Suchergebnisse

Set up in three main parts, this dissertation explores the emergence of Rafiq Hariri as a political actor (I), the historic origins of the Muhammad al-Amin Mosque project (II) and the association of the former Lebanese prime minister with Lebanon's main Sunni place of worship (III). Besides being a powerful testimony to the impressive reconstruction effort in Lebanon in general and in Beirut in particular, this monumental mosque also represents a symbol of political and religious identification. The aim of this research is double: to track down the gradual involvement of the former head of government in sponsoring a 150 year old project, and to enquire about the ways the construction of a mosque can strengthen the legitimacy of a political actor within a multi-confessional societal context. Based on field research (2004 – 2009) and a systematic analysis of written, visual and oral sources, the objective is to explain how the appearance of this sanctuary of Lebanese Sunni officialdom participates in a wider dynamic that apprehends religious architecture in Beirut (at least partly) as a set of semi-public and semi-sacred spaces where the intricacies and links between politics, religion and urban sociology materialize in tangible and observable way. In fact, both the coming about of this prestigious mosque and the transformations of the adjacent Maronite cathedral illustrate the political subtleties of religious architecture as well as the ambiguities of intermingling communities. Moreover, the Muhammad al-Amin Mosque and the commemorative tomb of Rafiq Hariri installed immediately next to it offer an interesting field of observation that reveals developments, struggles and practices which document just how a reputation and a political legacy are being constructed, negotiated, mobilized, oriented and reoriented, according to the needs and wishes of the elites. Through a substantial biographical essay on Rafiq Hariri (chapters 1-3), juxtaposed to a recollection of the various construction phases of the Muhammad al-Amin Mosque (ch. 4), a detailed description (ch. 5) and a critical analysis of the latter by local experts (ch. 6), this research presents itself as a study that encompasses several disciplines and adopts, as a consequence, a methodological pluralism. Although the author concentrates the bulk of his attention on the complexities and interests at stake in contemporary Lebanon (ch. 7-8), in a final chapter he also examines a selection of major religious architectural projects, in order to provide for a wider contextualisation, both in time and space. The conclusion is that, no matter the place or the time and notwithstanding occasional exploitations of it, (religious) architecture turns out to be a fertile prism which, rather than a competition among communities reflects their diversity and exemplifies their interaction. ; Conçue en trois parties, cette thèse explore à la fois l'émergence de Rafiq Hariri comme acteur politique (I), la genèse historique du projet de la mosquée Muhammad al-Amin (II) ainsi que l'association de l'ancien premier ministre libanais au principal lieu de culte sunnite du Liban (III). Outre un puissant témoignage de l'impressionnant effort de reconstruction du Liban en général et de la ville de Beyrouth en particulier, cette mosquée monumentale représente également un symbole d'identification politico-religieuse. L'objectif de cet exercice est double et consiste non seulement à retracer l'implication graduelle de l'ancien chef de gouvernement dans la promotion d'un projet vieux de près d'un siècle et demi mais aussi à s'interroger sur la façon dont la construction d'une mosquée peut contribuer à renforcer la légitimité d'un acteur politique dans un contexte sociétal multiconfessionnel. Sur base d'une étude de terrain menée entre 2004 et 2009 et en dépouillant un corpus documentaire composé de sources écrites, visuelles et parlées il s'agit d'expliquer comment l'apparition de ce haut lieu du sunnisme officiel libanais s'inscrit dans une dynamique plus large qui permet d'analyser l'architecture religieuse à Beyrouth (du moins en partie) comme des espaces tantôt publics tantôt sacrés où les liens entre le politique, le religieux et la sociologie urbaine se matérialisent de manière concrète et observable. En effet, la réalisation de cette prestigieuse mosquée ainsi que les transformations de la cathédrale maronite adjacente permettent d'illustrer aussi bien les subtilités politiques de l'architecture religieuse que les ambigüités du brassage communautaire. Par ailleurs, la mosquée Muhammad al-Amin et la tombe commémorative de Rafiq Hariri qui lui est accolée constituent un formidable champ d'observation révélant un certain nombre d'évolutions, de luttes et de pratiques qui montrent comment une réputation et un héritage politique se construisent, se négocient, se mobilisent, s'orientent et se réorientent en fonction des contraintes et des besoins des élites. A travers un substantiel essai biographique sur Rafiq Hariri (chapitres 1-3) juxtaposé à une recomposition des différentes phases de construction de la mosquée Muhammad al-Amin (ch. 4), d'une description détaillée (ch. 5) ainsi qu'une analyse critique de celle-ci par des experts locaux (ch. 6), cette recherche se présente comme une étude à cheval sur plusieurs disciplines qui adopte, par conséquent, un pluralisme méthodologique. Si l'auteur porte son attention principalement aux complexités et aux enjeux propres aux réalités libanaises contemporaines (ch. 7-8), dans un dernier chapitre (ch.9) il s'applique également à étudier une sélection de grands projets d'architecture religieuse plus ou moins éloignés dans le temps et/ou dans l'espace, afin de permettre une mise en contexte à plus grande échelle. Il en résulte le constat que, peu importe le lieu et l'époque et malgré l'instrumentalisation qui en est parfois faite, l'architecture s'avère être un prisme d'analyse fécond qui, bien plus qu'une simple compétition entre communautés reflète leur diversité et la manifestation de leur interaction. ; (POL 3) -- UCL, 2010

Set up in three main parts, this dissertation explores the emergence of Rafiq Hariri as a political actor (I), the historic origins of the Muhammad al-Amin Mosque project (II) and the association of the former Lebanese prime minister with Lebanon's main Sunni place of worship (III). Besides being a powerful testimony to the impressive reconstruction effort in Lebanon in general and in Beirut in particular, this monumental mosque also represents a symbol of political and religious identification. The aim of this research is double: to track down the gradual involvement of the former head of government in sponsoring a 150 year old project, and to enquire about the ways the construction of a mosque can strengthen the legitimacy of a political actor within a multi-confessional societal context. Based on field research (2004 – 2009) and a systematic analysis of written, visual and oral sources, the objective is to explain how the appearance of this sanctuary of Lebanese Sunni officialdom participates in a wider dynamic that apprehends religious architecture in Beirut (at least partly) as a set of semi-public and semi-sacred spaces where the intricacies and links between politics, religion and urban sociology materialize in tangible and observable way. In fact, both the coming about of this prestigious mosque and the transformations of the adjacent Maronite cathedral illustrate the political subtleties of religious architecture as well as the ambiguities of intermingling communities. Moreover, the Muhammad al-Amin Mosque and the commemorative tomb of Rafiq Hariri installed immediately next to it offer an interesting field of observation that reveals developments, struggles and practices which document just how a reputation and a political legacy are being constructed, negotiated, mobilized, oriented and reoriented, according to the needs and wishes of the elites. Through a substantial biographical essay on Rafiq Hariri (chapters 1-3), juxtaposed to a recollection of the various construction phases of the Muhammad al-Amin Mosque (ch. 4), a detailed description (ch. 5) and a critical analysis of the latter by local experts (ch. 6), this research presents itself as a study that encompasses several disciplines and adopts, as a consequence, a methodological pluralism. Although the author concentrates the bulk of his attention on the complexities and interests at stake in contemporary Lebanon (ch. 7-8), in a final chapter he also examines a selection of major religious architectural projects, in order to provide for a wider contextualisation, both in time and space. The conclusion is that, no matter the place or the time and notwithstanding occasional exploitations of it, (religious) architecture turns out to be a fertile prism which, rather than a competition among communities reflects their diversity and exemplifies their interaction. ; Conçue en trois parties, cette thèse explore à la fois l'émergence de Rafiq Hariri comme acteur politique (I), la genèse historique du projet de la mosquée Muhammad al-Amin (II) ainsi que l'association de l'ancien premier ministre libanais au principal lieu de culte sunnite du Liban (III). Outre un puissant témoignage de l'impressionnant effort de reconstruction du Liban en général et de la ville de Beyrouth en particulier, cette mosquée monumentale représente également un symbole d'identification politico-religieuse. L'objectif de cet exercice est double et consiste non seulement à retracer l'implication graduelle de l'ancien chef de gouvernement dans la promotion d'un projet vieux de près d'un siècle et demi mais aussi à s'interroger sur la façon dont la construction d'une mosquée peut contribuer à renforcer la légitimité d'un acteur politique dans un contexte sociétal multiconfessionnel. Sur base d'une étude de terrain menée entre 2004 et 2009 et en dépouillant un corpus documentaire composé de sources écrites, visuelles et parlées il s'agit d'expliquer comment l'apparition de ce haut lieu du sunnisme officiel libanais s'inscrit dans une dynamique plus large qui permet d'analyser l'architecture religieuse à Beyrouth (du moins en partie) comme des espaces tantôt publics tantôt sacrés où les liens entre le politique, le religieux et la sociologie urbaine se matérialisent de manière concrète et observable. En effet, la réalisation de cette prestigieuse mosquée ainsi que les transformations de la cathédrale maronite adjacente permettent d'illustrer aussi bien les subtilités politiques de l'architecture religieuse que les ambigüités du brassage communautaire. Par ailleurs, la mosquée Muhammad al-Amin et la tombe commémorative de Rafiq Hariri qui lui est accolée constituent un formidable champ d'observation révélant un certain nombre d'évolutions, de luttes et de pratiques qui montrent comment une réputation et un héritage politique se construisent, se négocient, se mobilisent, s'orientent et se réorientent en fonction des contraintes et des besoins des élites. A travers un substantiel essai biographique sur Rafiq Hariri (chapitres 1-3) juxtaposé à une recomposition des différentes phases de construction de la mosquée Muhammad al-Amin (ch. 4), d'une description détaillée (ch. 5) ainsi qu'une analyse critique de celle-ci par des experts locaux (ch. 6), cette recherche se présente comme une étude à cheval sur plusieurs disciplines qui adopte, par conséquent, un pluralisme méthodologique. Si l'auteur porte son attention principalement aux complexités et aux enjeux propres aux réalités libanaises contemporaines (ch. 7-8), dans un dernier chapitre (ch.9) il s'applique également à étudier une sélection de grands projets d'architecture religieuse plus ou moins éloignés dans le temps et/ou dans l'espace, afin de permettre une mise en contexte à plus grande échelle. Il en résulte le constat que, peu importe le lieu et l'époque et malgré l'instrumentalisation qui en est parfois faite, l'architecture s'avère être un prisme d'analyse fécond qui, bien plus qu'une simple compétition entre communautés reflète leur diversité et la manifestation de leur interaction. ; (POL 3) -- UCL, 2010

[spa] El objetivo de esta tesis radica en el análisis de la interrogación retórica en español. Se parte de la hipótesis de que la retoricidad supone un significado procedimental que en lengua española tal y como sucede en otras lenguas naturales puede implementarse en los enunciados interrogativos mediante un conjunto específico de elementos formales. Se propone, pues, un acercamiento a los elementos gramaticales que predisponen la interpretación retórica de un enunciado interrogativo. Ahora bien, pese a que el punto de partida recae en la configuración formal de los enunciados interrogativos analizados, se consideran también dos niveles de análisis complementarios: el textual y el interactivo. Ello permite observar de qué modo la retoricidad puede ser la consecuencia directa del mantenimiento de las relaciones de coherencia que gobiernan la organización textual, por una parte, o el resultado de la sincronización veraz o falaz del acervo cognitivo que comparten los interlocutores, por otra. En última instancia, se desarrolla un apartado aplicado en el que se busca analizar la funcionalidad pragmática que la interrogación retórica adquiere en una género discursivo concreto, a saber, el debate parlamentario. Con el fin de resolver los diversos objetivos expuestos, la tesis incorpora, en un primer estadio, dos bloques dedicados, respectivamente, a la explicación de la metodología de análisis utilizada y a la revisión de la literatura existente sobre la materia. Se busca, por un lado, asentar una perspectiva de análisis ecléctica que, al amparo de diversas teorías sobre pragmática, argumentación e interacción, permita organizar un estudio multifocal de la interrogación retórica. Por otro lado, se pretende retomar, desde una perspectiva crítica, los estudios existentes en torno a la interrogación retórica para reafirmar los puntos de encuentro y discutir, mediante propuestas propias, aquellos aspectos que han generado mayores divergencias. Las conclusiones de estos dos apartados permiten iniciar el análisis aplicado al fenómeno objeto de estudio. Ello exige caracterizar la organización y el funcionamiento del género discursivo escogido, esto es, el debate parlamentario. En este apartado se estudian fenómenos tales como las consecuencias de la multiplicidad de actantes discursivos, las relaciones entre oralidad y escritura asociadas a las nociones de espontaneidad y planificación, la adversatividad cooperativa como dinámica discursiva prototípica, etc. Se persigue establecer una caracterización del marco discursivo en el que se localizan múltiples muestras de interrogaciones retóricas como paso previo a su descripción gramatical, textual, argumentativa y pragmática. Finalmente, se aborda el estudio de los ejemplos que configuran el corpus de trabajo. Este está configurado por 1000 fragmentos discursivos de debates parlamentarios desarrollados en el Congreso de los Diputados de España entre 1998 y 2007, en los que, como mínimo, se localiza un enunciado interrogativo de evidente lectura retórica. Se tratan los grados de gramaticalización de la retoricidad que presentan ciertas partículas, estructuras o construcciones; los diferentes modelos textuales de configuración de la interrogación retórica; los usos argumentativos de la interrogación retórica como mecanismo para la inserción de esquemas argumentativos válidos o falacias y, finalmente, las sinergias posibles entre la interrogación retórica y ciertos actos de habla descorteses característicos del debate parlamentario. ; [eng] "THE GRAMMAR AND PRAGMATICS OF THE RHETORICAL QUESTION IN SPANISH. AN APPLICATION IN PARLIAMENTARY DEBATE". This thesis aims to analyse the use of the rhetorical question (RQ) in Spanish. We start from the hypothesis that rhetoric is a type of procedural meaning which, in Spanish, can become part of interrogative statements through the addition of certain formal elements. We therefore propose to explore the grammatical elements that predispose to the rhetorical interpretation of an interrogative statement. We also consider two complementary levels of analysis: textual, and interactive. This allows us to see how rhetoric can be, on the one hand, a direct consequence of maintaining the coherence relations governing text organization, or, on the other hand, the result of synchronizing the cognitive heritage shared by speakers. Finally, we apply our findings to an analysis of the pragmatic functionality which RQ acquires in parliamentary debate. The thesis consists of two blocks dealing respectively with a presentation of the analytical methodology used and a review of the existing literature on the topic. We aim to establish an eclectic perspective of analysis in the light of various theories on pragmatics, argument, and interaction, and also to provide a critical review of existing work on RQ, stressing the points of agreement and, on the basis of our own proposals, discussing the aspects that have caused the greatest controversy. Next we analyse RQ from an applied perspective. To do this we first characterize the organization and functioning of parliamentary debate by studying phenomena such as the consequences of multiple discursive actors, the relations between oral and written forms associated with the notions of spontaneity and planning, cooperative adversativity as a prototypical discursive dynamic, and so on. We aim to characterize the discursive framework as a preliminary stage in the grammatical, textual, argumentative and pragmatic description of RQ. Finally, we analyze the working corpus consisting of 1000 discursive extracts from debates in the Spanish parliament between 1998 and 2007, in which at least one interrogative statement with a clear rhetorical reading can be identified. We deal with the degrees of grammaticalization of the rhetoric present in specific particles, structures and constructions; the different textual models of RQ configuration; the argumentative uses of RQ as a mechanism for inserting valid argumentative schemes or fallacies; and, finally, the possible synergies between RQ and certain discourteous speech acts characteristic of parliamentary debat

Die vorliegende Dissertation hat zum Ziel, den forstpolitische Prozess in Bulgarien in der Transformationsperiode zu beschreiben und verstehend zu erklären. Im Zentrum der politikwissenschaftlichen Analyse steht die Beantwortung der zentralen Forschungsfrage, warum die Umsetzung des Politikziels der Sicherstellung einer 'nachhaltigen Waldwirtschaft' in Bulgarien ein andauerndes Konfliktfeld, das durch Politikwandel und Politikblockaden geprägt wird, darstellt. Die Arbeit beginnt mit einem einleitenden Kapitel, in dem die wesentlichen Ziele, Ausgangsbedingungen und Umsetzungsherausforderungen im Hinblick auf die Sicherstellung einer 'nachhaltigen Waldwirtschaft' auf internationaler und nationaler Ebene beschrieben werden. Vor diesem Hintergrund werden die Forschungsziele und die Untersuchungsfragen der Arbeit abgeleitet. Diesem Kapitel folgt eine Darstellung des Hintergrundwissens des Autors. Das folgende Kapitel beschäftigt sich mit dem Stand des Wissens zum Begriff der 'forstlichen Nachhaltigkeit'. Anschließend erfolgt eine theoretische Verortung der Analytik der Arbeit im Lehrgebäude der wissenschaftlichen Politikanalyse. Als erstes werden zentrale politikwissenschaftliche Begrifflichkeiten und Konzepte erörtert. Als nächstes wird eine eingehende Diskussion theoretischer Konzepte und Modelle des politischen Prozesses durchgeführt. Hierbei werden zwei konkrete akteurszentrierte theoretische Ansätze herangezogen, die Kausalmechanismen und Einflussfaktoren für die Analyse zur Verfügung stellen. Zum einen wird der in der Sozialpsychologie verwurzelte 'Advocacy-Coalitionen'-Ansatz ('Advocacy Coalition Framework') nach SABATIER und Kollegen (1988, 1993, 1999, 2007) näher vorgestellt und diskutiert. Zum anderen werden die politikökonomisch begründeten Konzepte der Theorie rationaler ('Rational choice') (nach KUNZ 2005) bzw. der Theorie struktureller Wahl ('Politics of structural choice') (MOE 1989, 1990) umrissen. Aus einer solchen Perspektive gilt, dass Konflikt und somit auch Dynamik des politischen Prozesses vor allem von Interessengegensätzen und Verteilungskonflikten über Macht und Kontrolle von (materiellen) Ressourcen bestimmt wird. Auf dieser Grundlage werden Modellannahmen und forschungsleitende Hypothesen abgeleitet, die die empirische Ergebnisgenerierung anleiten. Das nächste Kapitel führt in die methodischen Grundlagen der Politikfeldanalyse ein und präsentiert die konkrete Methodik der Untersuchung. Dabei werden Methoden der empirischen Sozialforschung verwandt. Die Untersuchungsmethodik lässt sich als theoriegeleitete, qualitative Politikfeldanalyse bezeichnen. Aus der Brandbreite an Erhebungstechniken wurde das problemzentrierte Interview als zentrales Erhebungsinstrument für die vorliegende Arbeit ausgewählt. Ergänzend wurde Dokumentenanalyse durchgeführt. Die Auswertung der erhobenen Daten wurde mit Hilfe von qualitativer Inhaltsanalyse durchgeführt. Das nächste Kapitel werden die Ergebnisse der empirischen Untersuchung vorgestellt. Das letzte Kapitel diskutiert die Ergebnisse der Arbeit im Lichte anderer Lehrmeinungen und empirischer Untersuchungen. Dementsprechend werden die Ergebnisse der Arbeit zunächst im Hinblick auf die angewandten theoretischen Modelle und die daraus abgeleiteten Hypothesen diskutiert. Anschließend werden sie mit dem relevanten Stand des Wissens und inhaltlich nahen Studien verglichen. Danach werden die angewandten Methoden auf ihre Vor- und Nachteile bezüglich des Erkenntnisgewinns in der vorliegenden Arbeit erörtert. Somit wird abschließend eine theoretisch reflektierte, methodisch fundierte und empirisch abgesicherte Beantwortung der eingangs der Arbeit gestellten Forschungsfrage gegeben. Zusammenfassend kann gefolgert werden, dass der forstpolitische Prozess in Bulgarien durch sowohl interessen- als auch ideengeleitete Handlungen unter dynamischen Kontextfaktoren bestimmt wird. Diese drei Aspekte dürften auf eine prägnante Art und Weise die Frage nach dem komplexen forstpolitischen Prozess beantwortet haben. ; The present PhD thesis aims to describe and understand the forest policy process in Bulgaria over the transformation period to date. The following research question stands central to the policy analysis applied: why does the implementation of the policy goal of securing a 'sustainable forest management' represent a continuous field of social conflict in Bulgaria? The introductory chapter describes the objectives, initial conditions and implementation handicaps in regard to 'sustainable forest management' at the international and national level. The research goals and the analytical questions are then presented. A background chapter discloses the author's pre-existent knowledge of the phenomena under study as regards the defining features of the Bulgarian forests, forestry and forest policy developments since 1990 to date. The following state-of-the-art chapter discusses the concept of 'sustainable forest management' from a policy science perspective. The next chapter sets the theoretical and analytical framework for the study. After discussion of the main terms and concepts of policy sciences, relevant theoretical approaches of the public policy process and policy change are outlined. The Advocacy coalition framework (ACF) developed by P. SABATIER and associates (1988, 1993, 1999, 2007), and rooted in social psychology is drawn on to provide for analytical toolkit for tracing the forest policy conflicts as well as for explaining policy dynamics as the result of competition among policy ideas under constraining external events. Furthermore, the Rational choice theory (RC) (e.g. after KUNZ 2005) and the Theory of politics of structural choice (SC) by T. MOE (1989, 1990) founded in political economy, are outlined, too. These perspectives hold that dynamic and complex policy and politics is by and large due to actors' rational strategies seeking to maximize personal welfare and self-interests in response to diverging interests, conflicts over power and control of material political resources (e.g. authority, income, prestige etc.). Based on the ACF, RC and SC, model assumptions and nine research hypotheses are derived that guide the research process. The next chapter introduces the applied research design of theory-driven qualitative analysis of forest policy processes such as legislative forestry reforms, participatory national forest strategy and market-based forest certification over the last three legislative periods (1997-2001; 2001-2005; 2005-onwards). Primary data is collected through thirty-nine problem-centred interviews with stakeholder from the policy elite within two subsequent field studies in fall 2006 and 2007. The interviews are based on semi-structured, theory based and open-ended qualitative questions. In order to supplement and verify the data gathered during the interviews, a secondary literature (e.g. official documents, policy papers and mass-media publications) is consulted too. The data collected is analysed through qualitative content analysis. The next chapter presents the empirical results. The thesis concludes that the theoretical perspectives applied hold descriptive and explanatory power. However, several theoretical gaps and limitations are detected. Thus, a synthesis of both theoretical lenses is claimed to be more productive approach for generating more empirically realistic and theoretically appropriate insights. Lastly, it is argued that the applied methods of data collection and analysis have proved worth since there are supported by high degree of validity, reliability and objectivity of the research process and results. All in all, in the closing sub-chapter the thesis draws the conclusion that the implementation of the policy goal of 'sustainable forest management' is challenging enterprise in Bulgaria due to actors' behaviour based on a composition of belief systems and self-interests as well as due to conflicts over power under changing external events.

"Soil is a non-renewable resource (…) vital to human activities and ecosystem survival" (EC, 2006). Soil protection requires studies and monitoring based on indicators of its quality. Soil organic matter content (SOM) is one the most relevant of these indicators. However, the inventory of soil organic carbon (SOC), the main component of SOM, is challenging at the regional scale due to its inherent large spatial variability and its slow dynamics. Uncertainties can reach high levels preventing both the detection of significant SOC changes through time and the identification of the driving forces involved. This, in turn, undermines the ability to implement judicious policies for SOC conservation or sequestration. Given such a context, this thesis aims to improve the understanding of long-term SOC dynamics in agricultural soils at the regional scale. The specific objectives are: (i) to detect the SOC stock changes under agriculture in southern Belgium between 1955 and 2005, (ii) to quantify the uncertainties and validate the methodology used, and (iii) to discriminate the driving forces involved in the observed SOC evolution. This thesis shows that significant changes in SOC stocks can be detected thanks to the stratification of the study area into spatial homogeneous units (based on land use, soil type, climate and agricultural region) and to the re-sampling of soil profiles from the 1950s. Despite uncertainties on the SOC stock assessment mainly arising from the laboratory analyses and the spatial variability, an opposite behaviour in the change in SOC stock is found between units under cropland (–12% on average in the plough layer) and units under grassland (+20% in the 0-30cm layer). The main driving forces of SOC evolution are the agricultural management for cropland and the soil texture (clay content) for grassland. The impact of climate change (i.e. of the changes in the mean annual temperature and precipitation) is of minor importance. Results also shows that the "baseline effect" (i.e. the inversely proportional effect of the initial SOC content on the SOC evolution) is responsible for an important part of the SOC variability. This challenges the assumption used in most SOC dynamic models that the initial SOC content represents steady state conditions. Based on these results, mixed linear models were built to predict the SOC stock in 1955, 2005 and its change between those two periods. However, these models still present large uncertainties after validation. At the end of the thesis, the perspective of using the re-sampled soil profiles as part of a future SOC monitoring network in southern Belgium – CARBOSOL – is investigated. ; "Le sol est une ressource non renouvelable (.) essentielle à l'activité humaine et à la survie des écosystèmes" (CE, 2006). Sa préservation nécessite une étude et un suivi basés notamment sur des indicateurs de sa qualité. Le contenu en matière organique du sol (MOS) est un des plus importants de ces indicateurs. Cependant, réaliser l'inventaire du carbone organique du sol (COS), principal composant de la MOS, représente un défi à l'échelle régionale du fait de son importante variabilité spatiale et de sa lente dynamique. Les incertitudes peuvent atteindre des niveaux tels qu'elles empêchent non seulement la détection d'un changement de COS à travers le temps mais également l'identification des facteurs impliqués. La possibilité de mettre en œuvre des politiques judicieuses pour conserver ou augmenter le COS en est ainsi rendue plus difficile. Dès lors, cette thèse a pour but principal d'améliorer la compréhension de la dynamique du COS à long terme dans les sols agricoles à l'échelle régionale. Les objectifs de cette étude sont les suivants : (i) détecter les changements de stock de COS des sols agricoles en Wallonie (Belgique) entre 1955 et 2005, (ii) quantifier les incertitudes et valider la méthodologie utilisée, et (iii) identifier les facteurs explicatifs de l'évolution en COS observée. Cette thèse démontre que des changements significatifs de stock de COS peuvent être détectés grâce à la stratification de la zone d'étude en unités homogènes spatiales (basées sur l'utilisation du sol, le type de sol, le climat et la région agricole) ainsi qu'au ré-échantillonnage des profils de sol des années cinquante. Malgré les incertitudes pesant sur l'estimation du stock de COS, résultant principalement des analyses de laboratoire et de la variabilité spatiale, une évolution divergeante du stock de COS est observée dans les unités sous culture (–12% en moyenne dans l'horizon de labour) et les unités sous prairie (+20% dans la couche 0-30cm). Les principaux facteurs explicatifs de cette évolution en COS sont la gestion agricole pour les unités sous cultures et la texture du sol (contenu en argile) pour celles sous prairies. L'impact du changement climatique (au travers de l'évolution moyenne des températures et précipitations) est, quant à lui, de moindre importance. Les résultats montrent également que l' « effet baseline » (c-à-d. l'effet inversément proportionnel du contenu initial en COS sur l'évolution du COS) est responsable d'une part importante de la variabilité en COS. Ceci rend fort discutable le fait de considérer le contenu initial en COS comme représentatif d'une situation d'équilibre – une hypothèse généralement utilisée dans les modèles de dynamique du COS. Sur base de ces résultats, des modèles linéaires mixtes ont été construits afin de prédire le stock de COS en 1955, 2005 et son changement entre ces deux périodes. Ces modèles présentent encore, toutefois, de larges incertitudes après leur validation. La dernière partie de la thèse aborde la perspective d'utilisation des profils de sol ré-échantillonnés comme partie intégrante d'un futur réseau de suivi du COS dans le sud de la Belgique – CARBOSOL. ; (GEOG 3) -- UCL, 2009

"Soil is a non-renewable resource (…) vital to human activities and ecosystem survival" (EC, 2006). Soil protection requires studies and monitoring based on indicators of its quality. Soil organic matter content (SOM) is one the most relevant of these indicators. However, the inventory of soil organic carbon (SOC), the main component of SOM, is challenging at the regional scale due to its inherent large spatial variability and its slow dynamics. Uncertainties can reach high levels preventing both the detection of significant SOC changes through time and the identification of the driving forces involved. This, in turn, undermines the ability to implement judicious policies for SOC conservation or sequestration. Given such a context, this thesis aims to improve the understanding of long-term SOC dynamics in agricultural soils at the regional scale. The specific objectives are: (i) to detect the SOC stock changes under agriculture in southern Belgium between 1955 and 2005, (ii) to quantify the uncertainties and validate the methodology used, and (iii) to discriminate the driving forces involved in the observed SOC evolution. This thesis shows that significant changes in SOC stocks can be detected thanks to the stratification of the study area into spatial homogeneous units (based on land use, soil type, climate and agricultural region) and to the re-sampling of soil profiles from the 1950s. Despite uncertainties on the SOC stock assessment mainly arising from the laboratory analyses and the spatial variability, an opposite behaviour in the change in SOC stock is found between units under cropland (–12% on average in the plough layer) and units under grassland (+20% in the 0-30cm layer). The main driving forces of SOC evolution are the agricultural management for cropland and the soil texture (clay content) for grassland. The impact of climate change (i.e. of the changes in the mean annual temperature and precipitation) is of minor importance. Results also shows that the "baseline effect" (i.e. the inversely proportional effect of the initial SOC content on the SOC evolution) is responsible for an important part of the SOC variability. This challenges the assumption used in most SOC dynamic models that the initial SOC content represents steady state conditions. Based on these results, mixed linear models were built to predict the SOC stock in 1955, 2005 and its change between those two periods. However, these models still present large uncertainties after validation. At the end of the thesis, the perspective of using the re-sampled soil profiles as part of a future SOC monitoring network in southern Belgium – CARBOSOL – is investigated. ; "Le sol est une ressource non renouvelable (.) essentielle à l'activité humaine et à la survie des écosystèmes" (CE, 2006). Sa préservation nécessite une étude et un suivi basés notamment sur des indicateurs de sa qualité. Le contenu en matière organique du sol (MOS) est un des plus importants de ces indicateurs. Cependant, réaliser l'inventaire du carbone organique du sol (COS), principal composant de la MOS, représente un défi à l'échelle régionale du fait de son importante variabilité spatiale et de sa lente dynamique. Les incertitudes peuvent atteindre des niveaux tels qu'elles empêchent non seulement la détection d'un changement de COS à travers le temps mais également l'identification des facteurs impliqués. La possibilité de mettre en œuvre des politiques judicieuses pour conserver ou augmenter le COS en est ainsi rendue plus difficile. Dès lors, cette thèse a pour but principal d'améliorer la compréhension de la dynamique du COS à long terme dans les sols agricoles à l'échelle régionale. Les objectifs de cette étude sont les suivants : (i) détecter les changements de stock de COS des sols agricoles en Wallonie (Belgique) entre 1955 et 2005, (ii) quantifier les incertitudes et valider la méthodologie utilisée, et (iii) identifier les facteurs explicatifs de l'évolution en COS observée. Cette thèse démontre que des changements significatifs de stock de COS peuvent être détectés grâce à la stratification de la zone d'étude en unités homogènes spatiales (basées sur l'utilisation du sol, le type de sol, le climat et la région agricole) ainsi qu'au ré-échantillonnage des profils de sol des années cinquante. Malgré les incertitudes pesant sur l'estimation du stock de COS, résultant principalement des analyses de laboratoire et de la variabilité spatiale, une évolution divergeante du stock de COS est observée dans les unités sous culture (–12% en moyenne dans l'horizon de labour) et les unités sous prairie (+20% dans la couche 0-30cm). Les principaux facteurs explicatifs de cette évolution en COS sont la gestion agricole pour les unités sous cultures et la texture du sol (contenu en argile) pour celles sous prairies. L'impact du changement climatique (au travers de l'évolution moyenne des températures et précipitations) est, quant à lui, de moindre importance. Les résultats montrent également que l' « effet baseline » (c-à-d. l'effet inversément proportionnel du contenu initial en COS sur l'évolution du COS) est responsable d'une part importante de la variabilité en COS. Ceci rend fort discutable le fait de considérer le contenu initial en COS comme représentatif d'une situation d'équilibre – une hypothèse généralement utilisée dans les modèles de dynamique du COS. Sur base de ces résultats, des modèles linéaires mixtes ont été construits afin de prédire le stock de COS en 1955, 2005 et son changement entre ces deux périodes. Ces modèles présentent encore, toutefois, de larges incertitudes après leur validation. La dernière partie de la thèse aborde la perspective d'utilisation des profils de sol ré-échantillonnés comme partie intégrante d'un futur réseau de suivi du COS dans le sud de la Belgique – CARBOSOL. ; (GEOG 3) -- UCL, 2009

Eine der Grundfragen der Kulturwissenschaften ist, ob und in welcher Dimension kultureller Wandel durch bevölkerungsbiologischen Wandel bedingt oder begleitet wird. Diese Frage ist anhand der verfügbaren Quellen der Archäologie nicht endgültig entscheidbar. Die physische Anthropologie verfügt über analytische Werkzeuge, die den Zugang zu dem einzigen Archiv ermöglichen, das Informationen über die biologische Zusammensetzung einer Bevölkerung enthält: den Menschen. Durch die Aufnahme von ancientDNA Analysen in die anthropologischen Arbeitsmethoden sind diachrone Vergleiche genetischer Bevölkerungsstrukturen und die Klärung der verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen unter prähistorischen Populationen möglich. Die Einbettung dieser Arbeit in den wissenschaftlichen Rahmen des BMBF-Verbundprojektes: Nasca: Entwicklung und Adaptation archäometrischer Techniken zur Erforschung der Kulturgeschichte ermöglicht es darüber hinaus auf eine Vielzahl kultur- und naturwissenschaftlicher Daten zuzugreifen und die gewonnen Erkenntnisse so im transdisziplinären Dialog in Kulturgeschichte zu übersetzen. Die Palpa-Region an der Südküste Perus ist eine kulturell dynamische Siedlungskammer, in der in einem Zeitraum von ca. 6000 Jahren die Sesshaftwerdung menschlicher Gruppen bis hin zur Entwicklung und dem Untergang komplexer frühstaatlicher Gesellschaften zu beobachten ist. Ziel dieser Studie war es, durch die Untersuchung mitochondrialer genetischer Marker an menschlichen Skelettelementen die diachrone Entwicklung der matrilinearen Populationsdynamik im Untersuchungsgebiet zu rekonstruieren. Darüber hinaus sollte, durch den Vergleich mit genetischen Daten von präkolumbischen und rezenten indigenen südamerikanischen Populationen, die Bevölkerungsgeschichte der Palpa-Region mit der kontinentalen Kolonisationsgeschichte und Bevölkerungsentwicklung Südamerikas kontextualisiert werden. Unter Verwendung der genetischen, archäologischen und umweltgeschichtlichen Daten erfolgte die kulturanthropologische Interpretation und Rekonstruktion der wirkenden Migrationsmechanismen und Auswirkungen auf die gesellschaftlichen Strukturen. Für die Untersuchungen wurden Knochen- und Zahn-Proben von 216 präkolumbischen Individuen aus der Palpa-Region akquiriert. Die Individuen stammen von mehreren, mit präkolumbischen Siedlungen assoziierten Nekropolen, die in verschiedene Zeitstufen datieren. Die DNA-Typisierung erfolgte mit selbst generierten Analysesystemen, für die mitochondriale HVRI und verschiedene SNPs in der codierenden Region, des mitochondrialen Genoms. Darüber hinaus wurden auch Analysesysteme für Y-chromosomale und autosomale Marker entwickelt und angewendet. Die aus den präkolumbischen Individuen erwirtschafteten mitochondrialen Daten wurden genutzt, um populationsgenetische Berechnungen durchzuführen und wurden mit aus der Literatur gesammelten genetischen Daten verglichen. Die Ergebnisse der aDNA-Untersuchungen erlauben eine Rekonstruktion der Bevölkerungsgeschichte des südlichen Perus. Es konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass die Paracas-Kultur an der südperuanischen Küste eine bevölkerungsbiologische Einheit bildete und nicht, wie von einigen Archäologen postuliert, eine Ansammlung unabhängiger lokaler Gruppen war. Die Nasca-Kultur entwickelte sich bei bevölkerungsbiologischer Kontinuität in der Region. Es lassen sich keine signifikanten allochthonen Bevölkerungseinflüsse, wie z.B. durch Kolonisations- oder Invasionsprozesse nachweisen. Der Vergleich mit anderen genetischen Daten zeigt, dass die Bewohner der präkolumbischen Küste eine homogene Bevölkerung bildeten, die sich genetisch eindeutig vom angrenzenden andinen Hochland unterschied. Mit dem Wandel von einer reinen Subsistenzwirtschaft zu einer komplexeren Wirtschaftsform und der Ausbildung autarker regionaler (urbaner) Zentren in der Nasca-Zeit kommt es zu einem vermehrten genetischen Einfluss von außen, der sich durch die Ansiedlung von Spezialisten, Populationszuwachs und der verstärkte Handel mit anderen Kulturgruppen erklären lässt. Die heute in Peru angetroffene mitochondriale genetische Struktur unterscheidet sich maßgeblich von der, die in der präkolumbischen Palpa-Region nachgewiesen werden konnte. Dieser Unterschied ist durch Expansionen und politische Prozesse späterer andiner Hochkulturen, vor allem der Inka-Kultur, zu erklären, die zu einer genetischen Überprägung weiter Bereiche des westlichen Südamerikas führten. Anhand der in dieser Studie ermittelten genetischen Daten und dem Vergleich mit rezenten Verteilungen kann ein erneuertes Szenario der initialen Kolonisation Südamerikas entworfen werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt, dass anhand der Untersuchung alter DNA die Erstellung eines differenzierteren Bildes von Bevölkerungsentwicklungen und prähistorischen Migrationen möglich ist als durch die Analyse rezenter genetischer Daten. ; One of the elementary questions of the cultural sciences is whether and in which dimension cultural change is due to, or accompanied by population-biological change. This question is not finally decidable on the basis of the available sources of archaeology. The physical anthropology uses analytic tools, which allow access to the only archive containing information about the biological composition of a population: man itself. By the admission of ancient DNA analyses into the canon of anthropological methods, diachronic comparisons of genetic population structures and the clarification of relations under prehistoric populations become possible. The embedment of this study into the scientific framework of the BMBF-Project: Entwicklung und Adaptation archäometrischer Techniken zur Erforschung der Kulturgeschichte allows the transcription of the genetic data into cultural history by the transdiciplinary dialog with the participating sciences. The Palpa region located at the south coast of Peru is a culturally dynamic settlement chamber. In a period of approx. 6000 years the establishment of the first permanent settlements and also the rise and fall of complex societies can be observed. Aim of this study was to reconstruct the diachronic development of the matrilinear population dynamics in the investigation area by the analysis of mitochondrial genetic markers from ancient DNA. Beyond that the development of the Palpa area should be contextualized with the continental population development and colonization history by the comparison with genetic data from other pre-Columbian and recent indigenous South American populations. The genetic, archaeological and environmental data formed the basis for the anthropologic interpretation and reconstruction of the operating migration mechanisms and their influences on the past societies. For the investigations bone and teeth samples of 216 pre-Columbian individuals were acquired. The individuals came from several burial sites associated with settlements, dating into different archaeological periods. The DNA-analysis of the mitochondrial HVRI and different SNPs in the coding region of the mitochondrial genome was accomplished with newly generated analysis systems. Beyond that also analysis systems for Y-chromosomal and autosomal markers were developed and used. The obtained data was used for population genetic calculations and compared with datasets from the literature. The results of the aDNA investigations permit a reconstruction to the population history of southern Peru. It could be proven that the Paracas culture at the south Peruvian coast formed a population-biological unit and was not an accumulation of independent local groups as postulated before. The Nasca culture developed with population-biological continuity in the region. The comparison with other genetic data shows that the inhabitants of the pre-Columbian coast formed a homogeneous population differing genetically from the populations of the adjacent Andean highlands. With the change to a more complex economy and the development of self-sufficient regional (urban) centers in the Nasca time it comes to an increased allochthonous genetic influence, which can be explained by the immigration of specialists, population increase and the intensified trade with other cultural groups. The mitochondrial genetic structure of the recent Peruvian population differs significantly from that found in the pre-Columbian Palpa region. This difference can be best explained by the expansions of following Andean civilizations, particularly the Inca, which led to a genetic superimposition in large parts of western South America. On basis of the genetic data determined in this study and the comparison with recent genetic distribution patterns a more differentiated scenario for the initial colonization of South America could be developed. The present study shows that the investigation of ancient DNA provides a more differentiated picture of population development and prehistoric migration processes as possible by the analysis of modern genetic data alone.

Abstract The study analyzes the theoretical basis of the Philosophy for Children (P4C) program elaborated by Matthew Lipman. The aim is, firstly, to identify the main philosophical and pedagogical principles of P4C based on American pragmatism, and to locate their pedagogization and possible problems in Lipman's thinking. Here the discussion is especially targeted to the thinking of John Dewey and George H. Mead as well as Lev Vygotsky, whom Lipman himself names as the most pivotal sources for his own thinking. On the other hand, the study aims at opening up new perspectives and thematizations on P4C from the viewpoint of the continental tradition of thought. The essential principles of P4C connected with reasonableness and judgment are ultimately interpreted as a neo-Aristotelian effort to contextualize philosophy by tracing it back to moderation, the man's ability to consider and solve problems that he meets in practical life kata ton orthon logon – by doing right things in the right place at the right time in the right way. This phronetic idea of 'humanizing modernity' combined with the evolution of the adult-child concept is argued to be one of the conditions for the possibility of P4C, yet leaving unsolved the basic problems involving pedagogical action as such. John Dewey's ideas arising from the critique of the modern philosophy of consciousness, focusing on the significance of philosophy in practical human life and linked to the basic nature of human knowing and intellectual growth and, further, to the ideal of a democratic community, are shown to form the main intellectual sources of P4C. Dewey's philosophy as a general theory of education means a solid linking of the concepts of experience and inquiry to the practice of education. This is based on the naturalistic conception of man according to which man is built in dynamic transaction with his environment, experiencing the true meanings of his ideas in the consequences of his actions as he tries to solve problematic situations. So, inquiry as a method of reflective thinking forms the basis for education based on intellectual growth. A condition for it is a context meaningful for the child in which the paradigm of inquiry can be realized authentically. It is therefore important in education to provide circumstances that stimulate the child's curiosity, initiating a process of inquiry that further enables, through the formation of reflective habits, the development of a democratic community. The purpose of the pedagogical interaction taking place in the process of inquiry is to produce educative experiences for the child, making the pedagogical relationship vanish at the same time. The idea is that in pedagogical action the child's subjectivity, his desire and impulses are adapted to the tradition, yet generating at the same time a prospective, reflective habit, thus freeing the educatee to think intelligently for himself. The study shows the articulation of these principles in Lipman's practical effort to convert the classroom into a community of inquiry, but it also argues that the above-mentioned Bildung theoretical core problem of pedagogical action, related to its paradoxical special characteristics to produce autonomous subjectivity, is not thematized. In connection with this issue, the educational thinking of Kant and Hegel is discussed especially from the viewpoint of philosophy teaching. To provide a new perspective for the discussion, the study outlines the community of inquiry as an 'educative space' from the viewpoints of the pedagogical relationship typical of hermeneutic pedagogy and of non-reflective functional structures and phenomena based on pedagogical intuition that are linked to it. ; Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksessa eritellään Matthew Lipmanin kehittelemän Filosofiaa lapsille (P4C) ohjelman teoreettisia perusteita. Tarkoituksena on ensinnäkin identifioida P4C:n amerikkalaiseen pragmatismiin palautuvat filosofiset ja pedagogiset pääperiaatteet sekä paikallistaa niiden pedagogisoituminen sekä mahdolliset ongelmat Lipmanin ajattelussa. Tällöin tarkastelun kohteena on erityisesti John Deweyn ja Georg H. Meadin ajattelu sekä lisäksi Lev Vygotsky, jotka kolme Lipman itse nimeää oman ajattelunsa merkittävimmiksi lähteiksi. Toisaalta tutkimuksessa pyritään avaamaan P4C:lle uusia näkökulmia ja tematisointeja mannermaisen ajatteluperinteen näkökulmasta. P4C:n keskeiset järkevyyteen ja arvostelukykyyn liittyvät periaatteet tulkitaan viimekädessä uusaristotelisena pyrkimyksenä kontekstualisoida filosofia palauttamalla se kohtuullisuuteen, ihmisen kykyyn harkita ja ratkaista käytännöllisessä elämässä kohtaamiaan ongelmia kata ton orthon logon – tekemällä oikeita asioita oikeassa paikassa oikeaan aikaan oikealla tavalla. Tämä 'modernin inhimillistämisen' froneettinen idea yhdistyneenä aikuinen-lapsi käsitteen evoluutioon argumentoidaan P4C:n yhdeksi mahdollisuusehdoksi, joka jättää kuitenkin pedagogiseen toimintaan sinänsä liittyvät perusongelmat ratkaisematta. John Deweyn modernin tietoisuusfilosofian kritiikistä nousevat, filosofian merkitystä ihmisen käytännöllisessä elämässä korostavat näkemykset, jotka liittyvät inhimillisen tietämisen ja älyllisen kasvun perusluonteeseen sekä edelleen demokraattisen yhteisön ideaaliin osoitetaan P4C:n keskeisiksi intellektuaalisiksi lähteiksi. Dewey'n filosofia yleisenä kasvatuksen teoriana merkitsee kokemuksen ja tutkimuksen käsitteiden kiinteää kytkemistä kasvatuksen käytäntöön. Tämä perustuu naturalistiseen ihmiskäsitykseen, jonka mukaan ihminen rakentuu dynaamisessa transaktiossa ympäristönsä kanssa kokien ideoidensa todet merkitykset toimintansa seurauksissa pyrkiessään ratkaisemaan ongelmallisia tilanteita. Tällöin tutkimus reflektiivisen ajattelun metodina muodostaa perustan älylliseen kasvuun perustuvalle kasvatukselle. Sen ehtona on sellainen lapselle merkityksellinen konteksti, jossa tutkimuksen paradigma voi toteutua autenttisena. Kasvatuksessa on siten tärkeää luoda olosuhteet, jotka stimuloivat lapsen uteliaisuutta käynnistäen tutkimuksen prosessin, joka edelleen mahdollistaa reflektiivisten tapojen muodostumisen kautta demokraattisen yhteisön kehittymisen. Tutkimuksen prosessissa tapahtuvan pedagogisen interaktion tarkoituksena on tuottaa lapselle kasvattavia kokemuksia häivyttäen samalla pedagogista suhdetta. Ajatuksena on, että pedagogisessa toiminnassa lapsen subjektiviteetti, hänen halunsa ja impulssinsa sovittuvat traditioon generoiden samalla kuitenkin tulevaisuuteen suuntautuvaa, reflektiivistä tapaa vapauttaen näin kasvatettavan ajattelemaan älykkäästi itse. Tutkimuksessa osoitetaan näiden periaatteiden artikuloituminen Lipmanin käytännöllisessä pyrkimyksessä muuntaa koululuokka tutkivaksi yhteisöksi, mutta samalla kuitenkin argumentoidaan, että mainittu pedagogisen toiminnan sivistysteoreettinen ydinongelma liittyen sen paradoksaaliseen erityisluonteeseen autonomisen subjektiviteetin tuottamiseksi ei tematisoidu. Tämän kysymyksen yhteydessä tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan Kantin ja Hegelin kasvatusajattelua erityisesti filosofian opetuksen näkökulmasta. Uutena avauksena tutkimuksessa hahmotellaan tutkivaa yhteisöä 'kasvattavana tilana' hermeneuttiselle pedagogiikalle ominaisen pedagogisen suhteen ja siihen kytkeytyvien ei-reflektiivisten, pedagogiseen intuitioon perustuvien toimintarakenteiden ja ilmiöiden näkökulmasta.

In the first half of this paper it is argued that cultural geography is a dynamic and diverse field that extends well beyond a single branch of human geography. The boundaries between it and other sub-disciplines are often blurred. People have «different» encounters with cultural geography depending on their sub-disciplinary convergences. People also have different encounters with cultural geography depending on where they live and work. «Place matters» in the construction, production and representation of cultural geography. It takes different forms in different places. In the second half of the paper it is argued that as cultural geography continues to encounter «difference» in many guises, four possible future trends are likely: first, it is probable that there will be continued growth in cultural geography; second, there may be mounting recognition that cultural geography needs to be critical offering possibilities for radical critique and reflection; third, cultural geographers are likely to continue with their efforts to think about what, if anything, might lie beyond representation; and finally, cultural geographers are likely to deepen their reflections on the politics of knowledge production leading to more multi-language publishing practices in this area. ; A la primera part d'aquest article, s'hi defensa que la geografia cultural és un camp prou dinàmic i divers com per ser considerat una simple branca de la geografia humana. Els límits entre aquesta subdisciplina i d'altres són sovint difícils de discernir. Hi ha tantes visions de la geografia cultural com subdisciplines a partir de les quals s'hi convergeix. També hi ha tantes aproximacions possibles a la geografia cultural com llocs on es viu o es treballa. En la construcció, producció i representació de la geografia cultural, el lloc hi és important, ja que la geografia cultural adquireix formes diferents en llocs diferents. En la segona meitat de l'article, s'hi argumenta que, mentre la geografia cultural continua presentant moltes diferències en facetes distintes, s'hi aventuren quatre possibles tendències futures. En primer lloc, és probable que continuï l'expansió de la geografia cultural; en segon lloc, existeix un reconeixement creixent que la geografia cultural necessita ser crítica i oferir, així, possibilitats per a la crítica i la reflexió radicals; en tercer lloc, és probable que els geògrafs culturals continuïn esforçant-se a esbrinar què hi ha més enllà de la representació si és que hi ha res. Finalment, és probable que els geògrafs culturals aprofundeixin les seves reflexions sobre la política de producció de coneixement que porti a una diversitat lingüística més gran en les publicacions d'aquesta àrea. ; En la primera parte de este artículo, se defiende que la geografía cultural es lo suficientemente dinámica y diversa como para no ser considerada una simple rama de la geografía humana. Los límites entre ésta y otras subdisciplinas son a menudo difíciles de discernir. Existen tantas visiones de la geografía cultural como subdisciplinas a partir de las cuales nos aproximamos a ella. También existen tantas visiones de la geografía cultural como lugares de residencia o de trabajo. En la construcción, la producción y la representación de la geografía cultural, el lugar es importante, ya que la geografía cultural toma formas distintas en lugares diferentes. En la segunda parte del artículo, se argumenta que, mientras la geografía cultural continúa presentando muchas diferencias en distintas facetas, se entrevén cuatro posibles tendencias futuras. En primer lugar, es probable que continúe la expansión de la geografía cultural; en segundo lugar, existe un reconocimiento creciente del hecho que la geografía cultural necesita ser crítica y ofrecer así posibilidades para la crítica y la reflexión radical; en tercer lugar, es probable que los geógrafos culturales continúen esforzándose en averiguar qué hay más allá de la representación, si es que hay alguna cosa, y, finalmente, es probable que los geógrafos culturales amplíen sus reflexiones sobre la política de producción de conocimientos, lo cual puede comportar una mayor diversidad lingüística en las publicaciones de esta área. ; Dans la première moitié de cet article on constate que la géographie culturelle est un terrain d'étude si dynamique et divers et qu'elle ne peut pas être comprise simplement comme une branche de la géographie humaine. Les limites entre la géogrpahie culturelle et d'autres subdisciplines sont souvent difficiles d'écarter. Il y a autant de visions de la géographie culturelle comme subdisciplines prochaines. Aussi, existent autant de visions de la géographie culturelle comme des espaces de résidence ou travail. Dans le processus de construction, production et représentation de géographie culturelle, le lieu est important parce que la géographie culturelle prend des formes différentes dans les lieux différents. Dans la deuxième moitié de l'article on dit que comme la géographie culturelle continue à rencontrer beaucoup de différences en relation à des aspects différents, quatre tendances futures possibles sont possibles. D'abord, c'est probable qu'elle continue en avant; en deuxième partie, il y a une reconnaissance que la géographie culturelle a besoin d'être critique et offrir des possibilités à la critique et la réflexion radical; en troisième partie, des géographes culturels continuent avec leurs efforts de penser à propos de qu'est-ce qu'il y a au-delà de la représentation (s'il y a quelque chose); et, finalement, les géographes culturels ont des chances d'approfondir leurs réflexions sur la politique de la production de connaissance conduisant à plus de pratiques de publication multi langue dans cette branche géographique.

En el análisis de las tendencias de la distribución espacial de la población y las corrientes migratorias, tres asuntos se contrastan con la evidencia producida mediante el procesamiento de los microdatos de los tres últimos censos chilenos de población y vivienda (1982, 1992 y 2002). El primero atañe a la concentración de la población chilena en el Área Metropolitana del Gran Santiago (AMGS) y en la región político administrativa que la contiene (Región Metropolitana o rm); dos hipótesis en pugna se confrontan con los datos: la que sugiere la prevalencia del atractivo migratorio del AMGS y la RM, como resultado de su capacidad para seguir liderando el dinamismo económico, y la que plantea un cambio de orientación de los flujos, tras lo cual quedarían el amgs y la rm con saldos negativos por la pérdida que tendrían en el intercambio con las regiones más dinámicas, que serían aquellas mejor ubicadas en la globalización productiva. Los datos sugieren que efectivamente en la segunda mitad del decenio de 1990 la Región Metropolitana y el AMGS mostraron la novedosa condición de zonas de emigración neta, pero que paradójicamente esto no alcanza para revertir el incremento de la concentración de la población nacional en ellas por el efecto combinado de un crecimiento natural sobre la media y una fuerte absorción de inmigrantes internacionales. El segundo asunto refiere a los procesos de convergencia regional y al papel de la migración en ellos, respecto del cual hay varias hipótesis, tanto sobre la existencia de tal proceso en las diferentes dimensiones socioeconó­micas, como sobre el efecto de los flujos de migración interna en él.El impacto de la migración sobre los niveles de escolaridad regional se evalúa usando procedimientos novedosos que operan con microdatos censales –y que se presentan para su discusión–; los resultados indican que en los dos últimos periodos censales la migración entre regiones ha favorecido, aunque muy ligeramente, la convergencia de niveles educativos regionales. Finalmente, el tercer asunto se relaciona con la segregación urbana, respecto de la cual se discute la hipótesis de una reducción de sus niveles y una remodelación de sus formas como resultado del desplazamiento de algunas familias de altos ingresos a comunas periféricas y pobres del AMGS. La evidencia producida y ana­lizada indica que la migración intrametropolitana desempeña un doble papel, pues mientras reduce la escala de la segregación sigue siendo una fuerza que tiende a ensanchar las disparidades socioeconómicas entre comunas. Se concluye que tanto para pro­mover los flujos migratorios afines a la estrategia de desarrollo regional, como para evitar que se consoliden territorios de pobreza dura en las ciudades, donde ésta tiende casi inexorablemente a reproducirse, se requieren políticas territoriales, algunas para reforzar tendencias derivadas de la acción de los mercados y otras, en cambio, para mi­tigar o contrarrestar tendencias derivadas del libre juego de la oferta y la demanda.AbstractIn the analysis of the trends in the population's spatial distribution and migratory flows, three issues contrast with the evidence yielded by the microdata processing of the last three housing and population censuses in Chile (1982, 1992 and 2002). The first concerns the concentration of the Chilean population in the Metropolitan Area of Greater Santi­ago (MAGS), and the political and administrative region in which it is located (Metro­politan Region or RM). Two competing hypothesis are compared with the data, one suggesting the prevalence of the migratory attraction of MAGS and RM, as a result of their capacity to continue leading economic dynamism and the other proposing a change of orientation of the flows, after which MAGS and RM would end up with a negative balance because of the loss they would experience in the exchange with more dynamic regions, which would be better positioned within globalized production. The data suggest that during the second half of the 1990s, the Metropolitan Region and MAGS began to act as areas of net emigration, but that paradoxically, this failed to revert the increase in the concentration of the national population in them, due to the combined effect of over-average natural growth and the high absorption of international immigrants. The second issue refers to the processes of regional convergence and the role of migration in them, about which there are several hypotheses, concerning both the existence of this process in various socio-economic dimensions and the effect of internal migration flows in it.The impact of migration on the regional educational attainment levels is evalu­ated using novel procedures that operate with census microdata-and which are submitted for discussion. The results indicate that during the past two census periods, migration between regions has favored -albeit only slightly- the convergence of regional educational attainment. Finally, the third issue is relative to urban segregation, a propos of which the author discusses the hypothesis of a reduction of its levels and a remodeling of its forms as a result of the displacement of certain high-income families to peripheral, poor communes in MAGS. The evidence produced and analyzed indicates that intra-metro­politan migration plays a dual role, since while it reduces the scale of segregation, it continues to be a force that tends to increase the socio-economic gaps between communes. The authors conclude by saying that in order to promote migratory flows in keeping with the regional development strategy, and prevent the consolidation of areas of entrenched poverty in the cities, where it invariably tends to be reproduced, territorial policies are required, to reinforce tendencies derived from the actions of markets and to offset the trends derived from the unrestricted effects of supply and demand.

[spa] La elección de este tema de tesis doctoral, las relaciones comerciales entre Hispania y Egipto en época altoimperial, tiene su origen en los trabajos de dos autores. En primer lugar la publicación de los sellos béticos en el Mediterráneo oriental que realizó LYDING WILL en el II Congreso del Aceite y por otro lado la afirmación de ROSTOVTZEFF de que Italia era el mercado de Egipto en época republicana. Y dos preguntas ¿En qué circunstancias llegaban estos productos? ¿Llegaban de forma regular? A finales de época tardorrepublicana se producen una serie de hechos políticos y sociales que producen un cambio en la organización económica y cuyas modificaciones se mantienen hasta época imperial.He estudiado estos contactos comerciales desde tres niveles muy diferentes pero complementarios y que constituyen una visión global.1. Nivel estatal. A través de los funcionarios que desempeñaron parte de su carrera en Egipto en puestos con una función económica y que en algunas ocasiones aparecen vinculados con comerciantes. 2. Nivel intermedio. Los comerciantes que mantenían contactos con el Mediterráneo oriental y en concreto con Egipto y a través de los cuales podemos identificar como se desarrollaban estos contactos, bien de forma indirecta a través de un puerto como Puteoli o bien de forma directa.3. Nivel arqueológico. La evidencia arqueológica es escasa pero reveladora respecto a los productos que llegaban hasta Egipto y hasta que lugares lo hacían. En un primer momento, en el siglo III a. C., cuando Roma y Egipto entran en contacto la zona con la que este ultimo parece tener mas contacto, el sur de la Península itálica, ya que ambas estaban en contacto anteriormente. Esto se refleja en la presencia de cerámica de Gnathia en Egipto y quizás, en el hecho de que los primeros itálicos documentados en Egipto proceden de la zona de Tarento. Una segunda fase tendría Delos como centro redistribuidor, en la que los comerciantes aparecen instalados en Delos y en Alejandría. Estamos a principios del siglo II a. C. La tercera fase tendría como característica principal la sustitución de Delos por Puteoli. Los sellos brindisinos que llegan a Egipto no los hallamos en Delos. Las fuentes literarias de este momento, nos hablan de una serie de personajes como Vestorius, Rabirio Postumo. caracterizados no por su procedencia social, si no por que todos tienen intereses en Egipto y actúan desde Puteoli. Un grupo de personajes que utilizan su posición política para llevar a cabo diversas actividades económicasEsta fase enlaza directamente con la época augustea y altoimperial ya que en un primer momento lo que caracteriza las actividades comerciales entre Egipto y las provincias occidentales e que están desempeñadas por comerciantes que actúan privadamente, sin poder demostrar la participación del Estado pese a que en algunos casos estos comerciantes desempeñan cargos en la administración publica, como P. Annius Plocamus. De hecho y pese a esta división en diferentes etapas, el verdadero cambio económico se produce en el siglo I a. C. y no con la creación del Imperio. A lo largo del siglo I a. C. se afianzan de comerciantes que actúan de forma independiente. La existencia de estos dos grupos se mantiene durante toda la época imperial y se hace más compleja a medida que la burocracia romana se hace más compleja. ROSTOVTZEFF ya dijo, hablando de la agricultura en Egipto que la división entre Reino tolemaico y Egipto romano era una división artificial y creo haber demostrado que también lo es en el campo del comercio, el verdadero cambio ya se había producido con anterioridad a la transformación política. ; [eng] The aim of my PhD research project, "Trade relations between Hispania and eastern provinces", was to study a period of Roman History, first century BC to second century AD, in which trade relations in the Mediterranean change from private to a complex mixture of public and private interests. The other aim of the research was to study the economic relation between East and West Mediterranean inside the Roman World. To study both, I chose the presence of western products in Egypt. There is an important economic change in the Mediterranean area along the late republic period. It is during the first century B. C. that a group of independent traders with political connections get stronger. Along with the creation of this group, a series of events like the destruction of Delos an a change in the agricultural economy of Italy increase the importance of this change. The creation of the Roman Empire with a August is mainly a political creation but from the economic point of view the basis were already created.The trade dynamic created during the first century B. C. stems from the activities of two closely related groups two groups. One is the great trade families that can be found in harbours of the Eastern Mediterranean, such as Delos. The other group is the wealthy Romans who become involved with trade life once Italic Peninsula is conquered. At the end of Republic and the beginning of Imperial Era, the great trade families and the Roman elite were drawn together by the profits and demanded of empire, the needs of the traders for political support and protection and the desire of the politicians for money, being difficult to draw a line between public and private his marks, a new era in trade relations.

Um die Mechanismen der Bauhaus-Rezeption im Deutschland der Nachkriegszeit und die damit verbundenen Interessen und kulturpolitischen Überlegungen umfassend zu erforschen, wurden in der vorliegenden Untersuchung erstmals archivalische Quellen ebenso systematisch ausgewertet wie die entsprechende Tages- und Fachpresse. Darüber hinaus werden Theorie, Pädagogik und Gestaltung an der Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm erstmals objektiv mit dem Bauhaus verglichen. Es waren die ehemaligen Schüler und Lehrer "allen voran der mittlerweile in den USA lebende Bauhaus-Gründer Walter Gropius", welche das im Dritten Reich verfemte Bauhaus nach Kriegsende wieder in Erinnerung brachten. Bei der Suche nach zeitgemäßen Ausbildungsmethoden für Gestalter bot sich das Bauhaus an, da es bereits 1933 geschlossen worden war und somit als politisch unbedenklich galt. Um das Institut der Weimarer Republik zukunftsfähig zu machen, konstruierte Gropius rückwirkend den Begriff der "Bauhaus-Idee" als von ihm entwickelte Basis der Schule. Diese sei im Kern dynamisch, kreativ und liberal sowie geprägt durch eine dezidiert demokratische Haltung. Alle Aspekte, die dieser vereinfachten Sichtweise widersprachen, wurden ausgeklammert oder sogar als "bauhaus-untypisch" abgewertet. Gropius selbst nahm als "letzte Instanz" Einfluß darauf, ob Personen oder Institutionen in ihrer Arbeit unterstützt oder diskreditiert wurden, je nachdem ob sie dem "wahren" Bauhaus gerecht wurden oder nicht. Sogar die Arbeit des 1962 gegründeten Bauhaus-Archivs ist unter diesem Aspekt zu betrachten. Auch sein Leiter Hans Maria Wingler, der stets eng mit Gropius zusammen arbeitete, mußte sich verschiedentlich Korrekturen seiner Forschungsansätze gefallen lassen. Auf diese Weise etablierte sich ein uneingeschränkt positives Bauhaus-Bild, das in der Zeit des Kalten Krieges politisch vereinnahmt und als ideelle Waffe gegen den Sozialismus eingesetzt werden konnte. Diese bis Ende der sechziger Jahre andauernde, erste Rezeptionsphase formte die historische Ausbildungsstätte Bauhaus zu einem faszinierenden Mythos um. Als 1968 in Stuttgart die Ausstellung "50 Jahre Bauhaus" gezeigt wurde, verhalf die Präsentation eines verklärten Bauhaus-Bildes dem durch das Trauma des Dritten Reichs stark angeschlagenen deutschen Selbstbewußtsein zu einer immensen Aufwertung. Die sich anschließende Wanderausstellung mit acht Stationen weltweit demonstrierte, daß Deutschland auch einen konstruktiven Beitrag zur Entwicklung des 20. Jahrhunderts geleistet hatte. Rezeptionsgeschichtlich betrachtet markierte die Ausstellung nicht nur den Kulminationspunkt der Bauhausverehrung, sondern gleichzeitig den Beginn einer neuen Phase der Forschung, welche die Arbeit des Bauhauses im Zuge der aufkommenden Funktionalismus-Kritik kritischer beleuchten sollte. In diese theoretischen Betrachtungen eingebettet wird eine tiefergehende Untersuchung der Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm in Hinblick auf ihre Verwandtschaft zum Bauhaus. Ursprünglich vom ehemaligen Bauhäusler Max Bill als Nachfolgeinstitut des Bauhauses gegründet, genoß die HfG eine enorme öffentliche Aufmerksamkeit. Doch schnell gereichte der anfangs erhobene Anspruch zum Nachteil. Denn mit der beschriebenen, fortschreitenden Mystifizierung des Bauhauses wurde es zunehmend schwerer, die überzogenen Erwartungen mit eigenen Arbeitsergebnissen zu erfüllen. Trotzdem entwickelte sich die Ulmer Hochschule zu einer eigenständigen zeitgemäßen Ausbildungsstätte für Industriegestalter, was ihr den damals schwerwiegenden Vorwurf einbrachte, die Bauhaus-Idee verraten zu haben. Diese aus den sechziger Jahren stammende Einschätzung über die HfG Ulm prägte die Forschung bis in die Gegenwart. Entsprechend leistet die vorliegende Untersuchung erstmals einen grundlegenden Vergleich von Theorie und Praxis beider Institutionen, mit dem Ergebnis, daß die HfG einen ähnlichen gesellschaftlich-visionären Ansatz verfolgte und ebenso zur Avantgarde gerechnet werden durfte wie das Bauhaus 50 Jahre zuvor. ; In order to investigate the historical mechanisms of the reception of the Bauhaus in post-war Germany and the interests and cultural-political issues associated with it, this investigation systematically evaluates, for the first time, archival sources, relevant press material and specialized literature. In addition to that theory, pedagogics and design of the Hochschule für Gestaltung (college of design) in Ulm are impartially compared with the Bauhaus. It was former students and teachers of the Bauhaus, which was closed by the Third Reich "and above all its founder Walter Gropius, who subsequently lived in America" who, after the war, reminded us of the Bauhaus. Looking for modern training methods for designers the Bauhaus seemed to be a possibility - and because it was closed in 1933 it was considered to be politically harmless. In order to present this institution of the Weimar Republic as forward-looking, Gropius coined retrospectively the term "Bauhaus-Idea" as the basis upon which he had developed the school. At its core this was dynamic, creative and liberal and characterized by a decidedly democratic attitude. Anything contradicting this view was excluded or even denigrated as being "Bauhaus atypical". Gropius used his influence as the "ultimate authority" to determine whether institutions or persons were supported in their work or discredited, depending on whether or not they did justice to the "real" Bauhaus. Even the work of the Bauhaus Archives, founded in 1962, must be viewed in this light. On various occasions its director, Hans Maria Wingler, who worked closely with Gropius, had to accept corrections to his research work. In this way a completely positive picture of the Bauhaus was established, which took on a political complexion during the time of the Cold War and which could be used as an ideal weapon against socialism. This first phase of the reception, lasting until the end of the sixties, changed the historical education place that was the Bauhaus into a fascinating myth. When in 1968 the exhibition "50 Years Bauhaus" was shown in Stuttgart, the presentation of a transfigured Bauhaus picture helped immensely to revalue the self-confidence of the Germans after the trauma of the Third Reich. The exhibition then visited eight places worldwide and demonstrated that Germany had made also a constructive contribution to the development of the 20th century. Looking at the reception historically, this exhibition marked not only the culmination of the admiration of the Bauhaus but also the start of a new phase of research, which would view more critically the work of the Bauhaus during the upcoming criticism of functionalism. Nestled in these theoretical reflections is an in-depth examination of the Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm, with a view to its relationship with the Bauhaus. Founded by a former Bauhaus member, Max Bill, originally as a successor institution of the Bauhaus, the Ulm college enjoyed enormous public attention initially. But soon this high acclaim turned to disadvantage, as it became more and more difficult to fulfill the high expectations that had resulted from the above-mentioned mystification of the Bauhaus. Despite all of this the Ulm college developed into an independent, modern educational institution for industrial designers, which led at the time to the accusation of it having betrayed the Bauhaus idea. This evaluation of the Ulm college in the sixties has influenced research up to the present time. The study presented here carries out, for the first time, a fundamental comparison of the theory and practice of both institutions, and shows that the Hochschule für Gestaltung followed a similar social-visionary path as did the Bauhaus and can be considered just as avant-garde as was the Bauhaus 50 years earlier.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE INTEREST RATE IN TURKEY AND MEASURES THAT ARE TO BE MET IN ORDER TO DECREASE THE INTEREST RATESNotwithstanding the fact that the Turkish economy has realized certain steps, it can be told that it has not yet gained a sound and healthy structure and that it will be highly dependent on the outer world in the 21st century. Foreign capital is of great importance in terms of the added value it creates, especially for countries making efforts to develop economically. As stated above, due to the high acceleration of data flow speed, the whole world can always obtain the same information at the same time, thus the rational investors can monitor the investment possibilities in all economies. At this point, the interest rates are determinant for investment decisions. Therefore, estimation of changes in interest rates in the most appropriate manner in the future has become one of main targets of economic researches. After presentation of Turkey's economic overview in the introductory section, we can discuss the working method of our thesis. In Part One of our study, after definition of the interest concept and the brief history of its development, relevant theoretical approaches, the principal economic theories, namely the Classical, Neo-Classical, Keynesian Portfolio, and the monetarist economic theories have been dealt with in the subsections in chronological order, and the determination of interest has been discussed under light of such theories. After relevant theoretical approach in Section Two, factors determining the structure of interest rates have been considered in detail.Principally, we have tried to reveal in our thesis, to what extend the freed and raised interest rates as an instrument of an anti-inflationary policy prevent inflation; further, to what extend the credit and stability policies are secured. In doing so, the issue has been dealt with by a theoretical approach and in Section Three of our thesis, we have dealt with The Factors Determining Interest Rates, The Monetary Transfer Mechanisms Required by Monetary Policy Transfer Process with Different Approaches, and the Turkish Practice.After the general assessment of the Interest Policy in developing countries and Turkey in the Turkish Practice relating to our thesis, we have reviewed the development of interest policies implemented since 1980 and 1989 up to today.In Section Five, the interest rate concept is explained in detail and the development of the regulatory and institutional structure for interest rates in Turkey are considered and changes in interest rates in Turkey are revealed. After review of our interest regime, as guided and free interest regime in Section Six, we have tried to analyze the Domestic Savings Rate and Interest Rate, Nominal and Real Interest Rates and the relations between Inflation and Treasury Interest Rates.In Section Eight, the structure, development and determinants of deposits and credits in interest regime periods distinguished as the guided and free interest regimes have been considered. Data for the period discussed in this section relates to the years after 1980 as much as possible. However, data relating to distribution of bank credits by economic sectors, which has been discussed in connection with credits in our thesis, begins from 1870.In the Section of Conclusions, under the light of all theoretical and empirical knowledge, we have tried also to present various proposals after a general arrangement of the Turkish Practice, we have stated our thoughts and prospects, the reason of this is our wish that Turkey has its position in the global world fully, appears as a country that has solved its economic issued in the eve of the European Union and as a universal country holding the capacity of a producing country, not a consumer one. In a globalizing world, as a person passionately fond of Great Turkey, I am in favour of development of strategic policies, not policies despite everything. Because certain processes have been wrongly interpreted by practitioners in Turkey, concession in nature of capitulations have been granted continuously and the present change process has been reached. I would like to quote a sentence of Machiavelli: "Don't think that the light at the end of the tunnel is brightness, it might be the headlamp of the train coming onto you." Up to date, we have followed this logic, like firefly flying to light, we have gone to artificial model lights that have almost prepared our fate and lost time continuously. In spite of everything, we are powerful, dynamic, because we are too young so that we can overcome the difficulties. Now it is the right time to change, for a sparkling Turkey in the new millennium: quality in every respect, justice and honesty in every matter, to bring practitioners on power who monitor the technology, treat in justice, develop policies making all individuals constructive and productive, catch with the information era, specialize and work in departments, target to position Turkey at the top of a new world order, and do not target only to save the day.Change is necessary to bring all such positive sentiments into practice. In depends on total democracy, change of major part of political parties code and constitution, realization of economic and social reforms, challenge to bring our education to the level of really developed countries. The noble blood flowing in our vessels will absolutely bring us to our target.In fact, this introductory part was to be included in the section of Conclusions; however, I wanted to point in advance at the economical difficulties in Turkish economy, so that sound evaluations can be made until reaching the Section of Conclusions. I believe you better understand the concept that, the person who has not thought of the fate in advance, returns to the beginning, at the end of the thesis. I think that we do not have time to return to the starting point.

On the agenda of environmental problems, the enhanced greenhouse effect has nowadays acquired a prominent place. Although there is still much uncertainty about its extent and its consequences, there is an important rationale for addressing the possible problem of climate change now: whatever the specific consequences may be, they are to a large extent determined by the actions we take (or do not take) today. Emissions from greenhouse gases will determine the atmospheric concentrations of these gases for centuries to come. Because of the increase in anthropogenic CO2 emissions, starting with the industrial revolution and the rise in the use of fossil fuels which it has caused, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen by 25 percent since 1750. If we want to limit the increase of CO2 concentrations, action must be taken now. Within the broad area of research on climate change, one specific strand of economic research has focused on the problem of how to reduce emissions from greenhouse gases, especially the emission of carbondioxide, which is the main greenhouse gas. Taking as a starting point the assumption that a CO2 emission reduction target has been set, the objective of these studies is to determine the optimal way of reducing these emissions. From the start, it has been pointed out by environmental economists that economic instruments are suitable for implementing a policy of reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. With economic instruments, emissions will be reduced in an efficient manner, according to the theory. This has been argued and illustrated in a large number of studies which deal with economic instruments like taxes or charges and tradeable emission permits (see e.g. Barrett 1992, UNCTAD 1992, OECD 1992a and 1992b, Smith 1992). In this study, the instrument of tradeable carbon emission permits (TCP's) is studied in more detail. The central issue is: the design of a feasible system of TCP's and the study of the consequences of implementing such a system. Up till now, the focus of research in this area has been predominantly on the efficiency of reducing CO2 emissions by means of tradeable emission permits or taxes. Less attention has been paid to the design of such a system, which is the subject of chapter 2. In this chapter the outlines are sketched of a feasible system of tradeable emission permits for the European Union. The proposed system is in essence a system of (carbon in) fuel rationing with tradeability of quota between citizens. Points under consideration are a.o. the characteristics of the fuel permit, the distribution of the permits (either the government sells them or gives them away for free), the market allocation of the permits, the time path by which the number of permits available is reduced, monitoring and enforcement of the system and the consequences which a system of tradeable emission permits might have for business location choice. Moreover it is studied whether a system of TCP's can operate on a national base in one member state of the European Union or if it should be implemented at the European level. Last, the requirements of a EU-wide system are sketched. A study of the implications of reducing CO2 emissions by means of TCP's (or any other instrument) can not be complete without studying the economic consequences of such a system. To predict some of the consequences of introducing an instrument like TCP's in an industry a micro-economic approach is necessary in which the influence on one or more facets of economic behaviour is studied in detail. For example, attention has been given to the potential misuse of market power in the permit market (see Tietenberg 1985 and Hahn 1984). On the other hand hardly any attention has been paid up till now to the possible effects of tradeable emission permits on entry into industries. This is especially interesting because it has been practice to grandfather permits to existing sources while new sources, potential entrants, have to buy them. Many people, and even economists have the intuition that in particular such a system of grandfathering will erect barriers to potential entrants, whereas a system of auctioning permits to all firms, established ones and entrants, would not have such an impact, or at least a much weaker negative effect on entry. In chapter 3 and 4 it is analyzed how far this idea is true. The question is addressed whether, how and to what extent a system of tradeable permits might create barriers to entry in the product market. Several forms of entry barriers which might be caused or increased by tradeable permits are identified and analyzed. Subsequently, it is studied whether these forms of entry barriers are likely to occur in the system of TCP's which is outlined in chapter 2. An effort is made to determine to what extent entry will be affected when entry barriers are raised due to the TCP system. The above questions are important, not only from a static point of view, but also if a dynamic view is taken. If a TCP-system for reducing CO2 emissions raises entry barriers, it will affect the whole economy, affecting long-term industry dynamics. This in turn might reduce the efforts on research and development and reduce economic activity and efficiency in the longer run in the whole economy. The approach taken here is to study the micro-economic consequences of a system of tradeable carbon permits with respect to entry barriers, both with grandfathering and with auctioning of CO2 emission permits. The results will be compared with the results achieved under two other instruments, taxes and standards. The possible occurrence of entry barriers is analyzed both theoretically and empirically.

Is trade with developing countries in Asia a threat to employment in France ? Catherine Mathieu, Henri Sterdyniak Growth rates have been particularly high in south-east Asian developing countries for the last two decades (averaging 7 %), as compared to those of the rest of the world. Asian dynamic economies are sometimes accused to be a cause for the low growth rates in Europe, and some other times considered as an opportunity for industrial countries to export to these areas. Even though trade between Europe and developing countries in Asia has developed over this period, it stills represents a very small part of European imports : imports from this area only account for 1,4 % of the EC GDP. However these imports mainly consist in low price commodities, which means that they represent a more important part of the European production than they seem to. But, besides, low import prices also mean lower inflation rates, thus allowing increases of the purchasing power in the EC. Developing countries in Asia have external trade surpluses both with the EC and the USA, but no global surplus since they are in deficit with Japan. There are only few european direct investment inflows to developing countries in Asia, European firms generally opting for contracts with local firms. The undervaluation of these industrializing countries currencies, as compared to that of the purchasing power parities, reflects both economic underdeveloped economies and export-oriented policies. This strategy has revealed sucessful. It allows Asian economic partners to import low price products and to export investment goods. Yet, the emergence of this area has entailed massive job destructions in several sectors of the French industry. A simulation made with the OFCE-Mosaique macroeconomic model indicates that, depending on the assumptions made, from 190 000 up to 230 000 jobs have been lost in France, because of the increase of Asian industrial exports all over the world (including French imports). Imports from low wages areas induce unskilled workers dismissals, an increase in social inequalities, and in the number of the unemployed in developed countries if no redistribution takes place. However, taxing imports from these countries would be selfishness and has no justification. Europe should find a way to help developing countries to grow, meanwhile having sustantial internal growth rates again. This requires more active economic policies (lower interest rates and expansionary policies), a fiscal reform to compensate for the gaps between social and private labour costs, and redistribution in favour of the workers hit by imports from low wages countries. ; Les pays de l'Asie du Sud- Est ont connu dans les deux dernières décennies un fort dynamisme économique et des taux de croissance de l'ordre de 7 %, qui contrastent avec la généralisation du chômage de masse et la faible croissance en Europe. Aussi certains ont accusé la politique commerciale agressive des pays d'Asie en développement d'être responsable des difficultés européennes, tandis que d'autres mettaient l'accent sur les facteurs internes de dynamisme de ces pays et voyaient dans leur émergence une chance à saisir pour l'Europe. Si les échanges de l'Asie en développement avec la CE ont crû rapidement, ils restent modestes et ne représentent en 1992 que 1,4 point du PIB communautaire pour les importations, 1 point du PIB pour les exportations. Toutefois, comme les importations sont réalisées à bas prix, elles évincent une part plus importante de la production européenne. En sens inverse, elles induisent des baisses de prix et des gains de pouvoir d'achat en Europe. Les pays d'Asie en développement, pris dans leur ensemble, ont un solde commercial globalement équilibré, mais sont excédentaires vis-à-vis de l'Europe et des Etats-Unis, et déficitaires vis-à-vis du Japon. Les investissements directs des firmes européennes dans cette région sont d'ampleur négligeable : les délocalisations passent surtout par des accords de sous-traitance. La sous-évaluation des monnaies des pays d'Asie en développement par rapport aux taux de change de PPA correspond à la fois à leur niveau de développement et à une stratégie visant à limiter les importations aux biens d'équipement indispensables et à inciter leurs producteurs à se tourner vers l'exportation. Cette stratégie s'est avérée gagnante. Mais elle permet à leurs partenaires de bénéficier d'importations à bas prix et d'exporter des biens d'équipement. Cependant l'émergence de cette zone a entraîné de fortes destructions d'emplois dans certains secteurs de l'industrie française. En tenant compte de leurs exportations, de leurs achats en France, de leur concurrence sur les marchés tiers, une évaluation macroé- conomique, réalisée avec le modèle Mosaïque, chiffre les pertes d'emplois en France à 190 000 ou 230 000, selon les hypothèses retenues. Les importations en provenance des pays à bas salaires évincent de leurs emplois les travailleurs non qualifiés et augmentent les inégalités sociales et le chômage dans les pays riches si aucune mesure de redistribution n'est prise. Aussi, une politique active de subvention aux secteurs et aux travailleurs directement concurrencés est-elle nécessaire. Par contre, la proposition consistant à remplacer des cotisations employeurs par une « TVA sociale » est illusoire. Il est erroné d'accuser ces pays de dumping monétaire, salarial, ou social. Une taxation spécifique des produits en provenance des pays à bas salaires serait foncièrement égoïste et injustifiable. L'Europe doit savoir accueillir les nouveaux pays industrialisés, permettre aux pays de l'Est et du Sud de suivre leur exemple, en même temps qu'elle doit retrouver elle-même une croissance plus satisfaisante. Cela nécessite une politique économique plus active (baisse des taux d'intérêt, relance économique) ; une réforme fiscale pour rapprocher le coût social du coût privé du travail (en particulier pour le travail non-qualifié) ; des mesures pour redistribuer aux travailleurs directement touchés par la concurrence des pays à bas salaires les gains que procure le commerce avec ceux-ci.