Lawrence Aaron Nixon, born in Marshall, Texas, in 1883—as Will Guzmán chronicles in Civil Rights in the Texas Borderlands—grew to manhood at a time when whites in the Lone Star State, across the South, and indeed, across the entire United States, were vigorously undoing the gains achieved by blacks during the Civil War and Reconstruction, all the while imposing Jim Crow laws and practices. Despite these obstacles, Nixon graduated from Wiley College in Texas in 1902 and from Meharry Medical College in Tennessee in 1906. Shortly after establishing his practice in Cameron, Texas, in 1907, Nixon witnessed an act of racist vengeance when a mob executed a black prisoner: "Nixon was at his medical office at the time and remembers 'that chairs were placed on the balcony of the two-story building to accommodate the crowds gathered to witness the lynching,' while he stayed behind locked doors in his office, 'listening to the cries of the dying man'" (27). Anxious to leave Cameron, but reluctant to return to Marshall where lynchers had recently killed four blacks, Nixon went west and settled in the rapidly growing city of El Paso in 1909. Over the ensuing decades, Nixon played an important role in his adopted city as a physician and civil rights activist. Despite El Paso's relatively liberal reputation, blacks lived under stifling restrictions. Whites in El Paso limited Blacks to certain areas, such as the second ward neighborhood near downtown. This could be done in subtle ways, but it was also often accomplished through overt tactics such as racially restrictive covenants that simply stated 'said property shall not be sold to nor occupied by Negroes, nor for any immoral use.' By forcing Blacks to live in overcrowded areas, racially restrictive covenants 'imposed social disintegration, social pathology, and personal ill health on them' (47). As head of the El Paso Negro Ministerial Alliance, Nixon unsuccessfully petitioned the city in 1924 to honor its commitment to build a swimming pool for blacks in the city's principal park. He also became a founding member of the El Paso branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Even as the Ku Klux Klan assumed a major presence in El Paso, he "helped lay the foundation for Black voting rights in the South as the central plaintiff in two landmark US Supreme Court cases: Nixon v. Herndon (1927) and Nixon v. Condon (1932), and the little-discussed case of Nixon v. McCann (1934), Nixon's third attempt to dismantle the all-white Democratic primary." In so doing, he, "along with the NAACP, helped set legal precedent that ultimately led, in Smith v. Allwright (1944), to the dismantling of all-white primaries throughout the entire South" (67). Nixon was a strong candidate for plaintiff because he did not derive his income from whites, because he regularly paid his poll tax, and because—unlike most blacks—he was a registered Democrat who could plausibly claim the right to participate in the selection of the party candidate. Although Nixon and the NAACP prevailed in the first two cases, segregationists ultimately found loopholes that enabled them to maintain their exclusionary practices. Finally, between 1926 and 1934, Nixon invested his time and energy into establishing a hospital in El Paso for blacks suffering from tuberculosis, a dream that he pursued with his characteristic vigor but could not realize due to a lack of institutional support and funds. An ambitious and courageous professional and activist, Nixon's life and works rightfully deserve scholarly attention. With his exploration of archival and oral history sources, Will Guzmán has undertaken an important subject. Nevertheless, Civil Rights in the Texas Borderlands does not reconcile the theory presented in its introduction with the aims and the substance of the book. For instance, Guzmán clearly assumes that the civil rights movement occurred after World War II, an assumption at odds with his effort to write a history of one civil rights activist in the pre- and post-World War I periods. Nixon's life reveals much about the engagement of black professionals "in so-called racial uplift during the pre-civil rights movement" (1), he writes in one place; in another, he declares that "the pre-civil rights movement paved the way for all future actions" (7). Guzmán frames his subject as important only as precursor to the real movement decades later rather than as part of a deeper social justice struggle. He also misses an opportunity to engage the vibrant debate over the long civil rights movement. Although the book's title promises to situate Nixon in the borderlands, Guzmán doesn't follow through. He discusses the borderlands as concept and geographical space only in his introduction. Civil Rights in the Texas Borderlands makes surprisingly little effort to locate El Paso within this context and rarely invokes the larger social and racial milieu. The Mexican Revolution, an event of major importance, is barely mentioned. Nor did Nixon's activism reach across the "borderlands." The closest that Guzmán comes is in a reference to poet Langston Hughes's observation, after visiting El Paso, that "'it was strange to find that just by stepping across an invisible line into Mexico . . . so suddenly did Jim Crow disappear'" (46). While Guzmán references Mexicans and Mexican Americans throughout the book, they play a peripheral role, irrelevant background characters in a story revolving around black-white relations (despite the fact that "Mexican and Mexican Americans were in the majority" (4) in El Paso). The author does not mention the Santa Ysabel massacre of 1915, the El Paso race riot of 1916, or the El Paso bath riots of 1917. These ugly conflicts involved white and ethnic Mexican combatants, profoundly shaped local and regional race relations, and must surely have influenced Nixon. Given these absences, Guzmán is unconvincing when he asserts that the "particular, if not unique, racial climate in El Paso, and by extension the borderlands, permitted Nixon to take a proactive stance and engage in a heightened level of activism" (112). Guzmán situates his story "in the US West" (4), but this positioning also shifts in telling ways. He rightly challenges assumptions that the West was a racial utopia that differed markedly from the racist reality to the East, as "the western frontier did not turn out to offer the future southern Blacks had hoped for" (5). He never backtracks on that assertion, but he does make El Paso and its white citizens "southern" for the purposes of discussing a Jim Crow system that he views as inherently of the South. "Change was brewing for the South, and though for many the change brought hope, there were others who saw this change as a threat," he writes in his discussion of Nixon and the white primary. The rise of the Ku Klux Klan in El Paso and elsewhere proved that the Civil War "still burned in many southern communities" (68). He notes that the mayor was "a child of the segregated South who was born and raised during the Civil War and Reconstruction era," a man who "was not about to challenge the racial norms that [white] El Paso wanted to preserve" (63). Guzmán does not address the fact that, if whites in El Paso "wanted to preserve" segregation, they must have shared the mayor's "southern" views—irrespective of their sectional origins. (When another mayor—this one "from Iowa" (106)—vetoed an antidiscrimination measure in 1962, his racist attitudes aren't ascribed to Midwestern origins.) Wedded to inflexible notions of the "South" and the "West," Guzmán misses the opportunity to sketch the messy reality of race relations in El Paso. Sometimes Guzmán seems to claim more than his evidence can sustain. It does not denigrate Nixon's labors on behalf of black people or deny the courage and determination he exhibited to suggest that he was a more peripheral player in the El Paso movement than Civil Rights in the Texas Borderlands suggests. Throughout, Guzmán provides tangential discussions of people and events, and then, by means of a single sentence or two, ties them to Nixon. He reports, for instance, that Booker T. Washington visited El Paso in 1911, provides a brief biography of the black leader, and excerpts his speech, only to write, "Even if Lawrence Nixon did not attend Booker T. Washington's event in El Paso, he certainly must have been aware of it and learned what took place" (44). He writes of a 1933 petition to integrate the city pool, "a petition signed by 123 people (one of whom was perhaps Nixon . . . )" (64). Guzmán could have strengthened Civil Rights in the Texas Borderlands by examining the El Paso civil rights movement more broadly—including figures other than Nixon who played central roles in many of the episodes he describes—and by writing Mexicans and Mexican Americans more fully into the story. This would have added complexity to the narrative and provided a more convincing and multidimensional portrait of race relations and the civil rights movement as they unfolded in one place along the border.
Background. The article discusses approaches to reforming the Health Care System of Ukraine, the key objectives of which are: strengthening preventive services, the increasing of an accessibility and quality of health care, the enhancement of a primary health care, improving of a personnel maintenance, upgrading of an infrastructure and ensuring a fairness in health care, and also some legislative outcomes of the Institute of Family Medicine. The purpose of the study is to analyze the current regulatory framework for the functioning of the Health Care System, the state of health of the population, as well as the prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors, which is a priority public health problem. Results. The UN Millennium Declaration, adopted in 2000 by 189 countries at the UN Millennium Summit, set the Millennium Development Goals. At the beginning of the Millennium, Ukraine demonstrated relatively strong economic growth, which contributed to the improvement of the social situation in the country and had a positive impact on the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. At the same time, the effects of the armed conflict in the East, the uncertainty of development trends and adverse foreign economic conditions have been the main reasons of the economic downturn and declining production volumes. At present, it is necessary of an arrangement the problems back off economic growth in Ukraine and to create a system of "drivers" of accelerating economic development and ensuring changes in its quality. The outcome document of the Summit on "Transforming Our World: A 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" approved 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 Tasks. Today, in Ukraine, as in most European countries, the high prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors is an urgent problem. This is a priority public health problem that has a negative impact on the medical and demographic situation and causes high rates of morbidity, disability, mortality and short life expectancy. One of the Sustainable Development Goals is "Strong Health and Wellbeing" (Goal 3), which is undergoing significant progress in the development of medicine globally. In accordance with resolution WHA62.12, (Strategy 3) The reorientation of the healthcare model means creating the conditions in which effective and efficient health care services are developed, funded and delivered in accordance with innovative health care models, which prioritize primary and community health care services and joint actions to strengthen health. In this regard, a Strategic Approach to the Development of Ukraine's Health Care System should be developed and priorities identified throughout the life cycle of health care services. This approach means assessing the full range of health services offered at different levels of the Health Care System, based on the best available data and expected over the entire life cycle. Formation and implementation of an integrated cross-sectoral approach is an important prerequisite for successful implementation of modern strategic goals in the field of health care, including, carrying out preventive measures to eliminate the negative impact of social determinants of health, creating conditions for saving and promoting the health of the population, approval healthy lifestyle, formation of responsible attitude of each person to personal health. In 2017, the Institute of Family Medicine drafted the Law of Ukraine "On Primary Health Care on the Basis of Family Medicine". The main purpose of family medicine - based a primary health care as a basis for health care is to ensure that affordable, timely, high-quality and effective primary health care is provided to the patient, to improve public health, to save, restore and promote public health. Conclusions. Any action to modernize the Health Care System should be accompanied by a concerted effort by all parties (patients, the medical community, the legislature and the executive, as well as local authorities) to ensure that healthcare professionals and the public are interested in an effective Health Care System. ; Актуальность. В статье обсуждаются подходы к реформированию системы здравоохранения Украины, ключевыми задачами которой являются: укрепление профилактических служб, повышение доступности и качества медицинского обслуживания, совершенствование первичной медицинской помощи, улучшение кадрового обеспечения, модернизация инфраструктуры и обеспечения справедливости в здравоохранении, а также некоторые результаты деятельности Института семейной медицины на законодательном уровне. Целью исследования является анализ современного нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования системы здравоохранения, состояния здоровья населения, а также распространенности хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска, что является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья. Результаты. «Декларация тысячелетия» ООН, которая была принята в 2000 году 189-ю странами на Саммите тысячелетия ООН, определила Цели Развития Тысячелетия. В начале тысячелетия Украина демонстрировала относительно устойчивый экономический рост, что способствовало улучшению социальной ситуации в стране и, как следствие, положительно влияло на достижение Целей Развития Тысячелетия. В то же время, последствия вооруженного конфликта на Востоке страны, неопределенность направлений развития и неблагоприятная внешнеэкономическая конъюнктура стали основными факторами экономического спада и уменьшения объемов производства. Сейчас необходимо решение проблем, тормозящих экономический рост в Украине, и создание системы «драйверов» ускорения экономического развития и обеспечения изменений в его качестве. Итоговым документом саммита «Превращение нашего мира: повестка дня в области устойчивого развития до 2030 года» было утверждено 17 Целей Устойчивого Развития и 169 задач. Сегодня в Украине, как и в большинстве европейских стран, актуальной проблемой является значительная распространенность хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска. Это является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья, которая негативно сказывается на медико-демографической ситуации и обусловливает высокие уровни заболеваемости, инвалидности, смертности и короткую продолжительность жизни. Одной из целей устойчивого развития является «Крепкое здоровье и благополучие» (3 Цель), которая осуществляется в условиях существенного прогресса в развитии медицины на глобальном уровне. В соответствии с резолюцией WHA62.12, (Стратегия 3) Переориентация модели здравоохранения означает создание таких условий, в которых эффективные и результативные медико-санитарные услуги разрабатываются, финансируются и предоставляются в соответствии с новаторскими моделями здравоохранения, в которых приоритет отдается первичным и общинным медико-санитарным услугам и общим мерам по укреплению здоровья. В связи с этим, необходимо разработать стратегический подход к развитию системы здравоохранения Украины и определить приоритеты в области медицинских услуг на основе потребностей в течение всего жизненного цикла. Этот подход означает оценку всего комплекса медико-санитарных услуг, которые предлагаются на различных уровнях системы здравоохранения, и основанные на наилучших имеющихся данных и рассчитаны на весь жизненный цикл. Формирование и внедрение комплексного межсекторального подхода является важной предпосылкой успешной реализации современных стратегических задач в сфере здравоохранения, в том числе, проведение профилактических мероприятий по устранению негативного влияния социальных детерминант здоровья, создание условий для сохранения и укрепления здоровья населения, утверждения здорового образа жизни, формирование ответственного отношения каждого человека к личному здоровью. В 2017 г. Институтом семейной медицины был разработан проект Закона Украины «О первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины». Главной целью первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины, как основы здравоохранения, является обеспечение предоставления гарантированного объема доступной, своевременной, качественной и эффективной первичной медицинской помощи пациенту, улучшение состояния общественного здоровья, сохранение, восстановление и укрепление здоровья населения. Выводы. Любые меры, направленные на модернизацию системы здравоохранения, должны сопровождаться совместными усилиями всех сторон (пациентов, медицинского сообщества, органов законодательной и исполнительной власти, а также органов местного самоуправления) в обеспечении заинтересованности медицинских работников и населения в эффективной системе здравоохранения. ; Актуальність. У статті обговорюються підходи до реформування системи охорони здоров'я України, ключовими завданнями якої є: зміцнення профілактичних служб, підвищення доступності та якості медичного обслуговування, вдосконалення первинної медичної допомоги, поліпшення кадрового забезпечення, модернізація інфраструктури та забезпечення справедливості в охороні здоров'я, а також деякі результати діяльності Інституту сімейної медицини на законодавчому рівні. Метою дослідження є аналіз сучасного нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування системи охорони здоров'я, стану здоров'я населення, а також поширеності хронічних неінфекційних захворювань та факторів їх ризику, що є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я. Результати. «Декларація тисячоліття» ООН, яка була прийнята у 2000 р. 189-ма країнами на Саміті тисячоліття ООН, визначила Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття. На початку тисячоліття Україна демонструвала відносно стійке економічне зростання, що сприяло покращанню соціальної ситуації в країні та справило позитивний вплив на досягнення Цілей Розвитку Тисячоліття. У той же час, наслідки збройного конфлікту на Сході країни, невизначеність напрямів розвитку та несприятлива зовнішньоекономічна кон'юнктура стали основними чинниками економічного спаду та зменшення обсягів виробництва. Наразі необхідним є розв'язання проблем, що гальмують економічне зростання в Україні, та створення системи «драйверів» прискорення економічного розвитку й забезпечення змін його якості. Підсумковим документом Саміту «Перетворення нашого світу: порядок денний у сфері сталого розвитку до 2030 року» було затверджено 17 Цілей Сталого Розвитку та 169 завдань. Сьогодні в Україні, як і в більшості європейських країн, актуальною проблемою є значна поширеність хронічних неінфекційних захворювань і факторів їх ризику. Це є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я, яка негативно позначається на медико-демографічній ситуації та обумовлює високі рівні захворюваності, інвалідності, смертності і коротку тривалість життя. Однією з Цілей Сталого Розвитку є «Міцне здоров'я і благополуччя» (3 Ціль), яка здійснюється в умовах істотного прогресу щодо розвитку медицини на глобальному рівні. Відповідно до резолюції WHA62.12, (Стратегія 3) Переорієнтація моделі охорони здоров'я означає створення таких умов, в яких ефективні і результативні медико-санітарні послуги розробляються, фінансуються та надаються відповідно до новаторських моделей охорони здоров'я, в яких пріоритет надається первинним медико-санітарним послугам і спільним заходам щодо зміцнення здоров'я. У зв'язку з цим, необхідно розробити стратегічний підхід щодо розвитку системи охорони здоров'я України та визначити пріоритети в області медичних послуг на основі потреб протягом усього життєвого циклу. Цей підхід означає оцінку всього комплексу медико-санітарних послуг, які пропонуються на різних рівнях системи охорони здоров'я, і засновані на найкращих наявних даних і розраховані на весь життєвий цикл. Формування та впровадження комплексного міжсекторального підходу є важливою передумовою успішної реалізації сучасних стратегічних завдань у сфері охорони здоров'я, у тому числі, проведення профілактичних заходів щодо усунення негативного впливу соціальних детермінант здоров'я, створення умов для збереження і зміцнення здоров'я населення, утвердження здорового способу життя, формування відповідального ставлення кожної людини до особистого здоров'я. У 2017 р. Інститутом сімейної медицини НМАПО імені П. Л. Шупика було розроблено проект Закону України «Про первинну медичну допомогу на засадах сімейної медицини». Головною метою первинної медичної допомоги на засадах сімейної медицини, як основи охорони здоров'я, є забезпечення надання гарантованого обсягу доступної, своєчасної, якісної та ефективної первинної медичної допомоги пацієнту, покращання стану громадського здоров'я, збереження, відновлення та зміцнення здоров'я населення. Висновки. Будь-які заходи, спрямовані на модернізацію системи охорони здоров'я, повинні супроводжуватись спільними зусиллями всіх сторін (пацієнтів, медичної спільноти, органів законодавчої та виконавчої влади, а також органів місцевого самоврядування) у забезпеченні зацікавленості медичних працівників та населення в ефективній системі охорони здоров'я.
Background. The article discusses approaches to reforming the Health Care System of Ukraine, the key objectives of which are: strengthening preventive services, the increasing of an accessibility and quality of health care, the enhancement of a primary health care, improving of a personnel maintenance, upgrading of an infrastructure and ensuring a fairness in health care, and also some legislative outcomes of the Institute of Family Medicine. The purpose of the study is to analyze the current regulatory framework for the functioning of the Health Care System, the state of health of the population, as well as the prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors, which is a priority public health problem. Results. The UN Millennium Declaration, adopted in 2000 by 189 countries at the UN Millennium Summit, set the Millennium Development Goals. At the beginning of the Millennium, Ukraine demonstrated relatively strong economic growth, which contributed to the improvement of the social situation in the country and had a positive impact on the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. At the same time, the effects of the armed conflict in the East, the uncertainty of development trends and adverse foreign economic conditions have been the main reasons of the economic downturn and declining production volumes. At present, it is necessary of an arrangement the problems back off economic growth in Ukraine and to create a system of "drivers" of accelerating economic development and ensuring changes in its quality. The outcome document of the Summit on "Transforming Our World: A 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" approved 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 Tasks. Today, in Ukraine, as in most European countries, the high prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors is an urgent problem. This is a priority public health problem that has a negative impact on the medical and demographic situation and causes high rates of morbidity, disability, mortality and short life expectancy. One of the Sustainable Development Goals is "Strong Health and Wellbeing" (Goal 3), which is undergoing significant progress in the development of medicine globally. In accordance with resolution WHA62.12, (Strategy 3) The reorientation of the healthcare model means creating the conditions in which effective and efficient health care services are developed, funded and delivered in accordance with innovative health care models, which prioritize primary and community health care services and joint actions to strengthen health. In this regard, a Strategic Approach to the Development of Ukraine's Health Care System should be developed and priorities identified throughout the life cycle of health care services. This approach means assessing the full range of health services offered at different levels of the Health Care System, based on the best available data and expected over the entire life cycle. Formation and implementation of an integrated cross-sectoral approach is an important prerequisite for successful implementation of modern strategic goals in the field of health care, including, carrying out preventive measures to eliminate the negative impact of social determinants of health, creating conditions for saving and promoting the health of the population, approval healthy lifestyle, formation of responsible attitude of each person to personal health. In 2017, the Institute of Family Medicine drafted the Law of Ukraine "On Primary Health Care on the Basis of Family Medicine". The main purpose of family medicine - based a primary health care as a basis for health care is to ensure that affordable, timely, high-quality and effective primary health care is provided to the patient, to improve public health, to save, restore and promote public health. Conclusions. Any action to modernize the Health Care System should be accompanied by a concerted effort by all parties (patients, the medical community, the legislature and the executive, as well as local authorities) to ensure that healthcare professionals and the public are interested in an effective Health Care System. ; Актуальность. В статье обсуждаются подходы к реформированию системы здравоохранения Украины, ключевыми задачами которой являются: укрепление профилактических служб, повышение доступности и качества медицинского обслуживания, совершенствование первичной медицинской помощи, улучшение кадрового обеспечения, модернизация инфраструктуры и обеспечения справедливости в здравоохранении, а также некоторые результаты деятельности Института семейной медицины на законодательном уровне. Целью исследования является анализ современного нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования системы здравоохранения, состояния здоровья населения, а также распространенности хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска, что является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья. Результаты. «Декларация тысячелетия» ООН, которая была принята в 2000 году 189-ю странами на Саммите тысячелетия ООН, определила Цели Развития Тысячелетия. В начале тысячелетия Украина демонстрировала относительно устойчивый экономический рост, что способствовало улучшению социальной ситуации в стране и, как следствие, положительно влияло на достижение Целей Развития Тысячелетия. В то же время, последствия вооруженного конфликта на Востоке страны, неопределенность направлений развития и неблагоприятная внешнеэкономическая конъюнктура стали основными факторами экономического спада и уменьшения объемов производства. Сейчас необходимо решение проблем, тормозящих экономический рост в Украине, и создание системы «драйверов» ускорения экономического развития и обеспечения изменений в его качестве. Итоговым документом саммита «Превращение нашего мира: повестка дня в области устойчивого развития до 2030 года» было утверждено 17 Целей Устойчивого Развития и 169 задач. Сегодня в Украине, как и в большинстве европейских стран, актуальной проблемой является значительная распространенность хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска. Это является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья, которая негативно сказывается на медико-демографической ситуации и обусловливает высокие уровни заболеваемости, инвалидности, смертности и короткую продолжительность жизни. Одной из целей устойчивого развития является «Крепкое здоровье и благополучие» (3 Цель), которая осуществляется в условиях существенного прогресса в развитии медицины на глобальном уровне. В соответствии с резолюцией WHA62.12, (Стратегия 3) Переориентация модели здравоохранения означает создание таких условий, в которых эффективные и результативные медико-санитарные услуги разрабатываются, финансируются и предоставляются в соответствии с новаторскими моделями здравоохранения, в которых приоритет отдается первичным и общинным медико-санитарным услугам и общим мерам по укреплению здоровья. В связи с этим, необходимо разработать стратегический подход к развитию системы здравоохранения Украины и определить приоритеты в области медицинских услуг на основе потребностей в течение всего жизненного цикла. Этот подход означает оценку всего комплекса медико-санитарных услуг, которые предлагаются на различных уровнях системы здравоохранения, и основанные на наилучших имеющихся данных и рассчитаны на весь жизненный цикл. Формирование и внедрение комплексного межсекторального подхода является важной предпосылкой успешной реализации современных стратегических задач в сфере здравоохранения, в том числе, проведение профилактических мероприятий по устранению негативного влияния социальных детерминант здоровья, создание условий для сохранения и укрепления здоровья населения, утверждения здорового образа жизни, формирование ответственного отношения каждого человека к личному здоровью. В 2017 г. Институтом семейной медицины был разработан проект Закона Украины «О первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины». Главной целью первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины, как основы здравоохранения, является обеспечение предоставления гарантированного объема доступной, своевременной, качественной и эффективной первичной медицинской помощи пациенту, улучшение состояния общественного здоровья, сохранение, восстановление и укрепление здоровья населения. Выводы. Любые меры, направленные на модернизацию системы здравоохранения, должны сопровождаться совместными усилиями всех сторон (пациентов, медицинского сообщества, органов законодательной и исполнительной власти, а также органов местного самоуправления) в обеспечении заинтересованности медицинских работников и населения в эффективной системе здравоохранения. ; Актуальність. У статті обговорюються підходи до реформування системи охорони здоров'я України, ключовими завданнями якої є: зміцнення профілактичних служб, підвищення доступності та якості медичного обслуговування, вдосконалення первинної медичної допомоги, поліпшення кадрового забезпечення, модернізація інфраструктури та забезпечення справедливості в охороні здоров'я, а також деякі результати діяльності Інституту сімейної медицини на законодавчому рівні. Метою дослідження є аналіз сучасного нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування системи охорони здоров'я, стану здоров'я населення, а також поширеності хронічних неінфекційних захворювань та факторів їх ризику, що є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я. Результати. «Декларація тисячоліття» ООН, яка була прийнята у 2000 р. 189-ма країнами на Саміті тисячоліття ООН, визначила Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття. На початку тисячоліття Україна демонструвала відносно стійке економічне зростання, що сприяло покращанню соціальної ситуації в країні та справило позитивний вплив на досягнення Цілей Розвитку Тисячоліття. У той же час, наслідки збройного конфлікту на Сході країни, невизначеність напрямів розвитку та несприятлива зовнішньоекономічна кон'юнктура стали основними чинниками економічного спаду та зменшення обсягів виробництва. Наразі необхідним є розв'язання проблем, що гальмують економічне зростання в Україні, та створення системи «драйверів» прискорення економічного розвитку й забезпечення змін його якості. Підсумковим документом Саміту «Перетворення нашого світу: порядок денний у сфері сталого розвитку до 2030 року» було затверджено 17 Цілей Сталого Розвитку та 169 завдань. Сьогодні в Україні, як і в більшості європейських країн, актуальною проблемою є значна поширеність хронічних неінфекційних захворювань і факторів їх ризику. Це є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я, яка негативно позначається на медико-демографічній ситуації та обумовлює високі рівні захворюваності, інвалідності, смертності і коротку тривалість життя. Однією з Цілей Сталого Розвитку є «Міцне здоров'я і благополуччя» (3 Ціль), яка здійснюється в умовах істотного прогресу щодо розвитку медицини на глобальному рівні. Відповідно до резолюції WHA62.12, (Стратегія 3) Переорієнтація моделі охорони здоров'я означає створення таких умов, в яких ефективні і результативні медико-санітарні послуги розробляються, фінансуються та надаються відповідно до новаторських моделей охорони здоров'я, в яких пріоритет надається первинним медико-санітарним послугам і спільним заходам щодо зміцнення здоров'я. У зв'язку з цим, необхідно розробити стратегічний підхід щодо розвитку системи охорони здоров'я України та визначити пріоритети в області медичних послуг на основі потреб протягом усього життєвого циклу. Цей підхід означає оцінку всього комплексу медико-санітарних послуг, які пропонуються на різних рівнях системи охорони здоров'я, і засновані на найкращих наявних даних і розраховані на весь життєвий цикл. Формування та впровадження комплексного міжсекторального підходу є важливою передумовою успішної реалізації сучасних стратегічних завдань у сфері охорони здоров'я, у тому числі, проведення профілактичних заходів щодо усунення негативного впливу соціальних детермінант здоров'я, створення умов для збереження і зміцнення здоров'я населення, утвердження здорового способу життя, формування відповідального ставлення кожної людини до особистого здоров'я. У 2017 р. Інститутом сімейної медицини НМАПО імені П. Л. Шупика було розроблено проект Закону України «Про первинну медичну допомогу на засадах сімейної медицини». Головною метою первинної медичної допомоги на засадах сімейної медицини, як основи охорони здоров'я, є забезпечення надання гарантованого обсягу доступної, своєчасної, якісної та ефективної первинної медичної допомоги пацієнту, покращання стану громадського здоров'я, збереження, відновлення та зміцнення здоров'я населення. Висновки. Будь-які заходи, спрямовані на модернізацію системи охорони здоров'я, повинні супроводжуватись спільними зусиллями всіх сторін (пацієнтів, медичної спільноти, органів законодавчої та виконавчої влади, а також органів місцевого самоврядування) у забезпеченні зацікавленості медичних працівників та населення в ефективній системі охорони здоров'я.
Background. The article discusses approaches to reforming the Health Care System of Ukraine, the key objectives of which are: strengthening preventive services, the increasing of an accessibility and quality of health care, the enhancement of a primary health care, improving of a personnel maintenance, upgrading of an infrastructure and ensuring a fairness in health care, and also some legislative outcomes of the Institute of Family Medicine. The purpose of the study is to analyze the current regulatory framework for the functioning of the Health Care System, the state of health of the population, as well as the prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors, which is a priority public health problem. Results. The UN Millennium Declaration, adopted in 2000 by 189 countries at the UN Millennium Summit, set the Millennium Development Goals. At the beginning of the Millennium, Ukraine demonstrated relatively strong economic growth, which contributed to the improvement of the social situation in the country and had a positive impact on the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. At the same time, the effects of the armed conflict in the East, the uncertainty of development trends and adverse foreign economic conditions have been the main reasons of the economic downturn and declining production volumes. At present, it is necessary of an arrangement the problems back off economic growth in Ukraine and to create a system of "drivers" of accelerating economic development and ensuring changes in its quality. The outcome document of the Summit on "Transforming Our World: A 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" approved 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 Tasks. Today, in Ukraine, as in most European countries, the high prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors is an urgent problem. This is a priority public health problem that has a negative impact on the medical and demographic situation and causes high rates of morbidity, disability, mortality and short life expectancy. One of the Sustainable Development Goals is "Strong Health and Wellbeing" (Goal 3), which is undergoing significant progress in the development of medicine globally. In accordance with resolution WHA62.12, (Strategy 3) The reorientation of the healthcare model means creating the conditions in which effective and efficient health care services are developed, funded and delivered in accordance with innovative health care models, which prioritize primary and community health care services and joint actions to strengthen health. In this regard, a Strategic Approach to the Development of Ukraine's Health Care System should be developed and priorities identified throughout the life cycle of health care services. This approach means assessing the full range of health services offered at different levels of the Health Care System, based on the best available data and expected over the entire life cycle. Formation and implementation of an integrated cross-sectoral approach is an important prerequisite for successful implementation of modern strategic goals in the field of health care, including, carrying out preventive measures to eliminate the negative impact of social determinants of health, creating conditions for saving and promoting the health of the population, approval healthy lifestyle, formation of responsible attitude of each person to personal health. In 2017, the Institute of Family Medicine drafted the Law of Ukraine "On Primary Health Care on the Basis of Family Medicine". The main purpose of family medicine - based a primary health care as a basis for health care is to ensure that affordable, timely, high-quality and effective primary health care is provided to the patient, to improve public health, to save, restore and promote public health. Conclusions. Any action to modernize the Health Care System should be accompanied by a concerted effort by all parties (patients, the medical community, the legislature and the executive, as well as local authorities) to ensure that healthcare professionals and the public are interested in an effective Health Care System. ; Актуальность. В статье обсуждаются подходы к реформированию системы здравоохранения Украины, ключевыми задачами которой являются: укрепление профилактических служб, повышение доступности и качества медицинского обслуживания, совершенствование первичной медицинской помощи, улучшение кадрового обеспечения, модернизация инфраструктуры и обеспечения справедливости в здравоохранении, а также некоторые результаты деятельности Института семейной медицины на законодательном уровне. Целью исследования является анализ современного нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования системы здравоохранения, состояния здоровья населения, а также распространенности хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска, что является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья. Результаты. «Декларация тысячелетия» ООН, которая была принята в 2000 году 189-ю странами на Саммите тысячелетия ООН, определила Цели Развития Тысячелетия. В начале тысячелетия Украина демонстрировала относительно устойчивый экономический рост, что способствовало улучшению социальной ситуации в стране и, как следствие, положительно влияло на достижение Целей Развития Тысячелетия. В то же время, последствия вооруженного конфликта на Востоке страны, неопределенность направлений развития и неблагоприятная внешнеэкономическая конъюнктура стали основными факторами экономического спада и уменьшения объемов производства. Сейчас необходимо решение проблем, тормозящих экономический рост в Украине, и создание системы «драйверов» ускорения экономического развития и обеспечения изменений в его качестве. Итоговым документом саммита «Превращение нашего мира: повестка дня в области устойчивого развития до 2030 года» было утверждено 17 Целей Устойчивого Развития и 169 задач. Сегодня в Украине, как и в большинстве европейских стран, актуальной проблемой является значительная распространенность хронических неинфекционных заболеваний и факторов их риска. Это является приоритетной проблемой общественного здоровья, которая негативно сказывается на медико-демографической ситуации и обусловливает высокие уровни заболеваемости, инвалидности, смертности и короткую продолжительность жизни. Одной из целей устойчивого развития является «Крепкое здоровье и благополучие» (3 Цель), которая осуществляется в условиях существенного прогресса в развитии медицины на глобальном уровне. В соответствии с резолюцией WHA62.12, (Стратегия 3) Переориентация модели здравоохранения означает создание таких условий, в которых эффективные и результативные медико-санитарные услуги разрабатываются, финансируются и предоставляются в соответствии с новаторскими моделями здравоохранения, в которых приоритет отдается первичным и общинным медико-санитарным услугам и общим мерам по укреплению здоровья. В связи с этим, необходимо разработать стратегический подход к развитию системы здравоохранения Украины и определить приоритеты в области медицинских услуг на основе потребностей в течение всего жизненного цикла. Этот подход означает оценку всего комплекса медико-санитарных услуг, которые предлагаются на различных уровнях системы здравоохранения, и основанные на наилучших имеющихся данных и рассчитаны на весь жизненный цикл. Формирование и внедрение комплексного межсекторального подхода является важной предпосылкой успешной реализации современных стратегических задач в сфере здравоохранения, в том числе, проведение профилактических мероприятий по устранению негативного влияния социальных детерминант здоровья, создание условий для сохранения и укрепления здоровья населения, утверждения здорового образа жизни, формирование ответственного отношения каждого человека к личному здоровью. В 2017 г. Институтом семейной медицины был разработан проект Закона Украины «О первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины». Главной целью первичной медицинской помощи на принципах семейной медицины, как основы здравоохранения, является обеспечение предоставления гарантированного объема доступной, своевременной, качественной и эффективной первичной медицинской помощи пациенту, улучшение состояния общественного здоровья, сохранение, восстановление и укрепление здоровья населения. Выводы. Любые меры, направленные на модернизацию системы здравоохранения, должны сопровождаться совместными усилиями всех сторон (пациентов, медицинского сообщества, органов законодательной и исполнительной власти, а также органов местного самоуправления) в обеспечении заинтересованности медицинских работников и населения в эффективной системе здравоохранения. ; Актуальність. У статті обговорюються підходи до реформування системи охорони здоров'я України, ключовими завданнями якої є: зміцнення профілактичних служб, підвищення доступності та якості медичного обслуговування, вдосконалення первинної медичної допомоги, поліпшення кадрового забезпечення, модернізація інфраструктури та забезпечення справедливості в охороні здоров'я, а також деякі результати діяльності Інституту сімейної медицини на законодавчому рівні. Метою дослідження є аналіз сучасного нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування системи охорони здоров'я, стану здоров'я населення, а також поширеності хронічних неінфекційних захворювань та факторів їх ризику, що є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я. Результати. «Декларація тисячоліття» ООН, яка була прийнята у 2000 р. 189-ма країнами на Саміті тисячоліття ООН, визначила Цілі Розвитку Тисячоліття. На початку тисячоліття Україна демонструвала відносно стійке економічне зростання, що сприяло покращанню соціальної ситуації в країні та справило позитивний вплив на досягнення Цілей Розвитку Тисячоліття. У той же час, наслідки збройного конфлікту на Сході країни, невизначеність напрямів розвитку та несприятлива зовнішньоекономічна кон'юнктура стали основними чинниками економічного спаду та зменшення обсягів виробництва. Наразі необхідним є розв'язання проблем, що гальмують економічне зростання в Україні, та створення системи «драйверів» прискорення економічного розвитку й забезпечення змін його якості. Підсумковим документом Саміту «Перетворення нашого світу: порядок денний у сфері сталого розвитку до 2030 року» було затверджено 17 Цілей Сталого Розвитку та 169 завдань. Сьогодні в Україні, як і в більшості європейських країн, актуальною проблемою є значна поширеність хронічних неінфекційних захворювань і факторів їх ризику. Це є пріоритетною проблемою суспільного здоров'я, яка негативно позначається на медико-демографічній ситуації та обумовлює високі рівні захворюваності, інвалідності, смертності і коротку тривалість життя. Однією з Цілей Сталого Розвитку є «Міцне здоров'я і благополуччя» (3 Ціль), яка здійснюється в умовах істотного прогресу щодо розвитку медицини на глобальному рівні. Відповідно до резолюції WHA62.12, (Стратегія 3) Переорієнтація моделі охорони здоров'я означає створення таких умов, в яких ефективні і результативні медико-санітарні послуги розробляються, фінансуються та надаються відповідно до новаторських моделей охорони здоров'я, в яких пріоритет надається первинним медико-санітарним послугам і спільним заходам щодо зміцнення здоров'я. У зв'язку з цим, необхідно розробити стратегічний підхід щодо розвитку системи охорони здоров'я України та визначити пріоритети в області медичних послуг на основі потреб протягом усього життєвого циклу. Цей підхід означає оцінку всього комплексу медико-санітарних послуг, які пропонуються на різних рівнях системи охорони здоров'я, і засновані на найкращих наявних даних і розраховані на весь життєвий цикл. Формування та впровадження комплексного міжсекторального підходу є важливою передумовою успішної реалізації сучасних стратегічних завдань у сфері охорони здоров'я, у тому числі, проведення профілактичних заходів щодо усунення негативного впливу соціальних детермінант здоров'я, створення умов для збереження і зміцнення здоров'я населення, утвердження здорового способу життя, формування відповідального ставлення кожної людини до особистого здоров'я. У 2017 р. Інститутом сімейної медицини НМАПО імені П. Л. Шупика було розроблено проект Закону України «Про первинну медичну допомогу на засадах сімейної медицини». Головною метою первинної медичної допомоги на засадах сімейної медицини, як основи охорони здоров'я, є забезпечення надання гарантованого обсягу доступної, своєчасної, якісної та ефективної первинної медичної допомоги пацієнту, покращання стану громадського здоров'я, збереження, відновлення та зміцнення здоров'я населення. Висновки. Будь-які заходи, спрямовані на модернізацію системи охорони здоров'я, повинні супроводжуватись спільними зусиллями всіх сторін (пацієнтів, медичної спільноти, органів законодавчої та виконавчої влади, а також органів місцевого самоврядування) у забезпеченні зацікавленості медичних працівників та населення в ефективній системі охорони здоров'я.
Issue 16.3 of the Review for Religious, 1957. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious MAY 15, 1957 Father Charles Nerinckx . Sister M. Matilda Current Spiritual Writing . Thomas G. O'Callaghan Apostates and Fugitives . Joseph I:. Gallen Roman Documents . R. I:. Smith Book Reviews Questions and Answers Summer Institutes Communications~ VOLUME 16 NUMBER 3 RI::VI I::W FOR RI LIGIOUS VOLUME 16 MAY, 1957 Nu~BER 3 CONTENTS FATHER CHARLES NERINCKX--Sister M. Matilda, S.L . 129 SUMMER INSTITUTES . 142 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING-- Thomas G. O'CaIlaghan, S.J . 143 DELAYED VOCATIONS . 154 GUIDANCE FOR RELIGIOUS . 154 APOSTATES AND FUGITIVES~Joseph F. Gallen, S.J . 155 PRAYER OF POPE PIUS XII FOR RELIGIOUS VOCATIONS. 165 SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS--R. F. Smith, S.J . 166 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 175 COMMUNICATIONS . 176 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS~ Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana. i . 180 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS~- 13. Initiation of Principle of Adaptation . 188 14. Credo in Mass . 188 15. Bowing at Distribution of Communion . 189 16. Principles of Adaptation of Prayer . 189 17. Candidates of Inferior Intellectual Ability . 191 18. Special Ordinary Confessor of a Teaching Brother . 192 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, May, t957. Vol. 16, No. 3. Published bi-monthly by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesi-astical approval. Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1957, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, 3115 South Grand Boulevard, St. Louis 18, Missouri. The story of the founder of the Lorettines F :her.Ch rles Nerinckx Sist:er M. Mat:ilda, S.L. T HOUGH the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceeding small." Sometimes we see results, more often we do not. In the life of Reverend Charles Nerinckx and the story of the founding of the Congregation of the Sisters of Loretto, we see much that is tangibJe; yet there is much that is still intangible. The French Revolution was God's smithy in which Nerinckx's character and missionary vocation were forged and welded; ~the American Revolution and the adjust-ment period that followed saw the birth of Mary Rhodes and the other young women whose youth must h~ive been spent amid the problems of a young country in its new-found freedom. These lives, trained in stress and turmoil, an ocean apart, were being prepared slowly but effectively to converge in a work that has carried on through the years. Charles Nerinckx was born October 2, 1761, in the province of Brabant, Belgium, the oldest of seven brothers arid seven sisters born to Sebastian Nerinckx and Petronilla Langhendries, The father was a skillful physician, a Christian of strong and practical faith too infrequently found among the medical men of Europe of that day; the mother, a woman of solid piety and sturdy common sense. With a view to enlarging his medical practice and securing greater educational advantages for his children, Dr. Nerinckx early moved to Ninove, province of East Flanders. Here it was that Charles, at the age of six, began his primary studies. Having completed his elementary education in the local schools, Charles was sent successively to Enghien, Gheel, and the Catholic Uni-versity of. Louvain. Then, having decided to study for the secu-lar priesthood, he entered the seminary at Mechlin and was there 129 SISTER M. MATILDA Review for Religious ordained in 1785.' The following year he was appointed vicar of the metropolitan parish of St. Rumoldus, Mechlin, over which Prince John Henry Cardinal de Frankenberghe presided as arch-bishop. Father Nerinckx filled this important post for eight years with such zeal as to attract the admiring notice of the Cardinal Archbishop. So, when the parish of Everberg-Meer-beke, midway between Mechlin and Brussels, became vacant at "the death of the aged incumbent, M. Nerinckx was appointed to fill it by the general sut~rage of a board ot~ examiners, who, after the searching examination, o'r concursus, recommended by the Holy Council of Trent for such cases, unanimously awarded him the palm over all other candidates." Father Nerinckx was then thirty-three years of age. The greatest problem encountered in the new assignment was the obstinate apathy of the people towards their religious duties. Beginning with the children, winning their love and obedience, he soon won their parents and elders. Within three years such a profound change had been wrought that the mighty wave of irreligion attendant on the victorious armies of the French revolutionists failed to engulf his parishioners. Leaders of the opposition were naturally enraged. They succeeded in having him proscribed because he refused to take the oath de-manded by the government, an oath at variance with his con-science. Thus forced into hiding, he attended his parish only in secret; finally even this became too dangerous. Disguised as a peasant, Father Nerinckx went to Dendermonde where his aunt, Mother Constantia, was the superior of the Hospital of St. Blase. For months he lived in the attic of the hospital, never stirring abroad in daylight but ministering by night to the sick, to the dying, even to condemned prisoners, and caring for the spir: itual welfare of the sisters who had been deprived of their chap. lain by the same enmity that had made their guest a fugitive. Thus by night he did God's work for others; by day he prayed, medita~ted, planned, studied, wrote, and slept a little. For four years he evaded informers and acted secretly as chaplain of the 130 May, 1957 FATHER CHARLES NERINCKX hospital, yet his priestly zeal urged actioni free and untrammeldd action, impossible in his native land under existing conditionS. To save souls was his consuming desire; the western world, where the harvest was great and the laborers few, called him. He would go t.here. Father Nerinckx volunteered' for the American missions. On his arrival at Baltimore in the fall of 1804, he was appointed by Bishop John Carroll to the Kentucky sedtion of his vast dio-cese of Baltimore whicli embraced the whole of the United States. No'record is left us'~of what the word "Kentucky" meant to the Belgian exile on receiving this appointment. Generous in his ignorance of what life on the American frontier meant for a missionary, "it never was regretted when knowledge, the fullest and the bitterest, was his measure." After a few.months at G~orgetown, where he diligently studied the English language, he set out for Kentu.cl~y .with a colony of Trappist monks bound for the same region. Finding theil mode of travel too slow for h~is ardent zeal he pushed ahead alone and arrived on July 18, 1805, at St. Stephen's Farm, sixty miles south of Louisville. He went immediately to work aiding Reverend Stephen Theodore Badin, then the only priest in the state of Kentucky. At first-Father Nerinckx rode the cir-cuits of the missions nearer the priests'-headquarters, St. Steph-en's Farm, now Loretto Motherhouse; liter, he attended those farther away until, as he learned the country, he took the most remote. For the first seven years he shared the humble cabin, coarse fare, and weary journeys of Father Badin at St. Stephen's; after-wards he took up his residence chiefly at the log church of St. Charles on Hardin Creek, to which church he had added a room for himself. But he was seldom at home; he lived in his scaitered missions and passed long hours in the saddle. He then had charge of six large congregations,.besides a much greater number of mission stations scattered over the whole extent of Kentucky. SISTER M. MATILDA Review for Religious To visit all his churches and stations generally required the space of at least six weeks. When the two priests were together, they often discussed the advisab!lity of a diocese with headquarters nearer than Baltimore. Father Badin had urged it before Father Nerinckx arrived; and the latter, after a very short time in Kentucky, added his urging to that of his companion. When the diocese was created in 1808 and Bardstown named as the see city, the two priests set to work to prepare, for the arrival of Bishop Flaget by building near their own a log cabin for him where the formal installation took place. As in Europe Father Nerinckx had used the children to win the people back to God, so in Kentucky he used the same tactics to preserve and to spread the Faith. He loved these little Kentucky children; their simplicity, guilelessness, innocence drew him to them. But he well "knew youthful minds required more than an occasional lesson in the truths of religion if the Faith was to be preserved. Too, he knew education would eventually come to the Kentucky frontier; and, when it came, it would be education without religion. How could he safeguard the Faith of these little ones? Within a year after his arrival he wrote to his parents that he intended to establish a sisterhood to help him in the work. His first effort was a failure, and in his humility he shouldered the blame as being too unworthy of such an undertaking and urged Father Badin to take over the foundation. Accordingly a convent was begun and speedily completed. It stood about a mile and a half from St. Stephen's. Several young women applied to be the first religious. But God's mill does not grind so fast. He had chosen other souls for this work, and until His time came and His chosen ones were fully prepared the work would not begin.- A bolt of lightning set fire to the building before it could be occupied, leaving, only two blackened chimneys--prophetic symbols to Father Nerinckx of future SUCCESS. Father Badin, crushed as-was Father Nerinckx with disap-pointment at the failure of this cherished project, turned to the 132 May, 1957 FATHER CHARLES NERINCKX more distant missions, leaying the nearer congregations to his co-laborer. For four years Father Nerinckx labored and prayed and hoped. God's time had not yet come; he must wait. Riding the circuit of the nearer missions gave him opportunity to study the whole situation; and his convictions became stronger that a sisterhood would arise, a sisterhood as American as the American pioneer women who would build it. This time the initiative came, not from the priests, but from a member of the St. Charles Cong. regation, a Miss Mary Rhodes who was visiting her brother and sister, earlier immigrants to .Kentucky. Mary Rhodes was born in Washington, Maryland, now the District of Columbia. She had received a convent edu-cation, presumably with the Pious Ladies who had established themselves at Georgetown in 1799 and adopted the Visitandine Rule in 1816. The Rhodes sisters were young ladies of culture and refinement, so it is easy to understand how concerned Mary Rhodes was to see her nieces growing up with few intellectual advantages and no mental ambitions beyond those which their hard-working father and mother could give them. What she could do to help them she did, by teaching them daily. Neigh-bors heard of the instruction that the little Rhodes children were receiving and asked for the same advantages for their daughters; Mary Rhodes's generous heart could not refuse what was in her power to give. She laid her project before Father Nerinckx, sought his approval to give religious instruction and the rudiments of elementary education to the girls who might come, and asked his blessing. Obtaining these, she set about converting a long-uninhabited log cabin into a school. The school prospered beyond the most sanguine expectations of pastor and teacher. The increased number of pupils induced Father Nerinckx to look for an assistant to help Miss Rhodes; this he found in Miss Christina Stuart, a pious young lady of the neigh-l~ orhood who eagerly accepted the invitation. Both young women lived for a time at the Rhodes's home; but, finding the house too' much frequented by worldly company, for ~vhich neither 133 S~ISTER M. MATILDA Review for Religious h:id any great inclination, they fitted up a .second log cabin ~adjoining the school and equally dilapidated and there took up their abode where they could pursue undisturbed their studies and the development of their spiritual life. For their livelihood they trusted, solely in, Divine Providence. Till now, we are told, they had not thought of the religious life; but, with the coming of Miss Nancy Havern,to share their happiness, their labors and privations, such a desire was born. The~e is no record of which soul first conceived the idea of becoming a religious; very like~ly it was Mary Rhodes, as she had been with the sisters at Georgetown; and at least 'she knew some-thing about sisters. Again Father Nerinckx was consulted. Happy as he was at finding such piety and generosity, he prudently in-structed them on the obligations of religious life and the obstacles they might meet under pioneer conditions. But they were not fearful; their trust in Providence was modeled on that of their adviser and spiritual father; and they begged him to give them some rules to live by. He wrote down a few simple rules for the three aspirants, gave them his blessing and encouragement. As soon as possible Father Nerinckx laid the whole affair before the loca! ordinary, Bishop Flaget, "who gave the undertaking his warmest approval and placed it under the care of Father Nerinckx." Father Nerinckx had said that hardships, disappointments, poverty, toi!, death would be their portion through the years; but with trust in Divine Providence and confidence in the watch-ful direction of their pastor they persevered. They increased in numbers and spread to other localities and states until at the present time, 1957, the Sisters of Loretto have 70 houses' in the United States. They staff 106 schools counti'ng grade and high schools separately. These are: 2 senior colleges, 1 junior college~ 21 senior high schools, 1 junior high school, 80 grade schools, and 1 pre-school. They teach in Alabama, Arizona., California, Colorado, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, New Mexico, Texas; Virginia, and Wyoming. In 1923 and 1933 they opened houses 134 May, 1957 FATHER CHARLES NERINCKX in China which flourished until the sisters were expelled by" the Communists in 1949. In founding the Institute of the Sisters of Loretto, Father Nerinckx called into service his rich knowledge of' canon law and church history, especially the history of the religious orders of the Church, to which he added a wealth of personal experience and his acquaintance and appreciation'of the rugged American spirit of independence, initiative, and adaptability. The French Revolution had not made him fearful, but it had made him cautious. Therefore, after a three-year trial period of his simple rule based on that of St. Augustine, he journeyed to Rome and submitted it to the highest ecclesiastical, authorities. He petitioned that the young Institute be placed .directly under pontifical juris-diction. This petition was granted; the Institute of the Sisters of Loretto became an exempt order.~in the third year of its existence. The spirit of the Society was determined from its inception. It is the same today. It is succinctly expressed in the words love and sacrifice. In more detail is the following summation from the first printed Holy Rule: The Sisters of Loretto are to impress most deeply upon their minds that the sacred obligation ot: the vows they pronounce are voluntarily as-sumed and must be meticulously fulfilled; silence hnd recollection must be cherished to stimulate an ever more intimate union with the Suffering Jesus and His Sorrowful Mother at the Cross; hardships and labor must be welcomed and embraced, not only as a way of livelihood, but as well. deserved penance for sin and mortification for atonement; and, finally, a great desire and a consistent effort to see religion and morals improve by a pious education of youth. The object, therefore, of the Congrega-tior~ is. twofold: the sanctification of its members, and the education of youth. While Father Nerinckx was busy with the establishment of the sisterhood, he did not neglect his othe~ duties or the organiza-tions he had started in his various parishes and stations for stim-ulating the spiritual welfare of his people. In 1806 at his church of Holy Mary on the Rolling Fork, he established a~ Confrater,nity of the Ros~ary, a children's Rosary Sodality called "Lilietum," a Confraternity of the Scapular; and, in 1809 in St.' Charles 135 SISTER M. MATILDA Review for Religious Church, he founded the first Holy Name Society in thee United States. Records of these organizations are still extant. It is interesting to note that there were 1,100 names on his Rosary roster; more than 600 on his Lilietum or children's Rosary Sodality list; 971 on his Scapular Society record; and 259 on his Holy Name Society register, every name. carefully written in his own hand. That Father Nerinckx was blessed with remarkable and dis-criminating foresight is shown by his efforts in behalf of the colored race in beginning a Negro oblate sisterhood in connec-tion with the Sisters of Loretto. Father Nerinckx was the product of the best European civilization, and he naturally found the conditions of slavery most repellent to his Christian principles. This is disclosed by his paternal solicitude for the wretched lot of the colored man in the United States. Whether by foresight, or by study of the American type of freedom and justice, he must have been convinced that the emancipation of the Negro would Come sooner or later in the young republic for he bent his efforts to .prepare for that crucial time of transition from slavery to freedom. To Christianize and educate these erstwhile slaves and to lead them to the right enjoyment of freedom, Father Nerinckx felt that the best means would be a sisterhood of their own race trained for this arduous work. Conviction for Father Nerinckx meant action, and he set to work. He arranged for the Sisters of Loretto to admit several colored girls into their school. It is on record that some of these became aspirants or postulants in May, 1824; but, after the death~of Father Nerinckx the following August, we hear no more of these young women. Whatever records of subsequent decisions in their regard that may have been kept were lost in the disastrous fire that laid the Motherhouse in ashes in 1858. Dr. J. A. Burns, C.S.C,, in his able work, The Catholic School System in the United States, says that this project of Father Nerinckx's, the Negro sisterho'od, "is in itself sufficient to stamp him'as a man whose educational ideas ran far ahead of his time." 136 May, 1957 FATHER CHARLES NERINCKX Bishop Flaget, greatly~, pleased with ,the success bf the Sisters of Loretto in their educational work for girls, Wished to provide the same opportunities for boys., He asked Father Nerinckx to establish a similar society for young'men, the object of which would be the education of orphan boys and boys of the middle class, "whose poverty so often" prevents the"Church and state from being benefitted by their talents." Father Nerin~kx's mind seems to have been running ~ilong the same lines, for he very readily acquiesced to his superior's request and set to 'work at once. With money collected from his own congreg~ltions and three thousand dollars collected by the sisters, the good missibnary purchased a farm which he named Mt.Mary. The loss of the main building and four smaller ones by fire .early in 1819 blighted the .prospects for the time being .and caused Father Nerinckx to underake a second voyage to Europe to appeal to his countrymen for funds and possible vocations. He returned in 1821 accompanied by several, fine young men, toost of whom joined the Jesuits, among them the renowned Fathers Peter J. de Smet and J. F. Van Assche. On!y three came to Kentucky aS aspirants for the brothei'hood, and one of these died very'shortly after his arrival. During Father Nerinckx's pro. tracted stay in Europe, Reverend William Byrne, who had been appointed to attend Holy Mary's and St. Charles's congregations, had opened a.boys' college on the property .Father Nerinckx had bought. He was decidedly averse, on the return of the older priest, to yielding possession, so Father Nerinckx had re-course to the 'bishop. Of this~ interview .Father Howlett writes, "Father Nerinckx expostulated with Bishop Flaget. over the changed destiny of the farm; but the bishop did not care to dis-lodge Father Byrne, who had begun with his sanction," Rather than give occasion, for scandal~ the weary traveler in humble sub. mission to authority diopped, the matter. Eventually, lacking encouragement, 'funds," and property, he gave up his cherished plans for a brotherhood. 137 SISTER M. MATILDA Review ]or Religious Father Nerinckx was always a student. In his four years of forced seclusion at the hospital in [Dendermonde he must have spent much time in close application, for his manuscripts of this period, if printed, would form eight or ten octavo volumes. They were in Latin, a language in which he excelled. Much that he wrote then and afterwards has been lost, but ~omething still remains in the convent at Dendermonde, and some manuscript volumes" on pastoral theology and kindred subjects may be found in the parish library at Meerbeke. "These show the depth of his trained mind, filled with an elaborate store of Scripture, the Fathers, the history of the Church, and sound theological prin-ciples~" 'Shortly after his death an act of vandalism destroyed all his b~,oks and writings except his little Treatise on Mission-arz'es and an exposition of the Reign of Satan, edited by a Dominican Father from notes left by the Belgian priest. These and his beautiful letters to Bishop Carroll prove he was a master of Latin compositibn. His original Rule, written in English, fbr the Sisters .of Loretto and his hand-penned catechism written in Flemish are' treasured at their motherhouse: Father Nerinckx in his nineteen years on the Kentucky missions built rio fewer than fourteen churches. Some o~ these he literally built with his own hands; in fact, he e~pended some manlaal labor on all Of them. They were mostly of logs; the last on the list was of brick and is still in a good statd o'f preserva-tion. The fourteen follow: H61y Mdry, Calvary, 1805i St. Cl'iarles, 1806; St. Clara's, 1808; St. Bernard's, Casey Creek, 1810; St.' Romoldus (now St. Romuald), Hardinsburg, Breck-enridge C6unty, 1810-1816; St. Paul's, Grayson County, "181.1; St, Augustine's,' Grayson Springs, (~rayson County, 1811; St. John.'s,'Rude's Creek, Hardin County, 1812;' St. John Baptist, Bullitt' County, 1812; St. Anthony's, Long Lick,. Breckenridgh County,i: 1812; St. Benedict's~ Spencer. ¯ Cdunty," 1'815; St. Augusfine's; Lebanon," 1817, finished b)~ Father Deparcq in i820; St. Vincent's,: New Hope, 1819; Holy Cross,.1823. This last is still used as a parish church. ., ~. May, 1957 FATHER CHARLES NERINCKX This zealous Belgian priest loved the house of God." Log churches of necessity h~d tO be plain, their furnishings in k~eep.- ing with the poverty of the faithful; but the pastqr so. ught the very best for the altar, especially for the tabernacle where the Bl~ssed Sacrament was to dwell. Everything connected with the Holy .Mysteries fired his devotion. Unless on a long journey or gravely ill never did he miss offering the Holy Sacrifice. On each of his journeys to Euro.pe, the first, in the interests of the sisterhood, the second, in that of the intended brotherhood', Father Nerinckx accumulated and brought to Kentucky church furnishings, paintings, sacred vessels, etc., estimated at over fifteen thousand dollars. Thus were the humble log churches enriched for divine services. He kept nothing for himself so that it was said at his death that his only legacy to the Lorettines was an unbounded confidence in Divine Providence and a very deep devotion to the Suffering Jesus and the Sorrowful Mary, devotions he instilled into them from the very beginning of the Institute. Having begun the study of English when he was past forty years of a, ge, Father Nerinckx never became versatile in its use. Hence, though learned and of solid judgment, he could never be credited with brilliancy of speech or writing in English. His discourses were plain, mattei'-of-fact instructions, couched in broken English with no ornamental figures, to enhance them. Were it not for his earnestness and sincerity and the spiritual impact of his words, he probably would have been considered a tiresome and disagreeable speaker. He sought not for elo-quence, but only that he might carry God's message to souls; and this he did in his humble, simple speech. Archbishop Martin John Spalding writes of this Kentucky missionary: M. Nerinckx," though kind and polite to all, wasorather austere in his manners, as well as rigid in his discipline. He WaS, however, always 'much mord rigid with himself, than with others. He never lost a mo-ment. He. knew well ~hat a priest who does his duty has little time to spare for idle conversation. Wherever good was to be done, or a 139 SISTER M. MATILDA Review for Religious soul to be saved', there he was. found, by day or by night, in rain or in sunshine, in winter or in summer. When not actually engaged in the ministry, he was always found at home, employed in prayer or in study. Reverend William J. Howlett, author of Life of Req;erend Charles Arerittckx, says: In matters of faith, religion, and moral practices he was stern, and made no compromise with sin and its dangers. Cursing, drinking, horse-racing and dancing were either sinful or productive of sin, and he op-posed them rigorously . If in his preaching he showed no mercy to sin, in the confessional he had the heart of a father for his sinful chil. dren, and in all his missions his heaviest work was in the confessional, which Bishop Spalding says, 'was usually thronged by penitents, from early dawn until midday, all of whom, without one exception, were deeply attached to him.' Nor do we hear that he was in the habit of refusing absolution to any greater extent than a prudent confessor does today.'. Duty was a great thing wi~h him, and when duty called him he brought into action those great powers of mind and soul which he so modestly disclaimed. These characteristics, while they made him diffident" ot himself, gave him a wonderful estimate of the faith and practices of the Church, and a dread of evel-ything that sezmed to him to be a departure from.her teachings or a relaxation in her time-honored discipline. He could never become a heretic, for he held too firmly to what he had been taught; he never could become a schismatic, for authority was to him the most sacred thing in the world after his faith; he never could become a sinner, for the shadow of sin was a nightmai.e ~o him. These three things, with his great desire for the honor of God and the salvation of his own and his neighbors' souls, will be seen to have beenthe guiding motiv'es of his life. In a letter to Bishop England, Bishop Flaget wrote of Father Nerinckx" thus: "His love for retirement wa~ such, tl~at" h~. n~ever ~aid a visit of mere Ceremony. Indeed, hi never vis-i~ edl except when the good of his neighbor or the duty of his ministry made it obligatory to do so . Praye~ appeared to be hi~ grea'tes't, and only solace, in the 'midst of his contifiual labors." And this tribute was from.his bishop. The subject of this sket'ch was a man of action as can be seerl "fro~ the variety of his 'undertakings. There remains one point still to be mentioned,, his interest in the civilizing and Christianizing .6f the Indians. ' When ~difficulties arose in Kentuck~y, Father Neririckx felt that pi~rhaps, they i:ould be effectively and. charitably settled by 140. May, 1957 FATHER CHARLES NERINCKX his withdrawal for atime., He was grieved to see unwarranted changes made in the rule of the Sisters of Loretto and in their schools, and he felt greater changes were still to come. If the changes came from Rome he would gladly accept--but how would Rome know the exact state of affairs? His own methods were cast aside for untried ones. Just what the deciding factor was that sent him a second time into exile, this time to Missouri, he never made known; but to Missouri he went. He performed the visitation of the Loretto house in Perry County, then trav-eled to St. Louis to meet and confer with the commissioner of Indian affairs to arrange for some Indian girls to be enrolled with the sisters at Bethlehem, the Perry County foundation.On his return journey to Bethlehem he detoured to minister to a settlement of some ten families who had not seen a priest for two years. After this last act of charity he was taken ill; he died at St. Genevieve, Missouri, on August 12, 1824. He was buried on the 14th in the sisters' cemetery at Bethlehem convent, Bishop Rosati being present and giving the final absolution. Bishop Rosati is r.eported to have said that he consideredFather Nerinckx's remains ~he most priceless treasure of his diocesel Be that as it .may, he refused Bishop Flage~'s and Father Chabrat's petitions 'for the removal of the remains~ yielding only io the diplomacy of the mother superior of Loretto. The re-enterment at Loretto Motherhouse took place in December~ 1833." : Father Nerinckx's major concrete contributions to the up-building of the Church in K.~ntucky were: the administdrin.g of the sacraments td the faithful.throughout' the" region,-th~ build[ ing of houses of worship, the organizing of districts into parishes, th'e c611ecting and. transportation of.,tho,us.ands'6f dollars~ worth of. church supplies and furnishings which he distributed to poor and needy .churches, two journeys to Europe in the interests of the Church' arid the. sist'e'rhbod which h~. h°ad fotinded in Cdn-~ junction with 'Miss Mary Rhodes and.companioris--the Congre-gation of the Sisters of Loretto, the first purely American sister-hood devoted to education founded and continuing without 1.41 SISTER M. MATILDA foreign affiliation. These, directly or indirectly, can be seen. But 0nly' the"angels of God have recorded his prayers, longings, and aspirations and measured his mental and physical sufferings, the dangers he encountered in traversing the wilderness, his penances and mortifications, his dominant virtue of humility, the frustra-tion of his desire to lead the contemplative life. Instances of some of these could be given, but the full import of them is not ours to record. His spirit lives on not alone in the religious congregation of Loretto, but in the faith of the Catholics of Kentucky, a staunch, vibrant, active Catholicity the seeds of which were planted in pioneer days by the saintly. Belgian exile, Rev-erend Charles Nerinckx. SUMMER INSTITUTES The tenth annual Theological Institute for Sisters will be con-ducted under the auspices of St. Xavier College in cooperation with the Dominican Fathers of the Province of St. Albert the Great June 24 to August 2, 1957. The double purpose of the institute is: to contribute to the spiritual development of sisters and to strengthen the preparation of religious who are teachers of religion. The basic curriculum is open to sisters without a bachelor's degree. An advanced program, for those who have completed the basic course, leads to a master's degree from the Dominican House of Studies, River Forest. For a listing of courses write to: St. Xavier College, 103rd and Central Park Avenue, Chicago 43, Illinois. In keeping with ancient Benedictine traditions and the spirit of the modern liturgical revival, St. John's Abbey, internationally known litur-gical and educational center where students may join with the monastic choir 'in chanting the divine office and may take part in solemn liturgical ceremonies, is conducting summer courses in liturgy and Gregorian chant. These courses, supl~lemented with opportunities for study of modern church music hs well as applied music in voice and organ, are designed to assist choir directors and organists in carrying out the in-structions on church music by the present Holy Father a.nd by St. Plus X. For further information write to: Dora Gunther, O.S.B., St. John!s University, Collegeville, Minnesota. (Continued on Page 175) 142 Current: Spiritual W'rit:ing Thomas ~, O'C~lhghan [Most of the readers of RE~tlE\V FOR RELIGIOUS have not the opportunity of keeping up with the numerous articles which are being written on various points of spiritual theology. It is with the intention of trying to supply for this need that we hope to publish about every six months a survey of current periodical literature. This survey will take the form mostly of quotations from, and synopses of, some of the more interesting articles which have appeared recently. For the most par~ the survey will confine itself to English language periodicals.--The Editors.] general. God Within Q. What is your ideal of sanctity? A. To live by love. Q. What is the quickest way to reach it? A. To become ~ery small, to give oneself wholly and irrevocably. Q. Who is your favorite saint? A. The Beloved Disciple, who rested on the heart of his Maste~. Q. What point of the Rule do you like best? A. Silence. Q. What is the dominant trait in your character? A. Sensitivity. What is your favorite virtue? A. Purity. What fault of character do you dislike most? A. Egoism in Q. Give a definition of prayer. A. A union of her who is not with Him who is. Q. What is your favorite book? A. Tire Soul o.f Gkris/. In it I learn all the secrets of the Father who is in heaven. Q. Have you a great longing for heaven? A. I sometimes feel homesick for heaven, but, except for the vision, I possess it in the depths of my soul. Q. What is your motto? A. 'God in me and I in Him.'~ The young Carmelite who filled out this questionnaire in the first week of her postulancy died ~fifty years ago, at ~the age of twenty-six, after just fi.ve years of~ religious life. Her~ name~ was Elizabeth Catez, but she is known today more dommonly as Sister Elizabeth of the Trinity, or Elizabeth"0f Dijon. TO this young and holy Carmelite ig dedicated the .September, 1956, issue of Spiritual Life, the,gery~ fine Catholic quarterly,,published by the Discalced Carrrielite Fathers. ~This questionnaire is quoted'by Fathbr Denis of the Holy Family, O.C.D. in "A Sketch of the Life of Sister Elizabeth of the Trinity," S,~iritual Life, II (1956), 149-150. THOMAS G. 0'CALLAGHAN Review for Religious In "A Sketch of the Life of Sister Elizabeth of the Trinity," the article from which we have taken the above-quoted ques-tionnaire, Father Denis of the Holy Family, O.C.D., gives a fine introduction to the life and doctrine of Sister Elizabeth. A fuller and more theological treatment of her spiritual doctrine he leaves to two other articles, published in the same issue, by E. I. Watkin and Father Gabriel of St. Mary Magdalen, O.C.D. Father Gabriel says of Sister Elizabeth that "she succeeded in con-structing a lucid synthesis of the spiritual life, corhbining . . . [an] intimate life with the Trinity and progressive assimilation to Christ" (p. 174). In fact, we might say that his entire article, "The Indwelling in Sister Elizabeth of the Trinity," is a develop-ment of that proposition. Those who center their spiritual life on the divine indwelling and who desire to live united to God-within will find in this issue of Spiritual Life some fine, spiritually nourishing matter. They will also understand why Sister Elizabeth, who "found he'aven on earth, since heaven is God, and God is in my soul," is rapidly becoming a favorite among contemplative souls. It might also be added here that Elizabeth's "Prayer of a Praise of Glory to the Trinity" (p. 165). contains exce~llent subject matter for mental, prayer. The Saints St. John, recalling his vision of the blessed, wrote: "I saw a great multitude [of the' blessed in heaven] which no man could number . . ." (Apoc, 7:9). In apparent contradiction to these ~vords there appeared in the American Ecclesiastical Review an excellent and. scholarly article, written by Father John F. Bro-derick, s.J., entitled "A Census of the Saints (993-1955).'" How many saints are there? No definitive list has ever been compiled, although biographical dictionaries exist which run to several thousand names; one for Ireland alone claims three -~ Vol. CXXXV (1956), 87-115. 144 May, 1957. SPIRITUAL WRITINGS thousand. Most of these dwelt in the ancient or medieval periods. But before being able to determine the number of saints, ¯ one would first have to clarify the meaning of the word saint, and then establish what authority has the right to recognize sainthood. For up to and even beyond the year 1000 A.D. the power to designate sainthood was not rest6cted to the Holy See, as is now the case, but was left to local ecclesiastical authorities. When this process later found papal approval, explicit or tacit, it became known as equivalent canonization. But by no means all the early saints have won Roman approval; some lack official approbation of any kind. Their title has come by way of popu-lar devotion on the part of the faithful, or is due to the careless-ness or mistakes of those who put together early martyrologies, etc. Hagiography abounds in problems of this kind. The present article, however, restricts itself to those saints solemnly canonized by the popes, the form of canonization with which we are nowadays familiar. A very carefully worked-out chart, the product of considerable research, forms the heart of the article. It enumerates in chronological order--according to the date of death--all formally canonized saints from the time of the first canonization in 993 up to the present. Also noted are: the liturgical classification of each saint, age at death, year of c~inonization, vocational status (laity, secular clergy, religious), principal occupation, and land of birth. The data therein contained are analyzed in the final section of the article and many interesting points are indicated. Canon-ized saints are discovered to ~otal two hundred and eighty-three, Male saints number two hundred and twenty-seven, female fifty-six. Martyrs total sixty-nine. At death ages ranged from eleven to over one hundred. Wide variations can be detected between the date of death and canonization, the periods varying from a few months to six centuries. Well over one half of the canoniza-tions have been delayed two centuries or more, a factor which 145 THOMAS G. O'(~ALLAGHAN Review ]or Religious must be kept in mind in discussing the failure of North America to produce native saints. The laity has produced about one sixth of the saints; the secular clergy, slightly less; religious, the rest. At least thirty-five saints have been married. Of canonized religious about one fifth were women, almost equally divided between contem-platives and active institutes. In external occupations the widest range is visible, from the lowly housekeeper or farm laborer to the emperor and empress. A surprisingly high number, about forty percent, were engaged in governing as civil or ecclesiastical superiors. Founders and foundresses of religious institutes, very prominent in recent can-onizations, total sixty-six saints. More than one half ~he saints have come from the upper class in society; the rest are about equally divided between the" middle class and the numerically vast lower class. Latin coun-tries account for two thirds of the saints, especially Italy with ninety-five and France with fifty-five. Three saints have been born in the Western Hemisphere, but seventeen have labored there. The current trend is toward more frequent canonizations. In the 632 years between the first formal canonization and 1625, when Urban VIII established the modern regulations, the aver-age was fourteen per century; since then it has risen to sixty. Father Broderick, s.J., made mention of the different social classes of the saints. Another article has appeared recently which throws some light on this subject. Those familiar with second nocturns are well acquainted with parenlibus who were either nobilibus or honestis or pauperibus. But they may not be sure of the precise meaning of these terms. Father Bull0ugh, O.P., writing primarily about Dominican saints in "'Class Dis-tin~ tion Among the Saints," an article which appeared in the August, 1956, issue of Life of the Spirit, helps to clarify the ma, tter. He suggests that these three words designate three 146 May, 19,67" SPIRITUAL WRITINGS distinct social classes and that these social classes in turn. were largely based, at least originally, on occupations. The nobiles were those who had money and property andwere employers; the honesti were merchants or artisans, mostly self~employed, who made a living at thei~r~ own particular work or trade; the pauperes were wage earners, obtaining their money by working for some-one else. (If that is so, it is going to be difficult to find any saints who were born, as the pleasantry has it, of paltperibus sed honestis parentibus.) ~. Liturgy in School Under the 'title, "Toward a Living Parish," Mongignor Martin B. Hellriegel frequently contributes to Worship a serids of' practical suggestions for increasing the li~ur'gical life pa~:ish. His excellent suggdstions, however, need not be limited to the parish ch'urch. Man~, of them could--by a little imagina-tive adaptation--prove most hi.-lpful to Catholic school teachers; even college professors. At times teachers would like to make a few interesting remarks to their classes about some liturgical feast which the Church is celebrating, or they may be looking for ideas as to how the students might celebrate in their school some of the more important feasts. Very often they will find in Monsignor Hellriegel's articles exactly what they are looking for. For example, in the October, 1956, issue of Worship he comments on some of the feasts which occur during that month. He opens the article with some reflections on the feast of the Guardian Angels, offering fine matter which could be used for a talk of three or four minutes to Catholic students. Then he makes some practical points about the way that this feast could be celebrated in the parish. One or two of these points could easily be used by teachers for school. The next feast on which he com'ments is 6ur Lady's Maternity, celebrated on the eleventh of October. This is a much more deeply signifidant "Mother,s Da~,'; than the second Sunday in May. What afine point that would make in talking 147 THOMAS G. 0'CALLAGHAN Review for Religious to children: our Lady's "Mother's Day." Is it not true that many parochial school teachers could easily pass over this feast without even a mention of it? For the feast of St. Luke, October 17, there is a very simple suggestion for a reverent display of the Holy Gospel. This cbuld be used to remind the students not only of "the holiness and dignity of the Gospel, and of the respect we owe to it, but also of our indebtedness to the holy evangelists . . . who have recorded for us the 'God spell,' the good tidings of the life and teaching of our Lord Jesus Christ" (p. 573). Today Halloween is too often identified with "trick or treat" or vandalism. Monsignor explains the original spirit be-hind the festivities held on the eve of All Saints, or Hallow's" Eve (from which is derived the word Hallo,ween). Just the explanation which he gives would be an enlightenment to so many Catholic school children. There are also detailed sugges-tions for the celebration of this feast in a parish, some of which could profitably be adapted for school use. If Catholic school teachers could find the time to glance through "Toward a Living Parish" whenever it appears,' they would surely find some helpful matter for their classroom. Prayer In Life of the Spirit Dora Aelred Sillem, O.S.B., has an interesting article on the relation between liturgical and con-templative prayer.:' Many feel that there is a certain conflict be-tween contemplative and liturgical prayer, that they even attract different temperaments and distinguish vocations. It must be admitted that some divergence does exist: there is the tendency of contemplative prayer to simplicity, while the liturgy has a certain "surface multiplicity . . . with its complexities of cere-monial and chanti its elaborate and absorbing symbolism, its richness of doctrinal content and conceptual teaching" (p. 209}. :l"The Liturgy and Contemplative Prayer," Id.[~' o, l/re Sp]ril, XI (1956), 209-217. 148 May, 1957 SPIRITUAL WRITINGS Yet, if we consider the historical relation between the liturgy and mental prayer, it will become evident that they have long existed together with mutual dependence. The primitive liturgy allowed of pauses for silent prayer, of which our [lectam'us genua and levate are a token survival to which the restored Holy Week liturgy has given back a measure of reality; and Cassian, describing the psalmody of the Egyptian monks, ~hows us how, after each psalm or section of a psalm, a pause was made for private and wordless prayer. In ancient and medieval monastic life, the hours of lectio divina, continuous in theme and sources with the liturgy, were intended to be hours of prayer as well as of study. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, partly perhaps as the more scientific and metaphysical study of theology replaced the older, more devotional and more readily prayerful lectio divina, provision was made, both among monks and friars, for set periods of mental prayer; and this obligation has passed into canon law and into the constitutions of all religious families . At all times, vocal liturgical prayer has been nourished by and overflowed into solitary and wordless.prayer (pp. 215-216). Not only has there been this historical mutual relationship, but the very natures of liturgical and contemplative prayer show their close interdependence. Thus, the author concludes his article with these words: "It is essential to consider liturgical prayer and mental prayer, not as competitors, still less as alterna-tives, but as two indispensable expressions of a single life of prayer in Christo, accepting their diversity not as a tension or a problem, but as an enrichment, convinced of their mutual dependence and of their power to deepen each other indefinitely" (p. 217). Our Lady's Titles Father Gerald Vann, O.P., has a few suggesti6ns--and he insists that they are nothing more than suggestions--about the way that some of the titles of our Blessed Mother in the "Litany of our Lady" might be more fittingly translated.4 Many titles in the Litany are "either poor translations or indeed downright mistranslation~, or at any rate show a lamentable lack of any sense of language, any feeling for the beauty of words" (p. 438). Here are some of the present tittles put side by side with "Notes on Our Lady's Litany," Worship, XXX (1956), 437-441. 149 THOMAS°G. 0'CALLAGHAN Review for Religious some of Father Vann's suggested changes: Mother most amiable --Mother so lovablei Mother inviolate--Mother ever a Maiden; Mother most pure~--Mother of .perfect love; Holy Virgin of virgins--Holiest of all virgins; Virgin most vener, able--Virgin.whom we revere; Virgin most renowned--Virgin whose praises' ,~e sing; Seat of wisdom--Fountain of wisdom; St~iritual vessel--Chalice~ of spiritual life; Singular vessel of dev'otion--Splendid chalice o.f dedication. Father Vann not ohly suggests these and other new translations, but also e~pl~ins in his. brief article the reasons why these new 'titles could be justified as prdferable. Certainly r~an.~, of the chan~es suggeste'd are more ineaningful, as well.as being more beautifully phrased, and would thereby be helpful in our "Litany devotion. The Creation and Fall Those who teach Christian doctrine, whether in the grades, higl~ s.chool, or college, have undoubtedly found many problems in t.ryin, g t.o~interpret the sci:iptural account of the cr~eation of the world ,.and man, of the .origin of woman, of the first, sin, etc. For the first three chapters of Genesis, in which these matters occur, are one of the most difficult sections of the Bible.' But Father "H. J.: Richards, although fully appreciating the difl~- cuities, believes that it is possible to say something worthwhile on ~hese first three chapters and on the essential matter which they contain', without getting hopelessly enmeshed in exegetical difficulties. He fulfills this purpose in "The Creation and the Fall," a very brief but solid and interesting article ap.pefiring in the October, 1956, number of Scripture. The ,author of Genesis, Father Richards insists, was not a scientist. He was ,"concerned with .God's plans for the world and for mankind. He does not set out to teach us natural sciences. He has quite enough to do to teach us our super. natural science, of the one supreme God to whom everything owes it's existence, of man's place in God's scheme, of man's dignity an&his failure to live up to it, and of God's love for him '1'50 May, 1957 SPIRITUAL WRITINGS even in his sin" (p. 114).~ Father Richards shows very clearly how the author of Genesis attains this purpose. Let us give here an example of the refreshing way that Father writes on this matter. After explaining the account of the Creation as it appears in Chapter i, he goes on to write: And if there is a different account of creation in.Chapter 2, with man placed first on the list instead of last, don't let us get so excited over the difference that we forget to see the same point being made, that man cannot be lumped along with ~he rest of creatures. He is unique, and the rest is made for him. And if this time the 'whole story 'is more pic-turesque, with a Divine Potter modelling man with His own hands and breathing into him His own breath, don't let us be so prosaic about it that we miss the main point: man~s unique relationship with God. And if that relationship is illustrated even further by" the garden in which God walks with Adam in the cool 6f the evening, don't let us try ko find the garden on a map. Could anyone have devised a more dramatic way of presenting the clos2 intimacy with himself that God had planned for man from the beginning? It is we who hav~rfiade up the myth of an Old Testament God of thunder and terror and fear. It is not so in Genesis {p. 112}. After the creation of the universe and of man, Father Richards goes on in the same graphic way to explain the origin of woman and the place intended for her by God, the dignity of marriage, the fall of man, and God's love for him even in his sin. This short article is well worth reading. Spiritual Theology Series In th~ September, 1956, issue of Cross and Crown there begins a "series of articles which will explain the meaning and problems of. spiritual theology, or, if you wish, of the interior supernatural life of the Christian" (p. 252). The general title for this series will be "Spirituality for All," The first article, written by Father John L. Callahan, O.P., the editor of Cross and Crown, emphasized "the necessity of growth in charity" (p. 252), for it is in this charity, this l~abit of divine love, that per-fection essentially consists. From this beginning~ the series will proceed as follows to explain I) The foundations of this growth. Divine life is communicated to man through grace, the seed of glorj~ to possess grace necessarily~ im-plies the possession of the theological virtues of faith and,hope: . THOMAS G. 0'CALLAGHAN Review for Religious 2) The cause of growth. Charity is the form, the life, the mover of all the virtues. In the words of St. Francis of Sales: 'A perfect life means perfect charity, for charity is the life of the soul.' 3) The models of growth. Christ is our perfect exemplar of charity, and His Blessed Mother a mirror of that model. 4) The instruments of growth. Divine life is communicated to man through the sacrarhents. 5) The first instrument of growth. This is the healing and cleans-ing work of the divine tool of baptism by which man is incorporated in Christ. 6) The aids to growth. Christ instituted the sacrament of penance to restore divine life lost bymortal sin. With this is coordinated the practice of mortification. 7)' The Mass, a means of growth. The Holy Sacrifice lived by as-pirants to a perfect life is a powerful instrument of spiritual progress. ~ 8) Holy Communion is the food for growth in spirituality, uniting the soul most intimately to the Source of grace and charity. 9) Signs of growth can be the advancement in both the spiritual and corporal works of mercy. 10) The steps of growth through the process of purgation to 1 I) The fruition, which is contemplation, or the actual experience of the divine indwelling (pp. 252-253). Religious in a Diocese The editorial in the December, 1956, issue of Spiritual Life says: "The total function of every Catholic diocese in the world is to gather together as many men as possible into the life of Christ, and commit them to His mission. To do this with maximal efficiency, it needs the unified, intelligent, complemen-tary, planned activity of parishes and religious orders" (p. 201). What contribution can religious institutes make to this total function of the diocese? Father James Egan, O.P., gives the answer in "A Religious Order and the Spiritual Life of a Dio-cese" (pp. 217-226). "The purpose of this article is to explore other [i.e. than schools and parishes] possible services that a religious order or its members can render to the spiritual life of a diocese" (p. 219). If.such is the purpose of this article, it should be of interest to religious. Let us see very briefly some of the contributions which Father Egan believes a religious institute could and should make for the spiritual service of a diocese. 152 May, 1957' SPIRITUAL WRITINGS The first two immedi~lte fruits which should come to a diocese from the presence of a religious foundation within it are: first, the life of prayer and mortification of the religious should draw down God's rich blessings upon all the ~nembers of the diocese, bishop, priests, and parishioners; secondly., the manifest sp.iritual joy and.peace of religious should be a con-stant lesson to all who come in contact with them that true peace and happiness can be found in this world, provided it" is not sought from the world. Some religious .institutes, like the Benedictines, can offer to the faithful, especially those who have grown to appreciate the place of the liturgy in their life, the occasion of assisting, at the liturgy in all its full splendor. Other religious aid the spir-itual life of a diocese by communicating their spiritual treasures to the faithful by means of third orders. Closely linked "to this latter is the practice of spiritual direction. Many diocesan, priests, because of other spiritual demands, simply have not the time which would be required for the spiritual direction of those parishioners who would request and/or need it. Religious foun-dations in a diocese, however, would mean for the laity a greater Opportunity for that spiritual direction which is so necessary for Christian perfection. Among the other activities frequently carried on by religi-ous in a diocese are those of the parish mission, directed primarily perhaps to the conversion of sinners, and the retreat, usually aimed more at the nourishment of a ~ieeper spiritual life. The healthy spread and growth of the retreat movement, carried on mostly by religious groups, has done much for the spiritual life of the faithful in many American dioceses. There is also the c6ntribution Which religious are making in many dioceses of making "available to the. !aity a more intimate acquaintance with theology a~d philosophy as these are linked up with the cult'ural life of the modern world" (p. 224). In this intellectua'l field '~h~re could also be mentioned the help 153 THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN .which~ many religious groups, ~particularly the Paulists, can offer by way of convert instruction. '~ Las.tly, it will do well to recall--although it might seem strange --that the presence in the diocese of those religious institutes who have members in the mission field means an opportunity for the faithful of a diocese to offer both men and support to the mission-ary activity of the Church. That is a blessing not merely for the religious insti~tites, but for the diocese as well. "Each religious group," concludes Father Egan, "has its own contribution to make; yet" each must not insist on i~s own good to the detriment of the common good of a diocese, which is in the care of the bishop: ~On the other hand, the bishop must respect the distinctive character of the religious groups in his diocese. With such mutual respect, the common good of all the faithful will" always be served by the united efforts of dios-cesan and religious priests" (p. "22'6). DELAYED VOCATIONS Spiritual directors who are asked about religious orders or con-gregations of sisters that have the policy of accepting older women are frequently at a loss as to where to direct these applicants for further information. If orders or congregations which have such a policy will send their title and address, the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS may be able to publish a°list in a subsequent issue. The age limitatioi~s for admit-tance should be specified as well as whether the foliowing classes of women are accepted: widows, married women who ard legally sep-arated permanently with ecclesiastical permission, those who have been ifivalidly married in the past but who have sincerely amended their lives and would-now like to enter the dbnvent. GUIDANCE FOR RELIGIOUS It seems that some who were planning on. using, Guidance for 'Rel,glous, b~,' ~ath~r Gerald Keily, S.J'.~, insummer sessmns ai'e w'on~ . dering, whether they may gtill obtain copies. F6r~kheir information;~we should like to say ~hat the second p~iht~ng of the book is now com-. pleted, and it may be obtainefl~from The Newman Press, Westminster, 154 Apost:at:es and 'Fugi!:ives I. Definition of Apostasy and Flight 1. Definition of apostasy (c. 644, ~ !). ApOstates and fugitives leave religion voluntarily but illicitly, pe~manentiy in the case of the apostate, temporarily in that of ~the fugitive. Both' me~ and women may be apostates or fugitives. Aft ~ipostate from religion is a professed of perpetual vows who either leaves or remains outside of every house of his institute without any valid permission, and manifests externally, either explicitly or impliC-itly, the absolute intention of never returning to any house of his institute. (a) Perpetual vows are necessary, Novices~ and postulant~ can-not be apostates. They are also free to leave religion at any time. A professed of temporary vows cannot be an apostate; nor is he a fugitive if he leaves religion with the expressed inten-tion of not returning, since a fugitive is one who has the inten-tion of returning (cc. 19; 2219, § 3). Solemn vows are always perpetual; but perpetual simple vows, whether in an order or a congregation, also suffice for apostasy. (b) Illicit absence required. The illicit absence necesgary for apbs-tasy is verified by leaving the religious house without any valid permission (explicit, implicit, presumed, tacit, particular, general) or, if one h~s permission to go out, by ~remaii~ing outside the house beyond the length of any valid permission. The re!igiou~ must be illicitly outside any house of his institute, e: g., ~a religious who goes to another .house of his own institute without any permission does not verify the illicit absence demanded for apostasy. (c) Intention of never returning required. "Apostasy demands that religious obedience be cast off completely and not merely to a particular superior or superiors. The ~intention'~ therdfore must be not to return to any hous~ of his institute. The inten- 155 JOSEPH F. ~ALLEN Review for Religious tion ,must also be absolute, not conditional. For example, a religiou~ who has the intention of not returning to his institute unless he is transferred to another house has a conditional, .not an absolute, intention and is not an apostate. He is an apostate as soon as his intention becomes absolute. This intention must be externally manifested. The external manifestation may be by any means sufficient to express an intention of ihe will," e. g., orally, in writing, by gestures, or facts. The intention is manifested explicitly if th~ religious states orally or in writing that he is leaving the institute forever. It is mani-fested implicitly by any fact that implies the intention of leaving the institute forever, e. g., if he attempts or contracts marriage, assume~ a permanent employment, begins a course of ,studies, or has all his personal belongings sent to him. (d) Presumption of such an intention (c. 644, ~ 2)- If there is no certain proof that the religious has ,manifested, this inten-tion, he is p~Tesumed to have done so and to be an apostate after an illicit absence of one month, ,e. g., January. 12-February 13, provided he has not actually returned during this time nor mani-fested to his superior the intention =of returning. Ii~ in these circumstances hE claims that ~he was not an apostate,, he will have to prove his assertion by establishing the lack of at ieast one ~f the essential elements of apostasy, e. g., that he was not absent illici.tly, that he did not express the intention, of. not returning, or .th.at he was-physically or morally unable to return or correspond with his superior. 2. Definition of flight (c. 644, §-3).~ A fugitive is a .professed religigus of either perpetual or temporary vows' or a member of a' society without .public vows in which common life is a grave obligation who: 1° either leaves or actually remains outside every house, of.his institute without .any valid permission beyond three complete ~days or. e'xtemally, manifests, eXplicitl~ or im-plicitly, the intention 'of.prolong!ng his absence for .this same time; 2° ~but with tbe~ intention of returning to at least some 156 May, 1957 APOSTATES AND FUGITIVES house of his institute. An~ professed, oeven of only temporary vows, can be a fugitive. The concepts of leaving or remaining outside without any valid permission are to be understood in the same sense as explained above for an apostate. (a) Beyond three full days. An apostate intends to sever him-self completely from religious obedience, and it is therefore required that he externally manifest the intention of never re-turning to his institute. A fugitive is one who intends to with-draw himself from religious obedience for a notable period of time. This intention also must be externally manifested. There-fore, flight is verified at any moment in an illicit absence that the religious manifests explicitly or implicitly the intention of pro-tracting such an absence for a notable period. Common opinion determines this period as beyond three full days, .e.g., if begun on Monday, the notable absence i~ attained on Friday. The sole fact of an illicit absence beyond three full days is an implicit manifestation of the intention of withdrawing from religious obedience for a notable period of time. However, since many au'thors demand an actual illicit absence beyond three days for flight and say nothing of the case of an intention of notable absence, the crime of flight is not ~certainly vei'ified and the pe'nalties are not incurred unless the illicit "absence is actually prolonged beyond three cJays. When' the'intention or actual absence is for a less~r period, even if for a seriously sinful pur-pose, the case is not consi'dered one of flight but of a mere illicit or furtive departure from religion. (b) With the intention of returning. It is presumed, that the religious has this intention of returning unless he manifests externally the intention of never returning, in which case his intention is that of an apostate. It i~, thdrefore, not ndk~ssary to manifest externally khe~intention of returning, which is' con-tained in the intention of depaFting from the ifistitute' only ]~or a time. If his intention is' never to return to a partidulaF house or houses but to return to at least some hohse of his institute, his in~tehtion is still that~ of a fugitive and 'not o'f an apostate. 1.57 JOSEPH F. GALLEN, Review for Religious Apostasy is not a partial but a complete severance of religious obedience. II. Canonical Penalties for Apostasy and Flight 3. For apostasy (c. 2385). (a) Excommunication. An apostate incurs ipso facto an excommunication reserved to his own higher superior if the delinquent is a member of a clerical exempt institute or to the ordinary of the place where the absolution from the excommunication is given ff the delinquent is a mem-ber' of any other type of institute. (b) Prohibition of legitimate ecclesiastical acts (c. 2256, 2°). An apostate incurs ipso facto an exclusion from the licit exercise of legitimate ecclesiastical, acts. The more general and prac-tical prohibitions of this penalty are that the religious may not licitly exercise the administration of ecclesiastical property as a superior, treasurer, or member of a council, vote in an ecclesias-tical election, or be a sponsor in baptism or confirmation. This penalty remains after his return and after an absolution from the excommunication, but a local or religious ordinary can dis-pe. nse from it in virtue of c. 2237 in either public or occult cases. In more urgent occult cases confessors can suspend the penalty if it cannot be observed without scandal or infamy. They must impose' the obligation of having rec6urse within a month to the Sacred Penitentiary or the ordinary and of observing the man-dates of either (c. 2290, § 1). In an extraordinary case when recourse is impossible, the confessor can dispense and give the mandates himself according to the norm' of c. 2254, ~ 3 (c. 2290, § 2). (c) Privation of privileges. An apost~ite incurs ipso facto a privation of the valid use of all privileges granted by the Holy See to religious in ge.neral and to his own institute, e. g., exemp-tion, indulgence~s. It is probable that he is not deprived of suffrages, since these are not a privilege. This penalty, also remains, as ab. ove, but can be dispensed by a local or religious 158 May, 1957 APOSTATES AND FUGITIVES ordinary., The power of the confessor is the same. (d) Perpetual loss of active and passive voice. If he returns, the apostate is perpetually del~rived of active and passive voice. Therefore, he is deprived perpetually of the right of voting val-idly in any electoral chapter, whether general, provincial, or local, and of the right of receiving validly any offce that is con-ferred by election. He can receive an office that is conferred by appointment, and a religious woman retains the right of voting for the prolongation of the term of the ordinary confessor (c. 526). This .penalty also remains after the absolution from the excommunication. In occult cases it can be dispensed "by the local or religious ordinary, but in publii: cases only by the Holy' See (c. 2237, ~ 1, 3°). The power of the ~onfessor is the same as above. Religious ordinaries can have the po~er of dispens-ing from this penalty in public casek in virtue of a privilege possessed by their institute.' (e) To be otherwise punished by superiors. Canon 2385 com-mands that a returned apostate be otherwise punished by his loc~,l or higher superiors in conformity with the constitutions and in accordance with the gravity of his crime. If any such ferendae senten/iae danonical penalties are prescribed in the constitutions of a clerical exempt .in.stitute, the superior is. ordi-narily obliged to inflict them buts'according to the norms of c. 2223, ~ 3. If" canonical penalties are not so pi'escrilSed; the superiors of the same institutes cain iriflicto canonical penalties, penances, and penal remedies when scandal or special ~ra¢ity was ~erified in the transgression, according~ to the norm of c. 2222, ~ 1. Superiors in other institutes c~ln inflict only the ordinary and private penances in use in the par'ticu[ar institute. ¯ .4. For flight (c. 2386). (a) General suspension. A religious fugitive who is a .priest, deacQn, or subdeacon ind[urs by" the ve.ry ~fact of.t0e.flight a gener~! suspe~ns!on that'~is reserved i,n.:,,exa~ct!y ~Cf. Riesner, /ll~ostates attd Vugitfiw's, /rom "Religious lnstitittes,~91; Jone, :Commentariura in Codicem luris Canonici.'.III, 553; ~Cloran, Pre~ie~'s.an,t Prac-tical Cases, 296. i;59 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious the same way as the excommunication for apostasy explained above. The suspension and other punishments of this canon certainly "extend also to thd clerical and lay members of clerical societies 'without public vows. It is probable that c. 2386 does not extend to lay societies without public' vows, since the Code Commission applies it explicitly only to clerical societies and the canon itself speaks of a religious fugitive. Therefore, in fact the canon does not extend to lay societies (cc. 19; 2219, § 1).~ (b) Privation of office. A fugitive incurs ipso facto the pri: ration of any office that he may hold in religion. Office is to be taken in a wide sense and, consequently, includes-that of pastor, parochial vicar, of any sup.erior, whether general, provincial, Or local, of any councilor or treasurer, master or assistant master of novices, of junior p3ofessed, tertians, general or prox(incial sec-retary, principal of a school, director of studies or schools.3 The fugitive is" deprived of all offices he now holds but is not rendered incapable of being elected or appointed to the same or different offices in the future. Since' it is a question of office in the wid~ sense (c. 145), this penalty can be dispensed by the local or religious ordinary,t The power of the confessor is the same as above. (c) To be otherwise punished on his return. Canon 2386 com-mands that the punishments prescribed in the constitutions for returned fugitives be inflicted; and, if the constitutions prescribe nothing on the matter, the higher superior is to inflict punish-ments according to the gravity of the offense. If any ferendae sentenliae canonical penalties are prescribed for flight in the constitutions of a clerical exempt institute, the superior designated in the constitutions is ordinarily obliged to inflict these penalties, ~ Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest, I, 330; Cappello, De Censuris, n. 539; Beste, lntroductio in Codicem, 968; Cocchi, Commentarium in Codicem luris Canonlci, VIII," n. 262; Vermeersch-Creusen, Epitome luris Cano.nici, III, n. 590; Jone, op. cir., III, 555; Schaefer, De Religlosis, n. 1565; Wernz-Vidal, lus Canonicum, VII, n. 521. z Cf. Coronata, Institutiones'luris Canonici, IV, n. 2191; Riesner, op. cir., 102. 4Cloran, op. cir., 86; 204-05. 160 May, 195"; APOSTATES AND FUGITIVES but according to the norms of c. 2223, §. 3. If canonical penal-ties are not so prescribed, the higher superior of the same insti-tutes can inflict canonical penalties, penances, and penal rem-edies when scandal or special gravity was verified in the trans-gression, according to the norm of c. 2222, ~ 1. Higher superi-ors in other institutes can inflict only the ordinary and private penances in use in the particular institute. III. The Obligations of Apostates and Fugitives (c. 645, .~ 1) 5. Apostates and fugitives are freed from none of the obliga-tions of their institute aild are consequently obliged by its vows, Rule, constitutions,~ordinances, and customs. They have a seri-ous obligation in conscience to return as soon' as is morally possible to their institute. To be worthy of sacramental absolu-tion, they must actually return, sincerely intend to return, or at least sincerely intend to submit themselves to the directions of their superiors. If the apostate or fugitive considers that he can no longer fulfill the obligations of the religious life, theforinali-ties necessary for an indult of secularization are to be initiated. If the return of the culpable religious involves grave inconveni-ence, superiors may permit him to remain outside religion until the ,indult of secularization has been obtained.~ These same obligations.are true of a professed of temporary vows who illicitly leave~ or remains outside his institute with the intention of never returning, even0though canonically he is neither an apostate nor a fugitive. IV. Obligations of Superiors with regard to Apostates and Fugitives (c. 645, ~ 2) . 6. Obligations. All the superiors of the apostate or fugitive but primarily the immediate higher superior are obliged to find him, effect his return, and receive him back if he is. sincerely repen-tant. This ,obligation in the case of an apostate or fugitive nun falls on the local ordinary of her monastery. From charity the ~Cf. Creusen, Religious Men and PVomen in the Code, n. 342; Bastien, Dir,'ctoire Canoniqu~', n. 622; Jombart, Trait/ de Droit Canonique, I, n. 909. 161 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious ordinary of the place .where she is s.taying should give l~is assis-tance as also any other local or~linary whose efforts can be help-ful. If the monastery is subject in fact to regulars, the obliga-tion extends cumulatively also to the regular superior. Superiors may fulfill this obligation personally or through another. At times, another religious, a priest, friends, or relatives may have greater influence with the offender. Superiors, especially of religious women, will frequently be compelled to deal with the delinquent through another to avoid the danger of scandal to the laity or of infamy to the institute. The seeking of the offender is always to be done with prudence and charity, i. e., with the avoidance of scandal, infamy, or hardship to either the delin-quent or the institute. Since no time is prescribed by canon law, the obligation of seeking apostates and f, ugiti.ves binds only when and as long as there is probable hope that the offender will amend and return. 7. Repentant delinquent. The institute is obliged to take back the apostate or fugitive only if he is sincerely repentant, . The institute has the right of proving the sincerity of his repentance on his return by a period of trial. If sincere repentance is lack-ing, .the superior should .counsel the religious to ask for an indult of secularization or, if he will not do this, begin the. formalities of a dismissal, If he appears repentant but his return and pres-ence can be a cause of trouble to the institute and superiors find serious difficulty/ in receiving him back, they may present the facts of the c~.se to the Sacred Congregation of Religious and await its decision.~ - ~" 8. Delinquent unwilling to return. If the apostate or fugitive is. unwilling ~0 return, superiors should ounsel him;to ask for an i"nduit of secularization; if he will not do thi~, the~) are to ~'resort to dismissal. A religious ~of temporary vows who is.a fugi-tive or' who illicitly leaves or remains outsidd the' institute with the intention of never returning may be dismissed because of this one act. His action is a crime or equivalenyly such and is of greater import tha,n.the "serious reason demanded in c. 647. 162 May, 1957 APOSTATES AND FUGITIVES Superiors are to judge fro~ the culpability of this act, the type of religious life he had lived in the past, hope of amendment, scandal .given, harm or inconvenience to the institute in retaining him, and from other pertinent circumstances whether he should be dismissedfl V. Dismissal of a Professed of Perpetual Vows for Apostasy or Flight 9. For apostasy. The supposition is that superiors have striven to effect the return of the delinquent and he will not return. He is then to be counselled to ask for an indult of secularization. If he will not do this, superiors are to begi~n the admonitions neces-sary for dismissal. It is the common opinion that the dismissal of an apostate should not be done with precipitation and by merely fulfilling the letter of the law, i. e., by giving the first admonition at once, the second three day.s later, and then after an interval of six days forwarding the matter to the competent authority for .dismissal. One or two authors even state that three months should be allowed to elapse before the formalities of dismissal are begun. This appears to be an exaggeration of a somewhat similar norm that existed before the code. It would be prudent to allow abotit two months to elapse between the crime and the completion of the formalities requisite for dis° missal.7 An admonition lookii~g to dismissal may also be given to a repentant apostate or fugitive who has returned to his insti-tute, since his crime furnishes the basis for an admonition,s 10. For flight. The supposition i~ the same as in the preceding paragraph; and the same recommendation of a space of" about two months applies here also, particularly since flight is a lesser crime than apostasy. Frequently, therefore, the religious will be presumed to be an apostate, because an illicit absence of a month gives the presumption of apostasy. If the religious will not °Cf. Palombo, De Dimissione Reli#iosorum, n. 153, 4. 7 Cf. Larraona, Commentarittm Pro Reli#iosis, 4-1923-178. 8Cf. cc. 649-651, § 1; 656 Goyen~che, De Relioiosis, 203. 163 JOSEPH F. GALLEN petition an indult of secularization, the formalities of a dismissal are to be begun. VI. Support and Dowry of an Apostate or Fugitive 1 i. The Code of Canon Law does not oblige the institute to sup-port an apostate or fugitive. Such support may be given, espe-cially when it will aid or effect the return of the delinquent. It would often serve only to prolong the absence. The institute has no obligation to give a charitable subsidy to a religious woman except when the religious wishes to return but~ superiors do not wish to receive her back because of scandal, harm, or hardship, and the delinquent is forced to'live outside religion until she obtains an indult of secularization or the case is settled by the Holy See.~. The capital sum of the dowry is to be returned to a pro-fessed religious, woman who definitively leaves the institute, licitly or illicitly, whether her vows have been dispensed or not (c. 551, ~ 1). A fugitive from religion is only temporarily absent from her institute and therefore the dowry is not to be restored to her. Since c. 551, ~ 1, makes no distinction between a licit and illicit definitive departure, it is the more'probable opinion that the dowry should be restored to an apostate religious woman when it is certain that she will not return. It is also probable that the institute is not obliged to return the dowry until the apostate is secularized or dismissed, .since mere apostasy does not canon-ically and completely sever the apostate from her institute. The same doctrine is to be affirmed of a religious woman of tempor~ary vows who.illicitly leaves, or remains outside of the institute with the intention of not returning, even though canonically she is neither an apostate nor a fugitive. 9Cf. Riesner, 0,~. ciL, 134-35. 164 PRAYER FOR RELIGIOUS VOCATIONS [In the Vatican daily newspaper, Osser~,atore Romano, for February 7, 1957, there appeared the text of a prayer personally composed by the Holy Father for vocations to the religious life. The prayer has been enriched by His Holiness with the following indulgences: ten years each time it is recited and a plenary indulgence under the usual conditions, provided the prayer has been said daily for an entire month (AAS, February 27, 1957, p. 101). A translation of the prayer from the original Italian text follows:] Lot:d Jesus Christ, sublime m~del of all perfection, who not only unceasingly invite privileged souls to tend towards the loftiest of goals, but who also move them by the powerful force of Your example and the efficacious impulse of Your grace to follow You on so exalted a path, grant that many may know Your sweet inspirations and respond to them by embracing the religious state, there to enjoy Your special care and Your tender love. Grant that there may never be lacking the religious who, as the messenger of Your love, may represent You day. and night beside .the cradle of the orphan, at the bed of the suffering, and near the old and the infirm who perhaps otherwise would have no one on this earth to stretch to them a hand of pity~ Grant too that in the lowliest school as in the greatest cathedrdl there 'should always sound a voice which is an echo of Your own and which teaches the way to heaven and the duties proper to each human person; and grant that no country, however ~backward and remoLe, be deprived of the call of the Gospel inviting all peoples to enter Your kingdom. Grant that there may be multiplied and increased those flames by which the world may be further set on fire. and in which shines forth in all its splendor the spotless holiness of Your Church. Grant also that in every regiofi there may flourish gardens of elect souls who by their contemplation and their penance repair the faults of men and implore Your mercy. And grant that through the continual immolation of such hearts, through the snow-whi~e ptirity of such souls, and through the exdellence of their virtue, there may always be here on earth'a perfect and living e~ample of those children of God whom you came to reveal. Send to these battalions of your chosen ones numerous and good vocations, souls firmly determined to make themselves worthy of. such a signal grace and of the institute to which they aspire and to a~chieve this by the exact ,observance 'of their religious duties, by assiduous pr.ayer, by,constant mortification,, and by the perfect adherence of their will to Your will. Enlighten, Lord Jesus, many generous souls with the.glowing light of the Holy Spirit who is substantial and eternal love; and by the powerful" intercession of Your loving Mbther Mary enkiridle and keep burning the fire of Your charity, to the glory of the Father and of the same Spirit, who live and.reign with You, world with6ut end. Amen. 165 Survey ot: Roman Documen!:s R. I::. Smit:h, S.J. IN THE present article those documents will'be ~urveyed which appeared in /lcta ./tpostolicae Sed~is (AAS) be-tween October 1, 1956, and December 31, 1956. Accord-in~ gly, all references throughout the article are to AAS of 1956 (v. 48). Crusade for Peace It is rare indeed when over a two-week period three en-cyclicals appear in rapid succession; but this is what happened between October 28, 1956, and November 5, 1956, when events in Hungary and the Middle East p'rompted the Vicar of Christ to publish for the entire world three encyclicals. The first, pub-lished on October 28, 1956 {'AAS, pp. 741-744), consists of a plea for all true Christians to unite in a crusade of prayer for the people of Hungary and for the other peoples of Eastern Europe who are deprived of religious and civ.il liberties. The Pontiff especially p;,.~.~s that those in their early youth join this crusade of prayer for peace, for, as His Holiness says, "We put great trust especially in their supplications." The second en-cyclical was i,ssued on November 2, 1956 (AAS pp. 745-748); in it Plus XII first gives thanks to God for the appearance of what would seem to be a new era of peace through justice .in Poland and Hungary; then he turns to consider the flame of another warlike situation in the Middle East; hence he u~ges that the crusade of prayer be continued that the grave" problems confronting the world today be solved not by the way of violence but by the way of justice. The third of the encyclicals, dated November 5, 1956 (AAS, pp. 748-749), laments the new servi-tude imposed on the Hungarian people by force of foreign arms, warns ~the oppressors that the blood of the Hungarian people cries to the Lord, and urges all Christians to join together in 166 ROMAN DOCUMENTS prayer for those who have met death' in the recent painful events of Hungary. Five days later on November 10, 1956 (AAS, pp. 787- 789), the Holy Father continued his work for peace by broad-casting a message to all the nations and leaders of the world. His speech was an anguished plea for peace and freedom and concluded with the prayerful hope that the name of God may, as a synonym for peace and liberty, be a standard for all men of good will and a bond between all peoples and nations. The Vicar of Christ's plea for a crusade of prayer leads naturally to a consideration of what he had to say on the sub-ject of the apostolate of prayer when addressing the directors of the Apostleship of Prayer on S~ptember 27, 1956 (AAS, pp. 674-677). The apostolate of prayer, says the Pope, is a form of apostolic endeavor that is open to literally every ChriS-tian, no matter what his state or condition may be; nor can th6se who are engaged in an active apostolic life neglect the apostolate of prayer; for actmn must be rooted in a spirit of prayer and of virtue. All Christians, therefore, are urged to practice the apos-tolate of prayer; and it is the hope of the Supreme Pontiff that they do so by membership in the Apostleship 6f Pr~yer since this association teaches its members.to do all for the salvation of the world and to draw ever closer to the Heart of Christ. As air penetrates and joins all things, concludes Pius XII, so too the Apostleship of Prayer should be an-exercise common to all the apostolic works of the entire Church. Liturgy and Worship ~'One o'f the most important documents issued during the last months of 1956 wa~ the teXg of th.e address delivered by His ~Holiness on .September 22, 1956 (AASI pp. 71,.i-725), to the International CongreSs. of Pastora! ~Liturgy. The Holy Father .first, considers the relations that exist between the liturgy band the ~Church, relations that~ may be summed up in the following,, two ~principles: The liturgy is a living function of th~ ~hole Church; ¯167 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious the liturgy is not, however, the whole of the Church. All Catholics, therefore, must, each in his own way, participate in the liturgy; but they should also remember that the liturgy does not remove the importance of priv.ate and individual worship and that it does not lessen the Church's functions of teaching and governing. The Pontiff then turns to a consideration of the relations between the liturgy of the Mass and Christ. It must not be forgotten, teaches the Holy Father, that the central element of the Eucharistic Sacrifice is that where Christ offers Himself; this takes place at the Consecration where in the act of trans-substantiation Christ acts through the person of the priest-cele-brant. Hence, wherever the consecration of bread and wine is validly effected, the action of Christ Himself is also accomplished. There can, then, be no real concelebration of Mass unless the concelebrants not only have the necessary interior intention, but also say over the bread and wine, "This is My Body"; "This is My Blood." It also follows that it is not true to say that the offering of a hundred Masses by a hundred priests is equal to the offering of Mass by a single priest in the presence of a hundred devout priests. The Holy Father next considers the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. He first corrects an erroneous explanation of Christ's presence in the Eucharist, according to which after the Consecration Christ is present only in the sense that the appear-ances of bread and wine have a real relation with our Lord in heaven. Such an explanation, Plus XII points out, does not do justice to the Eucharist, of which it carl be simply said: It is the Lord. The Holy Father concludes this section by warning against any diminishing of esteem for the presence of Christ in the tabernacle. The altar of sacrifice and the tabernacle of the rdal presence are in no way opposed to each. other, for it is the same Lord who is immolated on the altar and who is really present in the tabernacle. 168 May, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS Finally, the Holy Father considers the divinity of Christ and the liturgy and remarks that the divinity of our Lord must not be allowed to remain on the fringe of the liturgy. It is, of course, to be expected that man should go to the Father through Christ who is man's Mediator; but it must also be remembered that Christ is" not only Mediator, but also the equal of the Father and the Holy Spirit. Several documents were issued in the last quarter of 1956 which dealt with beatification and canonization processes. By a decree of May 13, 1956 (AAS, pp. 842-843), the Sacred Congregation of Rites approved the reassumption of the cause of the bessed martyrs Roch Gonzalez, Alphonsus Rodriguez, and John del Castillo, priests of the Society of Jesus. Under the same date the same Congregation (AAS, pp. 843-844) also approved the reassumption of the cause of Blessed Mary Cres-centia H6ss, virgin, professed member of the Third Order of St. Francis. On August 15, 1956 (AAS, pp. 804-806), the Congregation of Rites decreed that the beatification of Pope Innocent XI could safely proceed; and on October 7, 1956 (AAS, pp. 754-759), the decree of his beatification was accord-ingly issued. On the same day (AAS, pp. 762-778) His Holi-ness delivered a lengthy panegyric on the new Blessed. Blessed Innocent XI, the Pope pointed out, directed his entire pontificate to the accomplishment of three goals: the perfecting of the re-form begun by the Council of Trent; the protection of the rights and liberty of the Church, especially in France; and. the saving of Christian Europe from the inroads of Turkish power. These three external achievements were accompanied, said the Pope, by three internal qualities: constant union with God in prayer; love of poverty joined to a desire to help those in need; and a strong purpose to seek only ~he will of almighty God. Finally, it should be noted in relation to canonization matters that on February 19, 1956 (AAS, pp. 688-691), the Congregation of Rites approved the introduction of the cause of the Cardinal Archbishop of Seville, Marcellus Spinola Maestre (1835-1906). 169 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious The Sacred Congregation of Rites on October 31," 1956 (AAS, pp. 844-845), added to the blessings of the Church by issuing a formula for the blessing of stone quarries and another for the blessing of establishments for the working and finishing of marble. The Holy Father contributed to the Church's life of worship by the message which he .broadcast to the Second National Eucharistic Congresk of the Philippines on December 2, 1956 (AAS, pp. 834-838); he urged in the course of his broadcast that Catholics should show their faith and trust in Christ's Eucha-ristic presence not so much by words or songs, as by truly Christian deeds. Finally, a broadcast of October 28, 1956 (AAS, pp. 831-834), in which the Holy Father discussed the practice of consecration to the Sacred Heart, shoold not be neglected. Since the act of consecration is an act of love and of self-dedication, says the Vicar of Christ, this act can be performed only by one in the state of grace. Moreover, to live out the act of consecration once made means that the person must be grad-ually transformed into another Christ; and the Holy Father concludes his speech by teaching that whoever consecrates him-self to the Sacred Heart enrolls himself in an army of peace which neither rests nor halts until the kingdom of Christ is estab-lished in all hearts, in all families, and in all institutions. Addresses to Doctors. Medicine and its associated fields have been the repeated subject of speeches and addresses throughout the reign of Plus XII and the last few months of 1956 saw no exception to 'this general rule. The most important of these addresses was that given by the Holy Father on September 11, 1956 (AAS, pp. 677-686), to the seventh plenary meeting of the International Association of Catholic Physicians, held at The Hague, Holland. In this radio broadcast the Supreme Pontiff discussed the matters of medical morality and of positive law dealing with medical matters. 170 May, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS The ultimate source of all medical morality and law, begins the Pope, is to be found in the individual's right to life, to in-tegrity of body, and to the means necessary~ to preserve life and integrity. All these rights, he continues, are received by the individual directly from his Creator, not from the state or any group of states. This, means, then, that the individual does not bear the same relation to the state in medical matters that a physical part bears to the physical whole in which it exists. ~ After considering the obfligations which flow from the essen-tial conditions of. human nature and which are :measurable by objective norms and which to a considerable extent are contained in .the Ten Commandments as understood and explained by reason and the Chur~ch, the Pontiff then takes up the matter of positive medical law understood as a set of norms which have been established in a body politic to control the training and activity of physicians and which are civilly enforceable. Such positive law in medical matters, the Pope says, is necessary, since the prin-ciples of medical morality lacl~ sufficient precision to adequately cover all the concrete, medical situations that are of importance to society. Medical morality and positive medical law are in a certain sense autonomous in their respective spheres, but in the final analysis positive medical law must be subordinate to medical morality. Positive medical law, then, must never be in contra-diction, to the moral order which is expressed in medical morality. Positive law, for example, cannot permit mercy-killing nor direct abortion. A month earlier than the previous talk on August 19, 1956 (AAS, pp. 666-670), the Pontiff addressed a group of cancer specialists~ urging them to observe wheat for lack of a better name may be called medical humanism. This is an attit.ude of mind which, when treating a patient, does not limit itself to a consideration of the patient's sickness only, but considers the entire man including his economic, social, psychological, and moral conditions. .He concludes his address to these cancer specialists ~by expressing the wish that their zeal to fight the 171 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious physical evil of cancer may be matched by a zeal to combat the even greater evil which is called sin. The Holy Father also ad-dressed another group of cancer researchers on October 6, 1956 (AAS, pp. 793-797). After detailing the recent research into a cure for cancer, the Pope concludes by encouraging them in their labors, for, as he says, they are fighting one of the con-sequences that the sin of man has introduced into the world. Economic and Social Problems A number of documents issued by Plus XII in the last three months of 1956 dealt with subjects that can be termed roughly economic and social matters. On September 9, 1956 (AAS, pp. 670-673), the Holy Father addressed the First Congress of the International Association of Economists, pointing out to its members that economics, like any other science, must start with the observation of facts considered in their entirety. It was failure to see all of economic reality, says the Pontiff, that led to the contradiction betw.een the economic theory of the physi0cra.ts and the frightful social misery that actually existed in reality. Similarly too, the h/!~arxist view failed to see all of economic reality, for it eliminated all spiritual values and thereby put men into a bondage as oppressive as any slavery. The true economist, then, must embrace in his economic theory the many facets of man that affect economic reality, especially man's gift of free and personal decision. The Holy Father concludes his address by recalling to his audience the Christian ideal of poverty as a means of personal freedom and social service; although, he remarks, this ideal is not directly within the purview of economics, still economists can find in that ideal a o general orientation that will bring them valuable insights. On October 8, 1956 (AAS, pp. 798-801), the Holy Father addressed a group of owners of small businesses from the coun-tries of Germany, Belgium, .Italy, and the Netherlands. In his allocution to them the Vicar of Christ stres'sed'the necessity of small business for the stability of a country and gave his audience salutary, reminders of the relations that should exist in such busi- 172 May, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS nesses between owners and employees. On the Feast of Christ the King, October 28, 1956 (AAS, pp. 819-824), His Holiness spoke to a group of Italian workers on the subject of the reign of Christ in the world of labor. The reign of Christ, says the Pope, must begin in the minds of men; and, therefore, a deep knowledge of the truths of the Catholic faith must be spread among men. But the reign of Christ must also penetrate to the hearts of men that they might all become living stones of that edifice which is Christ. Moreover, the kingdom of Christ must extend even to the factories where men work that these too may be governed by His justice, which alone can bring a solution to modern social problems. And finally, the kingdom of Christ is a kingdom of love, and therefore of peace, for love of its very nature is a uniting force. In the Basilica of St. Peter on November 18, 1956 (AAS, pp. 826-831), seven thousand Italian workers from Turin were received by the Holy Father who addressed them on various social and economic matters. He recalls to their minds that, though economics must deal with such matters as the laws of production and consumption, it must also be aware of those moral laws which must be considered if any economic situation is to be handled successfully. He warns them that the enemy of the human race is today represented among men by Communism and concludes by urging the workers not to fear scientific and technical progress, for there is no reasonable basis for assuming that such progress will eliminate the need for human workers. On October I0, 1956 (AAS, pp. 779-786), the Holy Father broadcast a message to the shrine of the house of Loretto where a group 6f Italian women had gone on pilgrimage. The Pontiff first recalls to his hearers the dignity of woman accord-ing to Catholic principles; she, like man, is a child of God, redeemed by Christ, and given a supernatural destiny; further-more, woman shares with w/an a common temporal destiny, so that no human activity is of itself forbidden to woman. Man 173 R, F. 'SMITH Review for Religious and woman, then, are equal as far as personal and fundamental values .are concerned, though their functions are different. The fundamenial function of woman is motherhood; for it is by this that woman ordinarily attains both her temporal and her eternal destiny; this, of course, in no way prevents the perfection of womanhood being achieved in other ways, especially by the voluntary acceptance of a higher vocation. Finally, the Holy Father acknowledges that woman should be a force in the modern world and one :of the aims of woman's activity should be to strive to see' that the nation's institutions, laws, and customs respect the special needs of women. Miscellaneous Topics An important document issued by the Hoiy Father in the concluding months of 1956 is the text of a speech given by him on September 14, 1956 (AAS, pp. 699-711), to a group of Italian priests interested in the adaptation of pastoral activity to the needs of contemporary life. The main body of the text is concerned with the need for preaching today modeled on the preaching 6f Christ and that of the Church. At the conclusion of the talk the Supreme Pontiff then formulates a general prin-ciple tl~at should control all those working to adapt themselves to modern situations: there can be no valid adaptation to modern conditions unless that adaptation be shaped by and oriented towards the teaching power of the Church. Individual theologi-ans must remember that the teaching o~ce of the Roman Pontiff and of fhe bishops is of divine right, while their own right to teach is delegated to them. by the Church. The Vicar of Christ notes in conclusion certain areas where modern adaptation has not been shaped by the teaching power of the Church. Among such areas are to be included the tendencies of. the "new theol-ogy" as explained in 1950 in the encyclical Humani Generis; situation ethics; the pretended superiority of Christian marriage and the conjugal act over virginity;, and. the independence of art from all norms other than artistic ones. On September 20, 1956 iAAS, pp. 790-793), the Holy 174 May, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS Father addressed the Seventh Congress oi: the International Astronautical Society. After recalling the history of human effort during the last fifty years to achieve interplanetary travel and to invent artificial earth satellites, the Vicar of .Christ con-tinues by saying that interplanetary travel is a licit aim and pur-pose, for all creation has been given to man. On the other hand, he points out that the boldest explorations of space will but lead, to greater divisions among men, unless humanity be-comes more deeply impressed with the solidarity of that t!amily of God which is the human race. The last document to be noted is a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Universities~ dated June 21, 1956 (AAS, p. 846), by which Niagara University is canonically and perpetually erected. This concludes the documents which have appeared in AAS during 1956; the next article will summarize the documents of AAS for the first months of 1957. SUMMER INSTITUTES (Continued from Page 142) In its second annual series of Institutes for Religious Won~en Gonzaga University aims at "equipping nuns of all congregations with the insights that reflect God's point of view." This year's schedule is as follows: June 17-28, The Sacramental Life and the Mass; July 1-12, Understanding Human Nature--Part II; Personal Holiness II. Write to: Rev. Leo J. Robinson, s.J.~ Gonzaga University, Spokane 2, Wash-ington. From July 1 to August 9 The Catholic University of America will conduct a Marian Institute which has been established to provide sys-tematic training in the theoloy about the Blessed Virgin. Address cor-respondence to: Director of the Summer Session, The Catholic Uni-versity of America, Washington 17, D. C, OUR CONTRIBUTORS SISTER M. MATILDA is archivist at Loretto Motherhouse, Lo-retto, Nerinx P. O., KentuCky. THOMAS G. O'CALLAGHAN is professor of ascetical and mystica[ theology at Weston College, Weston, Massachusetts. JOSEPH F. GALLEN is professor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland. R. F. SMITH is a mem-ber of the faculty of St.Mary's Cbllege, St. Marys, Kansas. !75 Communications [EDITORS' NOTE: Those who send communications will help us greatly if they type the communications double- or triple-spaced and allow generous margins. Occasionally we receive material for a particular issue or time of year~ Since our deadline for sending copy to the printer is two months before the publication date, such material should reach us three months before it is to appear. Communications, like articles and questions, should be addressed to our editorial office, not to the business office. The complete address is: The Editors, REW~W :FOR REL~O~0US, St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. The address of the business office (where subscriptions, requests for back numbers, changes of address, etc., are to be sent) is given on the inside back cover.] Introductory Note As an editor, I should like to suggest that the communication on the religious habit may stimulate profitable discussion if our readers will ignore the suggestion that the sisters who answered Father Teufel's questionnaire (cf. our January number, p. 3) are disgruntled religious. Concentration on this point can lead only to bitterness. As a teacher, I should like to add that I once conducted a discussion (without a questionnaire) involving the same points brought out by FathEr Teufel. Sisters representing a large number of institutions took part in this discussion. Their conclusions were similar to those expressed in Father Teufel's article. I can vouch for the fact that these sisters were excellent religious, devoted to their institutes. I am sure that the same could itnd should be said about the sisters who replied to Father Teufel's questionnaire. As a priest, let me say that we men are not eager to tell women how to dress. Moreover, many of us think that the problem of garb is not limited to sisters' habits. Priests and religious men who live in hot climates (which--by the way--are not limited to mission co'n-tries) often discuss the possibility of having some substitute for the black suits and cassocks. The underlying reason of these discussions is not lack of mortification; it is rather the very important matter of cleanliness, as well as efficiency. Gerald Kelly, S.J. The Religious Habit Reverend Fathers: The article on the religious habit published in the January issue of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS has attracted considerable attention 176 COMMUNICATIONS among the religious of my. community. I am wondering about the reaction of others. Those with whom I have spoken are within the average age group mentioned in the article--at least twenty-five years in religion. Their reaction (like my own) has been one of shock at the revelation of what looks like a deep resentmefit in the minds of certain religious against the inconveniences and occasional" embar-rassment or discomfort caused by the religious habitl May I offer a few comments? 1. The attitude of a religious toward her habit. From the day she receives it, the religious in any well-trained community is imbued with the idea of the sacredness of the "holy" habit. She. regards it as a privilege to wear a garment blessed by Holy Church. On the day of her "clothing" she is reminded that she has put off (at least in will and intention) the "old" self and has puton Christi Each morning thereafter as she puts on her habit she recites a prayer recall-ing the day when she was vested with the nuptial robe indicative of her union with Christ. 2. The care given to the habit is that given to somethi~ng sacred, as, for example, the vestments in the sacristy. It is put on and removed over the head (never stepped out of). It must be lifted on going down stairs or in crossing a muddy or dusty passage. It must be kept free of spots and never allowed to become ragged. 3. Some of the remarks on the time expended on the,care, of the habit seem to indicate that the religious who made these remarks have no idea of the time and care that a woman in the world must consume in keeping well groomed. 4. These religious.applied for the habit they wear. They accepted it along with the rules and customs and the spirit of their particular commu.nity. If today they are disgruntled at its form, might not this be an indication of a falling off in fervor and esteem for the institute whose uniform they once gladly adopted? In regard to the attractibn of vocations, young girls are drawn to particular institutes by their spirit or their work. They accept the habit without criticism and love it for what it represents. 5. It is true that many communities have been loyally putting up with certain inconveniences which custom imposed in the matter of clothing. The sisters of past generations accepted all this in.a spirit of penance. The present-day abhorrence of inconvenience is--alas! 177 COMMUNICATIONS Review for Religious --carried into the convent by many a postulant; but surely her attitude changes as she grasps the meaning of mortification and in the pursuit of "personal holiness" becomes more eager for penance. 6. The Holy See, in its kindly interest in the spiritual progress of dqdicate.d souls, has made aa effort to relieve the religious of incon-veniences arising from the manner of dress designed in far distant days. If each community attends to the rectification of thos~ features of the habit which come under these benign instructions, then indi-vidual religious will have no ground for interior rebellion, much less for outspoken criticism. Suggestions may always be made; surely-- but, should we add, objectively. The personal savor of many of the criticisms published indicated an absorption in self and a seeking of ease that seemed at variance with the striving after perfection which religious life implies. The remarks on the rosary were particularly offe_nsive. 7. It seems a pity that the attitude of seventy-two religious in one small corner of the earth should be taken as indicative of the reaction of thousands of sisters all over the world. Seculars picking up this article will be justly shocked; for they generallyo have the greatest esteem for the religious habit, no matter how antiquated or outlandish it may appear at first sight. 8. There is an old saying--"Cucullus non facit monachum.'" The habit certainly does not make the sister, but it does indicate that the person ~lothed in it is set apart from the world; that the restrictions it imposes are accepted as part of the price of her dedication; and that the uniform of her pai:ticular unit.in the army of the King is worn with an ""esprit de corps'" that cancels all inconveniences and be-stows .on the wearer a certain distinction. I shall be interested in learning the reaction of other religious ¯ communities to Father Teufel's article. Perhaps it was intended to b~ provocative. If the day of persecution should ever ~me (which G~d forbid!) when these same disgruntled nuns would be stripped of the holy habit (weighing ten pounds!) and forced to don a secular dress as light as 14 ounces, what a chorus of lamentation would rise to heaven! Surely in their zeal for reform these good sisters were led by a tempting quegtionnaire beyond the limits of discretion. In their heart 6f hearts they feel, I a.m sure, that they are privileged to wear any religious habit. Surely after twenty-eight years they have 178 May, 1957 COMMUNICATIONS at least in some degree died to the world in order to put on Christ, A Sister Vocal Prayers in English Reverend Fathers: May I make use of the communications department of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS tO invite the opinions of other religious concerning a problem that has arisen in our community in regard to the conversion of many of our Latin prayers into English. I do not refer to the Divine Office or to the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin, but to 'the vocal prayers said in common morning and evening, those before and after meditation, the particular examen, and recently, the grace at meals in English. When we recited these prayers in Latin we used a uniform pitch, recto tono, and the even free rhythm of syllabic chant. Now we are thinking of carrying this method over into the English versions of these prayers so as to keep perfect unison in pitch with a similar rhythm. This poses the problem of modifying the emphasis and weight of the English accent, and submerges the natural inflections of the voice ordinarily used in reading English prose. It seems to us it would be in keeping with the spirit of liturgical prayer to lift our voices above the mundane methods of ordinary speech to a higher form of vocal player similar to the Latin recto tono or liturgi-cal recitative even when it is cast in the vernacular. We should like to know what other communities are doing about this problem. Do they chant English vocal prayers recto tono? Do they strive for the even rhythm of syllabic chant? Are there any printed works on this subject? Since many communities are converting many of their community prayers into English, it seems to me the opinions and practices of other communities will be of interest, not only to our sisters~ but to many other readers of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Mother M. Cecilia, O.SIU. Ursuline Convent Paola, Kansas 179 t oo1 Reviews [Material for this department should be sent ~to Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] THE SPLENDOUR OF THE CHURCH. By Henri de Lubac, S.J. Translated by Michael Mason. Pp. 289. Sheed and Ward, New York 3. 1956. $3.50 The original title of the book, Meditation sur l'Eglise, more humbly indicates the source of these reflections which magnificently reveal the splendor of the Church. We are grateful to the author for allowing us to look deeply into his soul on fire '~with an ever-growing affection" for the Church. The subject matter was supplied by informal talks and conferences given largely at days of recollection to priests with whom the author shares the treasures he has so sincerely pr!zed himself. This is consequently not a systematic treatise on the Church or the Mystical Body. Any one desiring an orderly dogmatic treatment had better not begin with this book. A gen-erous acquaintance with the scientific background of the theology of the Church is supposed, but on this new light and unsuspected bril-liancy- is cast by these conferences. What cannot but amaze the attentive reader is the erudition which has gone into the making of this brilliant book.' Tradition is literally pillaged to support the propositions presented, not so much for proof as for a luminous display of the light that has been shed through the ages on the dogma of the Church. The coverage of the literature on the subject, manifest in. numberless footnotes, is formidable, both in regard to the founts of tradition, as well as the pe¥iodical literature in many tongues. It was a pleasant surprise to find Social Order amongst the sources cited. The march of thought in the book may be here briefly outlined though it is not easy to summarize the wealth of material offered. The Church is first of all a mystery, our own myster~ par'excellence. In its dimensions the Church reaches back not merely to the apostles but tO th~ prophets, and Adam himself is to be reckoned with these; and forward to the end of."time. The one Church, however, has two aspects, active and passive, the power that assembles and the assembly thus constituted. The Church is at once our mother and ourselves; pastor and flock, Church teaching and Church taught, but always within unity. It is inspiring to note what further leads such familiar distinctions suggest to the prolific mind of the author. 180 BOOK REVIEWS A fourth chapter examines the. relation between the Church and the Eucharist, "the Heart of the Church." "If the Church is the fullness of Christ, Christ in His Eucharist is truly the heart of the Church" (p. 113). A further chapter faces the conflict that has been introdt~ced by the presence of the Church in the world, creating a rivalry between the two and constant "reciprocal embarrassment," which is really nothing more than the duality set up by the Gospel and postulated by man's dual nature as animal and spirit. The bril-liant subsequent chapter exhibits the Church as "the sacrament of Christ": "she is the great sacrament which contains and vitalizes all the others" (p. 147). There follows a warm exposition of the Church a~ our mother, "E~'Hesic~ ~1ater," which would make profitable read-ing for such as suspect a childish sentimentalism in the words "Mother Church." The author is candid enough to review the difficulties that present themselves to the man who finds his love and loyalty for the Church embarrassed by practical problems that invite criticism. Father De Lubac's solutions build up to a finer and more stable loyalty. The final chapter, "The Church and Our Lady," has appealed to this reviewer as the finest of all, being ~that of greatest length (,50 pages), and covering the treatise of Mariology from an unusual angle. The author begins by cleverly se. lecting,a Barthian denunciation of our position. "It is in Marian doctrine," declares Barth, "and the Marian cult that the heresy of the Roman Catholic Church is apparent --that heresy which enables us to understand all the: rest" (p. 239), Candidly accepting the challenge our author admits as a~.fundamental Catholic thesis that Mary and the Church must be understood togegher, and proceeds to illustrate the thesis by a. detailed review of the Church's liturgy through the centuries, above, all the liturgical, application, of theoCanticle of Canticles to both.Mary and the Church. In this conclu.ding tribute both our Lady and the Church are once again mutu.al!y illumined by a dazzling ~splendor. In its.exterior form and presentation the volume lives up to the high standards ofthe publishers. A'considerable number of errors have crept into the Latin of.the footnotes; .these sh~oulcl be cayefully chec.k~ed before a new. printing.--~AI.O~.s~u~ C. I~E.Xlp~.:R, S.~. . A PATH ~HROUGH GENESIS. By Bruce Vawter, C.M. Pp. 308. Sheed and Ward, New York 3. 1956. $4.00. Nbt many dec~ades ago, it' was ~xibmatic in bibiic~il ~ircles that 181 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious "Catholic works are not read." Fortunately, the recent Catholic rev~ival in the field of biblical scholarship has effectively challenged this intellectual boycott. If the axiom is still true nowadays, it is true in the sense that Catholics themselves are not yet acquainted with their own scholars' efforts to enrich their spiritual heritage. Usually, one dan plead lack of time and i~sufficient background for studying the Bible, especially the Old Testament. But Father Vawter has helped put the lie to that excuse. A Path Through Genesis is a concise, informative, and even inspiring introduction to private reading of the Old Testament in general, and of Genesisin particular. Its value as a general intro-duction consists chiefly in its interesting and pedagogically sound treatment of the book which is most likely to present problems to the average reader--the first he meets: Genesis. Wisely, the author has decided to write a guide for the reading of Genesis, rather than a book about Genesis. Selected portions of the ~text are printed in t:ull to save the reader the wearisome task of using two books at ,once. The commentary linking these substantially large passages is most readable, and Father Vawter uses to advantage his gift for delight-fully apt comparisons to help bridge the gap between Hebrew thought patterns and our own. Popular in style, the book is almost com-pletely free of the cumbersome apparatus of scholarship--footnotes, though it is by no means innocent of the results of serious research. In fact, it is rather surprising that the results of careful, painstaking study can be expressed with such disarming simplicity; but such is the reader's happy discovery. The author has thoughtfully included a number of maps, pictures, and diagrams which enable the book to "teach itself." This is not to say that' its reading is effortless, which "would be, after all, a doubtful compliment. With careful but not taxing attention, the book will open the eyes of the reader to the real meaning of Genesis. And it will either remove his groundless fears that "the difficulties of God's book will weaken our faith in Him," or bring the reader out of the "pious daze" that usually afflicts him when he reads the Bible without facing what it says, Father Va~cter's A Path Through Genesis is recommended not just to seminarians and teachers of college religion, but to any seri-ous- minded person who wants to appreciate God's word, especially in the New Testament. For it is hard to see how one can understand the New Testament, especially ~he letters of St. Paul, without being 182 May, 1957 .Book ANNOUNCEMENTS rather well-acquainted with the only sacred writings Paul knew and constantly used. In Father Vawter's ~vords: "I think tliere is no better way to discourage Bible reading than by the oft-repeated advice to 'read the New Testament first, then the Old.' This is one of those witless axioms supposedly based on experience, but in reality pure untested theory." Perhaps the book would be ot~ special interest to teachers of grade-school religion. Even if the matter contained in the book is not directly brought out in class, it should help form the teacher's mental background and help her avoid unnecessarily dogmatic statements about the creation of the world and the "historical facts" in the Bible. It is this reviewer's teaching experience that many well-intentioned but uninformed statements heard by students in the grades have found their reaction in a sophomoric rationalism that appears openly only several years later. In other cases, such remarks have not aided faith, which is, after all, a light, but rather have fos-tered that "pious daze" which befogs the knowledge of God and His striking providence. Any grade-school teacher knows what embar-rassingly straightforward questions can be asked by' those precocious little ones who could well be the Church's most valuable. ~apostles in future years. A wise teacher will need to face such ~i~:t~roblem-filled child not just with an answer, and a sound one at thai, but with her own informed assurance. Father Vawter's book serves this twofold need admirably.--CH~,RgEs H. GIBLI~, S.J. 8OOK AN NOUNCF:/~I=NT~; THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. The Shroud of Turin. By Werner Bulst, S.J. Translated by Stephen McKenna, C.SS.R., and James J. Galvin, C.SS.R, This is the most complete book in English on this controversial question. Though written by one man, it really represents th.e combined work of experts in many fields who allowed the author to use the results 6f "~heir in-vestigations and checked his final copy to make sure that ~th.ey were ~orrectly presented. The photographs are excellent and wogih the ~pric~ of the book. In addition to the information you acquire~in read- 'ing the book, you will find that you. have gained~.,a ,better and more vivid appreciation of what the Passion meant to Christ.° Hence, ~though it is a strictly scientific book, it may well ~erve as spiritual 183 ]~OOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review fo~" Religious reading. It will make Christ much more real for you. Pp. 167. $4.75. Reflections on the Passion. By Charles Hug9 Doyle. These are short essays, one for each day of Lent except Holy Saturday. They are what you .would expect to hear from a pastor before the p~lrish Mass each day of Lent. Pp. 93. $1.85. Our Saviour's Last Night and Day. By Rev. A. Biskupek, S.V.D. In these brief pages the author gives us a moving account of the Passion of our Lord. He harmonizes the history of the Passibn as given by the four evangelists. Pp. 80. Paper $1.00. The Rubricator. By Earl Dionne. The rubricator is a rotating di~k which indicates "the proper position of any officer of a solemn high Mass at any.part of the Mass. There are four such rubricators: one for the solemn high Mass, one for the solemn requiem high Mass, one for the pontifical solemn high Mass at the faldstool, and one for the pontifical solemn high Mass at the throne. Each sells for $1.00, the set for $3.50. THE DEVIN-ADAIR Company, 23 East 26th Street, New York, 10. A Brief Introduction to the Divine Office. By Joseph J. Ayd, s.J. Revised by James I. O'Connor, S.J. Seminarians and all who are trying to learn the Divifie Office will find this book very hel'pful. Pp 7. $0.3~. FIDES PUBLISHERS ASSOCIATION, 744 East 79th Street, Chi-cago 19, Illinois The Journal of aSouthi~rn Pastor. By J. B. Gremillion. Many a problem of pastoral theology is presented, and dis~cussed ifi these pages which you will not find in the standard texts on pastoral theology, for .they w~re not problems when the texts wei'e written. Pp. 305. $3.95. M. H. GILL AND SON, LTD., 50 Upper O'Connell Street, Dublin, Ireland. The Incurable Optimist and Other Spiritual Essays. By Robert Nash, S.J. Father Nasb has a talent for putting the truths of faith, particularly as they concern the trivialities and cafes of every day livi'ng, in an interesting and ,striking way. 'The essays first appeared in The Sunday Press, Dul~lifi. You may judge his popularity by the 184 May, 1957 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS fact that this is the third collection of his essays to be published. Pp. 112. 6s. B. HERDER BOOK COMPANY, 15 S. Broadway, St. Louis 2, Missouri. Handbook of Ceremonies. By John Baptist Mueller, s.J. Revised and re-edited by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. This seventeenth edition of a very popular handbook has been completely revised and, to a great extent, re-written to bring it into conformity with the ne# rubrics for both Mass and office. Even the new ceremonies for Holy Week are included. The musical supplement is now printed in the Gregorian notation. You will like everything about this book with the possible dxception of its price. Pp. 482. $6.50. THE LITURGICAL PRESS, St. John's Abbey, Collegeville, Minnesota. Meditating the Gospels. By Emeric Lawrence, O.S.B. The two leading ideas of this new meditation book are: prayer is a convers
Problem setting. The issues of preventing social orphanhood, developing new and reforming existing social services for children and families with children have become a major focus in academia and in various structures at all levels working with children. Improving the quality of life of children is not only a matter of time, but also its need. Progressive world processes for the protection of the rights of the child, declared by the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which stimulate major changes in legislation, policies and practices for supporting and protecting children. Such targeted actions are widespread in many countries of the world. Today, Ukraine is taking the first steps towards deinstitutionalization and creating its own model of social service formation, which will become the basis for preventing social orphanage among children. The article analyzes the existing model of managing the sphere of protection of children's rights in the context of preventing social orphanage and implementing the principles of DI reform (deinstitutionalization).Today, in the context of transformational changes, Ukraine has faced significant socio-economic problems that have led to a decrease in the standard of living of Ukrainian families, the emergence of such negative phenomena as social orphanhood, child homelessness and a number of other manifestations. The resolution of these issues has also recently become more complicated due to hostilities in the East of our country conducting by the Russian Federation. In this context, it is important to focus on the problems of providing social guarantees and social protection for children of vulnerable categories, creating conditions for their adaptation in a complex social environment. Exactly in the context of these aspects arises a need for a significant improvement in the public administration system, in particular in sphere of organizing effective social work with children, as well as increasing the effectiveness of the social function of the state in total.Recent research and publications analysis. Nowadays, such scientists as V. Sobchenko, V. Moskalenko, V. Skuratovsky, O. Paliy, E. Libanova are studying and researching the problems and modern approaches to the development of the sphere of social protection of the population. Studies of reforming and improving the system of social services in general, and services for children and families with children, in particular, are engaged such Ukrainian researchers as L. Volynets, N. Komarov, O. Antonova-Turchenko, I. Ivanova, I. Pesha, A. Kapska, I. Pinchuk, S. Tolstoukhova, M. Lukashevich, I. Mygovich. Issues of implementation of institutional care and childcare reform are engaged T. Veretenko, O. Denesyuk, T. Spirina.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. However, it should be noted that the current state of scientific development of the problem of modernization the activities of public administration bodies in the field of social work with children of vulnerable categories and families with children in Ukraine is insufficient, since today this area is in the process of reforming. The sources of conducted scientific researches were mainly concerned certain aspects of the functioning of public administration and the social security system of the population, partly work with children, namely: the history of formation and development, directions and forms of social work. Today, the issue of preventing social orphanage in the context of the implementation of the DI-reform principles is little explored and not discovered.Paper main body. Despite the rather significant interest of scientists in the problems of managing the social sphere in Ukraine, there are still insufficiently developed approaches to the activities of government bodies and local self-government, as well as non-governmental organizations in the field of social work with children of vulnerable categories and deinstitutionalization processes, their practical implementation in terms of interagency cooperation , institutional and resource support, transformation of the network of social institutions and institutions involved in problems of vulnerable categories of children. Considering this, the topic is relevant and needs a deeper study.An analysis of the legislation on the protection of the rights and interests of children shows that the concept of social protection is often interpreted as a similar to the social security concept. The concept of social protection of children is much more widely interpreted in the Law of Ukraine "On bodies and services for children and special institutions for children": it is a complex of measures and means of socio-economic and legal character for ensuring children's rights to life, development, upbringing, education, medical care, financial support.A number of scientists accentuate on the concept of the so-called hidden social orphanhood, which is associated with the deterioration of the family's living conditions and the decline of its moral foundations, resulting in a growing neglect of a huge number of children and adolescents. Hidden social orphanhood is spreading in the form of institutionalization of children whose parents for various reasons are not able to provide them with proper care and upbringing at home. Consequently, hidden social orphanhood is hiding in outwardly normal families, which in reality are dysfunctional, and parents do not cope with their basic responsibilities for raising children.Thus, social orphanhood can be defined as a social phenomenon caused by the self-willed evasion of parents from fulfilling their parental duties responsibilities for the child, which is accompanied by the breaking and loss of family relations between parents and a child, the parental indifference to the child's needs and the future fate of the child.Practical experience and international experience show that only a small number of children need specialized hospital care and approaches to education. Such care should be provided in small individual institutions that are integrated into the life of the local community with the ability to apply inclusive education components. All other children should be excluded from social isolation and brought up in a family or close to family environment and attend educational institutions in the system of inclusive education.The process of reforming the current system of institutional care (deinstitutionalization) in the field of protection of children's rights should be a long-term, well-planned and structured process of reforming the child care system based on the principle of taking into account the best interests of the child, recognizing the priority of family education over placement in the state guardianship institutions. During such reforms, the family should receive clear government standards for social services:– services and assistance that will contribute to its preservation for the purpose of full-fledged child development;– adoption or family forms of alternative care become a priority for the placement of children who have lost parental care due to orphancy, living in difficult life circumstances, violence or neglect from their parents side;– institutions are redeployed into specialist care centers (family and child support) or closed.The main problems of deinstitutionalization mechanism implementation today are:– developing a common vision and a holistic approach to reforming the current system of institutional care, education and upbringing of children, both at the national level and at the level of territorial communities;– the lack of an interdisciplinary algorithm of interaction, interdepartmental and intersectoral coordination of actions and cooperation, the lack of a training system for specialists, including heads of institutions of various departmental subordination, parental support programs, despite the fact that the basic mechanism is just beginning to be developed.Today, the development of a strategic deinstitutionalization program requires the involvement of partners from all possible areas: social, educational, healthcare, civil society institutions and the parent community. An additional advantage of attracting partners from different disciplines and industries is an increase in the availability of resources for the implementation of the deinstitutionalization program. A list of tasks should be the creation of conditions to ensure the realization of the right of every child to raise a family, to prevent the spread of social orphanhood.Achieving this goal requires resolving the following key tasks: – improving the activities of guardianship and care services for the prevention of social orphanhood, providing families with children with high-quality social services aimed at supporting the family's educational function;– involvement of enterprises, institutions, organizations, regardless of ownership and management, in the provision of social, rehabilitation services to children and families with children in difficult life circumstances, introduction of a social order mechanism in this field;– forming a tolerant attitude of society towards children and families with children who are in difficult circumstances, preventing various forms of discrimination against such children and families;– introduction of new social technologies aimed at early identification of families with children who are in difficult life circumstances, raising responsible paternity, and preventing cases of the taking of a child from parents without depriving them of their parental rights;– improving the quality of social services provided by social work entities to children and families with children who are in difficult life circumstances;– introduction of social services for parents, whose children are being brought up in boarding schools, in order to create conditions for the return of the child to parents;– introduction of social services for children to prepare them for return to the biological family after a long stay in a boarding school;– introduction of social services for families with children, in which the process of parents' divorce is ongoing, resolves the dispute between the mother and the father regarding the place of residence of the children, participation in their upbringing;– providing social support for parents who for certain reasons (due to long-term illness, disability, poverty, unemployment, etc.), are unable to properly maintain and care for the child, families with children with special needs family members, as well as social support for children whose parents are labor migrants;– providing social support for parents from whom children were taken away without depriving them of parental rights, as well as parents deprived of parental rights and intend to bring a lawsuit to renew parental rights (if their children are not adopted), in order to create conditions for restoring the educational function of the family and returning the child to parents;– provision of information to the population about the types of social services and benefits provided by the subjects of social work with families with children.Further long-term decisions for deinstitutionalization should include:– managed transitional stage with definition of clear terms for its duration;– approval of legislation requirements, services that should be provided at the local level;– approval in the legislation of the requirement on the personal responsibility of the community leader for the provision / non-provision of social services in the field of childhood protection;– redistribution of resources and introduction of an interdisciplinary approach to services at the local level;– helping families;– consultations with organizations representing the interests of persons with disabilities, children with disabilities, their parents and guardians.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. Thus, Ukraine's course towards European integration and implementation of the UN Convention requires a revision of the priorities of state policy in the field of social protection of children and families with children, protection of childhood and the rights of children in general, the introduction of successful approaches from the world practice of protecting children based on ensuring the rights and best interests of the child are aimed at supporting the family, creating conditions for the upbringing and development of children in the family or environment as close as possible to the family will definitely contribute to the gradual disappearance of such phenomena as social orphanhood.Despite all efforts of the state, today in Ukraine the share of orphans and children deprived of parental care remains quite high, as well as the share of children-social orphans, which indicates the necessity of organizing measures in order to transform the child support system into a family form of education and changes in the nationwide trend of childcare. ; Розглянуто питання запобігання соціальному сирітству, розвиток нових та реформування існуючих соціальних послуг для дітей та сімей із дітьми, що стали привертати значну увагу в наукових колах та різноманітних структурах усіх рівнів, які працюють із дітьми. Зазначено, що підвищення якості життя дітей є не лише питанням часу, а його велінням. Проаналізовано прогресивні світові процеси стосовно захисту прав дітей, зумовлені Конвенцією ООН "Про права дитини", які стимулюють суттєві зміни в законах, політиці та практиці підтримки та захисту дитинства. Зауважено, що такі цілеспрямовані дії суттєво поширюються в багатьох державах світу. Доведено, що на сьогодні Україна робить перші кроки у напрямку деінституціалізації та створення власної моделі формування соціальних послуг, яка стане основою запобігання соціальному сирітству серед дітей. Проаналізовано існуючу модель управління сферою захисту прав дітей у контексті запобігання соціальному сирітству та впровадження принципів ДІ-реформи.
Problem setting. The issues of preventing social orphanhood, developing new and reforming existing social services for children and families with children have become a major focus in academia and in various structures at all levels working with children. Improving the quality of life of children is not only a matter of time, but also its need. Progressive world processes for the protection of the rights of the child, declared by the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which stimulate major changes in legislation, policies and practices for supporting and protecting children. Such targeted actions are widespread in many countries of the world. Today, Ukraine is taking the first steps towards deinstitutionalization and creating its own model of social service formation, which will become the basis for preventing social orphanage among children. The article analyzes the existing model of managing the sphere of protection of children's rights in the context of preventing social orphanage and implementing the principles of DI reform (deinstitutionalization).Today, in the context of transformational changes, Ukraine has faced significant socio-economic problems that have led to a decrease in the standard of living of Ukrainian families, the emergence of such negative phenomena as social orphanhood, child homelessness and a number of other manifestations. The resolution of these issues has also recently become more complicated due to hostilities in the East of our country conducting by the Russian Federation. In this context, it is important to focus on the problems of providing social guarantees and social protection for children of vulnerable categories, creating conditions for their adaptation in a complex social environment. Exactly in the context of these aspects arises a need for a significant improvement in the public administration system, in particular in sphere of organizing effective social work with children, as well as increasing the effectiveness of the social function of the state in total.Recent research and publications analysis. Nowadays, such scientists as V. Sobchenko, V. Moskalenko, V. Skuratovsky, O. Paliy, E. Libanova are studying and researching the problems and modern approaches to the development of the sphere of social protection of the population. Studies of reforming and improving the system of social services in general, and services for children and families with children, in particular, are engaged such Ukrainian researchers as L. Volynets, N. Komarov, O. Antonova-Turchenko, I. Ivanova, I. Pesha, A. Kapska, I. Pinchuk, S. Tolstoukhova, M. Lukashevich, I. Mygovich. Issues of implementation of institutional care and childcare reform are engaged T. Veretenko, O. Denesyuk, T. Spirina.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. However, it should be noted that the current state of scientific development of the problem of modernization the activities of public administration bodies in the field of social work with children of vulnerable categories and families with children in Ukraine is insufficient, since today this area is in the process of reforming. The sources of conducted scientific researches were mainly concerned certain aspects of the functioning of public administration and the social security system of the population, partly work with children, namely: the history of formation and development, directions and forms of social work. Today, the issue of preventing social orphanage in the context of the implementation of the DI-reform principles is little explored and not discovered.Paper main body. Despite the rather significant interest of scientists in the problems of managing the social sphere in Ukraine, there are still insufficiently developed approaches to the activities of government bodies and local self-government, as well as non-governmental organizations in the field of social work with children of vulnerable categories and deinstitutionalization processes, their practical implementation in terms of interagency cooperation , institutional and resource support, transformation of the network of social institutions and institutions involved in problems of vulnerable categories of children. Considering this, the topic is relevant and needs a deeper study.An analysis of the legislation on the protection of the rights and interests of children shows that the concept of social protection is often interpreted as a similar to the social security concept. The concept of social protection of children is much more widely interpreted in the Law of Ukraine "On bodies and services for children and special institutions for children": it is a complex of measures and means of socio-economic and legal character for ensuring children's rights to life, development, upbringing, education, medical care, financial support.A number of scientists accentuate on the concept of the so-called hidden social orphanhood, which is associated with the deterioration of the family's living conditions and the decline of its moral foundations, resulting in a growing neglect of a huge number of children and adolescents. Hidden social orphanhood is spreading in the form of institutionalization of children whose parents for various reasons are not able to provide them with proper care and upbringing at home. Consequently, hidden social orphanhood is hiding in outwardly normal families, which in reality are dysfunctional, and parents do not cope with their basic responsibilities for raising children.Thus, social orphanhood can be defined as a social phenomenon caused by the self-willed evasion of parents from fulfilling their parental duties responsibilities for the child, which is accompanied by the breaking and loss of family relations between parents and a child, the parental indifference to the child's needs and the future fate of the child.Practical experience and international experience show that only a small number of children need specialized hospital care and approaches to education. Such care should be provided in small individual institutions that are integrated into the life of the local community with the ability to apply inclusive education components. All other children should be excluded from social isolation and brought up in a family or close to family environment and attend educational institutions in the system of inclusive education.The process of reforming the current system of institutional care (deinstitutionalization) in the field of protection of children's rights should be a long-term, well-planned and structured process of reforming the child care system based on the principle of taking into account the best interests of the child, recognizing the priority of family education over placement in the state guardianship institutions. During such reforms, the family should receive clear government standards for social services:– services and assistance that will contribute to its preservation for the purpose of full-fledged child development;– adoption or family forms of alternative care become a priority for the placement of children who have lost parental care due to orphancy, living in difficult life circumstances, violence or neglect from their parents side;– institutions are redeployed into specialist care centers (family and child support) or closed.The main problems of deinstitutionalization mechanism implementation today are:– developing a common vision and a holistic approach to reforming the current system of institutional care, education and upbringing of children, both at the national level and at the level of territorial communities;– the lack of an interdisciplinary algorithm of interaction, interdepartmental and intersectoral coordination of actions and cooperation, the lack of a training system for specialists, including heads of institutions of various departmental subordination, parental support programs, despite the fact that the basic mechanism is just beginning to be developed.Today, the development of a strategic deinstitutionalization program requires the involvement of partners from all possible areas: social, educational, healthcare, civil society institutions and the parent community. An additional advantage of attracting partners from different disciplines and industries is an increase in the availability of resources for the implementation of the deinstitutionalization program. A list of tasks should be the creation of conditions to ensure the realization of the right of every child to raise a family, to prevent the spread of social orphanhood.Achieving this goal requires resolving the following key tasks: – improving the activities of guardianship and care services for the prevention of social orphanhood, providing families with children with high-quality social services aimed at supporting the family's educational function;– involvement of enterprises, institutions, organizations, regardless of ownership and management, in the provision of social, rehabilitation services to children and families with children in difficult life circumstances, introduction of a social order mechanism in this field;– forming a tolerant attitude of society towards children and families with children who are in difficult circumstances, preventing various forms of discrimination against such children and families;– introduction of new social technologies aimed at early identification of families with children who are in difficult life circumstances, raising responsible paternity, and preventing cases of the taking of a child from parents without depriving them of their parental rights;– improving the quality of social services provided by social work entities to children and families with children who are in difficult life circumstances;– introduction of social services for parents, whose children are being brought up in boarding schools, in order to create conditions for the return of the child to parents;– introduction of social services for children to prepare them for return to the biological family after a long stay in a boarding school;– introduction of social services for families with children, in which the process of parents' divorce is ongoing, resolves the dispute between the mother and the father regarding the place of residence of the children, participation in their upbringing;– providing social support for parents who for certain reasons (due to long-term illness, disability, poverty, unemployment, etc.), are unable to properly maintain and care for the child, families with children with special needs family members, as well as social support for children whose parents are labor migrants;– providing social support for parents from whom children were taken away without depriving them of parental rights, as well as parents deprived of parental rights and intend to bring a lawsuit to renew parental rights (if their children are not adopted), in order to create conditions for restoring the educational function of the family and returning the child to parents;– provision of information to the population about the types of social services and benefits provided by the subjects of social work with families with children.Further long-term decisions for deinstitutionalization should include:– managed transitional stage with definition of clear terms for its duration;– approval of legislation requirements, services that should be provided at the local level;– approval in the legislation of the requirement on the personal responsibility of the community leader for the provision / non-provision of social services in the field of childhood protection;– redistribution of resources and introduction of an interdisciplinary approach to services at the local level;– helping families;– consultations with organizations representing the interests of persons with disabilities, children with disabilities, their parents and guardians.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. Thus, Ukraine's course towards European integration and implementation of the UN Convention requires a revision of the priorities of state policy in the field of social protection of children and families with children, protection of childhood and the rights of children in general, the introduction of successful approaches from the world practice of protecting children based on ensuring the rights and best interests of the child are aimed at supporting the family, creating conditions for the upbringing and development of children in the family or environment as close as possible to the family will definitely contribute to the gradual disappearance of such phenomena as social orphanhood.Despite all efforts of the state, today in Ukraine the share of orphans and children deprived of parental care remains quite high, as well as the share of children-social orphans, which indicates the necessity of organizing measures in order to transform the child support system into a family form of education and changes in the nationwide trend of childcare. ; Розглянуто питання запобігання соціальному сирітству, розвиток нових та реформування існуючих соціальних послуг для дітей та сімей із дітьми, що стали привертати значну увагу в наукових колах та різноманітних структурах усіх рівнів, які працюють із дітьми. Зазначено, що підвищення якості життя дітей є не лише питанням часу, а його велінням. Проаналізовано прогресивні світові процеси стосовно захисту прав дітей, зумовлені Конвенцією ООН "Про права дитини", які стимулюють суттєві зміни в законах, політиці та практиці підтримки та захисту дитинства. Зауважено, що такі цілеспрямовані дії суттєво поширюються в багатьох державах світу. Доведено, що на сьогодні Україна робить перші кроки у напрямку деінституціалізації та створення власної моделі формування соціальних послуг, яка стане основою запобігання соціальному сирітству серед дітей. Проаналізовано існуючу модель управління сферою захисту прав дітей у контексті запобігання соціальному сирітству та впровадження принципів ДІ-реформи.
Transcript of an oral history interview with Robert F. Crecco, conducted by Jennifer Payne on 28 August 2013, at the Norwich University campus in Northfield, Vermont, as part of the Norwich Voices oral history project of the Sullivan Museum and History Center. Robert Crecco was a member of the Norwich University Class of 1947; his education was interrupted by his military service in World War II. His experiences during the war and as a student at Norwich University are discussed in his interview. ; WWII WW2 World War II World War Two World War 2 ; Robert F. Crecco Oral History Interview Interview Date: August 28, 2013 Interview Location: Sullivan Museum & History Center, Norwich University Interviewed by Jennifer K. Payne Transcribed by Thomas H. King III JENNIFER PAYNE: Today is August 28th 2013 and I'm with… ROBERT CRECCO: Robert Crecco and, what else would you like to know? JENNIFER PAYNE: What is your date of birth? ROBERT CRECCO: April 27th 1925. JENNIFER PAYNE: And where were you born? ROBERT CRECCO: Medford Massachusetts JENNIFER PAYNE: And where are we right now? ROBERT CRECCO: We're in Killington at the Woods Resort where we've been coming for the last eight years and we're up here for July and August. JENNIFER PAYNE: What is the address we are at? ROBERT CRECCO: This is 53 Woods Road, Killington Vermont. JENNIFER PAYNE: Thank You. JENNIFER PAYNE: Alright. So I've got some questions I'm going to ask you again from the survey if that's ok? ROBERT CRECCO: Yes. JENNIFER PAYNE: Okay. So how and why did you join the service? ROBERT CRECCO: Join the service? JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: I was drafted, and I was drafted while I was attending Norwich as a freshman, and I was inducted in Montpellier and then sent to Fort Devens for pulmonary activities and then sent to, I think it was Fort McClellan in Alabama for basic training. JENNIFER PAYNE: Where were you when you were drafted? ROBERT CRECCO: I was at Norwich and I think there was about a 179 freshmen at that time and the school was basically taken over by the Air Corps. There were 1200 Air Force Cadets and so the school revolved around them and it's surprisingly that Norwich had a freshmen class. All the classes had left, the junior and seniors were immediately inducted in to the service and the sophomores were being decimated by drafting and so forth. So the school basically, (coughs) was empty and I guess they had a contract with the Air Force to give the Air Force the basic training in education I guess and also calisthenics and everything else. So we merged within basic we didn't, all the dormitories were taken up by the Air Force and so we stayed in the fraternity houses. I stayed in the Theta Chi house and then SAE and Sig Up were also occupied then there was another one and I can't think of the name and then there was a four or fifth one called the Lanscers. So, we freshmen were in those places and we had Air Force non-coms as our instructors and, I think, the academic courses were all those set up for the, for the Air Force so we took the same courses. Which was basically a little different from the normal Norwich curriculum, like we took Chemistry, Physics, Geography, I think we took English, and Mathematics. There were five courses as I remember and we didn't sit in with the Air Force. Our classes were with ourselves so you know the, the freshmen. But we had the same curriculum as the Air Force, because I guess the faculty was geared to do that and so we participated. So I got drafted out of Norwich, (clears throat) I (un-audible) my throat here. JENNIFER PAYNE: Do you want a glass of water? ROBERT CRECCO: That would be good. JENNIFER PAYNE: Okay, alright. ROBERT CRECCO: And I was the first one to be drafted. Cause basic I was I think I was the about the oldest follow in the, the group. I was 18 in April in my senior year in high school and most of the, the fellows with me were under 18 and, that's the reason why I was the first one to get drafted, because I was the oldest one in the class. JENNIFER PAYNE: What year, what exact year and month was that, do you recall? ROBERT CRECCO: Well I graduated in 1943. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And, we started. I think we started in August and, I believe it was August, it was early, actually it was, it was, it was a little undecided whether Norwich is going to have a freshmen class and so, we didn't know until just before they asked us to come up that they were going to have a, a freshmen class. JENNIFER PAYNE: How did you decide to go to Norwich? ROBERT CRECCO: Well, a neighbor of mine, was at Norwich. Ya know he, I was talking with him before he even came up and he sort of convinced me it was the place to be and so I said ok and he was a freshmen, but then when I got up to Norwich there was actually no classes there and I found out later on that he had received an appointment to West Point. And so he would even if the, the whole discombobulation hadn't happened because of the war he probably would have left any way and, and even though he convinced me to come up, that he wouldn't have been there and, I lost track of, his name was Louie (Lacanti) and I lost track of him, and the strange, on our last cruise or a transatlantic in last past April one of the people with us at our table was a Colonel. Who had been at West Point when Louie was there and so I asked if he knew Louie and he said, not really, he says I know the name. And I said can you check later on to find out whatever happened to Louie but I never did hear from this person. But anyway I, I, I, as I say I get drafted and, inducted in Montpellier, and then they made me acting corporal to take the crew down to Fort Devens (Chuckles) on the train at that time there was a train travelling back and forth between Montreal and White River Junction. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm. ROBERT CRECCO: And it split in one part went to New York and one part went to Boston. So we get down to Fort Devens and, eventually get to my basic training at Fort McClellan. JENNIFER PAYNE: So did you have a choice in where you went or.? ROBERT CRECCO: No I didn't but they told me at Fort Devens that, I was to be put in Army Specialized Training. Called ASTP, Army, specializing training program. Yeah. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And that I was scheduled to go to Texas A&M for the specialized training, but three months later after basic, conditions changed and the war plans and so forth and they decided to cancel all ASTP programs and, since we were being trained as an infantrymen we were to go back to that and we shipped out for England about a month later. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. ROBERT CRECCO: And so we're on a troop ship that went to, went to England we came in at Bristol England. It was on an Australian, meat, refrigerator ship. I guess they used to bring mutton from Australia to England with it but that was our troop ship and it was pretty bad. It was run by, by Australians and we'd have some real, real bad food. But anyway it was, it was, it wasn't that bad. JENNIFER PAYNE: What, what was the food do you remember? ROBERT CRECCO: Oh things like, fish for breakfast, and then something like a porridge, ya know it was almost like gruel. Ya know and some bread. Things like that and I don't remember much about dinner. We didn't have lunch. We had breakfast and then we had dinner early and I can't remember much about the dinner. JENNIFER PAYNE: That's okay ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah JENNIFER PAYNE: But it was, it was not a fun ship it was ROBERT CRECCO: Oh no, no JENNIFER PAYNE: (Chuckles) ROBERT CRECCO: We were packed in there like sardines. And the smell below deck wasn't too great. JENNIFER PAYNE: What did it smell like? ROBERT CRECCO: Well sweat, and people, and ya know that sort of thing you get used to it after a while but we were always up on deck when we could be. JENNIFER PAYNE: What did you do to pass the time on the ship? ROBERT CRECCO: Well we used to have, formations, and calisthenics, and lectures. Ya know military indoctrinations so forth. But that was it. JENNIFER PAYNE: So what happened when you got to Bristol? ROBERT CRECCO: Well we went into, went into camp. Near a place called Leamington. And we're in tents and I think there were what four, four men to a tent, yeah, and all we did was march, and march, and march up and down all those, those winding roads in, in England and of course we got leave. But they told us, ya know, don't go to the restaurants because they don't have much food and you got all the food you need right in camp. But we did get fish and chips and you go into a place and ya get a, a newspaper full of a, of the fish and chips and they were delicious, they were delicious. At that time they were using Cod and we heard later that there was a Cod war between England and Iceland cause England was in Icelandic waters and there was a standoff there and they had destroyers and there Icelandic trawlers out there with guns on them and I guess they came to an agreement any way but… (Laughs) JENNIFER PAYNE: (Laughing) ROBERT CRECCO: Cod, Cod was a, is a very well-known food in Europe. All the, all those foreign countries sent trawlers way over near off Nova Scotia for Cod and so forth. But that goes on too long and there's not much Cod left there. JENNIFER PAYNE & ROBERT CRECCO: So JENNIFER PAYNE: Yep ROBERT CRECCO: I guess you'd want me to continue with this… JENNIFER PAYNE: Yeah ROBERT CRECCO: What we're doing over in England. Well after it seemed like a long time with this, this training over there. We finally get word to, pack up and, get on these trucks and low and behold we're in South Hampton and they loaded us on ships and the, the, the initial attack on the continent had, had begun. And we were on the ship I think overnight and then finally we sailed the next day and it was on the second day. I forget the, what it was June 6th, June 6th was the initial, yeah, so it would be June 7th, late in the, late in June, late on the June 7th, that we landed in Omaha beach. JENNIFER PAYNE: What was that like? ROBERT CRECCO: Well, it was still a mess, ya know the fighting had proceeded up off the cliff and they were going inland and the beach was littered with all kinds of equipment, there were some, still some, dead bodies on the beach, they had been lined up and so forth and I guess they were in the process of taking them off. And so after we get off from the beach we went up on the, on the, on the top of the cliffs. They had already pushed a couple of miles inland. The, the Rangers had cleared the cliffs the previous day even though they sustained quiet heavy casualties. And then the 20, I think it was the 24 th, 24th or 29th, I'm not sure, yeah we didn't know what was going on. All we knew was that we had to get off the, the landing craft but we didn't know it was, what was, we could hear the, the, the noise up ahead, ya know the shells and everything. They were still bombarding the area from the, the battleships and the cruisers and they were still shelling way inland but, then we got up of the area there and they kept us there for a while and then they told us to advance and evidently the, the advance, the lead troops had pushed way inland. And so we weren't in the front line at that time we were in the backup and, I think maybe ten days later I was with the second infantry division. And about ten days later, we were near Saint-Lô. And, cause the approaches of Saint-Lô was surrounded by small villages. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And the, we were near a village as I remember, it was called Sofria, Sofree, Sofra? I don't know how they pronounce it. And it was near that village where I was on a patrol and I got, I got wounded. By a, a mortar shell. JENNIFER PAYNE: What happened? ROBERT CRECCO: Well we were on patrol it was, it was at night, and ya know that whole country there is full of hedge rows. And these hedge rows would, would be, you'd have roads going, not roads even, these were dirt roads going between the hedge rows and then across the hedge, or on the near side of the hedge row would be a little pasture and then on the other side road would be another hedge row and then a pasture and the hedge rows all the way around that's how the country in, in Normandy was, was either made that way by the people or I, I don't know but anyway Normandy was full of hedge rows and it was very difficult fighting in those areas. But then we were on patrol at night. Patrol is you go over a hedge row and then you'd sit there and see what the opposition or the Germans were going to do. Whether they were putting out patrols either and this is known as feeling out what the enemy is doing and so they, they, they must have seen us because they sent over three mortar shells and there were three of us and the Sergeant got killed and I was wounded and the other g-, the other fellow he didn't get hit at all. So we dragged the Sergeant back to the, our lines and I got wounded in the arm and also my foot so I got evacuated. At that time they were evacuating everybody to England. They, they had, we had, we had controlled some air fields so we're able to get these ambulance plans there and, so they'd load them into one of those and I got evacuated to England. To a general hospital near Oxford. JENNIFER PAYNE: Yeah ROBERT CRECCO: Oxford and, what was the other town? I can't think of the name of the town now that, Shakespeare. JENNIFER PAYNE: Stratford-Avon ROBERT CRECCO: Stratford-Avon, right, ha, was near there, because for activities they took us to Stratford-Avon to and we went to see the Shakespearian plays. JENNIFER PAYNE: When you recuperated. ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah, yeah, so I was in the, I was in the general hospital for about two months JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow ROBERT CRECCO: Cause I couldn't walk. And then, then it got infected. So I was there for about two months and they reclassified me as limited service but then they sent me back to France. But ya know while we were in England, we, we had, it was pretty good. We got to visit a lot of places and see a lot of those Shakespearian plays. And anyway I got sent back, on reassignment, and they sent us back to Paris. And I was in a reassignment depot and we got some leaves to Paris and so, I went to Paris and it was all right but, ya know I was really not into it. And I was still pretty young and some of these guys were hept for getting drunk and then picking up women or and actually going to some of the whore houses and I was, I wasn't into that. I didn't enjoy Paris that much. But anyway, when I got, we got reassigned. Since I was on limited duty I wasn't going to go to a, a combat, well not combat, but I wouldn't be going to a front line outfit and so I ended up in, in 90th division of 5, 547th? What was that? It was 530, no, yeah 537th headquarters battery on an automatic weapon, it was an automatic weapons battery, they had multiple 50s mounted on halftracks, and they had anti-aircraft guns and I was in the headquarters duty, (Chuckles), and they were looking around to put me to do something all of a sudden it was, this Warrant Officer was in charge, he said, you went to, you went to college didn't you? And I said, (Chuckles), well we're going to have you do the morning report. And the morning report was a form and description as you put what happened of what happened in the battery and how many, how many, how many were killed, how many were wounded, how many were sick, how many had to go to the rear and then what the activity of the battery was that day. And it had to be signed by the commanding officer of, of our group which was a captain and, that was my job, which was a nothing job, ya know. Which was fine by me because it kept me out of the frontlines being on limited duty. So that's how I survived the war and when the war ended we were in occupation duty, which wasn't too much and all the fellows were fraternizing which was against the rules but either during, during the war or towards the end, the last few months some of the fellas who knew German, because we had a couple German guys, the original group was from Texas and I guess where they were from there was a lot of German people and they, they knew German. But they would go out at night and bring food with them and go to these houses where they knew there were women and, so they used to have a pretty good time and they'd used to bring the food there, and then, course the people didn't have much food at that time so they were very well welcomed. But anyway after we got, after the war was over we sat around for, I think a month or so. And then we got sent up to, Amsterdam, oh Brussels, Brussels and we stayed in tents up there for a few weeks and then we saw the star, the star, Stars and Strips newspaper on day and big headlines was Atomic Bomb dropped on Japan, and then a, next day another bomb had been dropped. Well we were sitting there waiting for transportation back to the states and we were to be retrained for, well I wouldn't be but I would be with some unit that was going over to the Pacific, ya know for Japan and so the dropping of the bomb, we didn't understand, ya know the implications of this until we saw a reading in, in the Stars and Strips that the war was coming to a close in the Pacific and instead of being retrained for that we would be sent home and then they had a points system. They decided that the order in which you would go home be decided in the number of points you have and points took everything from years of service, overseas service, combat service, if you were wounded or something like that, so it all add up to these points and low and be hold I had enough points so I knew that as soon as we got a ship I'd be sent home and then eventually discharged. So I got home and they, where was it, not Fort McClellan, is there another camp, let's see. JENNIFER PAYNE: Po New York? Nope that was… ROBERT CRECCO: Well let's see. We did come in New York. But then we get, sent to another camp I think in Alabama, I can't remember the name. JENNIFER PAYNE: Do you remember where you were when you, when you heard, when VJ-day occurred? ROBERT CRECCO: I think, I think we were on the ship coming back. And it was a little better ship, it was a transport, and an American transport so coming back was, I think, I think it was either, was either on our last couple of days in camp in Brussels or on the ship that we heard that VJ-day had occurred. But by that time they already set the point system because they knew the war was coming to an end, after they dropped these bombs and so forth. And we, I got, I got that 30 day furlough when we, when we, when we got to this camp fort, I didn't say over here, Fort Brag, Fort Brag. We were sent to Fort Brag and then they gave us a 30 day leave from Fort Brag, so I spent it home in Medford and then we had to report back. Reported back and then they told us we were going to be discharged. So all this time back and forth and they could have done it right in the beginning but I guess they weren't ready. And so I get discharged and I came back to Medford and then all my old friends we got together. They were all out of the service too. And we just paled around for a couple months and I got tired of that so that's when I, I got in touch with, well I didn't get in touch with Norwich right away. I was looking around for what I wanted to do. And a doctor friend of my father's talked me into being an optometrist. A, with a medical degree though, it was not, it was a ophthalmologist, ophthalmologist. So he says, I will recommend you to go Pennsylvania, University of Pennsylvania and so I applied there and they came back and said, we are deluged by veterans and we can't take you for a year and a half. They suggested I go back to Norwich and take prescribed courses and at the end of my sophomore year they would take me in. And so I get in touch with Norwich and they say yeah come on back, (Laughing), and I said well, ya know I'm not keen on, on this military and they said, well we're giving veterans the option of going into the military, I mean the corps or coming in as civilians. So I opted for the civilian and so I came back to Norwich and they gave me credit for the courses I took when I was with the, taking the Air Corps curriculum. And there were just as many veterans back as there were Cadets in the Corps. Ya know they had started the Corps again and they were getting young fellas to come into the Corps. And I came back as a civilian and I roomed with Bob Dorman. JENNIFER PAYNE: Ah ROBERT CRECCO: And (Hobie?) Smith. Bob Dorman had been a junior here. Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And (Hobie?) Smith would have been a junior too and we roomed together in Alumni Hall. Alumni Hall was pretty crowded with all the civilians there and. Bob Dorman was sort of a screw up. All the years he remained a, a, a senior private in the corps (Laughing) and (Hobie?) Smith had been a corporal or a sergeant, I'm not sure, but Bob I think almost got thrown out of Norwich when he was here, before the war and he got involved with a girl from Barre and, this is when he came back afterwards and so he, he had his ups and downs with her and Hobby Smith and I were not involved with anybody we were just trying to get the job done that we came back to do and Bob Dorman a Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity guy and same with (Hobie?) Smith. So they both got me into Sigma Alpha Epsilon and after that first year in Alumni Hall I didn't live down in the SAE house and that was a good deal I didn't have to eat in the mess hall, we had our own cook who prepared all our meals, breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and this was all for $25 a month. I mean but things were pretty, still pretty cheap there, there were people were making $18 dollars a week as clerks, ya know in stores. Salaries were pretty low it's no wonder we could live there for $25, so I, I, I was bunking in a room with Lenny (Fillam?). Lenny (Fillam?), the fish man we used to call him, cause his father owned a wholesale fish company in Boston and Bob Dorman's father was, was a correspondent for associated press, he's from New Jersey. And (Hobie?) Smith was Connecticut I think his father was a lawyer. So we, at that time I was getting support from the VA for college, I was, I was on the PL 16 because I was disabled and I was getting more money then you would've regularly get. And I had, in order to get the PL 16 I had to tell them what I was studying for and I was, I was taking, courses that Pennsylvania had said I should take. I was taking German, analytical geometry, calculus, physics, chemistry then I took an elective in history. And I was plowing through that but not doing too well. Ya know I did alright in chemistry but physics, the labs were killing me and mathematics, analytical geometry I was doing alright in that, German I was, the first year was ok, the second year I just couldn't hack it. So I wasn't doing too well in these courses they wanted me take in preparation for opthalamy, optho-, ophthalmology. In, in Pennsylvania and I was beginning to like history and English. So ya know I, I, I was getting B's and C's but a lot of C's in, in the courses they wanted me to take. So I decided this wasn't for me and I started taking more English and history courses and I decided to drop all this other stuff. And I had put down for the VA I was going to be a teacher. And then I remember my senior year I had courses in teaching and I have to practice teaching at Northfield High and after a fe-, couple of semesters of that I said this wasn't for me either. (Laughing) So I, I, these, these kids in, in Northfield High weren't interested in history at all. (Laughing) I don't know what they were interested in but I could tell I wasn't making the head way so I decided to drop that and I was on the newspaper in my senior year I became editor of the Guidon. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And I decided this was a thing I'd like to be in, public relations or writing, editing and so forth. And so I graduated in history and I was able to take summer courses and everything else so I get out. I got my degree in two and a half years. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow ROBERT CRECCO: And cause I went summers and everything else and I took accelerated courses which they offered to veterans cause lot of them, a lot of these veterans were married. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And some had children and they had a veteran's village made up of surplus government trailers. JENNIFER PAYNE: Where was this, where'd the put them? ROBERT CRECCO: It, it, ya know on rt.12A? JENNIFER PAYNE: Uhuh ROBERT CRECCO: There was a pasture in there where they set these up and it was veteran's village and these married people were there and some of them had children. And I remember they'd get extra money, these married veterans selling sandwiches at night and so forth. JENNIFER PAYNE: They sold sandwiches, what kind of sandwiches? ROBERT CRECCO: Well they would make ham sandwiches and roast beef and stuff like that and they would come around at night and we would buy the sandwiches from them. And, that was one of the interesting, ya know they were doing all sorts of things to get extra money cause the, what the government was paying them wasn't, wasn't enough. And they had to pay rent in those trailers. But any way, I graduated in 1948 as the class of '47 and my roommate had, was getting married, Bob Dorman getting married (Laughing) he, he was a character. He, he got into an argument with his wife and they were downtown Montpelier and he jumped off the bridge into the Winooski River. He got so mad at her or something like that. JENNIFER PAYNE: On Stonecutter's Way? ROBERT CRECCO: What's that? JENNIFER PAYNE: On Stonecutter's Way, that bridge? The little bridge. ROBERT CRECCO: The Bridge entering Montpelier JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh, from Rt. 12, yeah. ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah, right JENNIFER PAYNE: He jumped into the… ROBERT CRECCO: He jumped off the bridge there. And another time he went into the what is now the, the hotel. Not, not the Pavilion, at the. What is it? The, the Hotel in Montpelier. JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh the Capital Plaza. ROBERT CRECCO: The Capital Plaza yeah, it was not the Capital Plaza it was some other name and he was so mad at something he, well he was drunk too he got in and just ripped the toilet off. (Laughing) He, he was, he was a big guy, he, he played on the football team and he get so incensed at something and then he was drunk, he pulled up, just pulled up the toilet off the. JENNIFER PAYNE: The whole thing, not the lid? ROBERT CRECCO: No he just pulled up the whole, the whole toilet and of course there's water all over the place. But any way he got into trouble all the time, but he eventually married this woman and they had, they had three or four children. In fact he still has a son that I think live in Castleton. Last time I talked to Bob, he was, he was at the University of Kansas, on the military staff there. He was a Major, and that was the last time I talked to him. He, he died of a heart attack soon after that. JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh. ROBERT CRECCO: And (Hobie?) Smith I lost track of all together. And (Vinny Vesch?) who was, a chem major and who was our, our house steward at the SAE house. I met him once in Tom's River. He was working for the national light company. He was a chemical engineer down there and actually one of my fraternity brothers, put me on to the job I eventually got when I, when I left Norwich. Working for General Electric. JENNIFER PAYNE: What did you do? ROBERT CRECCO: I was an editorial assistant. So he knew, he knew I was editor of the Guidon and he knew that I was interested in that kind of work. So when heard that this opportunity, he graduated a year before me. Or was it two years? I forget, but any way he was from Swampscott Massachusetts and he was working for GE too and he heard about this opening there and I applied for it and I got the job because I put together a portfolio of the two years I worked on the Guidon and I was able to bring that and show that. I even had some letters in there were I corresponded with President Dodge. JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh really? ROBERT CRECCO: On various things, one of them I remember our football team was losing by big scores and I said. I wrote an editorial and I said let's do something about this or stop football. University of Vermont, UVM had dropped football and we used to play them and we did pretty well with them but they dropped it because they couldn't, couldn't hack it either. So I said we should either drop football or let's go out and get some people to come to Norwich who can play football. Well he, he didn't like my editorial, he, he took issue with it so he and I had a conference with it and I had written, I wrote a letter in response to that meeting we had. So I had that sort of stuff in the portfolio (Laughing). So, and Dodge was a nice guy, I liked him. He was, he was quite an outdoorsman. He liked to kayak, and canoe, he, he was quite an expert in canoeing and kayaking and he had done a lot of trips into the wilderness, ya know I'd say. And he eventually, I think went back to Bowdoin. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm. In Maine? ROBERT CRECCO: I, I think yeah Maine, on the faculty there after he left Norwich. Well, but any way I got this job at General Electric as an editorial assistant and eventually I became an editor. And I was transferred to. I worked in Lyne, Lyne Massachusetts and then I got transferred to, get a newspaper going in Cincinnati at the jet engine, new, a new jet engine plant. So I got transferred out there. JENNIFER PAYNE: So you started a, you were working a newspaper or you were working at the plant? ROBERT CRECCO: Well the plant had a newspaper. JENNIFER PAYNE: Ah, gotcha ROBERT CRECCO: So it was a weekly newspaper. And so that's what I was putting out and then when I went to Lockland Ohio that's where the plant was, near Cincinnati. I started one there. JENNIFER PAYNE: You started a newspaper? ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah JENNIFER PAYNE: What was it called? ROBERT CRECCO: It was called the GE News at the jet engine plant and I stayed in that field I, I eventually left GE went to work for AT&T in Cincinnati also working on publications. Several publications that I started working on and report and then I started flip charts for instructions and so forth and I eventually left them and went to work for… (inaudible) I had a short stint, with an advertising agency. And then I went to work for… the greeting card company. JENNIFER PAYNE: Hallmark? ROBERT CRECCO: Hallmark. JENNIFER PAYNE: What was that like? ROBERT CRECCO: Well I was a director of sales promotion. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow ROBERT CRECCO: And I was working with a sales force of about 400 people. Wow ROBERT CRECCO: All over, all over the country and they were in various regions and districts and so it was my job to put these fellas to sell. JENNIFER PAYNE: How did you do that? ROBERT CRECCO: Well, I used to. I put out a weekly publication. That had standings of salesmen and also hints in how to sell and so forth. Salesmen who did a, a, a good selling job and how they did it I'd, I'd translate into how you might do it too and course I was getting 2% of the sales. I was working for the Vice President of the sales and he must have been getting 10%. And I was getting 2%. And so I used to put out this publication and then I'd used to travel out to the salesmen and help them build up sales promotion, projects they could sell this to their customers. Our customers where in the whole gamut from banks, to feed companies, to the big companies, big national companies. Cause we, in addition to lot of printed material we sold we also sold executive gifts made of teak and so forth. And so these executive gifts were, were quite expensive. Could be desk sets, or could be, could be what would you call them? Ice buckets. JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh yeah ROBERT CRECCO: Made of teak and then inside would be a glass bowel and so forth all different kinds of boxes and so forth. They, these were all finely made in teak and they would sell those as well as sell Hallmark calendars and kinds of dodades, ya know like pens, and any kind of a trinket. And so these men would, would, would put together their sales pitches and have all these things on display. And they did very well some of these guys and we, we got the wives involved. We had a, at that time. Do you remember green stamps? JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm. I do. ROBERT CRECCO: HNS green stamps JENNIFER PAYNE: That's right ROBERT CRECCO: We used to give those away to the salesmen and we had a catalogue that they put out. And you could get anything from a grand piano down to a charcoal barbeque. So we gave those away as well as, as other things special and so forth and these were all incentive programs. And that was my job to get these guys incentive programs to get them to sell JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow ROBERT CRECCO: And then I eventually decided that I had enough of that and I came to Washington. And I went to work for a, a portion control meat company JENNIFER PAYNE: Hmmm ROBERT CRECCO: And when I got to there. I, I was sorry I got into that mess there. So I had made some friends in Washington and they told me about a job available with a lobby outfit. Highway lobby. JENNIFER PAYNE: Oh yeah ROBERT CRECCO: And it was known as the Highway Safety Federation and eventually became, merged with another one to become the Highway Users Federation and they had organizations in every city, every state. There is one in here, probably in Montpelier. I'm pretty sure there was one located there. JENNIFER PAYNE: Was it like AAA? Did it become AAA? ROBERT CRECCO: No it wasn't AAA it was still the Highway Users Federation. It was supported by the automobile companies, advertising companies, suppliers, all kinds of automobile suppliers, and it was the auto industry. The idea was to build roads. JENNIFER PAYNE: Right ROBERT CRECCO: To build more roads and… JENNIFER PAYNE: Did you like that? ROBERT CRECCO: It, it was alright. We put up publications that, that was in publications and we had conferences with the Highway User Federations. And the idea was to help the state federations work with the highway people to build roads. And course there were a lot of people didn't like the highway people because they felt they were building over the country. But anyway I worked with them naturally we, we had close, close working with the, the U.S. Department of Transportation. JENNIFER PAYNE: Sure ROBERT CRECCO: So I had a friend, who was in the, who was in the, the administration was Highway Safety, that was it, Highway Safety and he became the administrator of this division in the Department of Transportation. So, they needed somebody to work in sort of a lobby group. The government can't lobby but they can get other people to do it for them. So he asked me to come in to work as a coordinator for a program that he wanted to do with Highway Safety and one of the big things in safety that time was that there was a lot of drunk driving and the deaths on the highway had reached I think about 26,000. 26,000 highway deaths, many of them due to drunk driving. JENNIFER PAYNE: Annually ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah annually so he asked me to come in and coordinate a program and they had determined the best way to reach this drunk driving problem was through women. That wives, sweet hearts, and etc. etc. would have more influence on the men how were doing this drunk driving. So one of the things we were going to do was have a, a national conference in Washington and my job was to work with the, putting together this national conference. So that must have been, 19, 1940, somewhere around there. And so we did we, we, we got a lot of national organizations to put up the money cause the, the government couldn't put up the money this. It had to be through national organizations and companies so forth. And so we put together a three day conference in Washington. In the conference was to invite women leaders. These women leaders were from garden clubs, from political organizations, and other people who were leaders in their community, other women who were leaders in their community. And we invited I think about 2,000 women to come to this national conference in Washington. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow ROBERT CRECCO: And, we had to put together a program to, in order to get women involved in drunk driving and so we had all garden clubs and there were all these women from women's clubs and we invited them. They, they had to pay their way, but we paid, they had to pay their way and also their hotel room and then we got the companies to put up the money for the conferences, the meals, all the printing material everything. They, they paid for that, they were (Coughs) there were companies in the automobile business, companies in highway building, advertising companies, anybody associated with, with highways. And we put together a three day conference and we had a lot of political people involved and we had vice president, vice president's wife involved. She was our chairman, our honorary chairman and so forth. And… JENNIFER PAYNE: Was that Eleanor, or who, who was the president, who was the VP at the time? Do you remember? ROBERT CRECCO: Volpe. JENNIFER PAYNE: Volpe? ROBERT CRECCO: Was the secretary of transportation. JENNIFER PAYNE: Uh huh ROBERT CRECCO: And, he had, oh I can't think of his name. He used to be governor, governor of, I can't think who he was governor of, but he was a governor and his wife, Mrs. Volpe. When I knew Volp… Volpe had been governor of Massachusetts and he was then appointed to be secretary of transportation and then his assistant secretary had also been governor of Massachusetts. And, his wife was the titular head of our conference. Course we had kinds of government people speaking and so forth and we had a lot of women speakers and we had a three day conference on drunk driving. JENNIFER PAYNE: Was it the first real big national one that you'd you had? ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah, the first big national, push to reduce drunk driving on the highways. Because the, the death and injuries from drunk driving had reached proportions that the government was concerned. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And out of that conference grew the, the government's program that reached all the way from upgrading the police forces with training and vehicles to apprehend drunk driving on the highways and then after you apprehended them you had to have a judicial system to deal with it and then you had to have a penal system to deal with it. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And then you had to have instruction in the various parts of the, the city system, the state system to teach people the dangers of drunk driving, over drinking and so forth. Then you had to have the medical people involved too because these people were habitual drinkers that were involved in this and you had to have a, a system set up to deal with it. So it went all the way down through all the strata's that you had to go through in order to deal with driving drunk on the highways JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow ROBERT CRECCO: And to reduce the casualties that happened from drunk driving and then the impact it had on homes and so forth. So it went into all facets and the Federal Highway Administration had to deal with this and they had to set up all the various facets of, of, of state and local government to deal with it. And over the years it proved to be workable at the reducing of drunk driving. And so I think now drunk driving is still a problem not, not the problem it would have been with all the facets that had been brought in to deal with it and… JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow ROBERT CRECCO: We had a three day conference and with all these women coming in. Mostly, mostly women cause it was set up for that. Because we felt that women had the greatest influence in through their families, in the men and so forth to reduce the drunk driving. JENNIFER PAYNE: How did, how did you, what did you tell the women? What was the message that you, or was it multipronged? ROBERT CRECCO: It was multipronged we, I, I, think that the clinical studies I mean clinical facilities that were set up to deal with this helped. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: Because a lot of these men were, were drunkards and, and needed medical as well as psychological training I guess. And you have that situation today. Where you, you have the courts set up, and you have the, the social, social welfare organizations set up to deal with it that we didn't have before and this was all the result of this early, early effort. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow, that's terrific. ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah, and I stayed in the Department of Transportation after that, but I, I, I went to public influence type things. JENNIFER PAYNE: Lobbying at a different level? ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah, yeah lobbying but, it was, really I, I, I got away from most of that and got into more public relations. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: In the Department of Transportation and that's, I retired from the Department of Transportation. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow ROBERT CRECCO: I was there for many years. I think I was there for 14 years. Yeah, that's, that's what I retired from. JENNIFER PAYNE: Wow. So it sounds like you stay in touch with your Norwich classmates? The ones you… ROBERT CRECCO: I became secretary of the class. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And that's how I stayed in contact, but actually I stayed in contact with… Let's see, what did I say in here? JENNIFER PAYNE: It didn't mention your Purple Heart. ROBERT CRECCO: Oh I didn't? JENNIFER PAYNE: No you didn't. You won a purple heart? ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah I, I was… JENNIFER PAYNE: As well as… ROBERT CRECCO: I was wounded, I was wounded on that pat-, that patrol on… JENNIFER PAYNE: Yep ROBERT CRECCO: We're, yeah we were on a patrol and we were hit by motor shells. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And I got wounded in the arm and the foot and I got evacuated to England. I think we talked about this. JENNIFER PAYNE: Yeah, yeah ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah JENNIFER PAYNE: But that's what you got the Purple Heart for. ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah I got the Purple Heart for that. JENNIFER PAYNE: And Emit campaign medal with four bronze service stars. ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah that was, that was well the invasion and then I was, I was in, I joined the, the automatic weapons battalion in France after they had taken Paris. JENNIFER PAYNE: Okay. ROBERT CRECCO: And then I went with them all the way through, through the campaigns in, in the Ardennes and the… JENNIFER PAYNE: Central Europe. ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah then and… JENNIFER PAYNE: Okay, I just wanted to make sure we got that in because we had… ROBERT CRECCO: Yeah, yeah, yeah ok JENNIFER PAYNE: Yeah, well… ROBERT CRECCO: And that was… Yeah I, I don't know is there… JENNIFER PAYNE: Is there anything else you want to say? You… ROBERT CRECCO: No I, I, I got, well after I decided I didn't want to go to the University of Pennsylvania I wanted to stay at Norwich. I became the editor of the Guidon. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And I enjoyed doing that also it was good training for what I got into later on. JENNIFER PAYNE: Right ROBERT CRECCO: I, I got into publication work and I became the director of publications at the telephone company in Cincinnati. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: And then from there I went to, went into sales promotion and I, I stayed in sales promotion and then I came into Washington with… JENNIFER PAYNE: Yeah ROBERT CRECCO: With the, with the government. Actually I was with the Highway Users Federation. JENNIFER PAYNE: Umhmm ROBERT CRECCO: Prior to that. Then from that I went into the Department of Transportation. But no that's, that's about it I guess. JENNIFER PAYNE: Well thank you so much for your time. You have done a wonderful interview. It's going to be great. I can see a lot of people using it, so thank you so much for your time. ROBERT CRECCO: Good, I'm glad you thought so. JENNIFER PAYNE: Alright.
The study of human health over time offers valuable pathways for understanding multiple aspects of human experience and biology. Determining the presence of a disease in an ancient individual or community can give us insights into daily life during that time, and comparing human microbiota between different human groups over time and space can offer insights into behavior and diet. Assessing the health of past populations may provide new perspectives on concomitant social or political changes, and contribute to our understanding of how those populations managed, or failed to manage, crises and change. On a broader level, identifying and interrogating humanity's relationship with infectious and commensal microbes may offer insights into human evolution and adaptation. Most hopefully, the knowledge gained from the basic science of past human health may one day lead to discoveries that can be applied to modern medicine. For example, the evolutionary history of a specific pathogen may allow us to understand how it may behave in the future, and the constitution of ancient human microbiota may allow us to interrogate what taxa have been gained and lost over time in certain populations and what this may mean for modern oral and gut health. The study of past human health has always, by necessity, been an interdisciplinary endeavor. The task of diagnosis, difficult in living populations, becomes increasingly complicated with the passage of time, and the meaning and value of historical diagnosis, depending on the theoretical tides among medical historians, modern clinicians, and anthropologists, may fluctuate (Arrizabalaga, 2002; Waldron, 2009). Historical documentation or art pieces may offer verbal descriptions or visual depictions of ill health, but may be open to broad interpretation due to differing medical conventions and terminology over time and space, embellishment of the artist, or even political concerns that may or may not be evident to the scholar attempting a diagnosis (Mitchell, 2011). Health can also be inferred from human remains in archaeological contexts or the archaeological contexts themselves. Mass graves or multiple burials, for example, could signal an epidemic event (Blakely and Detweiler-Blakely, 1989; Rugg, 2000). Disease processes can leave traces in surviving soft tissue in the case of mummified individuals or in hard tissue, and as human remains that survive in the archaeological record are mostly skeletonized, bone tends to be the most common medium from which paleopathologists attempt to diagnose deceased, archaeological individuals. However, pathological changes in bone are not always specific to a single condition or infection, and not all conditions and infections leave signs in the Introduction 5 skeleton. For those conditions that can leave signs in the skeleton, whether or not this occurs depends on numerous factors, such as, for example, the immunocompetency of the individual or the severity of the infection. Even in the event that there are pathognomonic signs of a specific infection identified in a skeletonized individual, that information cannot be used to infer evolutionary dynamics of the infecting organism. ; Alte mikrobielle DNA ist eine ausgezeichnete Quelle um Informationen über die Gesundheit der Menschen in der Vergangenheit zu gewinnen. Die Methoden zur effektiven Analyse sind noch jung und müssen weiter präzisiert werden. Next-Generation-Sequenzierungstechnologien machten es möglich, vollständige Bakteriengenome aus großen mikrobiellen Gemeinschaften menschlicher Überreste zu isolieren sowie die Gemeinschaften in ihrer Gesamtheit zu untersuchen. Die vorgelegte Dissertation veranschaulicht den Wert dieser beiden Ansätze durch die metagenomische Analyse verschiedener archäologischer Materialien: ein verkalkter Lungenknoten aus mumifizierten menschlichen Überresten, Dentin, Zahnstein und Latrinensedimenten. Im Verlauf der drei hier vorgestellten Projekte benutze ich das Genom eines Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) aus dem 17. Jahrhundert um den Zeitpunkt der Entstehung des Komplexes besser zu kalibrieren, untersuche anhand eines globalen Datensatzes die Dynamik in der DNA Erhaltung von Wirt und oralem Mikrobiom in Zahnstein und Zahnbein und untersuche die Konservierung microbieller DNA in zwei Latrinensedimentenproben für sowohl eukaryotische Parasiten als auch im Darm angesiedelte Mikroben. Manuskript A behandelt ein hochqualititives Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Genom. Die hohe Qualität des Genoms und das genau bekannte Todesjahr des Verstorbenen ermöglichen es uns, das Genom als sicheren Kalibrierungspunkt in der Bayesischen phylogenetischen Analyse zu verwenden und so den letzten gemeinsamen Vorfahren (tMRCA) für den gesamten MTBC und der Linie 4 des MTBC zu bestimmen. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass der verkalkte Lungenknoten eine ausgezeichnete Quelle für MTBC-DNA darstellt und unterstützt die These der Verbindung zwischen der Entsehung der Tuberkulose und der Ausbreitung der Landwirtschaft und Tierzucht. Manuskript B bietet eine umfassende Untersuchung der DNA-Erhaltung in Zahnstein im Vergleich zum Zahnbein desselben Zahns und bestätigt systematisch Zahnstein als eine hervorragende Konservierungsumgebung für DNA über verschiedene Kontinente, Zeiträume und Individuen hinweg. Alle Zahnsteinproben weisen einen hohen Gehalt an genetischem Material der oralen Mikroben und geringen Mengen an Wirts DNA auf. Die Zahnsteinproben enthielten außerdem weniger Verunreinigungen aus der Umgebung. Interessanterweise enthielt auch das Zahnbein kleine Mengen von oralen Mikroben. Dies zeigt, dass Dentin in einigen Situationen als Proxy für einzelne orale Taxa verwendet werden kann. Diese Arbeit erhebt damit standartisiert die Erwartungen für die Erhaltung von DNA in Zahlstein. In Manuskript C wird eine Fallstudie in der interdisziplinären Paläomikrobiologie vorgestellt. Latrinensedimenteproben aus zwei mittelalterlichen Stätten, die zuvor bereits mikroskopisch analysiert wurden werden genetisch analysiert. Die metagenomischen Profile 165 beider Proben wurden auf eukaryotischen Parasiten und Erhaltung des Darm- Mikrobioms hin untersucht. Das Projekt zeigt, wie die Metagenomanalyse die Mikroskopie bei der Untersuchung der Gesundheit vergangener Bevölkerungungen ergänzen kann, indem sie einen enaueren Einblick in das Vorhandensein von Taxa, ihre Abstammungslinie und ihre Genomsequenzen bietet. Genetische Analysen können auch die unsichtbare Welt der zum Darmmikrobiom gehörenden Taxa aufdecken. Allerdings zeigt dieses Projekt auch viele Einschränkungen bei Analysen dieser Art auf. Die meisten Einschränkungen ergeben sich aus dem Mangel an modernen Genomsequenzen für eukaryotische Parasiten und nicht kultivierbarer Darmmikroben. Alte mikrobielle DNA ist eine ausgezeichnete Quelle um Informationen über die Gesundheit der Menschen in der Vergangenheit zu gewinnen. Die Methoden zur effektiven Analyse sind noch jung und müssen weiter präzisiert werden. Next-Generation- Sequenzierungstechnologien machten es möglich, vollständige Bakteriengenome aus großen mikrobiellen Gemeinschaften menschlicher Überreste zu isolieren sowie die Gemeinschaften in ihrer Gesamtheit zu untersuchen. Die vorgelegte Dissertation veranschaulicht den Wert dieser beiden Ansätze durch die metagenomische Analyse verschiedener archäologischer Materialien: ein verkalkter Lungenknoten aus mumifizierten menschlichen Überresten, Dentin, Zahnstein und Latrinensedimenten. Im Verlauf der drei hier vorgestellten Projekte benutze ich das Genom eines Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) aus dem 17. Jahrhundert um den Zeitpunkt der Entstehung des Komplexes besser zu kalibrieren, untersuche anhand eines globalen Datensatzes die Dynamik in der DNA Erhaltung von Wirt und oralem Mikrobiom in Zahnstein und Zahnbein und untersuche die Konservierung microbieller DNA in zwei Latrinensedimentenproben für sowohl eukaryotische Parasiten als auch im Darm angesiedelte Mikroben. Manuskript A behandelt ein hochqualititives Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Genom. Die hohe Qualität des Genoms und das genau bekannte Todesjahr des Verstorbenen ermöglichen es uns, das Genom als sicheren Kalibrierungspunkt in der Bayesischen phylogenetischen Analyse zu verwenden und so den letzten gemeinsamen Vorfahren (tMRCA) für den gesamten MTBC und der Linie 4 des MTBC zu bestimmen. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass der verkalkte Lungenknoten eine ausgezeichnete Quelle für MTBC-DNA darstellt und unterstützt die These der Verbindung zwischen der Entsehung der Tuberkulose und der Ausbreitung der Landwirtschaft und Tierzucht. Manuskript B bietet eine umfassende Untersuchung der DNA-Erhaltung in Zahnstein im Vergleich zum Zahnbein desselben Zahns und bestätigt systematisch Zahnstein als eine hervorragende Konservierungsumgebung für DNA über verschiedene Kontinente, Zeiträume und Individuen hinweg. Alle Zahnsteinproben weisen einen hohen Gehalt an genetischem Material der oralen Mikroben und geringen Mengen an Wirts DNA auf. Die Zahnsteinproben enthielten außerdem weniger Verunreinigungen aus der Umgebung. Interessanterweise enthielt auch das Zahnbein kleine Mengen von oralen Mikroben. Dies zeigt, dass Dentin in einigen Situationen als Proxy für einzelne orale Taxa verwendet werden kann. Diese Arbeit erhebt damit standartisiert die Erwartungen für die Erhaltung von DNA in Zahlstein. In Manuskript C wird eine Fallstudie in der interdisziplinären Paläomikrobiologie vorgestellt. Latrinensedimenteproben aus zwei mittelalterlichen Stätten, die zuvor bereits mikroskopisch analysiert wurden werden genetisch analysiert. Die metagenomischen Profile Zusammenfassung 165 beider Proben wurden auf eukaryotischen Parasiten und Erhaltung des Darm- Mikrobioms hin untersucht. Das Projekt zeigt, wie die Metagenomanalyse die Mikroskopie bei der Untersuchung der Gesundheit vergangener Bevölkerungungen ergänzen kann, indem sie einen genaueren Einblick in das Vorhandensein von Taxa, ihre Abstammungslinie und ihre Genomsequenzen bietet. Genetische Analysen können auch die unsichtbare Welt der zum Darmmikrobiom gehörenden Taxa aufdecken. Allerdings zeigt dieses Projekt auch viele Einschränkungen bei Analysen dieser Art auf. Die meisten Einschränkungen ergeben sich aus dem Mangel an modernen Genomsequenzen für eukaryotische Parasiten und nicht kultivierbarer Darmmikroben. Zusammenfassend untersucht diese Arbeit die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen alter mikrobieller genetischer Daten bei der Erforschung der menschlichen Gesundheit und Krankheiten der Vergangenheit. Zusammenfassend untersucht diese Arbeit die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen alter mikrobieller genetischer Daten bei der Erforschung der menschlichen Gesundheit und Krankheiten der Vergangenheit.