad de ONU":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/08/20/internacional/_portada/noticias/F8364AC9-CEC5-4076-97BC-425406510D93.htm?id={F8364AC9-CEC5-4076-97BC-425406510D93}"Miami Herald":"NATO yet to enforce Russian withdrawal. An emergency meeting of NATO failed to come up with decisive action over Russia's continued occupation of Georgia.":http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/story/649058.html"El Universal" de México:"Califica Rusia de 'inadmisible' declaración de la OTANPara el embajador ruso ante el organismo fue lamentable que las declaraciones de los aliados contra las acciones militares en Georgia fueran mal vistas":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/531238.html"El País" de Madrid informa: "El terrorista más joven arrestado en el Reino Unido es declarado culpable: Hammaad Munshi, de 18 años, tenía 16 años cuando ingresó en prisión, acusado de un delito de terrorismo":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/terrorista/joven/arrestado/Reino/Unido/declarado/culpable/elpepuint/20080818elpepuint_9/Tes"El Mercurio" anuncia: "Diez soldados murieron en Afganistán: Sarkozy llega a Kabul tras ataque a tropas francesas":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/08/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/FC48E401-28D9-4629-94AD-6F53B246A964.htm?id={FC48E401-28D9-4629-94AD-6F53B246A964"El País" publica: "Francia propone un "respuesta coordinada" de la UE para salir de la crisis económica. Nicolas Sarkozy lanzará un plan en la reunión de los titulares de Finanzas de la UE del 11 al 13 de septiembre en Niza.- El PIB de la Eurozona retrocedió un 0,2% en el segundo trimestre.- El de Francia, cayó por primera vez en seis años":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/Francia/propone/respuesta/coordinada/UE/salir/crisis/economica/elpepuint/20080818elpepueco_6/TesAsia – Pacífico /Medio OrieNTE"El País" de Madrid informa: "Mueren 10 soldados franceses en una emboscada en Afganistán. Seis talibanes suicidas mueren en un ataque a una base estadounidense en Afganistán":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Mueren/soldados/franceses/emboscada/Afganistan/elpepuint/20080819elpepuint_6/Tes"Times" anuncia: "Ten French soldiers killed in Taleban ambush":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4564729.ece"CNN" publica: "10 French soldiers killed in Afghan fighting":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/08/19/afghan.attack/index.html"El País" de Madrid informa: "Sueños rotos: El abandono de Liu es un drama nacional porque el atleta representa el ascenso chino": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/deportes/Suenos/rotos/elpepidep/20080819elpepidep_6/Tes"La Nación" publica: "El terrorismo islámico amenaza a China: Grupos musulmanes separatistas lanzaron una ola de atentados para atraer la atención mundial":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1041049"The Economist" analiza: "Beijing's economy: Going for gold. The Olympics have not brought Beijing's businesses the boom they hoped for":http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11920899"Le Monde" informa: "Le Hezbollah amorce un rapprochement avec les salafistes sunnites au Liban":http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2008/08/19/le-hezbollah-amorce-un-rapprochement-avec-les-salafistes-sunnites-au-liban_1085407_3218.html"Time" publica: "Thailand, Cambodia Begin Talks":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1833857,00.htmlAFRICA"Al menos 43 muertos en un atentado suicida contra una escuela de la Gendarmería en Argelia. Un terrorista se ha inmolado entre los aspirantes a reclutas en una academia policial de Issers, a 55 kilómetros de Argel.- Hay numerosas personas heridas":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/43/muertos/atentado/suicida/escuela/gendarmeria/Argelia/elpepuint/20080819elpepuint_8/Tes"CNN" publica: "43 dead in Algerian suicide bombing":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/08/19/algeria.bombing/index.html"Times" informa: "Islamist bombing kills 43 in Algeria 'bloodbath'":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article4565997.ece"Le Monde" anuncia: "43 morts dans un attentat-suicide en Kabylie":http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2008/08/19/43-morts-dans-un-attentat-suicide-en-kabylie_1085371_3212.html"CNN" informa: "Zimbabwe inflation hits 11,200,000 percent":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/08/19/zimbabwe.inflation/index.html"CNN" publica: "Nigeria cedes disputed peninsula to Cameroon":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/08/14/nigeria.cameroon.ap/index.html "The Economist" analiza: "Uganda: Drums of war across the borders. Since peace talks with Uganda's rebels collapsed, some say war must resume": http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11921621ECONOMIA"The Economist" publica su informe semanal: "Business this week":http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11922152"New York Times" publica: "Wall Street Pulls Back as Financials Fall":http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/business/AP-Wall-Street.html?ref=business"CNN" informa: "Oil prices still sliding as storm fears ease":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/08/19/oil.prices.ap/index.html"CNN" anuncia: "The next wave of mortgage defaults: More borrowers with good credit are defaulting on their home loans, and that's going to make it even harder for the staggering housing market to recover.":http://money.cnn.com/2008/08/12/real_estate/prime_defaults_price_drops/index.htm?postversion=2008081616"The Economist" analiza: "Airlines: Still a bumpy ride. Falling oil prices have lifted airlines' share prices. Is the crisis over?":http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11920681OTRAS NOTICIAS"El País" de Madrid informa: "La ONU pide 40 millones de euros para asistir a las víctimas de la guerra en el Cáucaso: Los fondos serán destinados a nueve agencias del organismo y 16 ONG":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/ONU/pide/millones/euros/asistir/victimas/guerra/Caucaso/elpepuint/20080819elpepuint_2/Tes"CNN" publica: "Hurricane warnings dropped after Fay makes landfall":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/weather/08/19/fay/index.html"El Tiempo" de Colombia anuncia: "Fortalecida tormenta tropical 'Fay' causa destrozos e inundaciones en Florida":http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/euycanada/home/fortalecida-tormenta-tropical-fay-causa-destrozos-e-inundaciones-en-florida-_4456556-1"El País" de Madrid informa: "Fay llega a Florida y amenaza con fortalecerse: La tormenta tropical viene acompañada de fuertes lluvias y vientos - Su paso por Cuba no ha causado víctimas ni destrozos": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Fay/llega/Florida/amenaza/fortalecerse/elpepuint/20080819elpepuint_1/Tes "The Economist" analiza: "Globalisation and health care: Operating profit . Why put up with expensive, run-of-the-mill health care at home when you can be treated just as well abroad?":http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11919622

媛꾪샇�븰怨�/諛뺤궗 ; [�븳湲�] �쓽猷뚭린愿��뿉�꽌 �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻媛먯뿼吏덊솚�쓽 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�� 湲곌��쓽 議댁옱紐⑹쟻怨쇰뒗 �긽諛섎릺�뒗 寃곌낵�씠湲� �븣臾몄뿉 湲곌��쓽 �씠誘몄��뿉 �떖媛곹븳 �쁺�뼢�쓣 誘몄튌 �닔�룄 �엳�쑝硫�, 媛먯뿼愿�由щ뒗 吏��뿭�궗�쉶 蹂닿굔�쓽猷뚯껜怨꾩��쓽 �쑀湲곗쟻�씤 愿�怨꾩냽�뿉�꽌 �씠猷⑥뼱�졇�빞留� �븳�떎. 洹몃윭誘�濡� �쓽猷뚭린愿��뿉�꽌 �떎瑜� 媛먯뿼�쓽 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�씠�굹 吏��뿭�궗�쉶�쓽 �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻 媛먯뿼吏덊솚�쓽 吏묐떒諛쒖깮怨쇰뒗 �떎瑜� 媛먯뿼愿�由� 紐⑤뜽�씠 �븘�슂�븯�떎. 蹂� �뿰援щ뒗 �쓽猷뚭린愿��뿉�꽌 �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻 媛먯뿼吏덊솚�쓽 吏묐떒諛쒖깮 �떆 媛먯뿼愿�由� 紐⑤뜽�쓣 媛쒕컻�븯湲곗쐞�븳 諛⑸쾿濡좎쟻 �뿰援щ줈�꽌 2001�뀈 12�썡 �꽌�슱�떆�궡 �씪媛� ���븰蹂묒썝�뿉�꽌 諛쒖깮�븳 �꽭洹좎꽦�씠吏덉쓽 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�쓣 �몴蹂� ���긽�쑝濡쒗븯�뿬 �꽭洹좎꽦�씠吏� 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�쓽 �뿭�븰�쟻 �듅�꽦�쓽 �뙆�븙, 媛먯뿼愿�由� 泥닿퀎 諛� �궡�슜�쓽 遺꾩꽍, �쓽猷뚭린愿��쓽 寃쎌젣�쟻 �넀�떎 �뙆�븙�쓽�떒怨꾨�� 嫄곗퀜 理쒖쥌 媛먯뿼愿�由� 紐⑤뜽�쓣 媛쒕컻�븯���떎. �옄猷뚯닔吏묒썝�� 吏묐떒諛쒖깮湲곌컙�룞�븞 鍮꾩긽��梨낇� �슫�쁺�옄猷뚮줈�꽌 鍮꾩긽��梨낇� �긽�솴�씪吏�, �쉶�쓽濡�, 吏꾨즺湲곕줉吏�, �닔�씤�꽦 �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻吏덊솚 �뿭�븰議곗궗�꽌, �쓬�떇�꽠痍� �꽕臾몄�, 洹쇰Т踰덊몴 諛� �떆媛꾩쇅 洹쇰Т 泥�援ъ꽌, 臾쇳뭹泥�援� 紐⑸줉 �벑 媛곸쥌 湲곕줉怨� 泥섎갑�쟾�떖�떆�뒪�뀥 �벑�쓣 �넻�빐 �옄猷뚮�� �닔吏묓븯���떎. �씪諛섏쟻�씤 �궡�슜�� SPSS win 11.0�쓣 �씠�슜�븯�뿬 �떎�닔�� 諛깅텇�쑉濡� �젙由ы븯���쑝硫�, �꽭洹좎꽦�씠吏� �쓽�떖媛��뒫 利앹긽�뿉 ���븳 �쐞�뿕�슂�씤 遺꾩꽍�� multiple logistic regression�쓣 �궗�슜�븯���떎. �뿰援ш껐怨쇰뒗 �떎�쓬怨쇨컳�떎. 1) 12�썡 3�씪遺��꽣 12�썡 21�씪源뚯� 167紐낆쓽 �꽭洹좎꽦�씠吏� �솚�옄 諛� �쓽�궗�솚�옄媛� 諛쒖깮�븯���쑝硫� 臾댁쬆�긽 蹂묒썝泥� 蹂댁쑀�옄 3紐낆쓣 �룷�븿�븯�뿬 86紐�(51.5%)�쓽 ��蹂�諛곗뼇�뿉�꽌 紐⑤몢 S. sonnei媛� 遺꾨━�릺�뼱 �솗吏꾨릺�뿀�떎. 167紐� 以� 蹂묒썝吏곸썝�씠 ��遺�遺�(153紐�:91.6%)�씠�뿀�쑝硫�, 142紐�(85.0%)�뿉�꽌 �룄�떆�씫�씠�굹 源�諛μ쓣 �꽠痍⑦븳 寃껋쑝濡� �굹���궗�떎. �룄�떆�씫�� �닔�닠�떎怨� �쓳湲됱떎�벑�뿉 怨듦툒�릺�뿀怨�, 源�諛μ� �썝�궡 留ㅼ젏�뿉�꽌 �뙋留ㅻ릺�뿀�쑝硫� S�쇅�떇�뾽泥댁뿉�꽌 怨듦툒�릺�뜕 寃껋씠�뿀�떎. �씠�뿉 �꽭洹좎꽦�씠吏� �쓽�떖媛��뒫利앹긽�쓽 �쐞�뿕�슂�씤�쓣 �솗�씤�븯湲� �쐞�빐 �솚�옄-��議곌뎔 議곗궗瑜� 吏꾪뻾�븳 寃곌낵 S�쇅�떇�뾽泥댁쓽 �쓬�떇�꽠痍� 11.9諛�, �닔�닠�떎 洹쇰Т 9.3諛�,�쓳湲됱떎 洹쇰Т 4.1諛곕줈 �쑀�쓽�븳 �닔以��씠�뿀�떎. �솚�옄 諛� �쓽�궗�솚�옄 167紐낆쓽 媛�議� 216紐� 以� 7紐낆쓽 �솚�옄 諛� �쓽�궗�솚�옄媛� 諛쒖깮�븯�뿬 媛�議깅궡 �쟾�뙆�젰�� 3.2% ���쑝硫�, �솚�옄�� �젒珥됲븯�뒗 遺��꽌�� 議곕━遺��꽌 洹쇰Т吏곸썝�쓽 臾댁쬆�긽 蹂묒썝泥� 蹂댁쑀�옄�쓽 諛쒖깮瑜좎� 0.2%(3紐�/1,421紐�)�씠�뿀�떎. �솗吏꾩옄 86紐� 以� 83紐낆씠 �룞�씪�븳 �빆�깮�젣 �궡�꽦�뙣�꽩�쓣 蹂댁��쑝硫� Cotrimoxazole�뿉 100% �궡�꽦�쓣 蹂댁��떎. 2) �꽭洹좎꽦�씠吏� 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�쓽 媛먯뿼愿�由щ�� �쐞�빐 吏꾨즺遺��썝�옣�쓣 ���옣�쑝濡� 鍮꾩긽��梨낇��쓣 援ъ꽦�븯�뿬 �슫�쁺�븯���떎. 湲고쉷諛�, 吏꾨즺諛�, 議곗궗諛�, 援먯쑁諛�, �솉蹂대컲, �솚寃쎄�由щ컲�쑝濡� �뿭�븷 遺꾨떞�쓣 �븯��怨� �뿭�븰議곗궗, �썝�씤�젣嫄�, 移섎즺 諛� 寃⑸━, 援먯쑁 諛� �솉蹂�, 臾댁쬆�긽 蹂묒썝泥� 蹂댁쑀�옄 愿�由�, �솚寃쎄�由�, �쓽�� �븰�깮 �떎�뒿以묒�, 鍮꾩슜 諛� �뻾�젙吏��썝 媛뺥솕, 媛곸쥌 �넻怨꾩옄猷� 愿�由�, 蹂닿굔�냼���쓽 蹂닿퀬泥닿퀎 援ъ텞 �벑�쓽 �솢�룞�쓣 吏꾪뻾�븯���떎. 吏꾪뻾�맂 媛먯뿼愿�由щ궡�슜�쓽 臾몄젣�젏 諛� ���븞�� ��梨낇��쓽 �슚�쑉�쟻 �슫�쁺怨� 媛먯뿼愿�由� ��梨낅뱾�쓽 �닔�뻾�쓣 �넂�씠湲� �쐞�븳 �쟾�왂留덈젴, �옄猷뚯쓽 �슚�쑉�쟻 愿�由�, �뾽臾댄슚�쑉�꽦怨� 鍮꾩슜�슚�쑉�꽦�쓣 怨좊젮�븳 媛먯뿼愿�由�, �솉蹂�, 吏��뿭�궗�쉶 蹂닿굔�쓽猷뚯껜怨꾩� �슚�쑉�쟻 愿�怨� 援ъ텞 �벑�씠�뿀�떎. 3) �꽭洹좎꽦�씠吏덉쓽 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�� �솚�옄 諛� �쓽�궗�솚�옄 167紐�, �엯�썝 120紐낆쓣 諛쒖깮�떆耳곌퀬 鍮꾩긽��梨낇��쓣 35�씪媛� �슫�쁺�븯���떎. �씠濡� �씤�븳 �쓽猷뚭린愿��쓽 寃쎌젣�쟻 �넀�떎�� 珥� 737,291,720�썝�쑝濡� 媛꾩젒鍮꾩슜�씤 吏꾨즺�닔�엯�넀�떎�씠 538,808,870dnjs(73.08%)�쑝濡� 媛��옣 留롮븯�쑝硫�, 吏곸젒鍮꾩슜�씤 吏꾨즺鍮� 50,850,750�썝(6.90%), 諛⑹뿭鍮� 48,419,815�썝(6.57%), �깮�궛�젰 �넀�떎 40,179,055�썝(5.45%), �슫�쁺鍮� 36,764,661�썝(4.99%), 議곗궗鍮� 22,268,569�썝(3.02%)�씠 諛쒖깮�븯���떎. 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�쓽 愿�由щ�� �쐞�븯�뿬 諛쒖깮�솚�옄 1�씤�떦 吏곸젒鍮꾩슜 1,067,601�썝, 媛꾩젒寃쎈퉬源뚯� �룷�븿�븯硫� 4,294,001�썝�씠 �냼�슂�릺�뿀�떎. 4) 媛쒕컻�맂 媛먯뿼愿�由щえ�뜽�쓽 �슫�쁺紐⑹쟻�� �쓽猷뚭린愿��뿉�꽌 �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻 媛먯뿼吏덊솚�쓽 吏묐떒諛쒖깮 �떆 �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻 媛먯뿼吏덊솚�쓽 吏묐떒諛쒖깮 醫낃껐, �쓽猷뚭린愿��쓽 �씠誘몄����븯 �삁諛�, 吏��뿭�궗�쉶 蹂닿굔�쓽猷뚯껜怨꾩��쓽 �긽�샇�삊�젰愿�怨� 援ъ텞�쓣 �떖�꽦�븿�쑝濡쒖뜥 �슚�쑉�쟻�씤 媛먯뿼愿�由щ�� 吏꾪뻾�븯�뒗 寃껋씠�떎. 梨낆엫怨� 沅뚰븳�쓣 �쐞�엫諛쏆� ��梨낇��씠 �쟾�뿼蹂� �삁諛⑸쾿, �젙遺��쓽 �닔�씤�꽦 �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻�쟾�뿼蹂뫢룹떇以묐룆 �뿭�븰議곗궗 吏�移�, 蹂묒썝媛먯뿼愿�由ъ�移⑥쓽 �썝移숈뿉 以��븯�뿬 �슫�쁺�븯�룄濡� 援ъ꽦�븯���떎. �슚怨쇱쟻�씤 �슫�쁺�쓣 �쐞�빐 議곗쭅 諛� �슫�쁺泥닿퀎, �솢�룞蹂� 媛먯뿼愿�由� �궡�슜, 吏꾪뻾寃쎄낵�뿉 �뵲瑜� 媛먯뿼愿�由� �궡�슜�쑝濡� 援ъ꽦�븯���떎. �쓽猷뚭린愿��뿉�꽌 �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻 媛먯뿼吏덊솚�쓽 吏묐떒 諛쒖깮�� 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�쓽 醫낃껐�씠�씪�뒗 紐⑹쟻怨� �븿猿� 吏��뿭�궗�쉶 蹂닿굔�쓽猷뚯껜怨꾩��쓽 怨듭"�씪�뒗 痢〓㈃怨� �쓽猷뚭린愿��쓽 �씠誘몄��뿉 誘몄튂�뒗 �쁺�뼢�쓣 怨좊젮�빐�빞留� �븳�떎. 洹몃윭誘�濡� �솉蹂댁� 吏��뿭�궗�쉶 蹂닿굔�쓽猷뚯껜怨꾩��쓽 �삊�젰�뿉 ���븳 怨좊젮 �뾾�씠 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�쓽 醫낃껐�뿉留� �슦�꽑�닚�쐞瑜� �몮 寃쎌슦 �삁湲곗튂 紐삵븳 寃곌낵媛� 珥덈옒�릺�뼱 沅곴레�쟻�쑝濡� 鍮꾪슚怨쇱쟻�씤 媛먯뿼愿�由ш� �맆 媛��뒫�꽦�씠 �엳�떎. 蹂� �뿰援ш껐怨쇱뿉�꽌 �젣�떆�맂 媛먯뿼愿�由щえ�뜽�� �씠�윭�븳 �듅�꽦�쓣 諛섏쁺�븿�쑝濡쒖꽌 �쓽猷뚭린愿��뿉�꽌 �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻 媛먯뿼吏덊솚�씠 吏묐떒諛쒖깮�븷 寃쎌슦 �슚�쑉�쟻�씠怨� 二쇰룄�쟻�씤 媛먯뿼愿�由щ�� 吏꾪뻾�븯�뒗�뜲 �룄���씠 �릺由щ씪 湲곕��븳�떎. �삉�븳 蹂� �뿰援ъ쓽 寃곌낵媛� �떇�뭹留ㅺ컻 媛먯뿼吏덊솚�쓽 �떖媛곸꽦怨� 議곌린�씤吏� 諛� 議곌린愿�由ъ쓽 以묒슂�꽦�뿉 ���븳 �씤�떇�쓣 �넂�뿬 �젙遺��� 吏��뿭�궗�쉶, �쓽猷뚭린愿� 紐⑤몢 蹂대떎 �쟻洹뱀쟻�씤 ��梨낆쓣 留덈젴�븯�뒗�뜲 湲곗뿬�븯湲곕�� 諛붾��떎. [�쁺臾�] The occurrence of outbreak of food-borne infectious disease in the hospital impedes the objective of existence the health care facility. It can result in serious damage of the image of the hospital, and the control and management needs to be in cooperation with the public health system. Therefore, a distinct infection control model from outbreaks of other nosocomial infections in the hospital or food-borne infectious diseases in the community is compulsory. This is a methodological study to develop an infection control model for the outbreak of a food-borne infectious disease in a hospital. The model was constructed from the sample study from an outbreak of shigellosis in a university hospital in Seoul on December in 2001. The infection control model was developed through the analysis of epidemiological characteristics, system and contents of the infection control program, and financial cost of the outbreak. Data was obtained through reviews of daily records for all situations, conference records, medical records, questionnaires for water food-borne infection, nurse''s duty schedule, overtime work bill and others. The risk factors for symptoms of shigellosis were tested by multiple logistic regression. The results were as follows. 1)A nosocomial outbreak of shigellosis affected 167 hospital employees, medical & nursing students, employee''s family members and patient''s care givers, of which 86 cases were confirmed in fecal culture. Most case involved in the outbreak was hospital staffs 91.6%(153/167). They commonly had the same lunch box or seaweed rolled rice 142(85.0%). The lunch box was supplied to OR and ER, and the seaweed rolled rice was sold from the cafeteria, and they were supplied from the same S-catering facility. A case controlled study was done to define the risk factors for the symptoms of shigellosis. The odds ratio of eating S-catering facility food was 11.9, working at OR 9.3, working at ER 4.1 in the significant level. The secondary infection rate was 3.2%(7/216) among the associated family members, and the asymptomatic case rate was 0.2%(3/1,421) in departments of patient care and food services. Eighty three cases out of 86 cases had the same antibiotics resistant pattern, and all of them had resistance to Cotrimoxazole. 2) We had epidemiology investigation, removal of infection source, medical treatment and isolation, education and management of public relationship(PR), prevention and control of asymptomatic case, environmental control, withdrawal of medical students'' training, strong financial support, analysis and management various datum, construction of cooperation and reporting system with the public health system. The difficulties of the infection control program were holding the strategy to have a cost effective infection control with the construction of effective cooperation with the public health system and management of public relationship. 3) The outbreak cost of the hospital was more than 占�730,000,000(US $608,333). Indirect cost(loss of medical service fee) was the greatest 占�538,808,870(73.08%), and medical cost 占�50,850,750(6.90%), infection control costs 占�48,419,815(6.57%), lost productivity costs 占�40,179,055(5.45%), team operational costs 占�36,764,661(4.99%), and investigative cost 占�22,268,569(3.02%). This outbreak resulted in a direct cost of 占�1,067,601 and included indirect cost 占�4,294,001 per case. 4) The goal of this infection control model to food-borne infectious disease outbreak is efficacious infection control. The model has three objects of termination outbreak, prevention to damage of hospital image, and construction of cooperation system with the public health system. The team which entrusted responsibility and authority managed the outbreak based on the law of infectious disease prevention, government guideline for epidemiology investigation of water food-borne infection and poisoning, and guideline of infection control. The infection control model which is presented from this research result will become a sample model to help lead the efficiency of infection control for a food-borne infectious disease outbreak in a hospital. And the results of this study raises the importance of early recognition and management for contribution to the government and the community and health care facilities to prepare more active countermeasures. ; open

Publisher's version (útgefin grein). ; Background: Genome-wide association studies conducted on QRS duration, an electrocardiographic measurement associated with heart failure and sudden cardiac death, have led to novel biological insights into cardiac function. However, the variants identified fall predominantly in non-coding regions and their underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Results: Here, we identify putative functional coding variation associated with changes in the QRS interval duration by combining Illumina HumanExome BeadChip genotype data from 77,898 participants of European ancestry and 7695 of African descent in our discovery cohort, followed by replication in 111,874 individuals of European ancestry from the UK Biobank and deCODE cohorts. We identify ten novel loci, seven within coding regions, including ADAMTS6, significantly associated with QRS duration in gene-based analyses. ADAMTS6 encodes a secreted metalloprotease of currently unknown function. In vitro validation analysis shows that the QRS-associated variants lead to impaired ADAMTS6 secretion and loss-of function analysis in mice demonstrates a previously unappreciated role for ADAMTS6 in connexin 43 gap junction expression, which is essential for myocardial conduction. Conclusions: Our approach identifies novel coding and non-coding variants underlying ventricular depolarization and provides a possible mechanism for the ADAMTS6-associated conduction changes. ; Funding This work was funded by a grant to YJ from the British Heart Foundation (PG/12/38/29615). AGES: This study has been funded by NIH contracts N01-AG-1-2100 and 271201200022C, the NIA Intramural Research Program, Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association), and the Althingi (the Icelandic Parliament). The study is approved by the Icelandic National Bioethics Committee, VSN: 00–063. The researchers are indebted to the participants for their willingness to participate in the study. ARIC: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study is carried out as a collaborative study supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute contracts (HHSN268201100005C, HHSN268201100006C, HHSN268201100007C, HHSN268201100008C, HHSN268201100009C, HHSN268201100010C, HHSN268201100011C, and HHSN268201100012C), R01HL087641, R01HL59367, and R01HL086694; National Human Genome Research Institute contract U01HG004402; and National Institutes of Health contract HHSN268200625226C. The authors thank the staff and participants of the ARIC study for their important contributions. Infrastructure was partly supported by Grant Number UL1RR025005, a component of the National Institutes of Health and NIH Roadmap for Medical Research. Funding support for "Building on GWAS for NHLBI-diseases: the U.S. CHARGE consortium" was provided by the NIH through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) (5RC2HL102419). BRIGHT: The Exome Chip genotyping was funded by Wellcome Trust Strategic Awards (083948 and 085475). This work was also supported by the Medical Research Council of Great Britain (Grant no. G9521010D); and by the British Heart Foundation (Grant no. PG/02/128). AFD was supported by the British Heart Foundation (Grant nos. RG/07/005/23633 and SP/08/005/25115); and by the European Union Ingenious HyperCare Consortium: Integrated Genomics, Clinical Research, and Care in Hypertension (grant no. LSHM-C7–2006-037093). The BRIGHT study is extremely grateful to all the patients who participated in the study and the BRIGHT nursing team. We would also like to thank the Barts Genome Centre staff for their assistance with this project. CHS: This Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS) research was supported by NHLBI contracts HHSN268201800001C, HHSN268201200036C, HHSN268200800007C, N01HC55222, N01HC85079, N01HC85080, N01HC85081, N01HC85082, N01HC85083, N01HC85086; and NHLBI grants R01HL068986, U01HL080295, R01HL087652, R01HL105756, R01HL103612, R01HL120393, and U01HL130114 with additional contribution from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). Additional support was provided through R01AG023629 from the National Institute on Aging (NIA). A full list of principal CHS investigators and institutions can be found at CHS-NHLBI.org. The provision of genotyping data was supported in part by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, CTSI grant UL1TR001881, and the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease Diabetes Research Center (DRC) grant DK063491 to the Southern California Diabetes Endocrinology Research Center. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. ERF: The ERF study as a part of EUROSPAN (European Special Populations Research Network) was supported by European Commission FP6 STRP grant number 018947 (LSHG-CT-2006-01947) and also received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013)/grant agreement HEALTH-F4–2007-201413 by the European Commission under the programme "Quality of Life and Management of the Living Resources" of 5th Framework Programme (no. QLG2-CT-2002-01254). The ERF study was further supported by ENGAGE consortium and CMSB. High-throughput analysis of the ERF data was supported by joint grant from Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (NWO-RFBR 047.017.043). We are grateful to all study participants and their relatives, general practitioners, and neurologists for their contributions to the ERF study and to P Veraart for her help in genealogy, J Vergeer for the supervision of the laboratory work, and P Snijders for his help in data collection. FHS: The Framingham Heart Study (FHS) research reported in this article was supported by a grant from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), HL120393. Generation Scotland: Generation Scotland received core support from the Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government Health Directorates (CZD/16/6) and the Scottish Funding Council (HR03006). Genotyping of the Generation Scotland and Scottish Family Health Study samples was carried out by the Genetics Core Laboratory at the Clinical Research Facility, Edinburgh, Scotland and was funded by the UK's Medical Research Council. GOCHA: The Genetics of Cerebral Hemorrhage with Anticoagulation was carried out as a collaborative study supported by grants R01NS073344, R01NS059727, and 5K23NS059774 from the NIH–National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NIH-NINDS). GRAPHIC: The GRAPHIC Study was funded by the British Heart Foundation (BHF/RG/2000004). NJS and CPN are supported by the British Heart Foundation and is a NIHR Senior Investigator. This work falls under the portfolio of research supported by the NIHR Leicester Cardiovascular Biomedical Research. INGI-FVG: This study has been funded by Regione FVG (L.26.2008). INTER99: The Inter99 was initiated by Torben Jørgensen (PI), Knut Borch-Johnsen (co-PI), Hans Ibsen and Troels F. Thomsen. The steering committee comprises the former two and Charlotta Pisinger. The study was financially supported by research grants from the Danish Research Council, the Danish Centre for Health Technology Assessment, Novo Nordisk Inc., Research Foundation of Copenhagen County, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Health, the Danish Heart Foundation, the Danish Pharmaceutical Association, the Augustinus Foundation, the Ib Henriksen Foundation, the Becket Foundation, and the Danish Diabetes Association. The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research is an independent Research Center at the University of Copenhagen partially funded by an unrestricted donation from the Novo Nordisk Foundation (www.metabol.ku.dk). JHS: We thank the Jackson Heart Study (JHS) participants and staff for their contributions to this work. The JHS is supported by contracts HHSN268201300046C, HHSN268201300047C, HHSN268201300048C, HHSN268201300049C, HHSN268201300050C from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities. Dr. Wilson is supported by U54GM115428 from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences. KORA: The KORA study was initiated and financed by the Helmholtz Zentrum München – German Research Center for Environmental Health, which is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and by the State of Bavaria. Furthermore, KORA research was supported within the Munich Center of Health Sciences (MC-Health), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, as part of LMUinnovativ. Korcula: This work was funded by the Medical Research Council UK, The Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports (grant 216–1080315-0302), the Croatian Science Foundation (grant 8875), the Centre of Excellence in Personalized health care, and the Centre of Competencies for Integrative Treatment, Prevention and Rehabilitation using TMS. LifeLines: The LifeLines Cohort Study and generation and management of GWAS genotype data for the LifeLines Cohort Study are supported by The Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research NWO (grant 175.010.2007.006), the Economic Structure Enhancing Fund (FES) of the Dutch government, the Ministry of Economic Affairs, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports, the Northern Netherlands Collaboration of Provinces (SNN), the Province of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, the University of Groningen, Dutch Kidney Foundation, and Dutch Diabetes Research Foundation. Niek Verweij is supported by NWO-VENI (016.186.125) and Marie Sklodowska-Curie GF (call: H2020-MSCA-IF-2014, Project ID: 661395). UHP: Folkert W. Asselbergs is supported by UCL Hospitals NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. Ilonca Vaartjes is supported by a Dutch Heart Foundation grant DHF project "Facts and Figures." MGH-CAMP: Dr. Patrick Ellinor is funded by NIH grants (2R01HL092577, 1R01HL128914, R01HL104156, and K24HL105780) and American Heart Association Established Investigator Award 13EIA14220013 (Ellinor). Dr. Steve Lubitz is funded by NIH grants K23HL114724 and a Doris Duke Charitable Foundation Clinical Scientist Development Award 2014105. NEO: The authors of the NEO study thank all individuals who participated in the Netherlands Epidemiology in Obesity study, all participating general practitioners for inviting eligible participants, and all research nurses for collection of the data. We thank the NEO study group, Pat van Beelen, Petra Noordijk, and Ingeborg de Jonge for the coordination, lab, and data management of the NEO study. We also thank Arie Maan for the analyses of the electrocardiograms. The genotyping in the NEO study was supported by the Centre National de Génotypage (Paris, France), headed by Jean-Francois Deleuze. The NEO study is supported by the participating Departments, the Division and the Board of Directors of the Leiden University Medical Center, and by the Leiden University, Research Profile Area Vascular and Regenerative Medicine. Dennis Mook-Kanamori is supported by Dutch Science Organization (ZonMW-VENI Grant 916.14.023). RS-I: The generation and management of the Illumina Exome Chip v1.0 array data for the Rotterdam Study (RS-I) was executed by the Human Genotyping Facility of the Genetic Laboratory of the Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. The Exome chip array dataset was funded by the Genetic Laboratory of the Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, from the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)/Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO)-sponsored Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging (NCHA; project nr. 050–060-810); the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO; project number 184021007); and by the Rainbow Project (RP10; Netherlands Exome Chip Project) of the Biobanking and Biomolecular Research Infrastructure Netherlands (BBMRI-NL; www.bbmri.nl). We thank Ms. Mila Jhamai, Ms. Sarah Higgins, and Mr. Marijn Verkerk for their help in creating the exome chip database, and Carolina Medina-Gomez, MSc, Lennard Karsten, MSc, and Linda Broer PhD for QC and variant calling. Variants were called using the best practice protocol developed by Grove et al. as part of the CHARGE consortium exome chip central calling effort. The Rotterdam Study is funded by Erasmus Medical Center and Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands Organization for the Health Research and Development (ZonMw), the Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (RIDE), the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports, the European Commission (DG XII), and the Municipality of Rotterdam. The authors are grateful to the study participants, the staff from the Rotterdam Study, and the participating general practitioners and pharmacists. The work of Bruno H. Stricker is supported by grants from the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) (Priority Medicines Elderly 113102005 to ME and DoelmatigheidsOnderzoek 80–82500–98-10208 to BHS). The work of Mark Eijgelsheim is supported by grants from the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) (Priority Medicines Elderly 113102005 to ME and DoelmatigheidsOnderzoek 80–82500–98-10208 to BHS). SHIP: SHIP is supported by the BMBF (grants 01ZZ9603, 01ZZ0103, and 01ZZ0403) and the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft [DFG]; grant GR 1912/5–1). SHIP and SHIP-TREND are part of the Community Medicine Research net (CMR) of the Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University Greifswald (EMAU) which is funded by the BMBF as well as the Ministry for Education, Science and Culture and the Ministry of Labor, Equal Opportunities, and Social Affairs of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania. The CMR encompasses several research projects that share data from SHIP. The EMAU is a member of the Center of Knowledge Interchange (CKI) program of the Siemens AG. SNP typing of SHIP and SHIP-TREND using the Illumina Infinium HumanExome BeadChip (version v1.0) was supported by the BMBF (grant 03Z1CN22). We thank all SHIP and SHIP-TREND participants and staff members as well as the genotyping staff involved in the generation of the SNP data. TWINSUK: TwinsUK is funded by the Wellcome Trust, Medical Research Council, European Union, the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR)-funded BioResource, Clinical Research Facility and Biomedical Research Centre based at Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London. UKBB: This research has been conducted using the UK Biobank Resource (application 8256 - Understanding genetic influences in the response of the cardiac electrical system to exercise) and is supported by Medical Research Council grant MR/N025083/1. We also wish to acknowledge the support of the NIHR Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit at Barts and Queen Mary University of London, UK. PD Lambiase acknowledges support from the UCLH Biomedicine NIHR. MO is supported by an IEF 2013 Marie Curie fellowship. JR acknowledges support from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under REA grant agreement no. 608765. YFS: The Young Finns Study has been financially supported by the Academy of Finland: grants 286284, 134309 (Eye), 126925, 121584, 124282, 129378 (Salve), 117787 (Gendi), and 41071 (Skidi); the Social Insurance Institution of Finland; Competitive State Research Financing of the Expert Responsibility area of Kuopio, Tampere and Turku University Hospitals (grant X51001); Juho Vainio Foundation; Paavo Nurmi Foundation; Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research; Finnish Cultural Foundation; Tampere Tuberculosis Foundation; Emil Aaltonen Foundation; Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation; Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation; and Diabetes Research Foundation of Finnish Diabetes Association. The expert technical assistance in the statistical analyses by Irina Lisinen is gratefully acknowledged. Cell culture and biochemistry: Funding was provided by the National Institutes of Health (Program of Excellence in Glycoscience award HL107147 to SSA and F32AR063548 to TJM) and the David and Lindsay Morgenthaler Postdoctoral Fellowship (to TJM) and by the Allen Distinguished Investigator Program, through support made by The Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group and the American Heart Association (to SSA). Mutant mouse model: Adamts6 mutant mice were generated and further propagated and analyzed by funding provided by NIH grants HL098180 and HL132024 (to CWL) and by the Allen Distinguished Investigator Program, through support made by The Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group and the American Heart Association (to SSA). ; Peer Reviewed

Supplementary material: Tierfutter von einheimischen Wiesen und Feldern - Recherchebericht Nr. 1 zum Forschungsprojekt «Schweizer Futtermittelimporte» https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4572514 Tierfutter aus anderen Ländern (Importe) - Recherchebericht Nr. 2 zum Forschungsprojekt «Schweizer Futtermittelimporte» https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4572534 Soja – das global wichtigste Eiweissfutter für die Tierproduktion - Recherchebericht Nr. 3 zum Forschungsprojekt «Schweizer Futtermittelimporte» https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4572541 Brasilien – Sojaproduzent im Rampenlicht - Recherchebericht Nr. 4 zum Forschungsprojekt «Schweizer Futtermittelimporte» https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4572547 Kalorienverluste durch die Tierproduktion - Recherchebericht Nr. 5 zum Forschungsprojekt «Schweizer Futtermittelimporte» https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4572664 ; The aim of this research project is to demonstrate the many dimensions of importing feedstuff, to clarify the significance of imported feedstuff for animal production in Switzerland, as well as to assess the negative environmental impacts of such importation both within Switzerland and in the countries of origin. In particular, the importance of soy as an element in feedstuff is examined in depth. The analysis is centred around the misleading statement that 84% of the feedstuff in Switzerland comes from 'native meadows and fields'. This percentage is based on the combination of roughage and concentrated feed, two categories of feedstuff that must not be added because they have limited substitutability and are therefore not directly comparable. Roughage is eaten mainly by ruminants. Meat, however, comes primarily from pigs and poultry which are both dependent on concentrated feed. Roughage is almost 100% domestically sourced, while more than 50% of concentrated feed comes from abroad. Protein is particularly scarce: around 70% of the protein in concentrated feed comes from imports (mainly soy). Therefore, if today's feedstuff were not imported, livestock populations would decline significantly, particularly those that are dependent on concentrated feed. According to model calculations, it would be possible to keep 94% of sheep and goats, 85% of cattle, 39% of pigs and 17% of poultry on the basis of domestic feed alone. At 21 kg per capita per year, meat production would be halved in comparison to the present day. Pork would remain the most important type of meat, although it would be over 50% less compared to today. Poultry meat would virtually disappear. However, around 350 kg of milk could still be produced per capita annually. Swiss agriculture specialises in the production of livestock. About 90% of agricultural land is used for animal feed, in addition to the at least 200,000 hectares of arable areas abroad which are used for the cultivation of animal feedstuff for the Swiss market. Soybeans, wheat, corn, etc. grow on these areas. Since the mid-1990s, the importing of feedstuff has increased sharply, most of which is imported from Europe. The most important protein feed which is imported is soy, which, due to public criticism, now tends to increasingly come from Europe. Most of the imported feedstuffs are in direct competition with human foods. This is because they come from crops that we humans can eat directly, including not only all cereals such as wheat, corn, rice, oats and barley, but also soybeans. In intensive livestock farming, the calorie content present in plant-based foods that we humans are able eat directly is converted into a lot less in animal food products. In this process, the production of meat 'destroys' significantly more plant-derived calories than that of milk. This is because milk still contains a lot of grass that only cows and other ruminants can digest. Soy is the world's most important animal protein feedstuff. Originally, soybeans were cultivated in Asia for human consumption. Today, about 75% of global production is used to feed livestock, more than half of which is used for chicken fattening. While poultry consume by far the most soy protein feed on a global scale, in Switzerland it is cattle which rank first in this regard. This is the result of the central importance of milk production and the breeding of performance breeds that depend on protein-rich concentrated feed. Global soy production has grown steadily in recent years, and in Brazil even exponentially. Approximately half of all soy is used for feeding or consumption purposes in growing countries, while the other half is traded internationally. The main producing and exporting countries are the U.S. and Brazil while the main importing countries are China and the EU. Brazil is still the most important source region for Swiss soybean imports. The country grows soybeans for the global market: around 90% of production is exported. Only 5% of Brazil's farms cultivate soybeans and only 16% of soybean farms are family-owned. In the past 20 years production has expanded, especially in the ecologically valuable Cerrado and Amazon biomes. There, the average soybean acreage is 930 ha (Amazonas) and 550 ha (Cerrado). The supply chains for soy imported into Switzerland are not transparent. The description 'responsibly produced' glosses over soy production in Brazil and the soy trade. According to research, Swiss soy imports from Brazil come from specialised, large-scale farms with intensive soy cultivation, monotonous crop rotations and high pesticide use. Most of these farms are located in the state of Mato Grosso, i.e. in the Cerrado or Amazon biome, where most land has been cleared in recent decades. ProTerra-certified soy also comes from original rainforest (Amazon) or savanna (Cerrado) areas. 'Zero deforestation' refers only to the last decade. Animal food products constitutes a billion-dollar business in Switzerland. The supply chains show a high market concentration in inputs (feedstuff), in processing (meat, dairy milk) and in wholesale and retail trade. A few companies, especially the conglomerates Coop, Migros and fenaco, dominate the markets. The industrialisation of production in efficient international supply chains is most advanced in the production of eggs and chicken. Here, too, the supply chains are not very transparent. According to model calculations, more than 50% of the total greenhouse gas emissions due to Swiss agriculture are directly attributable to livestock farming, 20% to the rest of agriculture and about 30% occur in the countries where animal feedstuff is grown. If feedstuff were not imported, greenhouse gas emissions would be reduced by 40%. The nitrogen surpluses in Swiss agriculture are also largely a result of livestock farming. More than 90% of the surpluses occur in Switzerland. Without feedstuff imports, the nitrogen surpluses in Switzerland would be reduced by 26%. The results of the research and model calculations thus lead to five conclusions: I. The industry's advertising images and messages are misleading and gloss over livestock farming in Switzerland and its dependence on imports. They shape the perceptions of the population and increase the demand for animal food products "from Switzerland". II. Governmental agencies do little to educate the population about Swiss livestock farming. They support the misleading images and messages through official terminology and reporting. Political interests favour production and sales interests over the many other societal concerns (e.g. health, environment, animal welfare, transparency, economic costs, reliability of supply). III. It is not Swiss agriculture that benefits most from fedstuff imports. This is because agriculture does not depend solely on production for its income; it receives income-securing direct payments. Rather, imports are in the interest of upstream and downstream industries. They are the ones who mainly benefit from a high rate of livestock farming at discounted prices. IV. Swiss chicken production is a clear example: the doubling of production in the last 20 years has benefited a few upstream and downstream companies, a handful of global breeding companies and only a very small proportion of farms. The expansion of chicken fattening is a questionable development in Swiss livestock farming. It is further encouraged by the current debate concerning the environment and the climate as chicken is considered resource-efficient and 'climate friendly'. V. As a guiding principle for the future, it is proposed that Swiss livestock farming be adapted to the local ecosystem boundaries in Switzerland, and that the consumption by the Swiss population be adapted to global ecosystem boundaries. This would mean being able to halve meat consumption at the very least.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguji dan menganalisis pengaruh financial distress, growth opportunities, debt covenant dan ukuran perusahaan terhadap konservatisme akuntansi pada sektor industri barang konsumsi yang terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia (BEI) periode 2016-2019. Penelitian ini menggunakan explanatory research dengan pendekatan kuantitatif. Sampel dipilih menggunakan metode purposive sampling dan diperoleh 39 perusahaan selama 4 tahun masa penelitian. Metode analisis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah analisis regresi linier berganda dengan menggunakan software SPSS 25. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa financial distress dan debt covenant berpengaruh negatif signifikan terhadap konservatisme akuntansi, kemudian growth opportunities dan ukuran perusahaan berpengaruh positif signifikan terhadap konservatisme akuntansi.DAFTAR PUSTAKAAgustina, Rice, & Stephen. (2016). Akuntansi Konservatisme Pada Perusahaan Manufaktur yang Terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia. Jurnal Dinamika Akuntansi dan Bisnis, 3(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.24815/jdab.v3i1.4392Budiandru, Habsari, S. P., & Safuan. (2019). Debt Covenant, Investment Opportunity Set, dan Kepemilikan Manajerial Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi Pada Perusahaan Jasa Sub Sektor Property dan Real Estate yang Terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia. Jurnal Ilmiah MEA (Manajemen, Ekonomi, dan Akuntansi), 3(3), 232–247. https://doi.org/10.31955/mea.vol3.iss3.pp232-247Daryatno, A. B., & Santioso, L. (2020). Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Penerapan Konservatisme Akuntansi Pada Perusahaan Manufaktur yang Terdaftar di BEI. Jurnal Muara Ilmu Ekonomi dan Bisnis, 4(1), 126–136.Dayyanah, M., & Suryandari, D. (2019). Determinan Konservatisme Akuntansi Perusahaan: Peran Moderasi Financial Distress. SAR (Soedirman Accounting Review) : Journal of Accounting and Business, 4(2), 127–141. https://doi.org/10.20884/1.sar.2019.4.2.2464Dewi, L. P. K., Herawati, N. T., & Sinarwati, N. K. (2014). Faktor-Faktor yang Berpengaruh Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi Pada Perusahaan Manufaktur di BEI. E-Journal S1 Ak Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha, 2(1), 63–79.Dewi, N. K. S. L., & Suryanawa, I. K. (2014). Pengaruh Struktur Kepemilikan Manajerial, Leverage, dan Financial Distress Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. E-Jurnal Akuntansi Universitas Udayana, 7(1), 223–234.El-Haq, Z. N. S., Zulpahmi, & Sumardi. (2019). Pengaruh Kepemilikan Manajerial, Kepemilikan Institusional, Growth Opportunities, dan Profitabilitas Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Jurnal ASET (Akuntansi Riset), 11(2), 315–328. https://doi.org/10.17509/jaset.v11i2.19940Firmasari, D. (2016). Pengaruh Leverage, Ukuran Perusahaan, dan Financial Distress Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi (Skripsi), Universitas Airlangga Surabaya, Indonesia.Fitriani, A., & Ruchjana, E. T. (2020). Pengaruh Financial Distress dan Leverage Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi pada Perusahaan Retail di Indonesia. Equilibrium: Jurnal Ekonomi-Manajemen-Akuntansi, 16(2), 82–93. https://doi.org/10.24843/eja.2020.v30.i07.p05Ghozali, I. (2018). Aplikasi Analisis Multivariate dengan Program IBM SPSS 25 Edisi 9. Semarang: Badan Penerbit Universitas Diponegoro.Gusyanto, A. (2020). Analisis Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Penerapan Konservatisme Akuntansi ( Studi Empiris Pada Perusahaan Manufaktur yang Terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia Tahun 2016-2018 ) (Skripsi), Universitas Tanjungpura Pontianak, IndonesiaHakim, M. Z. (2017). Determinan Konservatisme Akuntansi Pada Industri Dasar dan Kimia Periode 2012 - 2014. Competitive Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan, 1(1), 111–135. https://doi.org/10.31000/competitive.v1i1.110Haryadi, E., Sumiati, T., & Umdiana, N. (2020). Financial Distress, Leverage, Persistensi Laba dan Ukuran Perusahaan Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Competitive Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan, 4(2), 66–78.Iskandar, O. R., & Sparta. (2019). Pengaruh Debt Covenant, dan Political Cost Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Equity: Jurnal Ekonomi, Manajemen, Akuntansi, 22(1), 47–62. https://doi.org/10.34209/equ.v22i1.896Karantika, M. D., & Sulistyawati, A. I. (2018). Konservatisme Akuntansi dan Determinasinya. Fokus Ekonomi : Jurnal Ilmiah Ekonomi, 13(2), 163–185. https://doi.org/10.34152/fe.13.2.163-185Kodriyah, & Framita, D. S. (2019). Menguji Dampak Financial Distress dan Leverage Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Akuntoteknologi : Jurnal Ilmiah Akuntansi Dan Teknologi, 11(2), 1–8.Lestari, A. (2019). Pengaruh Ukuran Perusahaan, Potensi Kesulitan Keuangan dan Kesempatan Bertumbuh Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi yang dimoderasi Oleh Leverage (Skripsi), Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah, Indonesia.Noviantari, N. W., & Ratnadi, N. M. D. (2015). Pengaruh Financial Distress, Ukuran Perusahaan, dan Leverage Pada Konservatisme Akuntansi. E-Jurnal Akuntansi, 11(3), 646–660.Oktomegah, C. (2012). Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Penerapan Konservatisme Pada Perusahaan Manufaktur di BEI. Jurnal Ilmiah Mahasiswa Akuntansi, 1(1), 36–42.Pambudi, J. E. (2017). Pengaruh Kepemilikan Manajerial dan Debt Covenant Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Competitive Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan, 1(1), 87–110. https://doi.org/10.31000/competitive.v1i1.109Rahardja, C., & Herawaty, V. (2019). Pengaruh Manajemen Laba, Sales Growth, Profitabilitas, Leverage, dan Ukuran Perusahaan Terhadap Prudence dengan Kepemilikan Manajerial sebagai Variabel Moderasi, Prosiding Seminar Online Cendekiawan (hlm. 2.27.1-2.27.6). Indonesia: Universitas Trisakti.Rivandi, M. (2019). Pengaruh Debt Covenant dan Growth Opportunity Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Economac, 3(5).Rivandi, M., & Ariska, S. (2019). Pengaruh Intensitas Modal, Dividend Payout Ratio dan Financial Distress Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Jurnal Benefita, 4(1), 104–114. https://doi.org/10.22216/jbe.v1i1.3850Sari, W. P. (2020). The Effect of Financial Distress and Growth Opportunities on Accounting Conservatism with Litigation Risk as Moderated Variables in Manufacturing Companies Listed on BEI. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal) : Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(1), 588–597. https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v3i1.812Savitri, E. (2016a). Konservatisme Akuntansi. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Saliha.Savitri, E. (2016b). Pengaruh Struktur Kepemilikan Institusional, Debt Covenant dan Growth Opportunities Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Jurnal Al-Iqtishad, 1(12), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.24014/jiq.v12i1.4444Sinambela, M. O. E., & Almilia, L. S. (2018). Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Konservatisme Akuntansi. Jurnal Ekonomi dan Bisnis, 21(2), 289–312. https://doi.org/10.24914/jeb.v21i2.1788Sudaryono. (2017). Metodologi Penelitian. Depok: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada.Sugiarto, N., & Nurhayati, I. (2017). Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Konservatisme Akuntansi Pada Perusahaan Manufaktur yang Terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia Tahun 2014-2016. Jurnal Dinamika Akuntansi, Keuangan dan Perbankan, 6(2), 102–116.Sulastri, A., Mulyati, S., & Icih. (2018). Analisis Pengaruh ASEAN Corporate Governance Scorecard, Leverage, Size, Growth Opportunities, dan Earnings Pressure Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi (Studi Kasus Pada Perusahaan Top Rank 50 ASEAN Corporate Governance Scorecard di Indonesia yang Terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia Pada Tahun 2013-2015. Accruals (Accounting Research Journal of Sutaatmadja), 2(1), 41–67. https://doi.org/10.35310/accruals.v2i1.6Sulastri, S., & Anna, Y. D. (2018). Pengaruh Financial Distress dan Leverage Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Akuisisi: Jurnal Akuntansi, 14(1), 59–69. https://doi.org/10.24127/akuisisi.v14i1.251Suryandari, E., & Priyanto, R. E. (2012). Pengaruh Risiko Litigasi dan Tingkat Kesulitan Keuangan Perusahaan Terhadap Hubungan Antara Konflik Kepentingan dan Konservatisme Akuntansi. Jurnal Akuntansi dan Investasi, 12(2), 161–174. http://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/ai/article/view/681Susanto, B., & Ramadhani, T. (2016). Faktor-Faktor yang Memengaruhi Konservatisme (Studi pada Perusahaan Manufaktur yang Terdaftar di BEI 2010-2014). Jurnal Bisnis dan Ekonomi (JBE), 23(2), 142–151. https://spcom.upc.edu/documents/file_1749.pdfSuwardjono. (2016). Teori Akuntansi Perekayasaan Pelaporan Keuangan Edisi Ketiga. Yogyakarta: BPFE-Yogyakarta.Syifa, H. M., Kristanti, F. T., & Dillak, V. J. (2017). Financial Distress, Kepemilikan Institusional, Profitabilitas Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Jurnal Riset Akuntansi Kontemporer (JRAK), 9(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.23969/jrak.v9i1.361Tista, K. W. N., & Suryanawa, I. K. (2017). Pengaruh Ukuran Perusahaan dan Potensi Kesulitan Keuangan Pada Konservatisme Akuntansi dengan Leverage sebagai Pemoderasi. E-Jurnal Akuntansi, 18(3), 2477–2504.Ursula, E. A., & Adhivinna, V. V. (2018). Pengaruh Kepemilikan Manajerial, Ukuran Perusahaan, Leverage, dan Growth opportunities Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. Jurnal Akuntansi, 6(2), 194–206. https://doi.org/10.24964/ja.v6i2.643Viola, & Diana, P. (2016). Pengaruh Kepemilikan Managerial, Leverage, Financial Distress dan Kepemilikan Publik Terhadap Konservatisme Akuntansi. ULTIMA Accounting, 8(1), 22–36. https://doi.org/10.31937/akuntansi.v8i1.575Wanialisa, M., & Alam, I. K. (2021). Determinan Laporan Keuangan Terhadap Financial Distress Pada Perusahaan Manufaktur Sektor Barang Konsumsi yang Terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia Periode 2014-2018. Jurnal IKRA-ITH Ekonomika, 4(1), 19–29.Wisuandari, N. K. P., & Putra, I. N. W. A. (2018). Pengaruh Tingkat Kesulitan Keuangan dan Konflik Kepentingan pada Konservatisme Akuntansi dengan Risiko Litigasi Sebagai Pemoderasi. Jurnal Akuntansi Universitas Udayana, 23(2), 1521–1547.

In 2017, the Central American Agricultural Council (CAC), with the support of CCAFS, CIAT, IICA, FAO, ECLAC and CATIE, formulated and adopted the Climate Smart Agriculture Strategy (EASAC) for the Central American Integration System (SICA) region. This regional strategy aims at promoting climate-smart agriculture (CSA) at scale and is an original example of regional policy. This communication presents the first results of an assessment process of the EASAC outcomes three years after its launch. We carried out a methodology mobilizing the theory-based assessment (Delahais and Toulemonde 2012; Lemire, et al. 2012, Maine, 2008) applied to a policy innovation, in this case, the EASAC. Theory-based approaches have been designed to provide systematic, robust approaches to understand whether the intended outcomes of an intervention have been achieved (or not), and the importance of the intervention's contribution under consideration, relative to that of other alternative causes. This assessment process encompasses three steps: (i) the formulation of the EASAC Theory of Change (ToC), (ii) the identification of changes aligned with the ToC and (iii) the analysis of EASAC's contribution to some of these identified changes. In this communication, we present the results of the two first above mentioned steps. To establish the EASAC ToC, we first reformulated the EASAC into a ToC vocabulary/thinking starting from the policy document (CAC, 2017) and adjusting it through an iterative process of consultation and validation with 8 key actors (EASAC formulators). Once the ToC validated, we conducted 44 semi-directed interviews with actors involved in CSA related actions or interventions at regional and national level of the 8 countries of SICA. The objective of these interviews was to understand what expected changes identified in the EASAC ToC have occurred so far. Finally, the changes were analyzed and compared across and among countries. The EASAC ToC is structured along four routes: (1) policy route, (2) institutional, (3) financing and (4) communication. The four routes aim through the formulation and implementation of CSA policies (policy route); the creation and promotion of spaces for CSA dialogue and partnerships and the strengthening of CSA capacities of actors (institutional route); the development of a portfolio of CSA projects to apply to competitive international funds (financial route); the implementation of communication campaigns to foster the implementation of the EASAC (communication route) to a final outcome: the adoption of CSA practices, services and technologies by local farmers and thus achieve a great impact focused on a more productive, adapted and resilient agriculture in the face of climate change (CC). Results related to the identification of changes aligned with the ToC show that, although the EASAC was launched only 3 year ago, 252 changes related to the four EASAC ToC routes were identified in all countries of SICA and at the regional level to date, attesting of a great dynamic toward CSA scaling in the region. A total of 225 changes occurred in the eight countries in the SICA region. Costa Rica and Guatemala stand out with the highest number of changes identified. Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua show with an average progress, and finally Panamá, the Dominican Republic and Belize exhibit the lowest number of changes observed. The remaining 27 identified changes were exclusively at the regional level. The policy route is the strongest and most profuse as it concentrates the largest number of changes identified (182 changes) that mostly (98) correspond to the formulation and implementations of CSA conducive policies at regional, national and/or subnational levels concentrated in Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador. The remaining changes (84) are local implemented CSA conducive projects that respond to regional programs (sometimes 'jumping' the national level) such as EUROCLIMA+, FAO-EU FLEGT - Latin America, REDD+, RECLIMA, RELIVE, BIOCLIMA, ARAUCLIMA, AGROINNOVA, PROCAGICA, among others. However, the CSA approach has yet to be incorporated further into the planning, research, monitoring and evaluation processes of the agricultural sector at both the regional and national levels. The institutional route, although less developed than the policy route, presents a total of 45 changes distributed in three dimensions: i) the creation and promotion of coordination initiatives, alliances and CSA dialogue spaces at regional and national levels, ii) the strengthening of CSA capacities of governments, research actors and extension systems at national level and iii) financial services designed and implemented through specific programs, mainly supported by regional cooperation (ECLAC). Most of the changes in this route corresponds to CSA dialogue spaces and alliances mainly in Costa Rica, Guatemala and El Salvador. However, there is a gap between countries in the creation and diversification of coordination initiatives, alliances and spaces for dialogue for the promotion and follow-up of the CSA approach. Moreover, there is a lack of institutionalization of the programs for research actors, public officials and extensionists to strengthen their capacities to formulate and implement CSA practices, services and technologies. The financing route has been strengthened mainly through technical and financial support from international cooperation agencies with 25 changes identified at the regional and national levels mostly impulse by a regional initiative from FAO in partnership with the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI) that seeks to facilitate access to climate finance and strengthen the national capacities of the countries to create a portfolio of CSA projects in the region. Even though there are advances in this route, some aspects pointed out in the EASAC are still missing or are partly implemented. A consolidated portfolio of CSA projects and an updated database on sources of climate financing need to be consolidated. Besides, more work must be done on the creation of alliances to promote financial services and, to consolidate a common agenda of CSA climate action in Central America. Finally, regarding the communication route, no changes were observed so far. Considering the orientation of changes both at regional and country levels, the emphasis of the changes has been oriented more towards adaptation to CC (137) than mitigation (36), although the CSA approach integrate both adaptation and mitigation. The agricultural sectors most prioritized have been cattle raising (73), coffee (44), and some basic grains: corn (15), rice (14) and beans (13). In addition, the predominant issues on the sector's policy agenda in the countries have been water resource sustainability (45), food and nutritional security (FNS) and family agriculture (95). Finally, it is worth noting that the changes identified tends to be geographically concentrated in the Central American Dry Corridor, although the aim of the intervention is to expand the scope of these measures to other areas of the region. The first results of the evaluation of the effect to date of the EASAC provides original insights to the discussion on the effectiveness of scaling up CSA through a regional policy framework, on the effectiveness of EASAC ToC and its implementation features. To go deeper into this, a rigorous and systematic analysis must be conducted in a second phase of this study to assess the degree of contribution of the EASAC to these identified changes. However, these first results of the assessment process is of interest to regional and national stakeholders in particular CAC executive secretariats well as scholars and practitioners as they enable to draw preliminary recommendations to support the implementation of EASAC in the region and lessons learned for strengthening enabling policy environments to achieve CSA goals in the region and other parts of the world.

Parker County proposes to build the eastern segment of a loop north of the City of Weatherford, in Parker County, Texas). This portion of the loop, designated East Loop, is approximately 6.65 miles long. It begins at the intersection of the eastern terminus of the Ric Williamson Memorial Highway (or West Loop) at State Highway 51 north of the city. The proposed route continues eastward for approximately 4 miles, crosses Farm-to-Market 730 before turning south for approximately 2 miles, crosses US Highway 180 at Center Point Road, and follows Center Point Road to terminate at Interstate Highway 20. The East Loop project is owned and funded by Parker County. As a political subdivision of the State of Texas, Parker County is required to comply with the Antiquities Code of Texas (9 Texas Natural Resources Code 191). A permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) is also required for the proposed project. Therefore, the USACE, as a federal agency, has the responsibility for complying with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), as amended (Section 106). Section 106 requires consideration of the effects of the proposed project on properties listed in, or determined eligible for, the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and ultimately designation as a State Antiquities Landmark (SAL). Freese and Nichols, Inc., the design and environmental consultant to Parker County, contracted with Cox|McLain Environmental Consulting, Inc. (CMEC), to conduct the intensive archeological and reconnaissance historic resources surveys necessary for compliance with the Antiquities Code and Section 106. Melissa M. Green (Principal Investigator) and Brett Lang carried out the archeological survey for Parker County under Texas Antiquities Permit 8127, and Emily Reed and Izabella Dennis conducted the historic resources survey; all are staff of CMEC. Fieldwork was conducted in September 2017. Widths of the proposed roadway vary between 120 and 390 feet, but the average width is 200 feet. The archeological area of potential effects (APE) consists of the entire 195.39-acre footprint of new location roadway and a 600-foot long, 30-foot wide drainage ditch easement added to the project for a total 196.62-acre APE. The historic resources APE consists of a 300-foot-wide buffer area around the proposed project corridor. The APE is located primarily on uplands but crosses Willow Creek, Holder Branch, Underwood Branch, and a number of small intermittent channels. The land is mostly undeveloped with some residential/commercial areas, particularly near each terminus, that will be impacted. Ground surfaces within the APE were mostly covered in grasses, allowing for some limited visibility ranging from 0 to 30 percent, though ground visibility in forested areas and eroded pastures allowed for higher ground visibility at 70 to 100 percent. Existing impacts to the project corridor include residential and commercial development, buried utilities and other infrastructures associated with the developments, oil and gas production and storage, stock tank construction, livestock grazing or training, and erosion resulting from all of the above. A total of 48 shovel test units were excavated judgmentally across the area of potential effects; 36 were sterile for cultural materials and 12 were associated with sites. Initially, right-of-entry was not allowed on several individual parcels representing approximately 2.14 miles (48.29 acres) of the proposed corridor during the original survey in September 2017, but were investigated in June and July of 2018 once right-of-entry was granted. Potential for prehistoric archeological deposits in the area of potential effects is considered low, and the potential for historic deposits is considered moderate. The proposed roadway corridor partially impacts previously recorded sites 41PR163/41PR164, 41PR165, and 41PR166, as well as the NRHP-listed Byron Farmstead Historic District. The district comprises 85.5 acres with three recorded archeological sites (41PR163, 41PR164, now combined, and 41PR166), or contributing elements, within its boundary. All of these sites were revisited during the survey. Although located outside of the project corridor, site 41PR163, the original log cabin of the Byron Farmstead, and site 41PR164, the later bungalow on the farmstead were visited due to their close proximity to the project and to help assess the indirect impacts to these sites and contributing elements of the historic district. Based on the field visit, the boundaries of sites 41PR163 and 41PR164 have been adjusted and combined and now include a previously unrecorded dairy location, but contributing element to the district, within the new combined site limit (41PR163/41PR164). Since site 41PR163/41PR164 is already a contributing element of the Byron Farmstead Historic District, it is recommended for designation as a SAL. Site 41PR166 is the dairy operation owned by a separate family member and not originally a contributing element to the district. The site is mostly intact and retains most of its integrity. It has now been recommended as a contributing element to the historic district, and ultimately for SAL designation, demonstrating the long-time use of the larger property for and family commitment to cattle and dairying. Site 41PR166 will be partially impacted by the proposed road corridor. In addition to the archeological sites located on the Byron Farmstead Historic District, there are three contributing buildings, two contributing structures, one contributing site, and one noncontributing site. For unknown reasons, an additional 13 resources located within the historic district's boundary were not documented in the NRHP nomination form or assigned contributing/non-contributing status. As a result of this survey, eight of the previously undocumented resources are recommended as contributing and five are recommended as non-contributing to the Byron Farmstead Historic District. Due to the construction of the proposed roadway through the Byron Farmstead Historic District, there would be an adverse effect on the district by diminishing the integrity of feeling, setting, and association. Although previously recorded site 41PR165, remnants of a small farmstead, would be partially impacted by the proposed roadway corridor, it is recommended not eligible for listing in the NRHP or for designation as a SAL because it does not retain integrity and none of the remaining components would add any additional information concerning cattle ranching in the area. One additional historic site, 41PR185, was recorded during the survey. This site is a farmstead on a hilltop west of Holder Branch measuring 35 meters east/west by 55 meters north/south. The site is composed of a collapsed rock root cellar, rock and mortar pile, six fence posts, and large sections of sheet metal siding. The site will be entirely impacted by the proposed construction, but is recommended as not eligible for listing in the NRHP or for SAL designation. All materials (notes, photographs, administrative documents, and other project data) generated from this work will be housed at the Center for Archaeological Studies at Texas State University in San Marcos, where they will be made permanently available to future researchers per 13 Texas Administrative Code 26.16-17. CMEC submitted the previous version of this report to the Texas Historical Commission (THC) on March 1, 2018, for review. In the response letter dated March 30, 2018, THC concurred with the eligibility recommendations for the historic resources, and requested additional information regarding recorded archeological sites. THC also requested further review of the applicability of Section 106 in relationship to the USACE areas of jurisdiction (Appendix B). Since that time, USACE has indicated Section 106 is applicable to the Byron Farmstead Historic District, and CMEC has been granted access to previously inaccessible parcels to complete the archeological survey. This version of the report has been updated to provide additional information from the archeological survey and to reflect the applicability of Section 106, including an assessment of effects to historic properties and archeological sites. If any unanticipated cultural materials or deposits are found at any stage of clearing, preparation, or construction, the work should cease and THC personnel should be notified immediately.

A hurricane threat, a shortened schedule, some botched scheduling and an audience that couldn't get excited in unison were just a few of the challenges that confronted the Republican Party's Convention that concluded this past week in Tampa, Florida. The main purpose was to reintroduce Mitt Romney to the file and rank of his own party as well as to the wider national audience and to show that, besides business experience and his CEO approach to politics, the man is also human. With the help of Ann Romney, this was arguably accomplished. However, once humanized, the candidate had to convey a compelling message, a vision of the future that would sway the 8% undecided, and convert the anti-Obama into pro-Romney voters. In this, the Convention fell short. His strategic efforts as a candidate in the Primary Election were dedicated to convincing the right wing of the Republican party that his ideas and values had "evolved "from his times of governor of Massachusetts: he is now pro-life and not pro-choice, and his signature health care reform for that state, based on an individual mandate, had very little resemblance to Obamacare. He succeeded then, but these ultra conservative positions alienated two fundamental blocs of voters he will need for the general election, namely, women and Latinos. Indeed, the gender gap puts Obama ahead, with 51% of women voting for Obama and 41% for Romney. The Latino voter gap is at 63% for Obama to 28% for Romney. The campaign's political calculation was thus to use the Convention to appeal to the wider audience by showing the party's "diversity", by "humanizing" the candidate and by convincing the Evangelical right that being Mormon is not a monstrosity. Testimonials by members of his congregation, a convincing speech by Ann Romney and a black- and- white biographical video succeeded in meeting this goal. We learned that Mr. Romney is a wonderful husband and father, a patient man who tries to live by a set of values; that his years as head of a Mormon community were devoted to helping the needy, accompanying the lonely and counseling the troubled. It was also revealed that his tithing was uncommonly and consistently generous. The Convention was carefully staged to show younger, more diverse GOP "rising stars" in order to bring into the fold some of still persuadable minorities. Paul Ryan, the Catholic, strictly anti- abortion 42-year old that completes the ticket, gave an ideological speech that charmed the older generation, with references to "central-planners" and direct attacks on Obama's "socialist" policies, using what could be described at best as half-truths. A great admirer of atheist right-wing writer Ayn Rand, Ryan, a Representative from Wisconsin, rose to fame this past year by presenting a budget plan that would lower taxes for the upper-income bracket, privatize Medicare and harshly restrict social programs. Portraying himself as a compassionate conservative, he is supposed to bring in the Catholic vote. Former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Florida Senator Marco Rubio used their personal stories aptly and were able to get two of the few electrifying moments of the Convention. Rice's appearance was important after a period of what seemed to be her retirement from politics; she talked optimistically about America, its unbound freedoms, its role as an underwriter of world order, and unquestionably, the land of exceptional opportunity: channeling Obama, she offered her story as a testament of these possibilities. In spite of growing up in the Jim Crow South, she rose to Secretary of State and here she was today, the first "stateswoman" of the Republican Party. Rubio, a fresh-faced 41 year old and the son of working class Cuban immigrants, was the Latino version of the same idea. He had the difficult task of introducing Mitt Romney after the audience was still puzzled at Clint Eastwood's imaginary dialogue with President Obama (represented by an empty chair). After an awkward moment during which the seniors in the audience were still trying to process the meaning of Eastwood's sometimes off-color parody, Rubio managed the transition quite well and soon people were paying him undivided attention. One of the best-received portions was an anecdote about his father, who worked for years at a bar. "He stood behind a bar in the back of the room all those years, so one day I could stand behind a podium in the front of a room," Rubio said, bringing in a huge applause. There were many of these "rag-to-riches" stories aimed at reassuring the viewers that the candidate's wealth is not an obstacle to Romney and Ryan's newly found empathic conservatism. Mitt Romney's entrance along a cordoned red carpet, shaking hands and nodding to groups of supporters on each side, as well as the first few lines of his acceptance speech were shrewdly staged to evoke the State of the Union address. In line with the general theme, he devoted two thirds of his speech to his own biography and very little to the specifics of his economic agenda. While conventions are seldom memorable affairs, and while this one is most likely going to be remembered by the bizarre spectacle of actor Clint Eastwood talking, at times incoherently, to an empty chair, there were other minor headlines running parallel to it that deserve more attention for what they reveal of the long-term GOP plan to re-take government. Under the pretext that voter fraud is prevalent in presidential elections (a claim unsubstantiated by serious research), at least 14 Republican-dominated state legislatures, mostly (but not all) in the South, have been quietly passing new laws aimed at making the act of voting more difficult in those states. The intention is clear: to keep just enough demographic groups likely to vote for the Democrats (namely, young people and minorities) away from the polls. This voter suppression strategy takes different forms, the most prevalent of which is requiring the presentation of government- issued photo IDs, such as a driver's license or a US passport, at the polls It is a well-known fact that many elderly minorities and disabled citizens who don't drive lack these (Social Security cards in the US do not have photos, and there is not voting document such as a "credencial civica" in the US). These groups of people would have a hard time getting one, sometimes requiring them to travel miles away to get to the closest Public Safety office. In the case of young students, university-issued student identification cards for the most part are not accepted at the polls. Other bills and rules were aimed at shortening early voting time frames, repealing Election Day registration laws, and preventing non-profit, non-partisan groups such as the League of Women Voters from organizing voter registration campaigns. This week, however, a three-judge panel of the Federal District Court in Washington DC struck down a Texas voter ID law. Two days earlier, a different three-judge panel for the same court found that, in its redrawing of the electoral-district map (a practice that takes place every ten years following a national Census), the Texas legislature had intentionally discriminated against minority voters More important than any platform, more lasting than any emotional appeal to voters, voter suppression attempts constitute a politically divisive outrage that goes to the heart of our democracy. Indeed, it is unfathomable that over a century and a half after the Emancipation Proclamation and the Fifteenth Amendment, and half a century after the Voting Rights Act of 1965, minorities in the United States still have to rely on the court system to protect their right to vote. In a presidential election year and with a race as tight as the one we are about to witness in two months, voter turnout is fundamental. Laws aimed at discouraging citizens to vote are a surreptitiously shrewd, anti-democratic way to ensure victory.

AMÉRICA LATINAVictoria de la derecha en PanamáEl empresario conservador Ricardo Martinelli ganó con el 87% de los sufragios las elecciones presidenciales del pasado domingo en Panamá. "Vamos a trabajar en un gobierno de unidad nacional, porque somos todos panameños y tenemos que cambiar este país", dijo Martinelli. Fue el segundo intento del millonario Martinelli, de 57 años, de alcanzar a la presidencia. Dueño de la mayor cadena de supermercados del país, ha prometido varias medidas sociales para los más desfavorecidos, mano dura contra la delincuencia, la corrupción, el narcotráfico y las pandillas. A la vez se lo vio decidido a impulsar la infraestructura pública, a firmar un tratado económico preferencial con los Estados Unidos y promulgar el acercamiento político-económico con China.Según "El País" de Madrid, tres factores parecen explicar el viraje en el voto. Por un lado, el descontento provocado por la subida de los precios y por una criminalidad rampante -pese al crecimiento medio anual del 8,7%, Panamá arrastra aún un índice de pobreza del 28% y profundas desigualdades-. Por otro, la vibrante campaña de Martinelli, que ha sabido conectar con las inquietudes sociales. Y, por último, el rechazo que genera Balbina Herrera, de 54 años, veterana política, ex alcaldesa de la capital y ex ministra de Vivienda, lastrada por sus vínculos con el ex dictador Manuel Antonio Noriega, hoy preso en Estados Unidos.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/derecha/gana/presidenciales/panamenas/elpepuint/20090504elpepuint_1/Teshttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1124404http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/americas/05/03/panama.elections/index.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/america_latina/2009/05/090504_0431_panama_elecciones_martinelli_mf.shtmlhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30548229/ México y la gripe porcinaVarios medios internacionales analizan el avance de la epidemia, las políticas tomadas al respecto y las consecuencias económicas que trajo la gripe a México. http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1124456http://edition.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/05/04/swine.flu.main/index.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/health/05flu.html?ref=worldhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/america_latina/2009/05/090505_0940_mexico_evacuacion_wbm.shtmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2009-05/05/content_7743048.htmhttp://diario.elmercurio.com/2009/05/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/9F0EE56E-C2F5-4857-B0D9-8754AAE0CC6C.htm?id={9F0EE56E-C2F5-4857-B0D9-8754AAE0CC6C}http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/596094.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/596048.html Sismo en CaracasPara más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1124427 Inundaciones en Brasil Media Brasil está bajo las aguas. Las inundaciones afectan a más 700.000 personas y han matado a 16 personas. Las zonas más afectadas son cuatro Estados en el noreste del país.El Presidente de la República, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, que voló en helicóptero por las localidades más afectadas se mostró consternado. Ha pedido a gobernadores, diputados, senadores y alcaldes de las localidades afectadas que se olviden de sus luchas políticas y que colaboren juntos para resolver cuanto antes los problemas de ese casi un millón de personas damnificadas y para evitar que mueran más personas.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/america_latina/2009/05/090504_2353_brasil_inundaciones_jg.shtml http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/inundaciones/obligan/evacuar/decenas/miles/brasilenos/elpepuint/20090506elpepuint_9/TesMueren 18 militares venezolanos al caer un helicópteroPara más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Mueren/militares/venezolanos/caer/helicoptero/elpepuint/20090504elpepiint_5/Teshttp://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/americas/05/04/venezuela.copter.crash/index.html"The Economist" analiza: "Latin America's economies: Pain but no panic": http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13576459Niños ponen en aprietos a Condoleezza RicePara más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Senora/Rice/piensa/metodos/utilizados/Bush/presos/elpepuint/20090504elpepuint_2/TesObama anuncia una reforma tributaria Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1124467http://edition.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/05/04/obama.tax.code/index.htmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2009-05/04/content_7742376.htmEUROPADivorcio mediático de BerlusconiPara más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1124433http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1124402http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30584505/A dos años de la desaparición de Madeleine McCannPara más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1124403Rebelión militar en GeorgiaPara más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/internacional/2009/05/090505_1050_georgia_golpe_med.shtmlhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30574427/http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/golpistas-planeaban-asesinar-al-presidente-de-georgia-asegura-ministerio-del-interior_5135527-1 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2009/05/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/DB75A635-07EA-44E5-AEB7-FF27C2F95361.htm?id={DB75A635-07EA-44E5-AEB7-FF27C2F95361}Sarkozy: dos años de mandato en Francia, con el 63 por ciento en contraPara más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/sarkozy-dos-anos-de-mandato-en-francia-con-el-63-por-ciento-en-contra_5138227-1 Presidente del País Vasco promete acabar con ETAPara más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/Lopez/Estoy/dispuesto/arriesgar/paz/elpepuesp/20090506elpepunac_1/Teshttp://diario.elmercurio.com/2009/05/06/internacional/_portada/noticias/D72E8CDE-CA5D-4F9D-A956-7C1EE20E19FB.htm?id={D72E8CDE-CA5D-4F9D-A956-7C1EE20E19FB}Senado checo aprueba el Tratado de LisboaPara más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Senado/checo/aprueba/Tratado/Lisboa/elpepuint/20090506elpepuint_10/TesLa economía de la Unión Europea se contraerá un 4% este añoPara más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/economia/2009/05/090504_1345_revision_economica_med.shtml ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE Dimite el primer ministro de NepalEl líder maoísta Pushpa Kamal Dahal, mejor conocido como Prachanda, renunció a su cargo de primer ministro el pasado lunes después que se suscitara una disputa por intentar sustituir al jefe del ejército de su país.Ante la falta de claridad jurídica sobre quién es el encargado de destituir al jefe del ejército, el primer ministro optó por presentar su renuncia.Esta crisis es considerada la más seria desde que finalizara en 2006 la guerra civil entre el ejército y los maoístas que se extendió por 10 años.Los acuerdos de paz firmados en noviembre de 2006 les permitieron a los rebeldes ingresar en la arena política.El año pasado, los maoístas ganaron las elecciones pero sin el apoyo suficiente como para mantenerse en el poder sin aliarse con otros partidos.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Dimite/primer/ministro/Nepal/elpepuint/20090504elpepuint_6/Teshttp://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/05/04/nepal.army/index.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/world/asia/05nepal.html?ref=worldhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/internacional/2009/05/090504_nepal_lp.shtmlhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30548174/http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displayStory.cfm?story_id=13604191&source=features_box_mainCrisis en PakistánPara más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/integrismo/avanza/Pakistan/elpepuint/20090504elpepiint_2/Teshttp://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/05/04/pakistan.refugees/index.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/04/world/asia/04schools.html?_r=1&ref=worldhttp://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/world/asia/05policy.html?ref=worldhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30572929/http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2009/05/05/pakistan-les-civils-pries-de-fuir-la-vallee-de-swat_1189005_3216.html#ens_id=1162505A pesar de los atentados en Irak, la fecha de retirada de las tropas estadounidenses no varía.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/05/03/iraq.mosul.us.troops/index.htmlAhmadinejad aplaza su viaje a Latinoamérica.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/internacional/2009/05/090505_iran_latam_cancelacion_wbm.shtmlMyanmar conmemora aniversario del ciclón que mató a más de 140.000 personas.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30532947/Gobierno de Sri Lanka considera otorgar amnistía a rebeldes de los Tigres Tamiles.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30547328/China libera monje tibetano.Para más información: http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6231430.eceÁFRICA Piratas amenazan barco francésPara más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/05/03/kenya.pirates/index.html"MSNBC" analiza la situación legal de 18 activistas en Zimbabwe:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30582741/OTRAS NOTICIAS "La Nación" y "The Economist" presentan artículos de análisis relacionados a la gripe porcina:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1124424 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1124365 http://www.economist.com/world/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=13602958&source=features_box_main http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13576491"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week":http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13579999

Fluctuaciones importantes ha registrado la historia de las relaciones entre Estados Unidos y América Latina. Hermanados por el coloniaje, por la lucha independentista y por la democracia liberal, las incipientes vinculaciones, ya como naciones nacidas a la vida independiente, se caracterizarían por el acercamiento, la estrechez y la mutua defensa. Sin embargo, esas primeras buenas disposiciones, experimentarían un acentuado distanciamiento en los inicios del siglo XX, de la mano de la polémica política del "big stick" (gran garrote) llevada adelante por el presidente republicano Theodore Roosevelt. A través de ella, pretendía consolidar a los Estados Unidos como el gendarme americano a fin de instaurar el orden y la seguridad americana. Postura que llevaría a los Estados Unidos a participar, en varias oportunidades, de intervenciones en gobiernos principalmente centroamericanos (como en Panamá en 1903, República Dominicana y Cuba en 1915, etc.). Discurso diametralmente opuesto adoptaría Franklin D. Roosevelt quien propugnaría, por la década de los treinta, la "buena vecindad" inter-americana; buena vecindad que no impediría el apoyo tácito a varios dictadores centroamericanos (Leónidas Trujillo en República Dominicana, Maximiliano Martínez en el Salvador, François Duvalier en Haití y Somoza García en Nicaragua). Ya en plena Guerra Fría, y en medio de la crisis de los misiles de Cuba, Kennedy trazaría una breve "Alianza para el Progreso" con el manifiesto objetivo de fortalecer la economía de estos lares. Episodio aparte merecen las relaciones a partir de los 70' que, enmarcadas en la lucha contra el comunismo y contra la influencia de la Unión Soviética en la región, tendrán una tónica de fuerte tensión; sufriendo un fuerte y pronunciado desgaste.Ya en el siglo XXI, no faltan quienes aseguran que la administración de George W. Bush desatendió las relaciones con Latinoamérica, sobre todo, luego del 11 de setiembre cuando los temas de la agenda exterior de los Estados Unidos tomaron nuevas prioridades: la lucha contra el terrorismo y la búsqueda de la seguridad nacional. Claro que esta situación fue negada rotundamente por la gestión Bush y, en especial, por la Secretaria de Estado, Condoleezza Rice, quien no se cansó de repetir hasta el cansancio que América Latina seguía ocupando un lugar central en los intereses de los Estados Unidos. Si bien nadie puede negar que la atención estadounidense fue efectivamente captada por el terrorismo, y sus subsiguientes derivaciones -la guerra de Afganistán y de Irak-, lo cierto es que hubo, para bien o para mal, un apreciable dinamismo en la reciprocidad de las relaciones durante la era Bush.En materia económica, la administración se acercaría al continente a través de propuestas puntuales, como fueron los TLC ofrecidos y firmados con varios países (Chile, Perú, Colombia y varios países centroamericanos). En el campo político, sin embargo, fue notorio el deterioro de las relaciones desde los últimos años hasta acá. La creciente impopularidad del primer mandatario estadounidense permitió la legitimación y consolidación política de varios enclaves neopopulistas, cuyos discursos se articularon grandemente entorno a críticas y denuncias de la actitud paternalista e interventora de los Estados Unidos. A la propuesta del ALCA se le opuso, aunque sin mayor apuntalamiento político, la respuesta "bolivariana" del ALBA cuya influencia Bush tratase de contrarrestar y amainar con varias de sus visitas oficiales al continente y con las propuestas de TLC ya mencionadas.La disminución del influjo estadounidense en nuestro continente fue propiciada por una doble vertiente: ya sea la reticencia de algunos países latinoamericanos de entablar diálogo con los Estados Unidos o por varias inhabilidades de Bush en el manejo de las relaciones (no hace falta señalar lo desatinado y controversial que resulta, en un mundo que se está globalizando, la construcción de un muro que refuerce la frontera con México).En medio de este panorama asumió la nueva administración demócrata con Barack Obama a la cabeza. La figura de Obama despierta, en varios ámbitos, esperanza y renovación, ya sea porque aparece como "el salvador" en medio de una tormenta económico–financiera o bien porque representa un cambio de rumbo rotundo con respecto a la política y filosofía de su antecesor . En América Latina no es la excepción, y Obama aquí también genera, no sin cierto escepticismo, un entusiasmo optimista. Optimismo que se ha visto reforzado en los últimos meses tanto por varios gestos simbólicos puntuales, como pueden ser los nombramientos de hispanos en instituciones importantes de los Estados Unidos (el caso de María Otero, designada Subsecretaria de Asuntos Internacionales del Departamento de Estado, Ignacia Moreno, fiscal general adjunta de la División Ambiental y de Recursos Naturales del Departamento de Justicia, Sonia Sotomayor, juez federal del Segundo Circuito de Cortes de Apelaciones de Estados Unidos) o señales políticas explícitas.Insistiendo en que su gobierno es distinto al de la era Bush, Obama ha vaticinado el inicio de una nueva relación EEUU- Latinoamérica y se ha mostrado dispuesto a escuchar a todos los países latinoamericanos y a resolver los conflictos históricos (entre los que se destacan el acercamiento con Cuba) y recientes (sobre todo, Bolivia y Venezuela). Retórica que Obama hizo patente en la V Cumbre de las Américas, realizada en Trinidad y Tobago, cuya carismática elocución, que puso el acento en la igualdad de los países, en el trabajo conjunto y en el olvido de las rispideces históricas, fue ovacionada por la mayoría de los mandatarios latinoamericanos. No cabe duda que el mayor desafío que deberá enfrentar Obama en la región es en Cuba. Conociendo esto, el gobierno norteamericano hizo mea culpa y, reconociendo el fracaso de la política del embargo al país caribeño, dejó la puerta abierta al diálogo, algo que fue bien recepcionado por Raúl Castro, quien se mostró dispuesto a transar en temas que históricamente La Habana se negaba a negociar con Washington, como los derechos humanos o la reforma democrática. Habrá que atender a los cambios que potencialmente se pueden suscitar en la región si efectivamente se concreta el deseado acercamiento Latinoamérica- EEUU. Por una lado será interesante ver cómo se las va arreglar Chávez si su principal enemigo, al cual recurrió para sumar las simpatías del pueblo venezolano, deja de serlo. Otro factor importante a atender a cómo se van comportar Irán y, principalmente, Rusia frente a un posible "reencuentro" americano; países ambos que últimamente han estado coqueteando con los regímenes neopopulistas del continente y cuya mutua afinidad política se ha sustentado básicamente en un solo pilar (amén de intereses económicos secundarios): la enemistad hacia los Estados Unidos. Tema aparte es China, cuyo profuso acercamiento al continente se ha dado más por intereses económicos que por políticos.Dejando el plano de lo especulativo, hay un conjunto de elementos básicos y vínculos reales que serán seguramente los que marcarán una agenda norteamericana en el continente ente los que se destacan el narcotráfico, la migración, las remesas, los problemas energéticos y el futuro de la OEA. Es probable que el gobierno de la potencia norteña habrá de encarar las relaciones optando por el bilateralismo, e indudablemente priorizará a las potencias regionales como México, y sobre todo, Brasil (con el cual Obama ha expresado una enorme simpatía y se ha concretado una buena reciprocidad).Igualmente parece difícil que, atendiendo a las serias dificultades que Estados Unidos afronta por estos momentos, Latinoamérica pueda prontamente alcanzar un lugar prioritario en su itinerario. La situación de crisis económica y la guerra en el Medio Oriente no parecen ser problemas a resolver rápidamente. Pese a las dificultades, es bueno ver cómo asistimos a verdaderos intentos de recuperación de un relacionamiento que históricamente ha sido intrincado, ambiguo y, a veces, errático pero claramente ineludible. * Estudiante de la Licenciatura en Estudios Internacionales. Depto de Estudios Internacionales. FACS - ORT Uruguay.

Inhaltsangabe:Einleitung: 'We are here to mark an extraordinary achievement: a comprehensive, first stage, U.S.-EU Air Transport Agreement.' Diese Worte richtete Condoleezza Rice in ihrer Rede zur Verkündung des Abschlusses des ersten einheitlichen Luftverkehrsabkommens zwischen den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika und der Europäischen Union am 30. April 2007 an die Öffentlichkeit. Damit fanden die seit viereinhalb Jahren andauernden Verhandlungen über die weitere Öffnung des transatlantischen Luftverkehrsmarktes im Luftverkehrsabkommen 'Open Skies' ein erstes Ergebnis. Der Begriff 'Open Skies' - Abkommen wird standardmäßig für ein Vertragsmodell verwendet, welches eine Mustervorlage zur Vereinbarung von Luftverkehrsrechten zwischen zwei Nationen darstellt. Dieser Abschluss eines bilateralen Vertrages dient zur Liberalisierung des Luftverkehrs zwischen zwei Staaten. Es handelt sich um weniger restriktiv gestaltete Konventionen, deren Ziel die Schaffung eines freien Luftverkehrsmarktes zwischen den zwei unterzeichnenden Nationen ist. Den Luftverkehrsgesellschaften jeder Vertragspartei wird die uneingeschränkte Bedienung von Strecken zwischen einem Städtepaar der beiden Länder gewährt. Darüber hinaus sieht ein solches Abkommen den Wegfall von Restriktionen hinsichtlich Kapazität bzw. Code Sharing vor. Der 'Open Skies' - Standard wird als geeignete Vertragsform zur Öffnung des Luftverkehrsmarktes zwischen zwei Staaten betrachtet, da hier die Marktkräfte frei wirken können. Die folgende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit einem wesentlichen Aspekt der Liberalisierung des transatlantischen Luftverkehrsmarkts und den ihr zugrundeliegenden regulativen Rahmenbedingungen. Obzwar in der Vergangenheit weltweit zahlreiche bilaterale Luftverkehrsabkommen nach dem 'Open Skies' - Standard abgeschlossen wurden – die z. T. bis heute in Kraft sind – liegt der Fokus der vorliegenden Analyse auf dem Luftverkehrsabkommen 'Open Skies' zwischen den USA und der EU, welches am 30. März 2008 in Kraft getreten ist. Gang der Untersuchung Zunächst soll die Historie des transatlantischen Luftverkehrsrechts in Grundzügen dargestellt werden. Gegenstand der Untersuchung bildet dabei die luftverkehrsrechtliche Entwicklung der beiden Vertragspartner USA und Europäische Union. In diesem Teilstück der Arbeit soll herausgestellt werden, welche Notwendigkeiten zum Abschluss des 'Open Skies' - Abkommens USA - EU geführt haben. Gegenstand des zweiten Kapitels stellt das Abkommen selbst dar. Im ersten Abschnitt wird die Zielsetzung der Verhandlungen herausgearbeitet. Dem schließt sich im zweiten Abschnitt die inhaltliche Darstellung des Vertrages – mit besonderem Augenmerk auf die Deregulierung der Eigentümer- und Kontrollklausel sowie die Einräumung unternehmerischer Freiheiten –an. Der dritte Abschnitt widmet sich der Evaluation der Zukunftsfähigkeit des Abkommens sowie dessen möglicher Weiterentwicklung. Im dritten Kapitel der Arbeit wird auf die Bedeutung dieses Vertrages für den transatlantischen Luftverkehrsmarkt eingegangen sowie eine Aussage zu ersten ökonomischen Auswirkungen getroffen. Abschließend folgt eine Gesamtbetrachtung, in welcher die Ergebnisse der Arbeit zusammenfassend aufgeführt werden.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: I.Einleitung6 1.Definition und Abgrenzung6 2.Gang der Untersuchung7 II.Die Deregulierung des transatlantischen Luftverkehrs im Überblick8 1.Entwicklung bilateraler Luftverkehrsabkommen8 a)Manifestierung des Hoheitsprinzips8 b)Liberalisierung des US-amerikanischen Luftverkehrsmarkts10 c)Schaffung eines Luftverkehrsbinnenmarkts innerhalb der EU11 d)Entwicklung des transatlantischen Luftverkehrsmarkts12 aa)Bilaterale Luftverkehrsabkommen nach dem 'Open Market' – Standard13 bb)Bilaterale Luftverkehrsabkommen nach dem 'Open Skies' – Standard14 2.Das Erfordernis eines Gemeinschaftsabkommens16 a)Nachteilige Auswirkungen der bilateralen Luftverkehrsabkommen vor Abschluss eines einheitlich geltenden Vertrages16 b)Die 'Open Skies' - Urteile des Europäischen Gerichtshofs (EuGH) vom 5. November 200218 aa)Verletzung der Niederlassungsfreiheit gem. Art. 43 EGV19 bb)Verletzung der EU-Außenkompetenz gem. Art. 10 EGV19 cc)Auswirkungen der 'Open Skies' – Urteile20 c)Die Verhandlungen zum Abschluss eines einheitlich geltenden Luftverkehrsabkommens20 d)Exkurs: Das Bermuda II - Abkommen zwischen dem Vereinigten Königreich und den USA22 III.Das Luftverkehrsabkommen 'Open Skies'23 1.Zielsetzung des Abkommens gem. Präambel23 2.Inhaltliche Schwerpunkte des Abkommens26 a)Aufbau und Anwendungsbereich (Präambel, Art. 18, Art. 22, Anhang 4 des Abkommens)26 b)Gewährung von Rechten zugunsten der Vertragsparteien (Art. 3, Anhang 1 des Abkommens)28 c)Erlass und Widerruf von Genehmigungen (Art. 4 - 5 des Abkommens)30 d)Sicherheitsbestimmungen (Art. 8 - 9 des Abkommens)32 e)Eigentümer- und Kontrollklausel (Art. 6, Anhang 4 des Abkommens)33 f)Wettbewerbsbestimmungen (Art. 2, Art. 20, Anhang 2 - 3 des Abkommens)36 g)Unternehmerische Freiheiten (Art. 10, Anhang 5 des Abkommens)37 h)Gebühren- und Preisgestaltung (Art. 11 - 14 des Abkommens) 42 i)Gemeinsamer Ausschuss (Art. 18 des Abkommens)43 j)Inkrafttreten, Streitschlichtung, Kündigung (Art. 19, Art. 23, Art. 25 - 26 des Abkommens)45 3.Erste Wertung46 IV.Bedeutung des Abkommens und erste ökonomische Auswirkungen52 1.Evaluation des 'Open Skies' - Abkommens EU-USA52 2.Slotallokation54 3.Wirtschaftliche Auswirkungen des Abkommens57 V.Zusammenfassung der wichtigsten Ergebnisse60 Literatur- und Quellenverzeichnis62 Anhang69Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 3, Erste Wertung: Den Liberalisierungsbestrebungen der Europäischen Union gingen bereits Ende der 1990er Jahre Überlegungen zur Entwicklung eines freien transatlantischen Luftverkehrsmarkts, einer 'Transatlantic Common Aviation Area - TCAA' voraus. Dies hätte die Schaffung eines einheitlich geltenden Rechtsrahmens, innerhalb dessen der Luftverkehr hätte stattfinden sollen, impliziert. Es sollte eine umfassende Reform erfolgen. An die Stelle der bisher geltenden traditionellen Luftverkehrsabkommen sollte ein Rechtsregime treten, welches zwingend gleichermaßen für die Luftfahrtgesellschaften beider Seiten gelten sollte. Dazu hätte die Kompetenz zur Setzung einheitlicher Rechtsvorschriften von den Vertragsstaaten auf ein gemeinsames normgebendes Organ übertragen werden müssen. Einzelne Interessengruppen der Vertragspartner leisteten jedoch politischen Widerstand, unter anderem wegen sicherheitstechnischer Fragen und möglicher negativer Auswirkungen auf Arbeitsbedingungen und Arbeitnehmerrechte. Weiterhin stellten die Anforderungen an Eigentum und Kontrolle an die Unternehmen beider Vertragspartner entscheidende Hindernisse dar, da eine rechtliche Angleichung eine vollständige Öffnung des Marktes bedeutet hätte. Dies schlösse auch den US-amerikanischen Inlandsmarkt ein. Es war daher von vornherein eher unwahrscheinlich, dass sich die USA einer supranationalen Rechtsordnung unterwerfen würden. Demgegenüber stellte der Abschluss eines 'Open Skies' - Abkommens die realistische Möglichkeit dar, einen freien transatlantischen Luftverkehrsmarkt zu schaffen, jedoch unter Beibehaltung der jeweilig geltenden Rechtsordnungen. Mit der Vereinbarung des Luftverkehrsabkommens 'Open Skies' zwischen der Europäischen Union und den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika wurde ein erster Schritt zur Liberalisierung des transatlantischen Luftverkehrsmarkts getan, welcher als '… unprecedented breakthrough in the global aviation industry' gilt, '(but) several issues remain to be addressed in second stage negotiations'. Die erste Stufe des 'Open Skies' - Abkommens zwischen der EU und den USA hat, wie bereits erwähnt, nicht alle angestrebten Verhandlungsziele in die Tat umsetzen können. Von Seiten der Europäischen Union waren u. a. der Zugang zum Inlandsluftverkehrsmarkt der USA sowie einheitliche Regelungen bei der Vergabe staatlicher Beihilfen erklärte Ziele zu Beginn der Verhandlungen. Beides konnte nicht erreicht werden. Der Zugang zum US-amerikanischen Inlandsluftverkehrsmarkt bleibt weiterhin verschlossen und staatliche Beihilfen können zwar bemängelt werden, jedoch liegen keine einheitlichen Vorschriften zur Vergabe vor. Hingegen konnten auch Neuerungen in der Luftverkehrspolitik geschaffen werden, indem es beispielsweise erstmals Mitgliedsstaaten der Europäischen Union gestattet wird, eine Strecke von einem Punkt außerhalb ihres Heimatlandes in die USA zu bedienen. Im Ergebnis sind zwar die ersten Schritte gemacht worden, die den Weg zur Liberalisierung des transatlantischen Luftverkehrsmarkts beschreiten. Eine Reihe von Verhandlungseckpunkten sind jedoch auf die Entwicklung einer zweiten Stufe des Abkommens vertagt worden. Verhandlungen über ein Nachfolgeabkommen sollten gem. Art. 21 des Abkommens spätestens 60 Tage nach dem Beginn der Interimsanwendung des Abkommens, damit im Mai 2008, beginnen, um rasch Fortschritte zu erreichen. Wichtigstes Ziel ist eine weitere Öffnung der Märkte zur Schaffung von Vorteilen für die Verbraucher, Luftfahrtgesellschaften und Arbeitnehmer. Darüber hinaus sollen die Vorschriften für ausländische Investitionen weiter gelockert werden, um Bedingungen zu schaffen, die der globalen Luftfahrtindustrie eher entsprechen. Dies soll auch Drittländer dazu ermutigen, ihre eigenen Luftverkehrsmärkte dem freien Wettbewerb zu öffnen. Zur Erreichung deutlicher Fortschritte haben die Vertragsparteien die Agenda für die weiterführenden Verhandlungen bereits in der ersten Stufe des Abkommens festgelegt. Folgende Zielsetzungen werden in den kommenden Verhandlungen prioritär behandelt: - eine weitere Liberalisierung der Verkehrsrechte; - die Erweiterung der Möglichkeiten für Auslandsinvestitionen; - durch Umweltschutzmaßnahmen und infrastrukturelle Grenzen hervorgerufene Effekte; - ein breiterer Zugang zu staatlich subventioniertem Luftverkehr und wet leasing-Bestimmungen. Um hinsichtlich der genannten Tagesordnungspunkte hinreichend zügig entsprechende Fortschritte zu machen, soll ein genau festgelegter Zeitplan die Entwicklung des Nachfolgeabkommens sichern. Art. 21 Abs. 3 des Gemeinschaftsabkommens legt daher fest, dass spätestens 18 Monate nach der Aufnahme der Verhandlungen über eine zweite Stufe des Abkommens die ersten Weiterentwicklungen überprüft werden sollen. Weitere 12 Monate später soll ein Nachfolgeabkommen vereinbart worden sein. Ist dies nicht der Fall, so haben die Vertragsparteien die Option, die in diesem Abkommen gewährten Rechte zu suspendieren. Eine solche Aussetzung träte jedoch frühestens mit der Flugplanperiode in Kraft, welche ein Jahr nach Notifizierung der Aussetzung der Rechte beginnt. Der ehemalige EU-Verkehrskommissar Jacques Barrot äußerte sich gegenüber der Financial Times Deutschland in einem Interview optimistisch: 'Ich bin guter Hoffnung, dass die USA Mehrheitsbeteiligungen zulassen. Es kommen starke Impulse von den Unternehmen'. Damit erwartet die Europäische Union, dass die Regierung der Vereinigten Staaten die Eigentümer- und Kontrollvorschriften weiter lockern wird und Mehrheitsbeteiligungen an US-amerikanischen Luftfahrtgesellschaften seitens Fluggesellschaften der Mitgliedsländer der EU gestattet werden und damit eine tatsächlich Kontrolle durch ein ausländisches Unternehmen ermöglicht wird. Die Verhandlungen zur Vereinbarung einer zweiten Stufe des Abkommens, welche im Mai 2008 im slowenischen Ljubljana begonnen haben, finden vor dem Hintergrund einer schwachen Konjunktur in den USA und einer signifikanten Dollar-Schwäche statt, wodurch die US-Fluggesellschaften mit immer stärker ansteigenden Treibstoffkosten umzugehen haben. Barrot rechnet mit einem Entgegenkommen der Vereinigten Staaten und verleiht seinen Worten Nachdruck, indem er auf die Möglichkeit der EU verweist, entsprechende Anflugrechte der USA wieder zurückzuziehen. Auch Lufthansa-Chef Wolfgang Mayrhuber sieht Konsequenzen von großer Tragweite voraus, falls sich die USA nicht zur Öffnung ihres Inlandsluftverkehrsmarkts entscheiden werden. Seinen Worten zufolge verhindere dies Fusionen von Luftfahrtgesellschaften der USA mit denen der EU und begünstige damit eine beschleunigte Konsolidierung auf dem Luftverkehrsmarkt der EU. Dies führe womöglich rasch zur Schaffung eines Gegengewichts auf der EU-Seite gegenüber den bereits erfolgten Zusammenschlüssen US-amerikanischer Airlines. Sollten Joint Ventures zwischen den Luftfahrtgesellschaften der Vertragspartner verboten bleiben, so drohen möglicherweise Ankäufe von Mitbewerbern aus dem Nahen Osten. Hierbei gilt die Airline Emirates als potentieller Kandidat, die gewinnträchtigste und größte Luftfahrtgesellschaft der Erde zu werden, der die Gelegenheit nicht ungenutzt verstreichen lassen wird, die Verzögerung zu seinen Gunsten zu nutzen und Marktanteile zu gewinnen. Aus diesem Grund ist es wichtig, einen tatsächlich freien transatlantischen Luftverkehrsmarkt zu schaffen, damit eine Konsolidierung der Branche dazu genutzt werden kann, wettbewerbsfähig zu bleiben. Zusätzlich sei eine Haltungsänderung seitens der US-Amerikaner hinsichtlich des Handels mit Verschmutzungsrechten im Luftverkehr laut Aussage des französischen Kommissars mit dem Präsidentschaftswechsel zu erhoffen. Die Europäische Union will den Flugverkehr ab dem Jahr 2011 mit in den Emissionshandel einbeziehen und möchte mit den Vereinigten Staaten an einem Strang ziehen. Bisher stoßen die Vorhaben zum Klimaschutz jedoch bei US-Partnern auf Kritik. Für die Zukunft gibt es seitens der Europäischen Union große Pläne. Man arbeitet seit über 15 Jahren an dem Projekt Single European Sky, das die Aufteilung des Luftraums in größere, funktionale Gebiete als bisher entlang der Landesgrenzen vorsieht. Damit wären wesentlich weniger Überwachungsstellen notwendig, was einer Kosteneinsparung in Höhe von über vier Milliarden Euro gleichkommen würde. Zudem könnten Flüge pünktlicher sein und hätten den Vorteil eines höheren load factors. Die Umsetzung dieses Projektes wird notwendig, um überhaupt eine vergleichbare Situation zu den Vereinigten Staaten zu schaffen. Innerhalb Europas bestehen mehrere hundert Kontrollzonen, die unter nationaler Überwachung stehen. Das sind weitaus mehr als in den USA, welche nur neun Kontrollzonen besitzen. Diese werden von Kontrollzentralen mit nur einem Betriebssystem überwacht, dessen Programmierung einzig in englischer Sprache umgesetzt wird. In der EU hingegen werden 22 Computersysteme zur Überwachung betrieben, welche untereinander unvereinbar sind und mit 30 verschiedenen Programmiersprachen betrieben werden. Damit betrugen zu Beginn dieses Jahrtausends die Kosten für die Luftraumüberwachung auf der EU-Seite 667 USD pro Flug, in den Vereinigten Staaten lagen die Kosten bei nur 380 USD pro Flug. Der ehemalige EU-Verkehrskommissar arbeitete intensiv an diesem Projekt, damit das zukünftige Luftverkehrsmanagement effizienter gestaltet werden kann. Seinen Worten zufolge 'kann (man) den Luftraum nicht mehr entlang nationaler Grenzen kontrollieren. Die Airlines machen starken Druck, diesen Zustand zu ändern.' Die Vervollständigung des freien Binnenmarktes ist von enormer Bedeutung, um eine gemeinsame Luftverkehrspolitik gegenüber Drittstaaten wie den USA umsetzen zu können. Die Europäische Union muss dazu als einheitlicher Markt akzeptiert werden. Dem Handelsblatt gegenüber äußerte Barrot, dass eine zweite Stufe des Abkommen genauso wichtig sein wird wie die erste. 'Mehr als eine Milliarde Flugreisende im Jahr ist in Europa und den Vereinigten Staaten unterwegs. Wenn es uns gelingt, die Hindernisse ein für alle Mal zu beseitigen, die dem Wettbewerb auf den beiden Märkten entgegenstehen, auf die mehr als 50 Prozent des internationalen Luftverkehrs entfallen, werden wir eine neue Ära der modernen Luftfahrt einleiten'.

Although several studies have examined why overall price levels are higher in richer countries, little is known about whether there is a similar relationship at the urban and city level across countries. This paper compares the price levels of cities in Sub-Saharan Africa with those of other regions by analyzing price information collected for the 2011 round of the International Comparison Program. Readjusting the calculated price levels from national to urban levels, the analysis indicates that African cities are relatively more expensive, despite having lower income levels. The price levels of goods and services consumed by households are up to 31percent higher in Sub-Saharan Africa than in other low- and middle-income countries, relative to their income levels. Food and non-alcoholic beverages are especially expensive, with price levels around 35 percent higher than in other countries. The paper also analyzes price information collected by the Economist Intelligence Unit's Worldwide Cost of Living Survey, and obtains a similar result, indicating higher prices of goods and services in African cities.

Skowron, Jan/0000-0002-2335-1730; Sokolovsky, Kirill/0000-0001-5991-6863; Jovanovic, Miljana D/0000-0003-4298-3247; Harrison, Diana/0000-0001-8687-6588; Esenoglu, Hasan/0000-0003-3531-7510; Bonanos, Alceste Z/0000-0003-2851-1905; Liakos, Alexios/0000-0002-0490-1469; Reig, Pablo/0000-0002-6446-3050; D'Ago, Giuseppe/0000-0001-9697-7331; Martinez, Josep Manel Carrasco/0000-0002-3029-5853; Burgaz, Umut/0000-0003-0126-3999; Wyrzykowski, Lukasz/0000-0002-9658-6151; Lu, Jessica/0000-0001-9611-0009; Jensen, Eric/0000-0002-4625-7333; Chruslinska, Martyna/0000-0002-8901-6994; Mozdzierski, Dawid/0000-0002-3861-9031; Ranc, Clement/0000-0003-2388-4534; G. C., Anupama/0000-0003-3533-7183; Strobl, Jan/0000-0002-4147-2878; Russell, David/0000-0002-3500-631X; Pawlak, Michal/0000-0002-5632-9433; BAKIS, VOLKAN/0000-0002-3125-9010; Seabroke, George/0000-0003-4072-9536; Sitek, Monika/0000-0002-1568-4551; Kilic, Yucel/0000-0001-8641-0796; Netzel, Henryka/0000-0001-5608-0028; Nesci, Roberto/0000-0002-6645-6372; Iwanek, Patryk/0000-0002-6212-7221; Leto, Giuseppe/0000-0002-0040-5011; Awiphan, Supachai/0000-0003-3251-3583; Norton, Andrew/0000-0001-7619-8269; Kolb, Ulrich/0000-0001-8670-8365; Altavilla, Giuseppe/0000-0002-9934-1352; Itoh, Ryosuke/0000-0002-1183-8955; Gromadzki, Mariusz/0000-0002-1650-1518; Szegedi, Helene/0000-0002-9904-3582; Baker, Steven/0000-0002-6436-1257; Zielinski, Pawel/0000-0001-6434-9429; Kurowski, Sebastian/0000-0002-1557-0343 ; WOS:000508411900001 ; Gaia16aye was a binary microlensing event discovered in the direction towards the northern Galactic disc and was one of the first microlensing events detected and alerted to by the Gaia space mission. Its light curve exhibited five distinct brightening episodes, reaching up to I = 12 mag, and it was covered in great detail with almost 25 000 data points gathered by a network of telescopes. We present the photometric and spectroscopic follow-up covering 500 days of the event evolution. We employed a full Keplerian binary orbit microlensing model combined with the motion of Earth and Gaia around the Sun to reproduce the complex light curve. The photometric data allowed us to solve the microlensing event entirely and to derive the complete and unique set of orbital parameters of the binary lensing system. We also report on the detection of the first-ever microlensing space-parallax between the Earth and Gaia located at L2. The properties of the binary system were derived from microlensing parameters, and we found that the system is composed of two main-sequence stars with masses 0.57 +/- 0.05 M-circle dot and 0.36 +/- 0.03 M-circle dot at 780 pc, with an orbital period of 2.88 years and an eccentricity of 0.30. We also predict the astrometric microlensing signal for this binary lens as it will be seen by Gaia as well as the radial velocity curve for the binary system. Events such as Gaia16aye indicate the potential for the microlensing method of probing the mass function of dark objects, including black holes, in directions other than that of the Galactic bulge. This case also emphasises the importance of long-term time-domain coordinated observations that can be made with a network of heterogeneous telescopes. ; Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): HARMONIA NCN grant [2015/18/M/ST9/00544]; Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): OPUS NCN grant [2015/17/B/ST9/03167]; Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): DAINA NCN grant [2017/27/L/ST9/03221]; European CommissionEuropean CommissionEuropean Commission Joint Research Centre [312430, 730890]; Polish Ministry of Higher EducationMinistry of Science and Higher Education, Poland [3040/7.PR/2014/2, DIR/WK/2018/12]; MAESTRO NCN grant [2014/14/A/ST9/00121]; DDT programmes [SW2016b12, A34DDT3]; UK Science and Technology Facilities CouncilUK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC); Foundation for Polish Science (Program START); National Science Center, PolandNational Science Centre, Poland [ETIUDA 2018/28/T/ST9/00096]; Slovenian Research AgencySlovenian Research Agency - Slovenia [P1-0031, J1-8136]; COST Action GWverseEuropean Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) [CA16104]; National Research Foundation of KoreaNational Research Foundation of Korea [2017R1A4A1015178]; STFCUK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC); European Space Agency under the NELIOTA program [4000112943]; GROWTH project - National Science Foundation [1545949]; MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) [ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R, ESP2014-55996-C2-1-R, RTI2018-095076B-C21]; ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia a Maria de Maeztu) [MDM-2014-0369]; Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) [ASI I/058/10/0, ASI 2014-025-R.1.2015]; Royal Society Research GrantRoyal Society of London [RG170230]; Ministry of Science and Technology (Taiwan)Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan [104-2112-M-008-012MY3, 104-2923-M-008-004-MY5]; European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant [320964]; Gordon and Betty Moore FoundationGordon and Betty Moore Foundation [GBMF5490]; NSFNational Science Foundation (NSF) [AST-1515927, AST-0908816, AST-1412587]; Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation; Center for Cosmology and AstroParticle Physics at the Ohio State UniversityOhio State University; Chinese Academy of Sciences South America Center for Astronomy (CAS-SACA); Villum Foundation; MINECO under the Ramon y Cajal programme [RYC-2016-20254]; MINECO [AYA2017-86274-P]; AGAUR grantAgencia de Gestio D'Ajuts Universitaris de Recerca Agaur (AGAUR) [SGR-661/2017]; Science and Technology Facilities CouncilUK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) [ST/P000541/1]; STFC consolidated grant [ST/M001296/1]; Research Council of LithuaniaResearch Council of Lithuania (LMTLT) [S-LL-19-2]; TUB.ITAKTurkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu (TUBITAK); IKI; KFU; AST; National Science Fund (Bulgaria)National Science Fund of Bulgaria [DN 18/13-12.12.2017]; Institute of Astronomy via research project "Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects"; NAO Rozhen, BAS, via research project "Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects"; Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia [176011, 176004, 176021]; DFGGerman Research Foundation (DFG)European Commission [SPP 1992, WA 1074/11-1]; NCN [2016/21/B/ST9/01126]; MINECO Ramon y Cajal programme [AYA2017-86274-P, RYJ-2016-20254]; Robert Martin Ayers Sciences Fund; National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNational Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) [NNX08AR22G]; National Science FoundationNational Science Foundation (NSF) [AST-1238877]; W. M. Keck FoundationW.M. Keck Foundation; ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia 'Maria de Maeztu') [MDM-2014-0369]; [3.6714.2017/8.9] ; This work relies on the results from the European Space Agency (ESA) space mission Gaia. Gaia data are being processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC is provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multi-Lateral Agreement (MLA). The Gaia mission website is https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia.In particular we acknowledge Gaia Photomet-ric Science Alerts Team, website http://gsaweb.ast.cam.ac.uk/alerts.We thank the members of the OGLE team for discussions and support. We also would like to thank the Polish Children Fund (KFnRD) for support of an internship of their pupils in Ostrowik Observatory of the Warsaw Univ-ersity, during which some of the data were collected, in particular we thank: Robert Nowicki, Michal Por.ebski and Karol Niczyj. The work presented here has been supported by the following grants from the Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): HARMONIA NCN grant 2015/18/M/ST9/00544, OPUS NCN grant 2015/17/B/ST9/03167, DAINA NCN grant 2017/27/L/ST9/03221, as well as European Commission's FP7 and H2020 OPTICON grants (312430 and 730890), Polish Ministry of Higher Education support for OPTICON FP7, 3040/7.PR/2014/2, MNiSW grant DIR/WK/2018/12. PMr and JS acknowledge support from MAESTRO NCN grant 2014/14/A/ST9/00121 to Andrzej Udal-ski. We would like to thank the following members of the AAVSO for their amazing work with collecting vast amounts of data: Teofilo Arranz, James Boardman, Stephen Brincat, Geoff Chaplin, Emery Erdelyi, Rafael Farfan, William Goff, Franklin Guenther, Kevin Hills, Jens Jacobsen, Raymond Kneip, David Lane, Fernando Limon Martinez, Gianpiero Locatelli, Andrea Mantero, Attila Madai, Peter Meadows, Otmar Nickel, Arto Oksanen, Luis Perez, Roger Pieri, Ulisse Quadri, Diego Rodriguez Perez, Frank Schorr, George Sjoberg, Andras Timar, Ray Tomlin, Tonny Vanmunster, Klaus Wenzel, Thomas Wikander. We also thank the amateur observers from around the world, in particular, Pietro Capuozzo, Leone Trascianelli, Igor Zharkov from Ardingly College and Angelo Tomassini, Karl-Ludwig Bath. We also thank Roger Pickard from the British Astronomical Association and Matthias Penselin from the German Haus der Astronomie association for their contributions. KS thanks Dr. Dmitry Chulkov and Dr. Panagiotis Gavras for the interesting discussion of stellar multiplicity. We acknowledge support of DDT programmes SW2016b12 (WHT) and A34DDT3 (TNG). The INT, TNG and WHT are operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. SJF would like to thank the UCL students who assisted with the collection and checking of UCLO data for the observing campaign: Martina Aghopian, Ashleigh Arendt, Artem Barinov, Luke Barrett, Jasper Berry-Gair, Arjun Bhogal, Charles Bowesman, William Boyd, Andrei Cuceu, Michael Davies, Max Freedman, Gabriel Fu, Abirami Govindaraju, Iandeep Hothi, Clara Matthews Torres, Darius Modirrousta-Galian, Petru Neague, George Pattinson, Xiaoxi Song, and Brian Yu. P.Mr. acknowledges support from the Foundation for Polish Science (Program START) and the National Science Center, Poland (grant ETIUDA 2018/28/T/ST9/00096).; r r AC, AG and NI acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P1-0031 and project grant No. J1-8136)and networking support by the COST Action GWverse CA16104. Skinakas Observatory is a collaborative project of the University of Crete and the Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas. Work by C.H. was supported by the grant (2017R1A4A1015178) of National Research Foundation of Korea. KW acknowledges funding from STFC, and thanks the University of Lei-cester for the investment in instrumentation. We gratefully acknowledge financial support by the European Space Agency under the NELIOTA program, contract No. 4000112943. This work has made use of data obtained with the Kryoneri Prime Focus Instrument, developed by the European Space Agency NELIOTA project on the 1.2 m Kryoneri telescope, which is operated by IAASARS, National Observatory of Athens, Greece. The Aristarchos tele-scope is operated on Helmos Observatory by the IAASARS of the National Observatory of Athens. This work was supported by the GROWTH project funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant No 1545949. This work was supported by the MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) through grant ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R (MINECO/FEDER, UE) and ESP2014-55996-C2-1-R (MINECO/FEDER, UE) and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia a Maria de Maeztu). This work was supported by the MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) through grant ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R and RTI2018-095076B-C21 (MINECO/FEDER, UE), and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia 'Maria de Maeztu'). The Joan Oro Telescope (TJO) of the Montsec Astronomical Observatory (OAdM) is owned by the Catalan Government and is operated by the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia (IEEC). Support to this study has been provided by Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) through grants ASI I/058/10/0 and ASI 2014-025-R.1.2015. KW thanks Dipali Thanki and Ray McErlean for their technical support of the scientific programme of the University of Leicester observatory. This work was supported by Royal Society Research Grant RG170230. CCN thanks the funding from Ministry of Science and Technology (Taiwan) under the contracts 104-2112-M-008-012MY3 and 104-2923-M-008-004-MY5. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement n. 320964 (WDTracer). We thank the Las Cumbres Observatory and its sta ff for its continuing support of the project. ASAS-SN is supported by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through grant GBMF5490 to the Ohio State University and NSF grant AST-1515927. Development of ASAS-SN has been supported by NSF grant AST-0908816, the Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation, the Center for Cosmology and AstroParticle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Chinese Academy of Sciences South America Center for Astronomy (CAS-SACA), the Villum Foundation, and George Skestos. ARM acknowledges support from the MINECO under the Ramon y Cajal programme (RYC-2016-20254) and the AYA2017-86274-P grant, and the AGAUR grant SGR-661/2017. We acknowledge support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (TB and RWW; ST/P000541/1). K.Horne acknowledges support from STFC consolidated grant ST/M001296/1. This work was partly supported by the Research Council of Lithuania, grant No. S-LL-19-2 Authors thank to TUB.ITAK, IKI, KFU, and AST for partial supports in using RTT150 (Russian-Turkish 1.5-m telescope in Antalya).; r r This work was partially funded by the subsidy 3.6714.2017/8.9 allocated to Kazan Federal University for the state assignment in the sphere of scientific activities. This research was partially supported by contract DN 18/13-12.12.2017 with the National Science Fund (Bulgaria). Work by YS was supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, administered by Uni-versities Space Research Associ-ation through a contract with NASA. GD gratefully acknowledges the obser-ving grant support from the Institute of Astronomy and NAO Rozhen, BAS, via bilateral joint research project "Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects" (PI:G.Damljanovic). This work is a part of the Projects no. 176011 "Dynamics and kinematics of celestial bodies and systems", no. 176004 "Stellar physics" and no. 176021 "Visible and invisible matter in nearby galaxies: theory and observations" supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. YT acknowledges the support of DFG priority program SPP 1992 "Exploring the diversity of Extrasolar Planets" (WA 1074/11-1). This work of PMi, DM and ZK was supported by the NCN grant no. 2016/21/B/ST9/01126. ARM acknowledges support from the MINECO Ramon y Cajal programme RYJ-2016-20254 and grant AYA2017-86274-P and from the AGAUR grant SGR-661/2017. The work by C. R. was supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by USRA through a contract with NASA. The Faulkes Telescope Project is an education partner of Las Cumbres Observatory (LCO). The Faulkes Telescopes are maintained and operated by LCO. This research was made possible through the use of the AAVSO Photomet-ric All-Sky Survey (APASS), funded by the Robert Martin Ayers Sciences Fund and NSF AST-1412587. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project O ffice, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen's University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incor-porated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Sci-ence Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Ins-titute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation.