В западных академических кругах бытует представление, согласно которому решающую роль в упадке исламского мистицизма (суфизма) и его духовной практики сыграл философский суфизм крупнейшего мусульманского мыслителя Ибн 'Араби (1165-1240) и его последователей, которые в своём стремлении рационализировать суфизм с помощью своих монистических доктрин лишили исламскую мистическую традицию её изначальной сущности, которая основывалась на сугубо личном опыте мистического познания. Статья посвящена иному подходу в оценке роли Ибн 'Араби в истории суфизма. Приводятся доводы, ставящие под сомнение утверждения о связи его деятельности с ослаблением и упадком исламского мистицизма в религиозной жизни мусульман. Согласно этому подходу, кризис суфизма был вызван целым комплексом социальных, экономических, политических и идеологических факторов (модернизация и секуляризация в мусульманском мире, бюрократизация институтов суфизма и т. д.). ; Islamic mysticism (Sufism) is very complex phenomenon. It may be described in many ways. It is a main element of Islamic religion, a spiritual component of the Muslim culture, an ascetical-mystical movement, a spiritual discipline, a one of the main school of medieval Islamic philosophy, a mystical world view, a social and political organization, a form of self-expression and behavior, etc. The teaching of mystical cognition is a principal postulate of Sufi ideology that combines all tendencies within Sufism. In this respect, Sufism is Islamic mysticism, which leads to direct cognition of God beyond thought and image through purification of self and discipline. Three phases or stages of Sufism can be distinguished. The earliest form of Sufism was wide ascetic movement (in the 8th and 9th centuries). Other significant developments soon followed, including self-control, mystical insights and annihilation of the self (in the 9th and 10th centuries). During this period, two trends ("drunken" and "sober") of doctrinal Sufism emerged. The next phase in Sufi history was development of fraternal Sufi orders (11th century) and formation of philosophical Sufism embodied in Ibn 'Arabi's teaching of "waḥdat al-wujūd" (Unity of Being) (13th century). The life-giving impulse of Sufism began to weaken from the 15th century. Since the middle of the 19th century Sufism has ceased to have a serious impact on the Muslim community. Sufism today is in deep crisis. So, the question arise: why did Sufism fall into decline? The problem of understanding the real cause of Sufism's decline has become the most important one for historians of Islamic mysticism, and it has not yet found a satisfactory solution. There is a stereotype that the reason for the decline of Islamic Mysticism (Sufism) was famous medieval Islamic thinker Ibn 'Arabi (1165-1240). Ibn 'Arabi was one of the prominent and the most controversial Islamic thinker. It is generally accepted that speculative teachings of Ibn 'Arabi and his followers have led to the erosion of true Sufism. The author examines conceptual framework and essence of key principles of Ibn 'Arabi's doctrine and shows that there is no link between his intellectual activity and the decline of Sufism. The article focuses an attention on exposition of Ibn 'Arabi's doctrines in the context of the paradigm of medieval Muslim philosophical thought. An approach, which the author proposes here, is to assert that early phase of Sufism (or asceticism)) and doctrinal Sufism ("drunken" and "sober") share a common set of a problems which all generations of Sufis had to solve in order to achieve their main goal which is comprehension of Truth (God). The early phase of Sufism, or asceticism, had already been realized not only as renunciation of temporal, but also as mode of mystical knowledge. As a result of the Islamic ascetics' activity the prerequisites of the Sufi teaching of "tariqa" (Way) with the aim seeking "ḥaqiqa" (absolute truth) emerged. The driving force of Islamic Mysticism's development were attempts to solve the problem of relationship between sensible and intelligible or between unity and multiplicity (relation between God and the world) and the possibility of mystical knowledge. The prominent Sufi thinkers like 'Abu Sa'id al-Kharraz, Sahl al-Tustari, 'Abu Yazid al-Bistami, al-Junayd and others played a significant role in the formation of two trends ("drunken" and "sober") of the doctrinal Sufism. The adherents of both trends supposed that the ultimate aim can be achieved through the annihilation of the self (fanā') and dissolution in the divine reality. Al-Ghazali (d. 1111), the prominent Muslim theologian and mystic, also considered that mystical union with God or "the pure oneness [of God]" (tawhīd) is the vision of only God through annihilation of the self. Nevertheless, by 12-13 centuries Islamic mystics understood that their practices cannot help them in the realization of divine knowledge, neither ascetical discipline nor dissolution in the divine reality. During the evolution of Islamic mystical tradition, the philosophical Sufism emerged. It was most completely realized in Ibn 'Arabi' doctrine of the Oneness or Unity of Being (waḥdat al-wujūd). His philosophical innovation consists in the radical reconsideration of the view on knowledge and its subject. Other schools of medieval Islamic philosophy relied on the ontological idea that conceives the relationship between God and world as dualistic. On the contrary, the ontological ground of philosophical Sufism knowledge consists in understanding of two ontological levels of being as different aspects of one reality, not different realities. Ibn 'Arabi considers the mystical knowledge as self-knowledge of God. Man is a place of self-knowledge of God in the course of His eternal self-disclosure. Thereafter Islamic mystical tradition lost its continuity. Sufism developed into two main forms: the "practical", or the moderate and the philosophical. The adherents of the "practical" Sufism insist that mystical experience is realized by Sufi discipline (asceticism, poverty, meditation, etc.) while their opponents consider it useless. The supporters of philosophical Sufism argued that direct access to the divine reality is guaranteed by the ontological being of man. There is no evidence to support the claim that the erosion of Sufism is due to metaphysical teachings of Ibn 'Arabi and his pupils. The decline of Sufism can be explained by political, economic, social and other causes. Several factors directly and indirectly contributed to the Islamic mystical tradition crisis: bureaucratization of Sufism, modernization and secularization in the Islamic East, etc.
Matthew Charlton was Leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) for six years between 1922-1928, yet he is an almost unknown figure in Australian political history. Unlike many of his contemporaries, there is no written biography exploring his life and work, and no cache of papers or personal documents held by any public institution. But Matthew Charlton was an interesting, and in some ways, remarkable man. The child of working class British immigrants, he left school at the age of 12 to begin work in Newcastle' s coal mines, spending most of his youth underground. Industrial upheaval in the coal mining industry during the late 1890's led him to become involved in union politics, and he rose quickly through the ranks of the Colliery Employees Federation. From union politics, he moved to the NSW state parliament, and from there, to Federal politics, holding the Newcastle seat of Hunter from 1910 until his retirement in 1928. A well respected figure within the ALP, he became a senior member of Caucus, served as Deputy to Leader Frank Tudor, and was eventually elected Leader himself in 1922, following the sudden deaths of Tudor and his appointed successor, T.J. Ryan. As Leader between 1922-1928, Charlton faced several important difficulties- none of which he was able to surmount to gain election for himself and the party. Most importantly, the period of his leadership was one in which the Bruce-Page Coalition government dominated Australia's political landscape, having a large majority in the Lower House of Parliament and all but controlling the Senate- leaving the ALP effectively powerless to impose its will or curb the Coalition's excesses. Part of the ALP's weakness was related to internal divisions caused by the Conscription Split of 1916, when then-leader William Hughes and 23 other Caucus members were expelled from the party for advocating conscription to boost Australia' s wartime defences. Not only did this remove many talented and energetic figures from the party, but it saw the beginning of the factional fighting which would plague the ALP for generations afterwards. Charlton also faced the significant challenge of justifying the party's 1921 adoption of its 'Socialist Objective', which committed the ALP to a program of socialisation of Australia' s industry, business and infrastructure. This goal was viewed with suspicion by much of the population, who were incapable of seeing a distinction between this and outright Communism, and the Bruce-Pager government exploited the public's fears to great effect, further weakening Labor's standing with the electorate. Despite the difficulties faced by Charlton, during his time as Leader he developed some innovative ideas which would later be incorporated into Labor policy, and furthered Labor's thinking on key issues such as Immigration, Defence and the Economy. For example, he was one of the first to advocate a new kind of defence policy for Australia one which relied on air power over sea power as the best way of addressing the strategic realities of defending the country. He was also one of the first within the ALP to acknowledge that immigration would have to play some role in Australia's development, thus paving the way for the eventual reversal of Labor's support for the White Australia policy. And although never adopted nor taken very seriously by either his own party or their opponents, he proposed the development of a new taxation system for Australia, based upon socialist principles, which would have seen the wide gap between rich and poor significantly narrowed by increasing income taxation on the wealthy. As well as being something of an innovator, Charlton was also the party's man, adhering closely to many long-standing aspects of Labor policy such as protectionism, opposition to conscription and support for social welfare. For this, he has been criticised as an ineffective leader who did not make a sufficient mark on Labor's policy and development- a follower of the party line rather than a dominant leader. But while it is true that Charlton lacked the zeal and strength of some of the ALP's best leaders, his steady leadership has been credited with rebuilding the party's strength in the wake of Hughes' devastating treachery, and with returning the party to its roots as the representative of the working people. Because of the party's general weakness during the time of his leadership, Charlton was not able to effect change in the sense of real action and result; rather, his contribution was one of ideas. Yet this contribution has been largely overlooked, his efforts forgotten, his ideas absorbed without attribution. Why? The answer lies largely in the political and social circumstances of his day, for Charlton led during the brief period of peace and prosperity between two eras of crisis, during a time when little of lasting significance happened. For example, the period of his predecessor, Billy Hughes', leadership was one of incredible drama and change, when Australia faced its first significant test of nationhood in the form of World War One. Similarly, Charlton's successor, J.H. Scullin, was faced with the challenge of leading Australia as it fell deeply into the Great Depression. It is impossible to examine Australia's response to these momentous events without mention of those who led during them, and for this reason Hughes' and Scullin's places in history were assured by the circumstances of their leadership. By contrast, Matthew Charlton led during somewhat unremarkable times, and so has simply been overshadowed by the important events and colourful personalities who came before and after him. But Matthew Charlton deserves to be remembered, for his service and contribution to Australia's political life, the ALP, and most importantly, his constituents over the course of his 25 years in politics. This report therefore seeks to provide a detailed analysis of his life and career, the major issues of his day and his response to them, and particularly of his time as Leader, with the aim of reversing the historical neglect which has befallen Matthew Charlton.
JEL Classification: J14, I11, C20 ; China has become an aging society with the largest aging population in the world. As in any developed country that has become an aging society, population aging has an influence on almost all aspects of economic and social development. Among the disease problems, common diseases among the middle-aged and old and drugs for chronic diseases are important because they will directly influence the development of the antihypertensive drug market. Based on research carried out both for China and for foreign countries, this thesis discusses the problems facing the development of the antihypertensive drug market in the context of population aging. The main body of this thesis attempts to answer the following questions: firstly, what's the relationship between the increasingly severe aging problem and the growing antihypertensive drug market? Secondly, what are the features of the antihypertensive drug market in the context of population aging? And thirdly, as the aging problem becomes more and more severe, what is the trend in the development of the antihypertensive drug market and how to cope with it? This thesis, starting with the world's and China's population aging problem, tries to shed light on influencing factors of the population aging problem in China on the antihypertensive drug market. Through regression analysis, this thesis constructs a model to estimate the relationship between population aging in China and the growth of the antihypertensive drug market. The model shows that, in the context of an aging society, the growth of the antihypertensive drug market is affected by the increases in government's health care expenditure, by the population aged 65 and above and by the amount of health care costs. These results allow answering the first question above. A regression model is applied to sort out the influencing factors of the population aging on the antihypertensive drug market. To learn more about the features of use of antihypertensive drugs in practice, this thesis analyzes the features of the two main actors involved in the antihypertensive drug market in reality, namely, the practitioner and the patient. According to the results, in the context of population aging, the population of those seeking medical advice increases at a slower rate than the population of patients, the cost for receiving treatment increases relatively fast, drugs produced by foreign invested enterprises and joint ventures are more often used than those produced by domestic enterprises, and improper use of drugs as a usual practice, are all features of the antihypertensive drug market. These results allow answering the second question above. As for the third question, through the regression model, the antihypertensive drug market is estimated to grow more rapidly as population aging intensifies, assuming that current policies and economic environment will not change. To address this problem, it is suggested that management of chronic diseases among old people should be improved, that government's health care expenditure be rationally allocated and that the development of national pharmaceutical enterprises be promoted. ; A China transformou-se numa sociedade envelhecida com a maior população de idosos no mundo. Tal como em qualquer outra sociedade desenvolvida que envelheceu, na China o precesso de envelhecimento populacional influencia quase todos os fatores de desenvolvimento económico e social. Entre os mais importantes problemas de saúde da população encontram-se as doenças que afetam a população de meia idade e os idosos e os medicamentos para doenças crónicas, pelo efeito direto que têm sobre o mercado dos medicamentos antihipertensores. Esta tese analisa os problemas com o desenvolvimento do mercados de medicamentos antihipertensores, num ambiente de envelhecimento populacional, com base em investigação realizada, quer para o mercado Chinês, quer para outros países, e que tenta responder às seguintes três questões: primeira, qual a relação entre o crescente envelhecimento populacional e o crescimento do mercado de medicamentos antihipertensores? Segunda, quais as características do mercado de medicamentos antihipertensores num ambiente de envelhecimento populacional? E terceira, à medida que o problema do envelhecimento populacional se agrava, qual a tendência prevista pera o desenvolvimento desse mercado e como adaptar-se a essa tendência? Esta tese, começando por analisar o problema do envelhecimento populacional no mundo e na China, procura salientar os fatores relacionados com esse envelhecimento que influenciam o mercado de medicamentos antihipertensores. Através da análise de regressão, esta tese estima um modelo explicativo do crescimento do mercado de medicamentos antihipertensores a partir de variáveis relacionadas com o envelhecimento populacional. As estimativas encontradas mostram que, num ambiente de envelhecimento populacional, o crescimento do mercado de medicamentos antihipertensores é explicado sobretudo pelo aumento da despesa governamental em serviços de saúde, pela população com 65 ou mais anos, e pelos custos de serviços de saúde. Estes resultados permitem responder à primeira questão anteriormente colocada. Para compreender como são utilizados e prescritos os medicamentos antihipertensores na prática, foram analisados os resultados de um inquérito aos dois principais atores do Mercado de medicamentos antihipertensores, nomeadamente os medicos e os doentes. De acordo com esses resultados, e num contexto de envelhecimento populacional, a população que procura aconselhamento médico cresce a uma taxa inferior à da população de doentes, o custo de tratamento cresce relativamente rápido, é maior a prescrição e utilização dos medicamentos produzidos por empresas com investimento estrangeiro e joint ventures do que os que são produzidos por empresas nacionais, e a utilização imprópria dos medicamentos como prática corrente, são as principais características do mercado de medicamentos antihipertensores. A partir destes resultados é possível responder à segunda questão de investigação. A resposta à terceira questão é dada com auxílio a previsões encontradas a partir dos modelos de regressão estimados: estas previsões apontam para um rápido crescimento do mercado de medicamentos antihipertensores à medida que o envelhecimento populacional se acentua, pressupondo-se que não existirão mudanças ao nível dos ambientes políticos e económicos. Para minimizar este problema, sugerem-se mudanças a três níveis: melhoria na gestão de doenças crónicas da população idosa, alocação mais racional das despesas governamentais em saúde e promoção das empresas farmacêuticas nacionais.
This article focuses on the influence of the field of rural villages on principals' educational practices. The focus is on aspects of principals' educational practices in a specific rural village context. It is a Bourdieuian study of educational practices in the rural context in relation to the influence of the field of rural villages. The focus of this study is the manner in which the field of rural villages manifests itself in the educational practices of headmasters functioning within a specific geographical context, namely a rural village. The conceptual question therefore focuses on the endeavour made by the headmasters with the manifestation of the field of rural villages in the educational practises of the headmasters in question. The macro (global) field determines that principals in public schools in South Africa function according to managerialism, where they are expected to meet the education department's objectives and requirements. The result is that principals' educational practices are increasingly limited by policy and control measures of the authorities, such as the establishment of performance goals, with little space for leadership and more emphasis on management and the administrative system. The macro educational field positions schools to function in a distinct way as the logic of the market, privatisation, deregulation and the individual's freedom of choice of school are manifested in the school as field. A further outcome is that a particular leadership practice namely managerialism, use of data, efficiency, performativity and a focus on outcomes and achievements in the school is established in the field and proffered as norm. The school as field has a direct impact on the educational practices of headmasters as it effects a distinct logic of practice which endeavours to influence the headmasters' leadership habitus in a certain way. Furthermore, it tends to influence the headmasters' reason to act directly in the form of policy changes and indirectly when proposed as the norm or standard of practice. On the other hand, the local micro field also has a direct influence. Each community requires a lot from their headmasters, although the expectation is realised in different educational practices. Priorities such as fundraisings for better and higher quality teaching and providing basic needs like nutrition for learners are local priorities. In this regard, we emphasised that principals' identity is partly given, but also partly acquired by their position in a given social field and how principals adjust to the discursive influences of the local micro field on their work environment. The research material for this article comes from a comprehensive research project on the principals of rural schools in a town with the pseudonym Cogmans in the Western Cape. Focused semi-structured one-on-one interviews were used to gather information through to principals' own stories to hear about their own life, in order to allow a construction of the story of each one's social world. In this way "professional" stories about a school principal in a rural village are linked to the critical analysis of the principal's teaching practices. The article is based on the application of the theory of Pierre Bourdieu. Bourdieu's concepts of field, capital, habitus and practices are used as theoretical lenses to highlight the analytical focus of this article, namely the educational practices of principals in the field of rural villages. The data of the twelve transcribed interviews (with the use of Atlas.ti computer programme) were coded by selecting segments of the primary documents to which codes were accordingly linked. By applying Bourdieu's conceptual framework of habitus, field, capital and practice as "super codes", the data were dealt with thematically and organised accordingly. The main argument we present in this article, is that the field of principals in rural schools affect the educational practices of the principals involved. Each of the principal's educational practices responds in a unique way to the distinctiveness of their local and even national field. An analysis of the data revealed that a headmaster increasingly has to play a dual role namely that of manager plus that of professional educationist. The educational skills or practises associated with those two roles are not always compatible. The latter places principals in a very difficult position where, on the one hand they are expected to act as Representatives of the Department of Education, while on the other hand, they have to function as professional educationists, the logic behind these practices and their educational accountability may be questioned. Headmasters however, despite the fact that the macro field seeks to enforce a uniform system upon them, respond in unique, diverse ways in their educational practices. This can especially be attributed to the fact that the creditworthiness of a principal in a rural town among the members of the community, depends rather on whether the principal succeeds to fulfil the acts that Fataar (2009:324) described as daily actions of the principals, acts that are not necessarily prescribed by legislation, but rather determined by the principals' successful implementation of the activities set out in legislation. OPSOMMING: Hierdie artikel fokus op die inwerking van die veld van plattelandse dorpe op skoolhoofde se onderwyspraktyke. Die fokus is op aspekte van skoolhoofde se onderwyspraktyke in 'n spesifieke landelike dorpkonteks. Die navorsingsmateriaal vir die artikel is afkomstig uit 'n omvattende navorsingsprojek oor die skoolhoofde van plattelandse skole op 'n dorp met die skuilnaam Cogmans in die Wes-Kaap. Gefokusde semi-gestruktureerde een-tot-een onderhoude is gebruik om inligting te versamel deur na skoolhoofde se eie stories te luister oor hul eie leefwêreld, ten einde dit moontlik te maak om die storie van elkeen se sosiale leefwêreld te kan konstrueer. Op hierdie wyse is "professionele" verhale oor skoolhoof-wees op 'n plattelandse dorp verbind aan die kritiese ontleding van die skoolhoofde se onderwyspraktyke. Die artikel is geskoei op die toepassing van die teorie van Pierre Bourdieu. Bourdieu se konsepte van veld, kapitaal, praktyke en habitus word aangewend as teoretiese lense om die ontledende fokus van hierdie artikel uit te lig, naamlik die onderwyspraktyke van skoolhoofde binne die veld van plattelandse dorpe. Die belangrikste argument wat ons in hierdie artikel aanbied, is dat die veld van skoolhoofde op die platteland inwerk op die skoolpraktyke van die betrokke skoolhoofde. Elk van die skoolhoofde se praktyke reageer op 'n unieke wyse op die eiesoortigheid van hulle plaaslike en selfs nasionale veld.
The functional environment of the company in the department of Cesar is an innate scenario planning authorities for the socioeconomic future of the region. This environment consists of a huge number of agents, factors and relationships that influence directly or potentially conditional on the company's competitive success of such a substantial way that is one of the main reasons explaining business failure. The current research builds on the "functional environment in Seville Province", where the variables and their relationships are defined according to the logic of the entire system of the determinants of competitive advantage Michael Porter. The present study aims to analyze the functional environment of agribusiness in the department of Cesar, through the application of statistical correlation models, allowing an approximation to the definition of the structural type and level of quality business same. The selected variables were sketched in the survey of 23 representative Cesar agribusinesses. 16 The research hypotheses posed in order to define relationships on: size, age, quality, innovation, business with government, borrowing, hostile environments, control, corporate social awareness, among others. The relationships are validated through the technique of Pearson correlation coefficient and covariance. The resulting data are subjected to analysis and comparison with the draft Seville (Spain). Then the information is tabulated and business profiles agribusiness sub-sector in the department of Cesar down. From the results obtained, three (3) of the assumptions are valid and thirteen (13) are discarded, unlike research in Seville where most relationships among the studied variables (9 valid) are due to microeconomic differences territorial and corporate culture. From the foregoing, it is claimed between the companies studied a relationship between the size of the companies with which it cooperates and the physical location of the companies with which a cooperation agreement is established. In addition, the size of firms is significantly related to the certification of quality systems, that is, firms with larger are the most likely to certify their management systems quality. The last relationship validated hypothesis, states that companies with a formalized control are touting their managers according to their experience and training, at the expense of creativity. In terms of customer orientation, a high innovative potential of agro-industrial companies in the department of Cesar, but low levels of management systems certified Quality states, although both variables are focused on customer satisfaction, products do not exceed clients in the region and the power of decision is significantly low. Finally, it was determined two main problems: first the raw material, which generally includes aspects of quality, transport and availability; Machinery on appeal, needs associated with new parts in the Colombian market does not produce or market, in addition to the requirements of specialized technology. ; El entorno funcional de la empresa en el departamento del Cesar es un escenario innato para los entes que planean el futuro socioeconómico de la región. Dicho entorno está compuesto por una enorme cantidad de agentes, factores y relaciones que influyen directa o potencialmente sobre la empresa condicionando el éxito competitivo de una manera tan relevante que es una de las razones fundamentales que explica el fracaso empresarial. La actual investigación toma como base el "Entorno funcional de la Provincia en Sevilla", donde se definen las variables y sus relaciones según la lógica del sistema completo de los determinantes de la ventaja de Michael Porter. El presente estudio busca analizar el entorno funcional de la empresa agroindustrial en el departamento del Cesar, a través de la aplicación de modelos estadísticos de correlación, permitiendo obtener una aproximación a la definición de su tipología estructural y el nivel de calidad empresarial de las mismas. Las variables seleccionadas fueron esquematizadas en la encuesta aplicada a 23 empresas agroindustriales representativas del Cesar. La investigación plantean 16 hipótesis con el fin de definir relaciones sobre: tamaño, antigüedad, calidad, innovación, relación comercial con administraciones públicas, necesidad de financiación, hostilidad del entorno, control, conciencia social empresarial, entre otras. Las relaciones se validan a través de la técnica del coeficiente de correlación de Pearson y Covarianza. Los datos resultantes, son sometidos a un análisis y comparación con el proyecto de Sevilla (España). Posteriormente, se tabula la información y se establecen los perfiles empresariales del sub-sector agroindustrial en el departamento del Cesar.De los resultados obtenidos, tres (3) de las hipótesis son válidas y trece (13) se descartan, a diferencia de la investigación en Sevilla donde existen mayor relación entre las variables estudiadas (9 validas), debido a las diferencias microeconómicas, territoriales y cultura empresarial. De lo anterior, se afirma que entre las empresas estudiadas existe una gran relación entre el tamaño de las empresas con las que se coopera y la ubicación física de las empresas con las que se establece algún acuerdo de cooperación. Además, el tamaño de las empresas se relaciona significativamente con la certificación de los sistemas de calidad, es decir, las empresas con mayor tamaño son las que tienden certificar sus sistemas de gestión de la calidad. La última relación validada en las hipótesis, establece que las empresas con un control formalizado, son las que promocionan a sus directivos según su experiencia y capacitación profesional, en detrimento de la creatividad.En cuanto a la orientación al cliente, se afirma un alto potencial innovador de las empresas agroindustriales en el departamento del Cesar, pero con bajo niveles de sistemas de gestión de la calidad certificados, aunque ambas variables se enfocan a la satisfacción del cliente, los productos no sobrepasan los clientes de la región y el poder de decisión es significativamente bajo. Finalmente, se pudo determinar dos principales problemas: primeramente la materia prima, que en general, encierra aspectos de calidad, transporte y disponibilidad; en segunda instancia la Maquinaria, asociado a necesidades de nuevas piezas que en el mercado Colombiano no se producen o comercializan, además de los requerimientos de tecnología especializada.
Water is vital for live as such including a wide range of livelihood activities including domestic and productive needs. Access to adequate water supply would significantly contribute to poverty alleviation, whereas lack of sufficient and reliable water will trigger poverty. In mixed crop-livestock systems, livestock is an integral part of the system and a basic asset for rural livelihoods. Water is an essential input for crop and livestock production in these systems. However, water scarcity is the day to day experience of many rural livelihoods, which, among other factors, is caused by mismanagement in livestock keeping, climate change and increasing demand pressure. Therefore, appropriate and targeted intervention in the water sector is of paramount importance to address such problems related to rural poverty and thereby bring about economic, social and environmental improvements. This could be through improving water availability and its use efficiency and integration with livestock management. In this connection, improving Livestock Water Productivity (LWP) through the Multiple Use Service (MUS) approach can considerably contribute such improvements. The study examines LWP from gendered livelihood perspectives in order to fill the social-ecological as well as culturally linked gap of the LWP framework, which in general and up to now mainly reflects the biophysical aspect. The empirically based study was carried out at two exemplary sites (Kuhar Michael Kebele and Lenche Dima Watershed) in the Amhara region, Ethiopia. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected between June 2008 and February 2010. A participatory gendered livelihood and poverty analysis was made using the Gendered Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (GSLF on the theoretical side) and PRA as the methodological equivalent. Multiple use technology options were identified and targeted in an effort to suggest better ways to improve productivity, livelihoods with emphasis on women headed households, environmental wellbeing and to ultimately alleviate poverty. The study also explores socio-economic and institutional gaps and solution options. In order to link technological options with socio-economic and institutional interventions, targets for LWP improvement programs are identified and characterized. The findings of the comparative analysis reflect the common knowledge of necessary targeted approaches and indicate distinct livelihood wellbeing characteristics with respect to poverty status and access to resources. Poor households, especially women-headed households and young farmers' households are found to be a suitable target group for LWP improvement programs. Nonetheless, a number of challenges are identified in relation to the implementation of such programs. Access to and ownership of basic resources like livestock, the capability both in financial as well as technical terms, government and non-government institutions, and last but not least, cultural preferences and perceptions are among the major limitations. On the other hand, absence of appropriate, cost-effective, and labor-saving technologies in relation to water and feed access, improper targeting of participants in livestock and water development programs, poor integration of diversified productive livelihood activities by households, limited awareness of the community with respect to the different services provided by governmental and non-governmental institutions are the other barriers identified in connection with keeping livestock and investing in LWP improvement programs for the poor farmers in general at the community level. In recognition of the aforementioned challenges and limitations, it is vital for the target groups to have access to multifunctional animals to be watered in sufficient ways. Likewise, intervening in improving awareness, resource access like livestock inputs, technical support for diversified livestock and water-related activities, and improving institutional networks at both local and communal levels are necessary to improve the livelihoods of the poor and marginalized groups. Generally, an integrated and well targeted approach needs to be exercised in order to effectively implement LWP programs and successfully achieve the intended objectives. ; Verbesserung der Wasserproduktivität (LWP) in der Viehhaltung im gemischten Ackerbau-Viehhaltungssystem im äthiopischen Hochland, Amhara Region: ein geschlechtsspezifischer Ansatz zur nachhaltigen Existenzsicherung durch zielgerichtete LWP Maßnahmen zur Armutsminderung Wasser ist lebensnotwendig für viele Aktivitäten zur Sicherung der Lebensgrundlage, unter anderem für den Haushalts- und Produktionsbedarf. Der Zugang zu einer ausreichenden Wasserversorgung würde deutlich zur Armutsbekämpfung beitragen; eine nicht ausreichende und unzuverlässige Wasserversorgung kann in vielen Fällen Armut auslösen. In gemischten Ackerbau-Viehhaltungssystemen ist die Viehhaltung ein integraler Bestandteil des Systems und die Lebensgrundlage der ländlichen Bevölkerung. Von gleicher Bedeutung ist Wasser, das ein entscheidender Input für die Produktion in diesem System darstellt. Wasserknappheit ist jedoch charakteristisch für viele ländliche Lebensbedingungen, u.a. verursacht durch schlechtes Viehhaltungsmanagement, auch den Klimawandel sowie zunehmenden Bedarfsdruck im Zuge immer weiter ausgedehnter und weiterer Wasser konsumierender Maßnahmen. Daher sind geeignete und zielgerichtete Maßnahmen von überragender Bedeutung, um die ländliche Armut zu bekämpfen und dadurch wirtschaftliche, soziale und umweltrelevante, das heißt ökologisch nachhaltige Verbesserungen zu erzielen. Dies kann durch Verbesserungen in der Wasserverfügbarkeit und -nutzungseffizienz erreicht werden, die dann in die Viehhaltungssysteme integriert werden. In diesem Zusammenhang kann die Verbesserung der Wasserproduktivität in der Viehhaltung (LWP) durch den Ansatz 'Dienstleistung zur Mehrfachnutzung von Wasser' (Multiple Use Service - MUS) deutlich beitragen. Die Studie untersucht die LWP aus der Genderperspektive, um die sozio-wirtschaftlichen Lücken des LWP-Rahmens, der sich bisher hauptsächlich auf den biophysischen Aspekt bezieht, zu schließen. Die Studie wurde in zwei Gebieten (in der Gemeinde Kuhar Michael und im Wassereinzugsgebiet Lenche Dima) in Amhara, einer der zentralen Regionen, Äthiopiens, durchgeführt. Qualitative und quantitative Daten wurden zwischen Juni 2008 und Februar 2010 erfasst. Für eine nach Zielgruppen, das heißt Armutsgruppen, differenzierte Analyse unter besonderer Beachtung der von Frauen geführten Haushalte wurden die Instrumente ″Gendered Sustainable Livelihoods Framework″ (GSLF) und Partizipative Erhebung (PRA) eingesetzt. Es wurden Technologieoptionen für eine ´vielschichtige Nutzung von Wasser ermittelt, um Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Viehhaltung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der von Frauen geführten Haushalte unter ökologisch nachhaltigen Bedingungen mit dem Ziel Armutsminderung zu entwickeln. Diese Maßnahmen werden betont an bisherigen Initiativen zur Produktions- wie Lebensverbesserung gespiegelt. Um die technologischen Optionen mit sozial-ökonomischen Interventionen zu verbinden, werden Ziele für LWP-Verbesserungsprogramme analysiert. Die Ergebnisse der vergleichenden Analyse verdeutlichen einmal mehr, dass es verschiedene Gruppen von Farmerhaushalten gibt, die unterschiedliche Merkmale in Bezug auf ihre Lebensgrundlage (Armutsstatus) aufweisen. Die armen Haushalte, insbesondere die von Frauen geführten, zeigen sich besonders geeignet für Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der LWP. Jedoch ergeben sich eine der Herausforderungen hinsichtlich der Umsetzung bei dieser Zielgruppe. Der Zugang zu bzw. Besitz von grundlegenden Ressourcen wie Vieh, Interessen der Haushalte, Fähigkeiten finanziell sowie technisch, der Einfluss von Institutionen sowie soziokulturelle Aspekte sind die wichtigsten Einschränkungen. Weitere Hindernisse bei der Umsetzung der Maßnahmen zur LWP-Verbesserung bei den armen Farmern auf der Gemeindeebene sind der Mangel an geeigneten, kosteneffektiven und arbeitssparenden Technologien für den Zugang zu Wasser und Viehfutter, die ungünstige Auswahl der Teilnehmer in den Förderungs-Programmen (politische Präferenzen), die schlechte Integration diversifizierter Produktionsaktivitäten der Haushalte sowie eingeschränkte Kenntnis auf Seiten der Gemeinden hinsichtlich der verschiedenen Dienstleistungen der Regierungs- bzw. Nicht-Regierungsinstitutionen, und schließlich auch kulturell definierte Präferenzen und Werte bezüglich der Präferenzen im Hinblick auf Tierhaltung. Unter Berücksichtigung der obengenannten Herausforderungen und Einschränkungen ist es außerordentlich wichtig, den Zugang der Zielgruppen zu multifunktionalen Nutz-Tieren sicherzustellen. Gleichzeitig sind Maßnahmen erforderlich zur Verbesserung von Kenntnissen und Ressourcenzugang wie zum Beispiel verbesserte Tiere, verbessertes Futterangebot etc., technische Unterstützung für diversifizierte viehhaltungs- bzw. wasserbezogene Aktivitäten sowie institutionelle Netzwerke sowohl auf der lokalen als auch der Gemeindeebene, um die Lebensgrundlagen der armen und marginalisierten Bevölkerungsgruppen zu verbessern. Im Allgemeinen ist ein integrierter und zielgerichteter Einsatz erforderlich, um solche Programme effektiv zu implementieren und die Ziele erfolgreich umzusetzen.
Die vorliegende kumulative Dissertation zur Struktur-, Prozess- und Ergebnisqualität in der psychosozialen Versorgung von Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund setzt sich aus vier Publikationen auf der Basis von vier empirischen Studien zusammen. Studienergebnisse deuten auf eine erhöhte psycho-soziale Belastung von in Deutschland lebenden Menschen mit türkischem Migrationshintergrund. In Publikation 1 wurde untersucht, ob sich ein solcher Belastungsunterschied auch zu Beginn einer stationär rehabilitativen Behandlung bei Patienten mit psychischen/psychosomatischen Störungen finden lässt, ob sich Behandlungsverläufe unterscheiden und welche Bedeutung insgesamt der Faktor Migrations-hintergrund für den Behandlungserfolg hat. Zum Zeitpunkt der Aufnahme zeigte sich für die Patienten mit türkischem Migrationshintergrund (N=99 vs. N=753) eine signifikant höhere psychopathologische Gesamtbelastung. Der Behandlungs¬erfolg fiel für die Patienten mit türkischem Migrationshintergrund geringer aus und erreicht in einigen Skalen keine nachweisbaren Verbesserungen. Die regressionsanalytische Berechnung verdeutlicht die Bedeutung des Faktors Migrationshintergrund als einen unabhängigen negativen Prädiktor des Behandlungserfolgs. In der zweiten Publikation wurde untersucht, ob in der stationären Rehabilitation von Patienten mit psychischen/psychosomatischen Störungen Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund seltener behandelt werden, stärker belastet sind, weniger von der Behandlung profitieren und ein höheres Risiko für einen negativen Behandlungserfolg haben. Auf Grundlage einer prospektiven Stichprobe (N=25.066) wurden die Inanspruchnahme, die Symptombelastung, die Behandlungsqualität und der Einfluss von Risikofaktoren untersucht. Patienten mit Migrationshintergrund zeigen eine geringere Inanspruchnahme und eine höhere psychopathologische Gesamtbelastung. Türkische Patienten und Patienten aus dem ehemaligen Jugoslawien erzielen die geringsten Behandlungs-erfolge. Die Regressionsanalyse unterstreicht die Bedeutung der klinischen und soziodemographischen Faktoren als unabhängige negative Prädiktoren des Behandlungserfolgs. Behandlungskonzepte sollten sich stärker an den Bedürfnissen von Patienten mit Migrationshintergrund und an denen sozioökonomisch benachteiligter Patienten orientieren. Auf der Grundlage der deutschsprachigen Version der "Hamburger Module zur Erfassung allgemeiner Aspekte psychosozialer Gesundheit in der therapeutischen Praxis" (HEALTH-49) wurde eine türkischsprachige interkulturell sensitive Version entwickelt (T-HEALTH-49, Publikation 3). Die psychometrischen Eigenschaften wurden anhand einer klinischen Stichprobe türkischsprachiger Patienten (N=311) überprüft. Der Fragbogen erweist sich als praktikabel, die dimensionale Struktur und die relative Eigenständigkeit der Module lassen sich faktorenanalytisch bestätigen. Die einzelnen Skalen zeichnen sich durch zufriedenstellende bis hohe Zuverlässigkeit und zufriedenstellende Validität aus. Die Veränderungssensitivität kann nicht zweifelsfrei nachgewiesen werden. Psychosoziale Versorgung sollte sich an den kulturellen Bedürfnissen der Patienten orientieren. Interkulturelle Öffnung ist ein Organisationsprozess, diesen Anforderungen gerecht zu werden. Die vierte Studie (Publikation 4) verfolgt das Ziel repräsentative Struktur- und Prozessdaten zur Inanspruchnahme der ambulanten psychotherapeutischen Versorgung von allochthonen Patienten in Deutschland, zur kulturellen und sprachlichen Diversität der Psychotherapeuten in der ambulanten Versorgung, zur interkulturellen Begegnungen der Behandler und zur interkulturellen Sensitivität von Behandlern zu erheben. Von allen öffentlichen ambulanten Psychotherapeuten in Hamburg haben sich 81% an der Studie beteiligt (N=485). Im Vergleich zur Verteilung in der regionalen Allgemeinbevölkerung sind allochthone Therapeuten unterrepräsentiert. Im Gegensatz zur Verteilung der ausländischen Bevölkerung, kommen die häufigsten Migrantengruppen der Therapeuten aus England, deutschsprachigen Ländern und anderen Ländern innerhalb der Europäischen Union. Der Anteil der allochthonen Patienten in der ambulanten psychotherapeutischen Versorgung war halb so hoch wie der Anteil in der regionalen Allgemeinbevölkerung. Psychotherapeuten mit Migrationshintergrund beschreiben sich gegenüber ihren einheimischen Kollegen als interkulturell sensitiver, insbesondere gegenüber denen, die wenige interkulturelle Begegnungen haben. Insgesamt benennen die Psychotherapeuten verschiedenste Herausforderungen in der interkulturellen Behandlung. Zur Verbesserung der psychosozialen Versorgungsergebnisse für Patienten mit Migrationshintergrund sollte die interkulturelle Öffnung im psychosozialen Gesundheitswesen weiter ausgebaut werden. ; The present cumulative dissertation of structural, process and outcome quality in the in the psychosocial health care of people with a migration background consist out of four publications on the basis of four empirical studies. Study results indicate a higher psycho-social burden of people with a Turkish migration background who live in Germany. The study researches in publication 1, if such a burden difference is detectable at the beginning of an inpatient treatment program for patients with psychologi¬cal/psychosomatic disorders, if different treatment progressions occur and asks which influence the factor migration background plays in terms of the treatment results. At admission patients with a Turkish migration background (N=99 vs. N=753) show a higher psychopathological burden. There was less treatment success for patients with a Turkish migration background und they didn't reach verifiable improvements in some scales. The regression analysis points out the importance of the factor migration background as an independent negative predictor of a positive treatment result. In the second publication it was evaluated whether in the inpatient rehabilitation of patients with mental or psychosomatic disorders people with a migration background are treated less frequently, profit less from the treatment and have a higher risk for a negative outcome. On the basis of a prospective sample (N=25.066) the health care utilisation of inpatient rehabilitation institutions, the level of mental stress, the quality of treatment und the influence of risk factors was reviewed. Patients with a migration background show a lower level of health care utilisation and a higher level of overall mental stress. Turkish patients and patients from formerly Yugoslavia show the least good treatment results. The regression analysis underlines the clinical and sociodemographic factors as independent negative predictors for good treatment results. Treatment concepts should be stronger oriented to the needs of patients with a migration background and socio-economical deprived patients. Based on the German original questionnaire of the "Hamburger modules for measuring generic aspects of psycho-social health in the therapeutic practice" (HEALTH-49) a Turkish speaking version was cross-cultural sensitively developed (T-HEALTH-49, publication 3). The psychometric properties have been analysed by means of a clinical sample of Turkish speaking patients (N=311). The questionnaire proves to be practical, the dimensional structure and the relatively independence of the modules have been confirmed by factor analysis. The single scales are characterised by satisfactory to high reliability and satisfactory validity. The sensitivity for variations cannot be proven free of doubt. Mental health care services need to be sensitive towards the cultural needs of patients. Cross-cultural opening is an organisational process to fulfil these needs. The fourth study (publication 4) aims to provide representative structural and procedural data regarding the use of German outpatient mental health care services by allochthonous patients, the cultural and linguistic diversity of psychotherapists in outpatient mental health care service, the cross-cultural encounters of therapists and the cross-cultural sensitivity of psychotherapists working in this health care area. Of all public outpatient psychotherapists in Hamburg, 81% percent (N=485) participated in this survey. Compared with the distribution of the population in this metropolis, allochthonous therapists were underrepresented. Unlike the overall distribution of foreign inhabitants, the largest groups of immigrant therapists came from England, German-speaking countries and other countries within the European Union. The proportion of allochthonous patients in outpatient mental health care service was almost half of the proportion of the allochthonous in the general population. Psychotherapists with a migration background regarded themselves as having a higher level of cross-cultural sensitivity than their native colleagues, especially those who have had fewer cross-cultural encounters. Overall, the psychotherapists named different challenges in providing cross-cultural treatment. In order to improve the mental health care service for patients with a migration background the cross-cultural opening in the psychosocial health care should be further supported.
Seuchen und Krieg waren jedem einzelnen Individuum der spätmittelalterlichen Gesellschaft als elementare Bedrohungen des eigenen Lebens stets gegenwärtig. Welch hohen Stellenwert diese Katastrophen im Bewußtsein der Bevölkerung einnahmen, läßt sich anhand der vielfältigen zeitgenössischen Bild- und Textzeugnisse erschließen. Während diese vor der Mitte des 15. Jahrhunderts aufgrund der manuellen Fertigung in Skriptorien und den Werkstätten von Kartenmalern nur einem relativ kleinen Personenkreis zugänglich waren, herrschten nach der Erfindung des Buchdrucks völlig neue Voraussetzungen bei der Produktion, Reproduktion und Vervielfältigung von Schriftlichkeit. Mit der Druckkunst stand erstmals eine Technologie zur Verfügung, welches es erlaubte, in kurzer Zeit Abbildungen und Texte in bisher nicht geahnter Auflagenhöhe zu fertigen.rnMit den Einblattdrucken wurde früh eine Form gefunden " der erste datierbare Einblattdruck ist ein Mainzer Ablaßbrief aus dem Jahre 1454 ", die es erlaubte, mit niedrigem Aufwand einen großen Personenkreis zu erreichen. Die inhaltliche Bandbreite dieser Sonderform des frühen Drucks war beträchtlich. Sowohl textliche als auch bildliche Elemente wurden genutzt, um Ablaßbriefe, Almanache, Lehr- und Mahnblätter sowie Wunderberichte, Sensationsmeldungen usw. zu gestalten. Auftraggeber dieser Blätter waren in der Regel kirchliche und weltliche Institutionen.rnNeben den bereits genannten Ablaßbriefen bildeten die sogenannten "Andachtsblätter" eine weitere wichtige Gruppe dieser Druckgattung. Nachweislich ist diese besondere Form der Gebets-Fokussierung bereits für das 14. Jahrhundert. Mit dem Aufkommen des Typendrucks setzte eine erste serielle Herstellung von Andachtsblättern ein. Speziell Blätter, welche die Seuchenabwehr thematisierten, wurden bald in großer Vielfalt verlegt. Der Schutz vor Pest und Syphilis nahm hierbei einen hohen Stellenwert ein.rnDas inhaltliche Spektrum dieser "Pestblätter" reichte von der einfachen Fürbitte um Interzession durch den jeweils angerufenen Krankheitspatron bis hin zu komplexen medizinisch, diätetischen Anweisungen in Bild und Text. Neben diesem eher anleitenden Charakter verband der mittelalterliche Mensch mit dieser Variante des Einblattdrucks auch die Funktion eines apotropäischen Talismans.rnAußer der Bedrohung durch Krankheiten sah sich die mittelalterliche Gesellschaft des 15. Jahrhunderts mit einer weiteren existentiellen Bedrohung konfrontiert " dem Krieg. Auch wenn die deutschen Territorien im 15. Jahrhundert weitgehend von großen kriegerischen Auseinandersetzungen verschont blieben, so reichte der sogenannte Schweizer- oder Schwabenkrieg sowie der Bayerisch-Pfälzische (oder Landshuter) Erbfolgekriege aus, die gravierenden Folgen der Kriegsführung für die zivile Gesellschaft vor Augen zu führen. Zu einer weiteren Steigerung der "Kriegsangst" führten die in diesem Zeitraum stattfindenden Auseinandersetzungen mit dem expandierenden Osmanischen Reich. rnDiese dezidierte Untersuchung der frühesten Einblattdrucke baut auf mehreren grundsätzlichen Fragestellungen auf: Wie, von wem, warum und wann wurden Einblattdrucke hergestellt? Wie und wo erfolgte die Verbreitung von Einblattdrucken? Wer erwarb wann Einblattdrucke und aus welcher Absicht heraus tat er dies? Diese recht komplexen Fragestellungen lassen sich auf drei Schlagworte reduzieren: rn-»Produktion " Diffusion " Rezeption-«rnAus diesen drei Aspekten des "Lebenslaufes" eines Einblatts ergeben sich die zentralen Forschungsschwerpunkte dieses Projekts. Daher wird auch nach einer einführenden Begriffsdefinition des "Katastrophenblattes" das Hauptaugenmerk zunächst auf der Produktion dieser Druckgattung " den Einblattdrucken " liegen. Bei der anschließend untersuchten Diffusion ist von besonderem Interesse, an welchen Orten, zu welchem Zeitpunkt die Drucke vom Hersteller oder Auftraggeber in den Besitz des "Endverbrauchers" gelangten. Dieses Detail der Untersuchung ist auch daher von besonderer Bedeutung, da über die hier zu ermittelnden Ergebnisse eine Zuordnung erfolgen kann, in welchem gesellschaftlichen Umfeld die Blätter ihre Verwendung fanden. rnDer Kreis der Rezipienten schließlich ist in mehr als einer Beziehung für dieses Projekt von Bedeutung. Zunächst erlaubt die Kenntnis um ihren gesellschaftlichen Stand eine Einordnung in ein soziales Umfeld. Hieraus wiederum sind Rückschlüsse auf die Formen des Gebrauchs, in diesem Zusammenhang ist insbesondere die Lesefähigkeit von außerordentlicher Relevanz, der Einblattdrucke, welche Katastrophen thematisieren, möglich. Die somit gleichsam am Ende stehenden Gebrauchsformen " diese lassen sich nicht nur aus den Textinhalten der Blätter, sondern auch anhand von Benutzungsspuren, Fundorten usw. ermitteln " bieten Erkenntnisse, wie katastrophalen Ereignissen auf die spätmittelalterliche Gesellschaft einwirkten und welche Schlußfolgerungen diese daraus zog, um letztlich eine Antwort auf sie zu finden. ; In the late middle ages epidemic diseases and war were a permanent menace in the consciousness of the medieval society, a fact verified by numerous images and texts of this era. Before the middle of the 15th century, all these products were made by hand " in the workshops of monasteries, nunneries and craftsmen. The invention of the printing press revolutionized the conditions of production, reproduction and multiplication of the written word. Printing was the first technology which made it possible to produce images and texts in unprecedented volume. Soon ambitious printing Masters established a new industry in the southern German territories. The prosperous cities of Augsburg, Mainz, Nuremberg and Strasbourg were its early centres. Soon the products which these craftsmen manufactured in their "offizins" dominated existing markets and began to create new ones. rnWith the single-leaf print, the Masters invented a new medium, which made it possible to contact a broad spectrum of readers and users and had a low cost of production. The content and design of these special printing-products was extremely varied. Images and texts were used to manufacture indulgence-certificates, almanacs, educational-pamphlets, miracle-reports and sensation-reports. Next to the indulgences, the so called "Pestblätter" comprised the biggest group of these single-leaf prints. In the second half of the fifteenth and the first quarter of the sixteenth century, leaflets confuring protection against the Black Death and Syphilis were very prominent.rnBeside deathly diseases, there was a second existential threat for inhabitants of central Europe " war! Although wide regions of Germany in the 15th century were not harmed by military conflicts, the Swabian (or Swiss) War and the Landshut War of Succession showed the serious consequences of warfare for the civilian society. The constant borderwars fought by the House of Habsburg against the Ottoman Empire increased the "Kriegsangst" further, which the single-leaf print consequently spread throughout the country. rnThis investigation depends on a series of Questions. How, why and when were single-leaf prints produced? Who produced them? Where and how were these printings distributed? Who purchased single-leaf prints? When and what were their motivations. It is possible to reduce these complex questions to three catchwords.rn-»production " diffusion " reception-«rnThese three aspects of the curriculum vitae of a single-leaf print embody the central research focus of this thesis. After a short definition of the "Katastrophenblatt", attention is directed on the topic production. This chapter shows a short but necessary overall view. It is followed by the important and detailed diffusion section. The centre of the interest is here the channel of distribution " the way the print took from the producer or customer to the consumer. An important detail, because the results allow insights in these social classes single-leaf prints were commonly used in the 15th and 16th century. rnThe recipients are in more than one perspective relevant to this research study. First of all there are the social circumstances these persons lived in. Informations out of this context allow conclusions about the forms single-leaf prints were used. The at the end of this investigation analysed usage could not only be opened by the content of texts and images. Marks of use as well as sites of discovery and circumstances of finding offer new knowledges in which way catastrophes effected the german society of the late middle ages and how the inhabitants of the Holy Roman Empire tried to find answers why they were confronted with these dangers and to protect themselves against it.
Seuchen und Krieg waren jedem einzelnen Individuum der spätmittelalterlichen Gesellschaft als elementare Bedrohungen des eigenen Lebens stets gegenwärtig. Welch hohen Stellenwert diese Katastrophen im Bewußtsein der Bevölkerung einnahmen, läßt sich anhand der vielfältigen zeitgenössischen Bild- und Textzeugnisse erschließen. Während diese vor der Mitte des 15. Jahrhunderts aufgrund der manuellen Fertigung in Skriptorien und den Werkstätten von Kartenmalern nur einem relativ kleinen Personenkreis zugänglich waren, herrschten nach der Erfindung des Buchdrucks völlig neue Voraussetzungen bei der Produktion, Reproduktion und Vervielfältigung von Schriftlichkeit. Mit der Druckkunst stand erstmals eine Technologie zur Verfügung, welches es erlaubte, in kurzer Zeit Abbildungen und Texte in bisher nicht geahnter Auflagenhöhe zu fertigen. Mit den Einblattdrucken wurde früh eine Form gefunden - der erste datierbare Einblattdruck ist ein Mainzer Ablaßbrief aus dem Jahre 1454 -, die es erlaubte, mit niedrigem Aufwand einen großen Personenkreis zu erreichen. Die inhaltliche Bandbreite dieser Sonderform des frühen Drucks war beträchtlich. Sowohl textliche als auch bildliche Elemente wurden genutzt, um Ablaßbriefe, Almanache, Lehr- und Mahnblätter sowie Wunderberichte, Sensationsmeldungen usw. zu gestalten. Auftraggeber dieser Blätter waren in der Regel kirchliche und weltliche Institutionen. Neben den bereits genannten Ablaßbriefen bildeten die sogenannten "Andachtsblätter" eine weitere wichtige Gruppe dieser Druckgattung. Nachweislich ist diese besondere Form der Gebets-Fokussierung bereits für das 14. Jahrhundert. Mit dem Aufkommen des Typendrucks setzte eine erste serielle Herstellung von Andachtsblättern ein. Speziell Blätter, welche die Seuchenabwehr thematisierten, wurden bald in großer Vielfalt verlegt. Der Schutz vor Pest und Syphilis nahm hierbei einen hohen Stellenwert ein.rnDas inhaltliche Spektrum dieser "Pestblätter" reichte von der einfachen Fürbitte um Interzession durch den jeweils angerufenen Krankheitspatron bis hin zu komplexen medizinisch, diätetischen Anweisungen in Bild und Text. Neben diesem eher anleitenden Charakter verband der mittelalterliche Mensch mit dieser Variante des Einblattdrucks auch die Funktion eines apotropäischen Talismans.rnAußer der Bedrohung durch Krankheiten sah sich die mittelalterliche Gesellschaft des 15. Jahrhunderts mit einer weiteren existentiellen Bedrohung konfrontiert - dem Krieg. Auch wenn die deutschen Territorien im 15. Jahrhundert weitgehend von großen kriegerischen Auseinandersetzungen verschont blieben, so reichte der sogenannte Schweizer- oder Schwabenkrieg sowie der Bayerisch-Pfälzische (oder Landshuter) Erbfolgekriege aus, die gravierenden Folgen der Kriegsführung für die zivile Gesellschaft vor Augen zu führen. Zu einer weiteren Steigerung der "Kriegsangst" führten die in diesem Zeitraum stattfindenden Auseinandersetzungen mit dem expandierenden Osmanischen Reich. Diese dezidierte Untersuchung der frühesten Einblattdrucke baut auf mehreren grundsätzlichen Fragestellungen auf: Wie, von wem, warum und wann wurden Einblattdrucke hergestellt? Wie und wo erfolgte die Verbreitung von Einblattdrucken? Wer erwarb wann Einblattdrucke und aus welcher Absicht heraus tat er dies? Diese recht komplexen Fragestellungen lassen sich auf drei Schlagworte reduzieren: »Produktion - Diffusion - Rezeption« Aus diesen drei Aspekten des "Lebenslaufes" eines Einblatts ergeben sich die zentralen Forschungsschwerpunkte dieses Projekts. Daher wird auch nach einer einführenden Begriffsdefinition des "Katastrophenblattes" das Hauptaugenmerk zunächst auf der Produktion dieser Druckgattung - den Einblattdrucken - liegen. Bei der anschließend untersuchten Diffusion ist von besonderem Interesse, an welchen Orten, zu welchem Zeitpunkt die Drucke vom Hersteller oder Auftraggeber in den Besitz des "Endverbrauchers" gelangten. Dieses Detail der Untersuchung ist auch daher von besonderer Bedeutung, da über die hier zu ermittelnden Ergebnisse eine Zuordnung erfolgen kann, in welchem gesellschaftlichen Umfeld die Blätter ihre Verwendung fanden. Der Kreis der Rezipienten schließlich ist in mehr als einer Beziehung für dieses Projekt von Bedeutung. Zunächst erlaubt die Kenntnis um ihren gesellschaftlichen Stand eine Einordnung in ein soziales Umfeld. Hieraus wiederum sind Rückschlüsse auf die Formen des Gebrauchs, in diesem Zusammenhang ist insbesondere die Lesefähigkeit von außerordentlicher Relevanz, der Einblattdrucke, welche Katastrophen thematisieren - möglich. Die somit gleichsam am Ende stehenden Gebrauchsformen - diese lassen sich nicht nur aus den Textinhalten der Blätter, sondern auch anhand von Benutzungsspuren, Fundorten usw. ermitteln - bieten Erkenntnisse, wie katastrophalen Ereignissen auf die spätmittelalterliche Gesellschaft einwirkten und welche Schlußfolgerungen diese daraus zog, um letztlich eine Antwort auf sie zu finden. ; In the late middle ages epidemic diseases and war were a permanent menace in the consciousness of the medieval society, a fact verified by numerous images and texts of this era. Before the middle of the 15th century, all these products were made by hand - in the workshops of monasteries, nunneries and craftsmen. The invention of the printing press revolutionized the conditions of production, reproduction and multiplication of the written word. Printing was the first technology which made it possible to produce images and texts in unprecedented volume. Soon ambitious printing Masters established a new industry in the southern German territories. The prosperous cities of Augsburg, Mainz, Nuremberg and Strasbourg were its early centres. Soon the products which these craftsmen manufactured in their "offizins" dominated existing markets and began to create new ones. With the single-leaf print, the Masters invented a new medium, which made it possible to contact a broad spectrum of readers and users and had a low cost of production. The content and design of these special printing-products was extremely varied. Images and texts were used to manufacture indulgence-certificates, almanacs, educational-pamphlets, miracle-reports and sensation-reports. Next to the indulgences, the so called "Pestblätter" comprised the biggest group of these single-leaf prints. In the second half of the fifteenth and the first quarter of the sixteenth century, leaflets confuring protection against the Black Death and Syphilis were very prominent. Beside deathly diseases, there was a second existential threat for inhabitants of central Europe " war! Although wide regions of Germany in the 15th century were not harmed by military conflicts, the Swabian (or Swiss) War and the Landshut War of Succession showed the serious consequences of warfare for the civilian society. The constant borderwars fought by the House of Habsburg against the Ottoman Empire increased the "Kriegsangst" further, which the single-leaf print consequently spread throughout the country. This investigation depends on a series of Questions. How, why and when were single-leaf prints produced? Who produced them? Where and how were these printings distributed? Who purchased single-leaf prints? When and what were their motivations. It is possible to reduce these complex questions to three catchwords. »production - diffusion - reception«. These three aspects of the curriculum vitae of a single-leaf print embody the central research focus of this thesis. After a short definition of the "Katastrophenblatt", attention is directed on the topic production. This chapter shows a short but necessary overall view. It is followed by the important and detailed diffusion section. The centre of the interest is here the channel of distribution - the way the print took from the producer or customer to the consumer. An important detail, because the results allow insights in these social classes single-leaf prints were commonly used in the 15th and 16th century. The recipients are in more than one perspective relevant to this research study. First of all there are the social circumstances these persons lived in. Informations out of this context allow conclusions about the forms single-leaf prints were used. The at the end of this investigation analysed usage could not only be opened by the content of texts and images. Marks of use as well as sites of discovery and circumstances of finding offer new knowledges in which way catastrophes effected the german society of the late middle ages and how the inhabitants of the Holy Roman Empire tried to find answers why they were confronted with these dangers and to protect themselves against it.
New industries are recognized as new impetus to national wealth. At the same time, they are increasingly becoming geographically concentrated in some well defined areas. But current studies on the emergence of industrial clusters tend to analyze favorable driving factors. This dissertation takes the example of a Chinese endogenous industrial cluster, the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) cluster at Tonghua, a small peripheral city in Northeastern China, to contribute to the theoretical understanding of the emergence of industrial cluster as a co-evolutionary process of organizations, institutions and firms, or, to put it more broadly, as economic evolution embedded in complex socio-economic contexts. The recent advance in evolutionary and co-evolutionary economics which considers the economy and economic landscape as dynamic process instead of equilibrium can be regarded as a part of broader and more intellectual turn of quest for history in social sciences. Although the principle of "history matters" is widely acknowledged, it tends to be reduced to a quite simple concept of "path dependence". However, path dependence cannot offer space for new path creation, except from an external shock. Accordingly, the role of human conscious action or Schumpeterian innovation should be added to path analysis through the concept of path creation. Furthermore, and more importantly, history should be understood as context, and historical context can be explored through the understanding of multi-paths and interaction among them over time. So path inter-dependence (co-evolution between paths) would be useful to better understand the complexity of real history. Since the industrial cluster is composed of interconnected firms and is also subject to changes in institution and technology, I will focus on the multi-way causal relationship between firm, institution and technology. The theorizing is not entirely new, but most of the theoretical and empirical discussions are at the national or industrial level, not regional or local one. A competitive cluster can be regarded as a co-evolutionary hotspot in which multiple populations actively interact and are interconnected. Co-evolution itself is a dynamic and evolutionary process. So I will adopt a dynamic and evolutionary view to examine co-evolutionary degree or co-evolutionary effects in the Tonghua pharmaceutical cluster through time. After a brief introduction which deals with the national institutional changes that are highly associated with new venture creation, entrepreneurship, and innovation, with registrations on drug and healthcare system, and with changes in market demand of China's pharmaceutical industry and geographical distribution, I will collect evidences from three aspects based upon field survey and second hand data, i.e., the history of the enterprises, the origin of entrepreneurship, and the knowledge of evolution, linking their respective generative relationships through the genealogical method. In this volume, the evolution of the Tonghua pharmaceutical firm organization, the formation of local entrepreneurship, historical accumulation of knowledge, and particular knowledge of transfer among generations of firms will be discussed, then I will probe into co-adaption and co-evolution between local formal and informal institutions and organizations in Tonghua's TCM industry. In addition, I will try to understand the co-evolutionary process at different geographical levels (namely, national and local). In summary, my main findings include the following several points. Firstly, in the course of the emergence of Tonghua's pharmaceutical industry, local social networks and the traditional alliance between enterprises and government have played important roles. Secondly, the most important factor that influences the evolution of endogenous industrial clusters such as the Tonghua pharmaceutical industry in transitional countries is not the change in technology, but the change in fundamental national institutions. Thirdly, the success of the Tonghua pharmaceutical industry can be ascribed to the creation of multiple paths largely based on initial conditions, which implies that economic policy should have historical consciousness, namely, new economic innovation should make full use of both historical legacies and existing assets. Finally, it is co-adaption and co-selection of firm organization, institution, and technology that have jointly made Tonghua's pharmaceutical industry become highly competitive, which means that whether one region can grasp new opportunities partially depends on its capabilities to coordinate a varity of development agents. ; Neue Industrien werden im Allgemeinen als Impuls der Entwicklung zu nationalem Wohlstand verstanden. Zugleich sind sie überwiegend an einigen geographisch genau definierten Orten konzentriert. Aktuelle Studien zur Emergenz dieser Industrie-Cluster neigen dazu, entsprechende begünstigende Faktoren zu analysieren. Mit dem Beispiel eines endogenen Clusters in China, dem Cluster der Traditionellen Chinesischen Medizin (TCM) in Tonghua, will diese Dissertation zum theoretischen Verständnis der Emergenz von Industrie-Clustern unter der Perspektive eines ko-evolutorischen Prozesses von Form der Organisation, Institutionen und Unternehmen beitragen. Oder, um es etwas breiter auszudrücken, diese Emergenz als ökonomische Evolution zu verstehen, die in einen komplexen sozio-ökonomischen Kontext eingebettet ist. Obgleich der Vorstellung, Geschichte habe eine Bedeutung ("history matters"), überwiegend in der Forschung zugestimmt wird, bleibt diese oft auf das Konzept der Pfadabhängigkeit beschränkt. Das aber eröffnet keinen Raum für die Betrachtung endogener Pfad-Bildung. Dem Konzept der Pfad-Bildung entsprechend sollte jedoch die Pfadanalyse ergänzt werden um bewusste Handlungen des Menschen oder auch um Innovationen im Schumpeterschen Sinn. Wichtiger ist außerdem, dass Geschichte als ein Kontext verstanden werden sollte, in dem mehrere Pfade ko-existieren und im Zeitverlauf auch interagieren. So wäre ein Konzept der Pfad-Interdependenz (oder der Ko-Evolution von Pfaden) nützlich zum besseren Verständnis der Komplexität "wirklicher" Geschichte. Weil das Industriecluster sich aus untereinander verflochtenen Unternehmen zusammen setzt und zugleich Gegenstand von Änderungen in den Institutionen und der Technologie ist, konzentriert sich die Dissertation auf vielseitige kausale Beziehungen von Unternehmen, Institutionen und Technologie. Ein wettbewerbsfähiges Cluster kann aus geographischer Sicht als ein "hot spot" der Ko-evolution betrachtet werden, in dem verschiedenartige Populationen aktiv untereinander agieren und daher miteinander verflochten sind. Ko-Evolution selbst ist dann ein dynamischer und evolutorischer Prozess. Die Arbeit wählt diese Perspektive, um das Maß und die Wirkungen der Ko-Evolution im Pharma-Cluster von Tonghua im Zeitverlauf zu analysieren. Die Dissertation fußt auf empirischen Erhebungen, ergänzt um eine Dokumenten-Analyse, zur Geschichte der Unternehmen, der Herkunft der Unternehmerschaft sowie der Evolution von Wissen. Sie diskutiert die Evolution in den Organisationsformen der Pharma-Unternehmen in Tonghua, die Bildung einer lokalen Unternehmerschaft, die historische Akkumulation von Wissen und den besonderen Wissenstransfer zwischen Generationen von Unternehmen. Schließlich untersucht sie die Ko-Adaption und Ko-Evolution von lokalen formalen und informellen Institutionen und Organisationen der TCM-Industrie in Tonghua. Die folgenden Punkte betreffen die wichtigsten Ergebnisse der Dissertation: Erstens haben sehr langfristige und dichte lokale soziale Netzwerke eine erhebliche Rolle im Lauf der Emergenz der Pharma-Industrie in Tonghua gespielt. Zweitens ist der wichtigste Faktor in der Pharma-Industrie nicht im technologischen Fortschritt durch Anstrengungen bei Forschung und Entwicklung (FuE) zu sehen, sondern im institutionellen Wandel sowohl auf nationaler als auch auf lokaler Ebene. Drittens kann der Erfolg der Pharma-Industrie in Tonghua der Bildung multipler Pfade zugeschrieben werden, die auf bestimmten Anfangsbedingungen gründen. Das bedeutet, dass die neue ökonomische Entwicklungspolitik sowohl das historische Erbe als auch bestehende Aktivposten in vollem Umfang nutzen sollte. Schließlich ist festzustellen, dass Ko-Adaption und Ko-Selektion der Unternehmens-Organisation, von Institutionen und Technologie zusammen die Pharma-Industrie von Tonghua in hohem Maße wettbewerbsfähig gemacht haben. Ob eine Region neue Gelegenheiten ergreifen kann, hängt folglich teilweise von ihrer Fähigkeit ab, eine Vielfalt von Entwicklungs-Agenten zu koordinieren.
The term localisation is derived from the word locale, which traditionally means a small area or vicinity. In ancient days, localisation meant navigation -- an art of finding the way from one place to another. Tremendous advancement in the science of navigation dates back to the sixteenth century, when instruments like compasses, sextants and the first ever clock to keep the time exactly were devised. Advancement in navigation brought ways and means to explore the world, be it for expansion of the territories or for promoting trade and business. Since then localisation has been explored for several decades as a classical problem in many disciplines -- including robotics, virtual reality, navigation. Now we are in the era of ubiquitous computing -- a term coined by the visionary Mark Weiser in the early 1990s. Weiser sees technology only as a means to an end, which should take a back seat in order to allow user to fully concentrate on the task at hand. Looking from a technological standpoint, today we are surrounded by a wealth of devices enriched with sensing, computing and communication capabilities which are seamlessly integrated in our daily lives. Knowing the location of an object is an important cornerstone and fertile research area in ubiquitous computing. The growing need of location systems underscores the importance of addressing this problem -- government initiatives to locate emergency call by cellular network providers and the increasing usage of global positioning systems (GPS) in many commercial applications as in navigation are just a few examples. Since the field is active and vibrant, new services and market players are constantly emerging. Google have just launched a new service called Latitude, which lets smart phone and laptop users share their location with friends and allows those friends to share their locations in return. Latitude uses satellites and cell towers to estimate location. The market for GPS products and services alone is expected to grow to USD200 billion by 2015. Real-time location systems (RTLS) in the transport and logistics sector drive the penetration of several location-based solutions. The number of RTLS suppliers is expected to increase from 50 to 200 by 2013, reflecting a market growth from USD 145 million in 2008 to USD 2.7 billion in 2013. Despite the extraordinary advances in outdoor localisation and navigation, indoor localisation still remains an open challenge. Fundamental to any location system are the algorithms used to estimate location. This thesis focuses on formulation of localisation algorithms with the capability of fusing measurements from multiple modalities. We begin by systematically analysing the basic principles of localisation through a review and classification of the state of the art. From our detailed survey, it is evident that no location system is error-free and suited for all situations. For example, pure inertial sensors suffer from drift, ultrasound sensors require clear line of sight and magnetic sensors are affected by ferromagnetic and conductive materials in the environment. Thus, we rationalise "multimodal localisation" as one of the promising ways for improving location accuracy. Apart from improving performance of the location system in limited measurement volumes, fusion of heterogeneous sensing systems will ultimately allow people to move between places covered by different sensing systems without loss of location knowledge. We explore localisation algorithms that use multiple sensing modalities to improve accuracy and robustness. To ground our work, we have chosen three specific applications covering both infrastructure-based positioning and ad hoc-based positioning systems. From our taxonomy, we create a blueprint of location technologies that would meet those three application needs. -Localisation in office environments to facilitate social networking, as a way to help coordination of people and understand social patterns. We leverage the existing wireless local-area networks (WLAN) infrastructure to sense motion and location with the main motivation of building wide-area location services. Our contributions include-- (i) in-depth characterisation of received signal strength (RSSI), (ii) novel algorithms to deduce motion by observing fluctuations in RSSI across all the access points in range, and (iii) performance comparison using real data against common deterministic location algorithms with and without adding motion information. -Transport and logistics operation (e.g. in warehouses), motivating the need of fine-grained location information. We use ultra-wideband (UWB) as it copes with harsh indoor environments better than conventional radio technologies. Our contributions include-- (i) characterisation of heterogeneous observations (pseudoranges and angles) obtained from two deployments, mimicking real-world (low-overhead) vs. ideal deployment (carefully planned and calibrated), (ii) formulation of algorithms to fuse heterogeneous observations and (iii) a thorough evaluation for both static and dynamic tracking. -Emergency response scenarios, motivating the need for ad hoc positioning capabilities. In particular, we use a combination of inertial sensors and ultrasound sensors. The position error in a purely inertial system increases with time and requires correction from external sources. We address this problem by deploying ultrasound sensors as landmarks correcting for the inertial drift. Our contributions include-- (i) characterisation of inertial and ultrasound data, (ii) algorithms to support guidance and tracking and (iii) a thorough evaluation from data gathered from real deployments. While the chosen technologies and applications are not exhaustive, they are representative as they cover a broad spectrum across several dimensions: accuracy -- fine grained to coarse grained, coverage -- room-level to wide-area, dependence -- dense infrastructure to ad hoc, cost -- expensive to minimal cost. In every instance, we have illustrated the benefits of combining multiple modalities. In short, our contributions include algorithms for motion detection and technology independent localisation algorithms that have the ability to fuse readings across different sensing technologies and incorporate motion models to improve accuracy significantly. Another important aspect of the work presented in this thesis is the characterisation of the raw measurement errors of the individual modalities. In all cases, we perform a rigorous evaluation of the presented algorithms by using measurements collected from real deployments.
El proceso de ordenamiento territorial en Bolivia es relativamente nuevo y por tal razón el avance es mínimo si se piensa en los objetivos alcanzados hasta ahora. El presente trabajo pretende mostrar el avance logrado en uno de los departamentos de Bolivia, Tarija, donde en 5 años, se ha logrado elaborar un plan departamental de ordenamiento territorial y mediante la coordinación interinstitucional (prefectura y gobiernos municipales) se ha iniciado el mismo proceso de a nivel municipal. A partir de estos planes municipales se induce a municipios predominantemente urbanos a trabajar planes de ordenamiento territorial a partir de lineamientos planteados desde la prefectura, con el fin de iniciar los procesos de planificación urbana, actualizar la normativa y elaborar proyectos de desarrollo local. El objetivo del presente trabajo, es mostrar los avances a los que se pretende arribar gracias a un proceso metodológico de ordenamiento territorial incorporado a una dinámica urbana que interactúa constantemente con su área de influencia que en el caso boliviano es normalmente rural; pero además demostrar que el componente interdisciplinario en el caso de la planificación urbana es imprescindible considerando que hasta hace unos años este era un trabajo especifico de los colegas urbanistas y que en una realidad como la latinoamericana casi siempre quedaba en planos y en un viejo anaquel. Por lo tanto a partir de una interdisciplinariedad se puede lograr desarrollo local articulando y optimizando relaciones urbano-rurales que basan su desarrollo en un proceso metodológico como es el caso del ordenamiento territorial. El trabajo, se apoya en la guía metodológica para la elaboración de planes elaboradas por el Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible del gobierno boliviano, pero como tal cual su nombre expresa es una guía susceptible a ser adecuada a las exigencias del área de estudio, en este sentido sobre esa base es que se incorporan algunas variables de estudio que permitirán mejorar el producto a nivel de propuesta una vez concluido el trabajo. Contempla varias etapas donde la incorporación de los diferentes actores sociales será una clave para lograr resultados exitosos en la etapa de implementación. Actualmente el plan municipal de la provincia Cercado, es un proyecto a encarar en los próximos meses una vez cumplidos con los requisitos administrativos para iniciar el trabajo técnico que comprenderá un trabajo de campo, para el relevamiento de datos, la elaboración de un diagnóstico integral con dos ámbitos territoriales rural y urbano, para luego proceder al análisis territorial y el planteamiento de propuesta que incluirán políticas, estrategias, acciones y proyectos, pero no solo generará bases para el uso de suelo y la ocupación del territorio, a escala urbana se plantearan los lineamientos para el diseño y la normativa urbana. A partir del cual se definirán proyectos de desarrollo local que nos permita orientarnos hacia la imagen objetivo planteada en la visión del proyecto, este trabajo incluye el aspecto institucional para fortalecer al proceso que hasta esta ahora se encuentra desarticulado; se pretende consolidar el proceso de ordenamiento y dar inicio a otros en escalas de mayor detalle permitiendo la optimización de recursos y el aprovechamiento de las potencialidades y recursos naturales para mejorar la calidad de vida. ; The process of land use planning in Bolivia is relatively new and for that reason progress is minimal if one thinks of the objectives achieved so far. This paper aims to show progress in one of the departments of Bolivia, Tarija, where over 5 years, has managed to prepare a plan for land use planning department and through inter-agency coordination (prefectural and municipal governments) has begun the same process of at the municipal level. From these municipal plans are to induce municipalities to work predominantly urban land use plans based on guidelines set since the prefecture, in order to initiate the process of urban planning, updating the regulations and develop local development projects. The objective of this work is to show the progress that is intended to arrive through a process of territorial planning methodology incorporated into a dynamic urban constantly interacts with its area of influence in the case of Bolivia is usually rural, but also demonstrate that interdisciplinary component in the case of urban planning is essential considering that until a few years ago this was a specific work of colleagues and city planners that a reality as the Latin American was almost always in planes and an old bracket. Therefore from an interdisciplinary approach can be achieved by articulating local development and optimizing relations urban-rural development based on a methodological process such as land use planning. The work was supported in the methodological guide for drawing up contingency plans drawn up by the Ministry of Sustainable Development of the Bolivian government, but as its name as it expresses is a guide likely to be adequate to the demands of the study area, in this regard on that basis is that incorporates some variables study that will improve the product level proposal once completed work. It covers several stages where the incorporation of the different social actors will be a key to achieving successful results at the implementation stage. Currently the municipal plan of the province Cercado, is a project to tackle in the coming months once completed administrative requirements to start the technical work that comprise a fieldwork for the survey data, developing a comprehensive diagnosis both rural and urban land, and then proceed to the analysis and territorial approach proposed including policies, strategies, projects and actions, but not only generate bases for land use and occupation of the territory at the urban scale would emanate guidelines for design and urban policy. As of which will define local development projects that will enable us to move towards the objective image raised in the vision of the project, this includes work to strengthen the institutional aspect to the process that until now this is dismantled; seeks to consolidate the process of ordering and to initiate other scales in greater detail allowing optimizing resources and harnessing the potentials and natural resources to improve the quality of life. ; Fil: Aranda, Verónica.
According to the Urban Renewal Authority (URA) preservation project launched in 2009, the vibrant Flower Market in Mong Kok, a long-time industry production, wholesale and retail hub, is going to be remade into a heritage consumption area. The economic network of an entire industry is drastically re-commodified into consumable heritage space, with disregard to the socio-economic necessity of the Flower Market as a place for quotidian culture and economy, and flower cultivation as a significant part of agriculture in Hong Kong. Although the preservation project launched by the URA is still in land acquisition process by the time this dissertation is completed, gentrification around the Flower Market has already started. Business environment in the market is increasingly difficult because of this kind of urban renewal in the name of cultural preservation, without real regard for quotidian tradition, culture and way of life. Government policy and previous scholarship have paid little attention to the needs and contributions of producers and sellers in the flower industry in understanding the Mong Kok Flower Market heritage preservation project, which this research aims to rectify. This dissertation studies the history, operation and transformation of the Mong Kok Flower Market and flower cultivation in Hong Kong. Through investigating the power dynamics between ordinary people, local elites and the government in the process, this research discovers a kind of subjugated knowledge, purposely neglected, but is in fact of great importance to the understanding of how coloniality (colonial mentality) is embedded in the daily operations of power in colonial and postcolonial Hong Kong. This implies that the official end of colonialism does not automatically allow for the end of coloniality, which this research discovers to be still evidently embedded in Hong Kong's "governmentality." In fact, coloniality can be glimpsed through discovering its embedded operations in the daily operations and transformations of the Mong Kok Flower Market and flower cultivation in Hong Kong. My thesis engages in a process of decolonisation, which aims to explore embedded coloniality as a method of disclosing unarticulated and unconscious values and mentalities hidden in institutional practices that have been used to govern Hong Kong. The government has implanted this mentality in a process in which social injustice becomes institutionalised into well-accepted values in daily practice, and in this way, coloniality becomes normalised and legitimised. The government had deployed unjust social relations into executive protocols, bureaucratic procedures and laws governing the government and semi-governmental bodies affecting everyday life. The theoretical framework of this study is principally drawn from Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Ranajit Guha's subaltern studies theories, which articulate the nature of subaltern people and their power dynamics vis-?-vis the elite. This study is structured through an examination of three aspects related to the flower industry: the first emphasises the dissipation of flower cultivation in the New Territories in relation to the collaboration between the government and the rural elites; the second highlights law enforcement patrols in the flower market wherein the government uses street management tactics rather than responding to the industry's requests for a permanent wholesale market; and the third examines the heritage preservation of several buildings in the market and a revitalisation project in the vicinity as a way of beautifying the area, yet in these projects the government failed to engage the people in the industry in a democratic process of decision-making to determine the future of the market. My research explores three key issues relating to subaltern studies: (1) how coloniality is negotiated, articulated, forced and infused into the flower industry; (2) the impact of coloniality imposed on the flower industry through analysing its historic and cultural context; and (3) to what extent does the government use public policies (i.e. land policy, hawker control policy, heritage preservation policy) to facilitate the economic progress of the city. This study adopts a qualitative approach, using multiple methods such as textual analysis, ethnography including participant observation in the flower market, and semi-structured in-depth interviews with workers in the flower industry, including farmers, wholesalers, retailers and floral designers, etc. I performed participant observation through working as an assistant in a retail flower shop before Valentine's Day which allowed me to gain first-hand information about flower shop operation and the customers' perception of flowers. Through these approaches and methods my thesis explores the flower culture of Hong Kong and the power dynamics between the government, elites and ordinary people. The findings of the thesis reveal that the government often adopted negotiation as a means of governance. For instance, the government used various methods to incorporate local resistance as a way to facilitate development, but at the same time, ignored the needs of the flower industry, such as the need (1) to relax land administration rules which would have allowed larger pieces of land for flower cultivation, (2) to offer an appropriate site for a permanent flower market, and (3) to widen the pavement to solve the problem of street obstruction. Instead, the government managed people's request for a permanent flower market. Law enforcement officers were employed to control the street and limit illegitimate use. I found that a hegemonic decision-making process prevailed, and the government tended to value professional advice but refused to seriously consider the voice of the people. These findings reveal the unwritten power dynamics between the government, elites and ordinary people and add variations to subaltern studies which merely focus on the agency of subalterns. This research is one of the first few local attempts to study the flower industry through its historical and cultural formation. By exploring the point of view of subaltern people vis-?-vis the power dynamics between the government and local elites in executive protocols, bureaucratic practices and laws, this research aims to adopt subaltern studies in understanding quotidian culture, and to make a significant contribution to postcolonial studies and urban studies. ; published_or_final_version ; Comparative Literature ; Master ; Master of Philosophy
The construction of the new development model (NMD) of Morocco represents several similarities but also particularities compared to the theoretical constructions which are part of the strategies and development programs. The purpose of this paper is to offer a succinct reading or schematization of the construction of the NMD, without dwelling on the analysis of its content and its scope ; Résumé : La construction du nouveau modèle de développement (NMD) du Maroc représente plusieurs similitudes mais aussi des particularités par rapport aux constructions théoriques qui s'inscrivent dans le cadre des stratégies et des programmes de développement. La finalité de ce papier est d'offrir une lecture ou schématisation succincte de la construction du NMD, sans s'attarder à l'analyse de son contenu et sa portée.
Issue 33.5 of the Review for Religious, 1974. ; Review lot Religious is edited by faculty members of the School of Divinity of St. Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copy-right ~) 1974 by Review ]or Religious. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $1.75. Sub-scription U.S.A. and Canada: $6.00 a year; $11.00 for two years; other countries, $7.00 a year, $13.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order payable to Review ]or Religious in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent Review ]or Religious. Change of address requests should include former address. R. F. Smith, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor September 1974 Volume 33 Number 5 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to Review for Religious; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts, books for review, and materials for "Subject Bibliography for Religious" should be sent to Review for Religious; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, SJ.; St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106. Papal Bull Holy Year Proclaiming the Paul VI Given below is the English translation of Paul VI's Bull proclaiming the Holy Year that will begin on Christmas Eve, 1974. The translation is that which appeared in the English edition of Osservatore romano. Paul, servant of the servants of God, to all the faithful: Health and apostolic blessing. As the universal jubilee to be celebrated in Rome approaches, the memorials of the Apostles shine forth more brightly for the faithful as the goal of pilgrimage--the holy places of Rome where the tombs of the Apostles Peter and Paul are worthily preserved and religiously venerated, those "holy fathers" through whom the ~ity became not only the "diSciple of truth" but also the teacher of truth1 and the center of Catholic unity. Down the centuries, these memorials have always impelled the Chris-tian people to be fervent in their faith and to testify to ecclesial communion. This is so because the Church recognizes her identity and the cause of her unity in the foundation laid .by Jesus Christ, namely, the Apostles." From as early as the second century the faithful came to Rome to see and venerate the "trQphies" of the Apostles Peter and Paul in those very places where they are preserved,:' and they. made pilgrimages to the church of Rome to contemplate her "regal dignity."4 In the fourth century the pilgrimage to 1See St. Leo the Great, Sermon 82, 1 : PL 54, 422. ZSee Rev 21 : 14. 3See the testimony of Gaius, an ecclegiastic of the time of Pope Zephrynus, as given in Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, II,25,7. 4See the inscription of Abercius, bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia at the end of the second century; the text and translation is given in M. Guarducci, "L'iscrizione di Abercio," Ancient Society, v. 2 (1971), pp. 176-7. 993 994 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 Rome became in the West the principal form of that kind of religious journey. It was similar to, and had the same religious purpose as, the pil-grimage which was made in the East to Jerusalem where the Lord's sepulchre is found? In the early Middle Ages, those who were "linked to the Chair of Peter,'''~ and those who wished to make a profession of their orthodox faith at the tombs of the Apostles,; especially monks, came off pilgrimage to Rome from various parts of Europe and even from the East. The idea of a pilgrimage increased further from the 12th to the 13th century, becoming all the more common by reason of a renewal of spirituality and popular piety which spread throughout Europe at that time. This renewal served to enrich the ancient notion which the Church received from tradition and which was equally 1~o be found in other religions, namely, the concept of a "pilgrimage undertaken for the love ot~ God.''s The jubilee year originated in this way; it was as it were the result of a maturing process in the doctrinal; Biblical and theological fields.:' It emerged plainly for the first time in the year 1220 when our predecessor Honorius III proclaimed a jubilee.year for pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Thomas ~ Becket.1° Later, as is well known, pilgrims came to Rome to the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul, in the great popular and penitential movement of the year 1300, a movement confirmed by our predecessor Boniface VIII.11 This was marked by a longing to obtain pardon from God and peace among men. The move-ment was directed to this very lofty motive: "the glory of God and the exaltation of the faith.''1~ The Roman Jubilee of 1300 was the beginning and the pattern for those which have followed (every 25 years from the, 15th century onwards, except when the series was interrupted by extraneous circumstances). This is an indication of the continuity and vitality v~hich have always confirmed the relevance of this venerable institution for every age. It is correct to say that the jubilees celebrated in recent times have pre- ~See St. Maximus of Turin, Homily 72: PL 57, 405b. GThe expression is found in a letter of St. Columban to Pope Boniface IV in 613: Sancti Columbani opera ed. G. S. M. Walder (Dublin, 1957), p. 48. rConcerning this custom see F. M. Mignanti, lstoria della sacrosanta Basilica Vaticana (Rome/Turin, 1867), p. 180. 8See in general B. Kotting, Peregrinatio religiosa: Wall]ahrten in der Antike und das Pilgerwesen in der Alten Kirche (Regensburg, 1950). ~R. Foreville, "L'id6e de jubil6 chez les th6ologiens et les canonistes (XII-XIII s.) avant l'institution du Jubil6 Romain (1300)," Revue d'histoire eccl~siastique, v. 56 (1961), pp. 401-23. 10p. Pressuti, Regesta Honorii 1H (Rome, 1888-95), p. 1840; the text is given in R. Foreville, "Le Jubil6 de saint Thomas b. Becket du XIII au XV sii~cle (1220-1470)," Etudes et documents (Paris, 1958), pp. 163-4. alBull, Antiquorum habet fida relatio, dated February 22, 1300: Extravagantes Comm. V,IX, I. ~zSee the gloss of Cardinal Giovanni Monaco on the same bull. Papal Bull Proclaiming the Holy Year / 995 served this outstanding value whereby the unity and renewal of the Church aCe affirmed in a special way and allmen are encouraged to recognize one another as brothers and to walk in the path of peace. Such a desire was manifested at the beginning of this century when our predecessor Leo XIII proclaimed' the jubilee year in 1900. The human family was~ filled with the same hopes and expectations when, a,quarter of a century later, afflicted by grave ,dangers and contention, 'it awaited the Holy Year of 1925. These were proposed for the special Holy Year of 1933 on the occasion of the 19th centenary of the redemption. The same noble aspirations for justice and peaceful coexistence among men were put forward by Pius" XII for the last jubilee, in the year 1950. I It seems to us that in the'present Holy Year all the principal and im-portant motives of the previous jubilees are present and expressed in sum-mary form in the .themes that we ourself laid down in our discourse of May 9, 1973 when we first announced ,the Holy Year: renewal and reconcilia-tion. a:~ We have offered these themes for the reflection of pastors and faithful, particularly during the anticipated celebration of the jubilee in local churches, and we have.added to them our exhortations and our catechesis. But the aspirations that the two themes enunciate and the lofty ideals that they express ~vill find a more complete realization in Rome, where pilgrims to the tombs of the Apostles Peter and Paul and to the memorials of the other martyrs will come into more ready contact with the ancient sources of the Church's faith.and life, in order to be converted by repentance, strengthened in charity, hnd united more closely with their brethren by the grace of God. Thi~ renewal and reconciliation pertain in the first place to the interior life, above all because the root of all good and, unfortunately of all evil, is found in the depths of the heart. It is in the depths of the heart therefore that conversions of metanoia must take place, that is, a change of direction, of attitude, of option, of one's way of life. But also for the Church as a whole, ten years after the end of the Second Vatican Council we view the Holy Year as the ending of a period of reflection and reform arid the beginning of a new phase of building up in the theological, spiritual, and pastoral spheres, to be developed on the foundations laboriously laid down and consolidated during the past years; in accordance with the principles of new life in Christ and of the communion of all men in Him who reconciled us to the Father by His blood,a~ For the whole w~arld this call to renewal and reconciliation is in harmony a3See Paul VI, "Allocution Announcing the Plans for a 1975 Holy Year," May 9, 1973: AAS, v. 65 (1973), pp. 322-5. 14See 2 Cor 5:18-20; Rm 5:10. 996 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 with the most sincere aspirations for freedom, justice, unity, and peace that we see wherever men become aware of their most serious problems and suffer from the mishaps produced by divisions and fratricidal wars. With the message of the Holy Year, therefore, the Church wishes to indicate to all men of good will- the vertical dimension of life that ensures reference of all aspirations and experiences to an absolute and truly universal value, without which it is vain to hope that mankind will once more find a point of unification and a guarantee of true freedom. Even though it is charac-teristic of many sectors of modern society to assume secuIar forms, the Church, without interfering in matters which do not come within her competence, nevertheless wishes to impress on men the need to be con-verted to God who alone is necessary,a5 and to imbue all their actions with fear and love of Him. For faith in God is the most powerful safeguard of the human conscience and is the solid foundation of those relationships of justice and brotherhood the world yearns for. The pilgrimage to Rome by representatives of all the local churches, both pastors and people, will therefore be a sign of a new process of conversion and brotherly reconciliation. As the minister of the word and of the grace of reconciliation, we respond to this sign of the interior dispositions of the pilgrims and of the renewed resolve of the Christian people whom they represent, by imparting the gift of the jubilee indulgence, insofar as we are able, to all the pilgrims who come to Rome and to all those who, though prevented from making the journey, accompany them in spirit. II It is well known from the Church's very ancient custom that the indul-gence attached to many penitential practices was granted in a special way as a gift on the occasion of pilgrimages to the places sanctified by the life, passion, and resurrection of our Savior Jesus Christ and by the confession of the Apostles. Today, too, we associate ourself with that venerable tradition, according to the principles and norms that we have ourself laid down in the apostolic constitution Indulgentiarum doctrina~'; and which we wish to recall briefly at this point. Since Christ is our "justice" and, as has been fittingly said, our "indul-gence," we, as the humble minister of Christ the Redeemer, .willingly extend a share in the gift of the indulgence~in accordance with the Church's tradi-tion- to all the faithful who, through a profound conversion of heart to God, through works of penance, piety, and brotherly solidarity, sincerely and fervently attest their desire to remain united in charity with God and l~See Lk 10:42; Mt 6:33. ~6Apostolic Constitution, lndulgentiarum doctrina: AAS v. 59 (1967), pp. 5-24. Papal Bull Proclaiming the Holy Year / 997 their brethren and to make progress in that charity.~: In fact, this sharing comes from the fullness of the treasury of salvation which is primarily found in Christ the Redeemer Himself, "in whom the satisfactions and merits of His redemption subsist in all their value.''xs In this'fullness in Christ, which we have all received,x" there shines forth "the most ancient dogma of the communion of saints, whereby, in Christ and through Christ, the lives of the individual sons of God are linked with the lives of all the other Christian brethren by a marvelous bond in the supernatural unity of the Mystical Body of Christ, as in one mystical person.''~° For, "by the hidden and benevolent mystery of the divine will, men are linked together in a supernatural relationship, whereby just as the sin of one also harms the others, so also the holiness of one is beneficial to the others.'''-'~ By means of the indulgence, the Church, making use of her power as minis-ter of the redemption of Christ the Lord, communicates to the faithful a sharing in this fullness of Christ in the communion of saints,'-"-' providing them with the ample means of salvation. Thus the Church, aiding and embracing them like a mother, sustains her weak and infirm children, who.find a firm support in the Mystical Body of Christ, which in its entirety works for their conversion through charity, example, and prayer. Thus penitents find in this singular form of ecclesial charity a powerful aid to help them put off the old man and put on the new. Conversion and renewal consist precisely in this.'-':' In fact, the Church's aim in granting indulgences is not only that of helping the faithful expiate the punishment they have deserved but also that of stimulating them to carry out works of piety, penance, and charity, and in particular works that serve to favor the growth of faith and the common good.~' III For this reason, interpreting.as it were the Church's maternal sentiments, we impart the gift of the plenary indulgence to all the faithful who are prop-erly disposed, and who, after confessing their sins and receiving Holy Communion, pray for the intentions of the supreme pontiff and the college of bishops: 1:See Paul V1, Letter to Cardinal de Fiirstenburg Officially Announcing the Beginning o! the 1975 Holy Year, dated May 31, 1973: AAS, v. 65 (1973), pp. 357-60. ~SApostolic Constitution, lhdulgentiarum doctrina, 5: AAS, v. 59 (1967), p. 11. ~gSee Jn 1:16. -~0Apostolic Constitution, lndulgentiarum doctrina, 5: AAS, v. 59 (1967), pp. 10-1; and see St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, III,q.48,a.2 adl; and q.49,a.l. ZlApostolic constitution, lndulgentiarum doctrina, 4: AAS, v. 59 (1967), p. 9. '-'Zlbid., 8: AAS, v. 59 (1967), p. 16. '-':~See Paul VI, Letter to Father 'Constantine Koser on the 750th Anniversary o] the Portiuncula Indulgence, dated July 14, 1966: AAS, v. 58 (1966), pp. 631-4. z4See the Apostolic Constitution, lndulgentiarum doctrina, 8: AAS, v. 59 (1967), p. 17. 998 / Review Jor Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 (1) If they undertake a sacred pilgrimage to one of the patriarchal basilicas (the basilica of St. Peter's in the Vatican,,St. Paul's Outside-the- Walls, ttie Lateran Archbasilica of the Most Holy Savior, or St. Mary Major), or to some other church or place of the city of Rome designated by the competent authority, and devoutly take part in a liturgical celebration there, especially the Sacrifice of the Mass, or some exercise of piety (e.g., the way bf the cross, the rosary); (2) If they visit, in a group or individually, one of the four patri-archal basilicas and spend some time there in devout recollection concluding with the Our Father, the profession of faith in. any approved form, and a prayer to the Blessed Virgin Mary; (3) If, being prevented by illness or some other grave reason from going on a pilgrimage to Rome, they unite themselves spiritually with this pilgrim-age and offer their prayers and sufferings to God; (4) If, being prevented while in Rome. by illness or some other grave reason from taking part in a liturgical celebration or exercise of piety or visit made by their group (ecclesial family or social, as mentioned in 1 and 2 above), they unite themselves spiritually with the group and offer their prayers and suffering to God. During the Holy Year, moreover, the other concessions of indulgences remain in force, with the proviso as before that a plenary indulgence can be gained only once a day;~'' however, all indulgences can always be applied tb the dead in modo suffragii."-''~ For the same reasons, namely, in order that the faithful be provided with ¯ every possible aid to salvation, and to help priests, especially confessors, we proclaim that confessors taking part "in the jubilee pilgrimage may use the faculties they have been given in their own dioceses by the legitimate au-thority,~ so that both on the journey and in Rome they may hear the con-fessions of the faithful accompanying them on the pilgrimage, and also the confessions ot~ others who, together with the members of their own group, may approach them. The right of the penitentiaries of the patriarchal basilicas regarding the confessionals reserved to them is maintained,'-'~ and special faculties will be granted by the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary to the penitentiaries. IV We stated above that the following two principal purposes have been established for the Holy Year: spiritual renewal in Christ and reconciliation with God, and we have said that these aims concern not only the interior '-',~See Enchiridion indulgentiarum, norma 24, para. 1. ~Ibid. norma 4. ~zSee Paul VI's motu proprio, Pastorale munus, I, 14: AAS, v. 56 (1964), p. 8. "-SSee First Synod o] Rome, 1960, art. 63. Papal Bull Proclaiming the Holy Year / 999 life of each individual but the whole Church, and also, .in a certain sense, the whole of human society. For this reason we earnestly exhort all con-cerned to consider these proposals, to undertake initiativ,es and to coordinate programs so that during the Holy Year real progress may be made in the renewal of the Church and also in the pursuit of certain goals very dear to us, in accordance with the farsighted spirit of the Second Vatican Ecu-menical Council. Repentance, the purification of the heart, and conversion to God must consequently bring about an increase in the apostolic activities of the Church. During the Holy Year, therefore, generous efforts must be made to further evangelization, which is certainly the first of all the activities to be promoted. For the pilgrim Church "has been divinely sent to all nations that she might be 'the universal sacrament of salvation' "'-'~' and she "is by her very nature mis.sionary,' . and in the course of her history is renewed to the extent that she shows herself ready to accept and to deepen through faith the gospel of Jesus Christ the Son of God, and to proclaim His saving message to men by word and the witness of her life. The coming assembly of the Synod of Bishops does not have a merely extrinsic and fortuitous connection with the Holy Year.-On the contrary, as we have already stated, "a zealous effort must be made to coordinate and closely link both these ecclesial events.'':~ In this regard the Synod will pro-pose directives and suggestions for the reflection of pastors gathered about the supreme pontiff, so that they may carefully consider in the light of faith "the evangelization of the modern world," taking into account, in the light of the charity of Christ, the wishes of the whole Church and the more urgent needs of our time. Therefore devout attention to the word of God together with catechetical instruction given to the faithful of every state and of all ages must lead Christians to purify their way of life and to a higher knowledge of faith; it must dispel doubts and stimulate the negligent to joyfully activate in their lives the gospel message; it must impel everyone towards a conscious and fruitful sharing in the sacraments; it must encourage communities and indi-viduals to give witness to the faith by the uprightness and strength .of their lives, so that the world may see the reason for the hope that is in us.:"-' Now ten years after the SecQnd Vatican Council began, the great and salutary work of renewal in the fields of the pastoral ministry, the practice of penance, and the sacred liturgy, we consider it altogether fitting that this z~Vatican Council II, Ad gentes divinitus (Decree on the Missionary Activity o] the Church), I: AAS, v. 58 (1966), p. 947. :"qbid., 2: AAS, v. 58 (1966), p. 948. :;~"Discourse to the General Secretariat of the Synod of Bishops," Osservatore romano, April 6, 1974, p. 4. :~See 1 Pt 3:15. 1000 / Review jor Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 work should be reviewed and furthered. If what the Church has clearly approved is kept in mind, it will be possible to recognize the valid and legitimate elements to be found in the many and varied experiments that have been carried out everywhere. Similarly, these same elements can, by a more earnest effort, be put into practice in accordance with the norms and principles suggested by pastoral prudence and a sense of true piety. The presence of large numbers of pilgrims, both pastors and people, from Christian communities throughout the world, brought together in Rome by a fraternal desire to gain the true benefits of the grace and love of Christ, will undoubtedly afford excellent opportunities for putting forward, comparing, and evaluating studies and viewpoints of various kinds. This will most cer-tainly bc the case if congresscs and meetings are held at different levels in the ecclesial community and by varied groups of experts, and provided that prayer and a ready willingness to carry out the apostolate are joined together. At this point we wish to draw particular attention to the need to find a just and proper balance between the differing demands of the pastoral min-istry today, a balance similar to that which has been admirably achieved in the sacrcd liturgy. We refer to the balance between tradition and renewal, b~twccn the necegsarily religious nature of the Christian apostolate and its effectivencss as a force in all fields of social living, between free and spon-taneous activity--which some are accustomed to call charismatic--in this a.postolate and fidelity to laws based on the commands of Christ and of the pastors of the Church. For these laws, laid down by the Church and con-tinually brought up to date, make allowance for individual experiments within the Christian community, in such a way that they are a help in build-ing up the body of Christ, which is the Church, and not a hindranceY:' We wish likewise to draw attention to the ever increasing need to pro-mote the kind of apostolate which, without damaging the Church's necessary and traditional institutions, namely dioceses and parishes, takes special account of particular local circumstances and categories of people. Such an apostolate must ensure that the leaven of the gospel permeates those forms of modern social living which often differ from traditional forms of ecclesial life and seem foreign to the communities "in which the faithful gather to-gether and are linked" in prayer, faith, and charity. The forms we are thinking of are principally those of workers, members of the academic world, and young people. It will also be necessary to examine carefully the methods of teaching religion and of preaching the sacred word of God, to insure that they meet the needs of our time. This mt~st be done with the aim of finding effective methods. Special care must be taken to insure that the media of social com-munications promote the human and Christian progress both of individuals and of communities. :~.aSee Rm 15:2; 1 Cor. 14:3; Eph. 4:12. Papal Bull Proclaiming the Holy Year / 1001 These are questions of the greatest seriousness and importance. We must face up to them and with humble prayer seek the grace of the Holy Year in order to solve them. V As is well known, i~ recent years one of the Church's most pressing con-cerns has been to disseminate everywhere a message of charity, of social awareness, and of peace, and to promote, as far as she can, works of justice and solidarity among all men, whether individuals, social groups, or peoples. We earnestly desire, therefore, that the Holy Year, through the works of charity which it suggests to the faithful and which it asks of them, should be an opportune time for strengthening and supporting the moral conscious-ness of all the faithful and of that wider community of all men which the message of the Church can reach if an earnest effort is made. The ancient origins of the jubilee as seen in the laws and institutions of Israel clearly show that this social dimension is part of its very nature. In fact, as we read in the Book of Leviticus,:" the jubilee year, precisely be-cause it was dedicated in a special way to God, involved a new ordering of all things that were recognized as belonging to God: the .land, which was al-lowed to lie fallow and was given back to its former owners; economic goods, insofar as debts were remitted; and, above all, man, whose dignity and free-dom were reaffirmed in a special way by the emancipation of slaves. The year of God, then, was also the year of man, the year of the earth, the year of the poor, and upon this view of the whole of human reality there shone a new light which emanated from the clear recognition of the supreme dominion of God over the whole of creation. In today's world also the problems which most disturb and torment mankind--economic and social questions, the question of ecology and sources of energy, and above all that of the liberation of the oppressed and the uplifting of all men to a new dignity of life-~can have light cast on them by the message of the Holy Year. We wish, however, to invite all the sons and daughters of the Church, and especially the pilgrims coming to Rome, to undertake certain definite tasks which, as successor of Peter and head of that church "which presides over the universal gathering of charity,'':~' we now publicly propose and com-mend to all. We refer to the carrying out of works of faith and charity for the benefit of our needy brethren in Rome and in other chu'rches of the world. These works will not necessarily be grandiose ones, although such are.in no way to be excluded. In many cases what are today called "micro-realizations" will be sufficient, corresponding as they do to the gospel spirit of charity. In this field the Church, in view of the modest resources at her :~"Lv 25: 8ff. :~r'See St. Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Romans, salutation: Funk, v. 1, p. 252. 1002 / Review jot Religious, Volume .33, 1974/5 disposal, will perhaps have to limit herself more and more to giving men nothing more than the widow's mite.:"~ But she knows and teaches that the good which counts most is that which, in humble and very often unknown ways, manages to provide help where there is a small need and to heal small wounds--things which often find no place in large projects of social reform. Nevertheless, the Church feels that it is necessary to give encourage-ment also to these larger programs for promoting justice and the progress of peoples. She renews her call to all those who have the power and the duty to build up in the world a more perfect order of social and human relations, urging them not to give up because of the difficulties of the present times and not to be won over by selfish interests. Once more we make a particularly strong appeal on behalf of developing countries and of people still afflicted by hunger and by war. Let special attention be given to the many needs which oppress man today, to the finding of employment by which men can provide for the needs of life, to housing which so many lack, to schools which need much assistance, to social and medical aid, and to the develop-ment and safeguarding of decent public moral standards. We should like also to express the humble and sincere desire that in this present Holy Year, too, in accordance with the tradition of previous jubilees, the proper authorities of the different nations should consider the possibility of wisely granting an amnesty to prisoners, as a witness of clemency and equity, especially to those who have given sufficient proof of moral and civic rehabilitation, or who may have been caught up in political and social upheavals too immense for them to be held fully responsible. We express in anticipation our gratitude ~ind invoke the Lord's abundant blessings on all those who will strive to insure that this message of charity, of social awareness, and of freedom, which the Church addresses to all men in the lively hope that she may be understood and listened to, is ac-cepted and translated into reality in the political and social order. In express-ing this hope we are conscious of following a wonderful tradition which began with the law of Israel and found its fullest expression in our Lord Jesus Christ who, from the very beginning Of His ministry, presented Him-self as the fulfillment of the ancient promises and figures connected with the jubilee year: "The spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to free those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord.'':~: Vl If there is one spiritual advantage which we especially desire from the :";See Lk 21:2; Mk 12:42. ZrLk 4:18-9. Papal Bull Proclabning the Holy Year / 1003 celebration of the Holy Year, .it is an increase in the number of those who devote their lives to serving the Church, especially priests and religious. For in order that the paths of grace and the means of salvation which the Holy Year indicates and offers to all the faithful may be properly explained and made available, there will always be a need for those sacred ministers and witnesses of Christ's gospel who by completely following the Lord show their fellowmen, namely the men of this and subsequent ages, the way of penance and of holiness. Thus, the voice of God must be listened to diligently. He never ceases to stir up and invite chosen individuals to dedicate themselves generously to the .service of the Church and the whole human race by the exercise of the priestly ministry and by the faithful witness of the religious life. Some will be called by God to offer themselves to Him through obedience and sacred celibacy and as priests of Christ to teach and sanctify and lead the faithful wherever they may be. Others, men and women of various ages and conditions, will be attracted to the religious life, so that by fulfilling their baptismal promises through a higher way of life they may fully live in the spirit and truly benefit the Church and society. We desire strongly that the multitude of these especially dear members of the Church may increase and flourish more and more, so that through their priesthood and t~e~activity of their religious life they may bear the joyful message of Christ to the ends of the earth and all give glory to the heavenly Father. VII Finally, we wish to proclaim and preach that the reconciliation of Chris-tians is one of the principal aims of the Holy Year. For, before all men can be brought together and restored to the grace of God our Father, com-munion must be reestablished between those who by faith have acknowl-edged and accepted Jesus Christ as the Lord of Mercy who sets men i~ree and unites them in the spirit of love and truth. For this reason the jubilee year, which the Catholic Church has accepted as part of her own custom and tradition, can serve as a most opportune period for spiritual renewal and for the promotion of Christian unity. We would, moreover, point out that the Second Vatican Council has taught that every effort and undertaking directed toward the reconciliation of Christians and all true ecumenism must necessarily start from an inner conversion of the heart, since the desire for Christian communion springs and grows from spiritual renewal, self-denial, the full exercise of charity, and fidelity to revealed truth?~ It is here that there is to be found the full and proper realization of the whole ecumenical movement to which the Catholic Church adheres as far as she is able, and through which Churches and communities not yet fully .~sSee Unitatis redintegratio (Decree on Ecumenism), 7: AAS, v. 57 (1965), p. 97. 1004 / Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 in communion with the Apostolic See seek and desire the perfect unity willed by Christ. It is in fact the task and duty of the whole Church to reestablish this unity in full ecclesial communion.:'~' The year of grace, in this sense, provides an opportunity for doing special penance for the divisions which exist among Christians; it offers an occasion for renewal in the sense of a heightened experience of holiness of life in Christ; it allows progi'ess toward that hoped for reconciliation by intensified dialogue and concrete Christian collaboration in the salvation of the world: "that they also may be one in us, so that the world may believe.'''~ We have expressed once more our intentions and our desires concerning the celebration of the Holy Year in this city of Rome. Now we invite our brothers in the episcopate and all the pastors and faithful of the churches throughout .the world, of those churches also which are not in full communion with the Roman Church, and indeed all who believe in God, to participate at least spiritually in this feast of grace and redemption, in which Christ offers Himself as the teacher of life. Together with the pastors and faithful on pilgrimage to the tombs of the Apostles and the early martyrs, we desire to profess faith in God the almighty and merciful Father and in Jesus Christ our Redeemer. For our part we would hope that all who come to Rome to see Peter'1 may through us experience in the Holy Year the truth of the words of St. Leo the Great: "For in the whole church Peter repeats each day, 'You are Christ the Son of the living God,' and every tongue which confesses the Lord is inspired by the teaching of this voice.'"': We would wish also that through our ministry and that of our brother priests a huge multitude of faithful may come to the sources of salvation.":' May the holy door which we shall open on the night of Christmas Eve be a sure sign of this new approach to Christ who alone is the way"" and the door.4'~ It will be a sure sign too of the paternal affection with which, filled with love and desiring peace, we open our heart to all. We implore the Blessed Virgin Mary, the holy Mother of the Redeemer and of the Church, Mother of grace and of mercy, collaborator of reconcili-ation and shining example of the new life, to ask her Son to grant to all our brethren and sons and daughters the grace of this Holy Year, to renew and preserve them. To her hands and to her maternal heart we commend the beginning, the development, and the conclusion of this most important matter. 3Olbid., 5: AAS, v. 57 (1965), p. 96. 4°Jn 17:21. 41See Gal 1 : 18. 4"-Sermon 3: PL 54, 146. ¯ ~:~See Is 12:3. ¯ ~4See Jn 14:6. t~See Jn 10:7,9. Papal Bull Proclaiming the Holy Year / 1005 We wish this our letter to take full and immediate effect in such a manner that. whatsoever has been laid down and decreed in it be religiously ob-served by all concerned and come into force, all things to the contrary not-withstanding. If anyone knowingly or unknowingly shall act other than in accordance with what we have laid down, we order that such action be con-sidered altogether null and void. Given in Rome, at St. Peter's, on the 23rd day of May, the solemnity of the Ascension of the Lord, in the year 1974, the 1 lth of our pontificate. 1, Paul, Bishop of the Catholic Church The American Religious, Evangelizer at Home Peter J. Henriot, S.J. The following is the text of the address that Father Henriot delivered to the 17th Annual Assembly of the Conference of Major Superiors of Men held in Chicago June 16-20, 1974. Father Henriot is a staff associate of the Center of Concern; 3700 13th Street, N.E.; Washington, D. C. 20017. In a recent article in America magazine, Father Hubert Horan, a White Father who spent several years as a missionary in Tanzania, questioned whether the topic of the upcoming Synod, "evangelization," was a "cop-out," a retreat from more potentially controversial questions. Given his own mis-sionary understanding of "evangelization," he felt that it certainly was not an insignificant topic, but one which would be rich and fruitful in increasing our understandings and actions as Church in the world today. But Father Horan did admit that the term is a "slippery one," open to ever wider and wider interpretations. In a sense, we might say that evangelization, like charity, "covers a multitude of sins." Thus in countless discussions preceed-ing, during, and after the Synod this fall, discussions such as we are in-volved in these days here in Chicago, this topic will be explored, broadened and narrowed, and, hopefully, appropriated in our own individual lives and in the lives of our communities. This morning, in addressing the topic, "The American Religious, Evan-gelizers at Home," I will not be offering you any neat and compact new definition of evangelization. I know that you all recognize the difficulty-- the folly---of attempting that, since we are all grappling with what this term means. I do not apologize, therefore, for using the meaning which the official pre-Synod document has adopted for the sake of clarity, namely, "the activity whereby the Church proclaims the gospel so that the faith may be aroused, may unfold, and may grow." The American Religious, Evangelizer at Home / 1007 Evangelization and Action for Justice How the A~erican religious is called upon today, to take part in this task of evangelization is a question critical to our vocation of service in the Church. I would like to narrow our focus of attention during this day to one aspect or dimension of the task of evangelization, an aspect which was defined and delineated at the last Synod in 1971. This aspect ,is found in a sentence which I must adroit I have probably overused by quoting it inces-santly, "in season and out of season." The sentence is from the Synod's statement, Justice in the World: Action on behalf of justice and participation in the transformation of the world fully appear to us as a constitutive dimension of the preaching of the Gospel, or, in other words, of the Church's mission for the redemption of the human race and its liberation from every oppressive situation. The preaching of the gospel--the task of evangelization--includes as a "con-stitutive dimension" the task of "action for justice," the commitment to trans-form a world where increasingly we hear, again in the words of the Synod, "the cry of those who suffer violence and are oppressed by unjust systems and structures." I want to share with you this morning my own understanding of why [l~is "action for justice" is constitutive to the task of evangelization, and why it is worth reflecti~ng on, praying over, and resolvihg about in our focus on the "American Religious, Evangelizer at Home." But let me firs[ make one thing perfectly clear, to borrow a phrase. My emphasis here is not upon "social action," the "social apostolate," or similar segmental aspects of religious life. My emphasis is upon a characteristic, a modality, of religious life which must--if religious life is to be evangelical--be c6nstitutive of its existence and practice~ in our Church and our world today. The Global Scene Our discussion has to be placed in context, and not carried on in a vacuum. "]'he context is our modern world, where, again citing the words of the 1971 Synod, "social structures place obiective obstacles in the way of conversion of hearts, or even of the realization of the ideal of charity." Less than two weeks ago I participated in a conference of over one hundred major religious leaders from Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish groups in the United States, called to discuss and plan the response of churches and synagogues to the current crisis in .global justice. During three days we heard factual analyses of the world situation from diverse figures such as Robert McNamara, President of the World Bank, and Neville Kanakaratne, Ambassador to the United States from Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and a leading Third World spokesperson. We heard theological analyses of'Why religious people should respond, from people such as Archbishop Marcos McGrath of Panama, and Rabbi Marc Tannenbaum, of the American Jewish Com- 1008 / Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 mittee--who both spoke of liberation from oppression as being central to the message of God's dealing with His people. And the participants planned and committed themselves to strategies for change: through the political system, in lifestyle, in education, in investment policies, and so forth. Finally, the conference received a ringing "statement of conscience," which spoke of the need for a profound conversion, in values, interests, and loyal-ties, in policies, institutions, and patterns of behavior, if any effective steps were.to be taken toward meeting the crisis of global justice. I would like to read one of the opening paragraphs of that statement to you, because I believe that it puts a context to some of the things we will be discussing~ The conference said: As Americans we have come to realize how many of our national policies, of our institutional structures of production, marketing and defense, and of our current personal patterns of conduct and consumption, are all inextricably linked to the ongoing av, d explosive global catastrophe of famine, hunger and malnutritior~; which continues to claim millions of lives every year in various parts of the world. Things are not getting better. The rich are getting richer, the poor poorer. Many millions will die this year from starvation. Hundreds of millions of children will be so undernourished that, if they survive at all, their physical and mental development will be seriously retarded. This is our world. The conference was able to say those things because it had put before it a description of a world marked by the twin horrors of hunger and repression. With the price of grain tripled in the past few months and the present world food reserves down to 27 days, the lowest since World War Two, the spectre of famine is a daily reality to millions of people in Africa and the Indian sub-continent. World-wide inflation, heightened through the quadrupling of the price of oil in the past year, means that the increasingly scarce resources of our finite world are getting even scarcer. And the world's population, now approaching 4 billion, will double in the next 35 years--except for the intervention of war and/or famine. Such deadly intervention is, of course, a real possibility. In a globe increasingly small, increasingly finite, and increasingly in-terdependent, two-thirds of the people of the world live in conditions of des-titution and degradation, while one-third enjoy the rich blessings created for all humankind. It is a literal re-enactment of the Dives and Lazarus story. Justice Needs at Home But in setting the context here, even so cursory a reference to the global scene should not distract us from the problems of social justice here at home. Those of you who live and work in major urban areas know that our cities, though outwardly quiet in the past few years, continue to see unrest, amidst conditions of unemployment, poor housing, and poor educa-tional systems. Our political system--as we approach the celebration in song and dance of our Bicentennial--seems paralyzed, locally as well as The American Religious, Evangelizer at Home / 1009 nationally, to deal with issues such as prison reform, tax reform, medical care, and so forth. One out of six Americans lives below a poverty line of what is required for basic health and well-being; the unemployment rate rose again last month to around 51/2%, with the rate of non-whites twice as high; inflation con-tinues to eat away the savings of the elderly and those on fixed incomes; while' life expectancy for the'average American is now around 71 years, for the non-white it is ten years less; and the U.S. infant mortality rate is one of the highest of any major industrialized nation in the world. Ten million Americans go to bed hungry every night in our land of diet cola and weight-reducing programs. Structural and Systemic Approaches This picture of social injustice--globally and nationally--is nothing new to you, I am sure. What might be new to you is the emphasis I want to give to the structural, systemic nature of the problems. We are not talking about isolated instances of poverty and injustice, but of the socio-economic-polit-ical structures, institutions~ and processes which create and perpetuate these problems. We need to move, as Gustavo Gutierrez suggests, from an "anec-doctal" approach to social problems to an "analytical" approach. Not stories about cases of injustice, but systemic analysis of why the injustices exist: only this will help us to experien~:e that call to profound conversion I spoke of earlier. This structural approach to injustice is central to the understanding of evangelization we are addressing here. It is central to the q971 Synod's discussion of "the systematic barriers and vicious circles" which hinder true justice. It is central to an appreciation of the strongest statement made by the Synod, when the Bishops described the present-day situation of the world as "marked by the grave sin of injustice." For the structural social injustice in our world and our nation is nothing less than sin, social sin. Social Sin and Evangelization Herein 'lies the reason why "action for justice" and transformation of the structures of injustice is constitutive to the preaching of the Gospel, to the task of evangelization. It is a continuation of the saving work of Jesus, who frees us from the bondage of sin: "For Gods~ loved the world that he gave his only son, so that everyone who believes in him may not be lost, but may have eternal life. For God sent his son into the world not to condemn the world but so that through him the world might be saved" (Jn 3:16-8). We Christians talk about sin only because we can talk of redemption, of grace. St. Paul tells us: "Where sin abounded, grace has abounded all the more" (Rm 5:20). And so as we speak of social sin, we also speak of social grace, God's revealing goodness and love in the social structures, institutions, and processes which we have created down through history. 1010 / Review /or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 It is precisely to fight against social sin, and to cooperate with social grace, that we Christians engage in "action for justice," that is, commit our-seives to the cause of social justice. Such action is not peripheral to the task of evangelization but is integral, constitutive. The 1971 Synod summarized this by saying: The mission of the preaching of the Gospel dictates at the present time that we should dedicate ourselves to the liberation of man even in his present ex-istence in ~this world. For unless the Christian message of love and justice shows its effectiveness through action in the cause of justice in the world, it will only with difficulty gain credibility with the men of our times. Thus the American religious evangelizer is, in a very true and genuine sense, the socially just religious, the socially just community. Note again that I am not speaking of social justice as an "apostolate" or as "work" or "projects." Social justice is a way o[ li[e which is integral to the.religious re-sponse to the call of the gospel. As integral to the gospel, it is something which cuts across all aspects of the evangelical life which we profess. It is living out of values which are counter to the values embodied in oppressive structures; it is a simplicity which says no to the conspicuous consumption which wastes the world's finite resources; it is a sharing which says no to the hoarding of the affluent in a world of so much poverty; it is a reaching out which says no to the dominance of entrenched power over the weak; it is a hope which says yes, there is a possibility of social change for a more just world. Action for social justice, then, is evangelization, a preaching of the good news to the poor, because our fundamental religious option is on the side of the poor, the powerless, the oppressed. We can do no less, reminded as we are by Mary's Magnificat of the fundamental option of God who has "pulled down princes from their thrones and exalted th.e lowly; the hungry he has filled with good things, and the rich sent away empty" (Lk 1:53-4). Concrete Implications Against this background of an understanding of the American religious evangelizer as the just religious, the just community, I would like to discuss some concrete implications which I see coming from this structural approach. I believe that they are only further extensions of what Father Paul Boyle wrote in his letter in the spring of 1972, urging CMSM members to be "witnessing and educating to social justice," and of what your own 1972 CMSM Assembly affirmed in the several resolutions you passed on the topic of social justice. For the sake of our exploration here this morning, I will speak in terms of the traditional aspects of evangelization, word, witness, and work. The word refers to the vision we religious have and relates particularly to the topic of formation; witness refers to our credibility, and relates to our life The American Religious, Evangelizer at Home / 1011 style; and work refers to the corporate thrust of the 9ommunity, and relates here specifically to the question of leadership. 1. Formation It has become increasingly accepted--theologically, philosophically, sociologically--that it is only possible to speak of the reality of a human person today by taking into full account the three dimensions of human existence: the individual, the interpersonal, and the public. These are not three separate and distinct dimensions so much as three moments in our perception of a single reality. The individual dimension is the realm of the private, the intimate. The person is an individual in as much as he/she is unique. The interpersonal dimension, on the other hand, is constituted in those relationships by which one individual deals with another in either, the limited sense of an 1-Thou encounter or in an extended sense of ordinary" societal dealings, The public dimension, however, includes the projections of individual and interpersonal existence into the institutions, structures, and processes of society. The person is organically one with these projec-tions. The identity of a human person is inadequately situated outside this triadic framework, this consideration of all three dimensions simultaneously. For this reason, the formation process of the American religious evangelizer must take account of the public dimension, the area of a person's involve-ment in and interaction with social structures, processes, and institutions. This formation--and I include the preparation of the novice, the training appropriate to brothers or. priests, the on-going "continuing education" programs for everyone in the community--should take account of the peculiar situation of the religious in the United States and the Roman Catholic Church of this last quarter of the twentieth century. Let me briefly suggest three points to be taken note of in this formation. "Spiritual Renewal and Social Justice Action First, there is great need today for an integration ,of the so-called "spiri-tual renewal" movement with the movement for greater social justice. We are experiencing in the Church today th6 movement of the Holy Spirit, renewing us through a heightened attention to prayer and faith, a growing acceptance of shared prayer, directed 'retreats, discernment workshops, spiritual direction, and the increasing activity, of charismatic, Pentecostal groups. Last year's annual CMSM Assembly was especially devoted to "building the faith community?' But I think that we are all aware that a danger lies in the possibility of a "turning inward," a false "spiritualism." Thus there is the potential case of someone becoming involved in these spiritual activities, spi,ritual ministries, as an escape from involvement with the evangelical task of changing unjust social structures. This might be understandabl~, given some of the flurry of "social action" during the 1960's, 1012 / Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 and also the intensity of challenge in the authentic struggle for social reform. But we religious would surely fail in our responsibility to our Church and our world if we did not make every effort to integrate the two great dy-namisms moving around us today, the call for more active°social justice and the drive for more deeply renewed interiority. Social Determinisms Second, we have to attend in formation to the power of the "social determinisms" which affect all of us American religious. These determinisms are part of our culture and infringe upon the full exercise of our freedom. They provide the context, the milieu, within which choices are made. I will mention three of them which my colleagues at the Center of Concern have in recent months been analyzing--the implications of which I believe you ¯ °will all realize. (a) "Cultural addictions"--those patterns, habits, styles of life which we become acculturated, socialized, to from birth. Though frequently lived out inadvertently, these cultural addictions have a powerful influence over our choices, for example, in the matter of life style in this affluent, consumption-oriented nation. (b) "'Mindsets"--those perceptual frameworks, paradigms, which guide our thinking, our viewing of reality. For example, we Americans tend to be highly mechanical, pragmatic, problem-solving, "can-do,'" in perception. (c) "Class bias"--those socio-economic-political expectations and ideologies which influence our patterns of speech, behavior, judgment. Since the majority of religious come from the middle-class and few, I suspect (though I am open to correction on this), from the working class, we have a class orientation which provides us with specific sets of norms, values, and attitudes. These social determinisms operate in us all. Think for a moment of examples in different members of your community, and in yourself. They must be recognized and critically examined if we American religious are. ever to raise questions, for instance, about the global social justice implica-tions of the American way of life, of being Number One, of the spirit of competition, and so forth. Need for Sociological and Theological Analysis Finally, we need to foster in all stages of formation, for young and old alike, a deepening insight into both the sociological analysis of the struc-tures of injustice and the theological analysis of the imperatives of justice. How knowledgeable are the members of our community, for example, about the facts of world population; about the institutions of global trade such as tariffs, multi-national corporations, and monetary arrangements; about the relationship of the current food crisis to the energy crisis through the link of the fertilizer shortage? How aware are we religious about the structures of injustice in our own country--inequitable tax systems, the policy of "red- The American Religious, Evangelizer at Home / 1013 lining" on housing mortgages, zoning policies, cost of medical care for the elderly, the farm worker problem? And how conversant are we about the Church's social consciousness as articulated through the great documents of "~Rerum novarum, Quadragesimo anno, the Christmas messages of Pius XI1, Mater et Magistra, Pacem in terris, Gaudium et spes, Octagesima adveniens, Justice in the World? What do we know of the theology of liberation, and other expressions of social theology? My several questions, of course, may simply be unfair. I am not saying that all religious need to be social scientists or social theologians. But the questions do point to the continual need to update ourselves in the reality of the world we live in--a need which can be met only through organized efforts in formation. And our updating must include not only study but also experience, the real praxis of which Paulo Freire speaks. Only then can we religious hope to be about the task of evangelization. 2. Life Style In one of several disturbing passages in the 1971 Synod's statement Justice in the World, the bishops addressed the issue of the credibility of the Church regarding its message of social justice. Its credibility, the document said, was affected by its own mode of acting, and in the possessions and life style found in the church. Two passages are particularly relevant. In speak-ing of temporal possessions, the Synod argued that the evangelical witness the Church is obliged to give should never become ambiguous because of privilege, power, and wealth--the gospel must be proclaimed to the poor. "If instead the Church appears to be among the rich and the powerful of this world, its credibility is diminished." Again, the Synod suggests an examina-tion of conscience regarding life style, wherein we ask ourselves "whether our life style exemplifies that sparingness in regard to consumption which we preach to others as necessary in order that so many millions of hungry people throughout the world may be fed." Now I know that we religious have all been engaged at great length in discussions about the meaning of our vow of poverty today. I.know that we all cringe when we hear remarks like that of Bishop Sheen--and I usually don't quote Bishop Sheen in my talks--to the effect that "There are millions of people who would be only tOO glad to take a vow of poverty." Yes, would that the poor of the world had such a luxury to embrace religious poverty! Changes in Religious Poverty But I really think that the terms of the discussion and debate over religious poverty have changed in recent years. While still recognizing the ascetical and spiritual value of the vow of poverty--linking it to the kenosis of the Lord Jesus--we are beginning to appreciate its social value, I might 1014 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 even says its political value. This appreciation is contained in the 1971 Synod's on "sparing and sharing" as a way to meet the challenge of global justice. It is found in the 1972 resolutions adopted by the annual CMSM Assembly, in which you yourselves pledged a program of action to promote within your communities greater simplicity of life style "to express our solidarity with the poor of the world and our respect for the needs of future generations." It is found in the 1973 Lenten pastoral letter of the Dutch Bishops, who discussed "Prosperity, Responsibility, Frugality," and spoke of the obligation of all Christians who live in an affluent nation to practice a socially-oriented sparingness as a no to even greater and greater con-su~ ption. And it is found recently, to speak of somethi~ng I know personally, in a communication of Father Pedro Arrupe, Superior General of the Society of Jesus, on "Simplicity of Life," in which he urges Jesuits to experi-ence an inner conversion to the poverty of Christ so that we can regain true apostolic credibility--especially with the poor. This would be shown in a simpler and hence freer life style. This communication is part of a con-tinual insistence on the part of Father Arrupe that unless Jesuits come to grips with the problem of their poverty, they have no future. In the socially unjust contemporary world, they deserve no future. This new dimension to an understanding and practice of religious poverty is linked to the realization that poverty and affluence, underdevelopment and oTerdevelopment, are correlatives. In a small, finite, and interdepen-d~ int globe, the extra serving of grain-fed beef on Dives' table means a smaller crumb of bread for Lazarus; the eight-cylinder automobile which guzzles petroleum products in the United States means a higher price for gasoline used to run the little irrigation pump on a small farmer's plot in India. The course of the Green Revolution--production of miracle grains to stave off famine in the developing countries--has in recent months come to a shattering halt because of the global shortage of fertilizer. But heavily-fertilized private lawns, golf courses, and cemeteries in the United States will not turn brown this summer. Freeing Ourselves [rom Affluence How can we American religious witness to an evangelization which really is a preaching of the Good News to the poor? We need to free our-selves from the subtle--and not so subtle--attachments to the affluent ways of our American life style. Today our simplicity of life is menaced, as Father Arrupe says, "not by a single but by a double danger. It is menaced not only by our built-in egoism, but by the consumer society in which we are plunged: a society that provides with such facility almost everything our egoism craves." We really do need freedom. But how free are we? (And I ask myself this question just as hard as I ask you.) Without making an effort to reduce our corporate resources and simplify our life styles, we American religious The American Religious, Evangelizer at Home / 1015 will continue to experience great unfreedom and our ability to be evan-gelizers will be hindered. Again I quote Father Arrupe: If, in a society of economic progress, abundance, and consumerism, we lack the spirit of poverty and the detachment derived from it, we run the risk, more than at any other time in the past, of becoming slaves. Slaves in many different ways: slaves of propaganda, of that high-pressure salesmanship which is the distinguishing mark of a consumer society; slaves of acquisiliveness, the drive to accumulate possessions which begin as luxuries and end up as neces-sities; slaves of snobbery, which limits our apostolic 9.ctivity, whether openly or tacitly, to a privileged social class. Poverty and simplicity of life, on the other hand, by reducing our needs to a minimum, sets us free--free to respond to any and every challenge of the apostolate. Three Points for Consideration Much could be said about promoting a response to that challenge of the apostolate, about promoting a life style which witnesses to the social dimension of evangelization I have been speaking of here. I mention only three brief points. First, because changes toward a simple life style run so counter to prevailing American values of consumption and affluence, there is need for religious communities to institute a positive, community-based and community-supported plan to reduce corporate resources and simplify individual and community life styles. The process does not come through pious wishes but through pragmatic plans. Second, continual community reinforcement and critique is required, to assure that efforts at simpler life styles are undertaken with a maximum of common sense, a minimum of self-righteousness, and a modiciam of good humor. Thirdly, we need a spirit of experiment, of risk, of adventure, in this task. A new citizen's lobby for affecting policy to meet the world hunger crisis, Bread for the World, has recently encouraged Americans to experi-ment with three meatless days a week, in order to curtail our dispropor-tionate consumption of~ meat--the most inefficient source of protein in a protein-short world. If religious communities in the United States were not risky enough to have offered this suggestion earlier, surely we could hope to be risky enough to try out the suggestion now that everyone is talking about it. 3. Leadership In developing the social dimension of the task of evangelization, I have spoken at considerable length of the word aspect of formation, and the witness aspect of life style. I will speak only briefly of the third and last aspect, the work aspect of leadership. Whereas I have had experience with formation programs (my own and others') and have analyzed and experi-mented with simpler life styles, I stand this morning before this august body of religious leaders with considerable hesitancy to speak about leadership. You have the experience--for better or worse!--which I lack. 1016 / Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 But voices from below have never been lacking, so I would like to share with you at least two points. These relate to the promotion of the just community which I have called here the American religious evangelizer at home. The first point deals with models of support given by religious superiors for social change for justice, and the second deals with the issues of polarization and reconciliation. Superiors as Models of Support First, in relating to your communities in matters of social justice--in life style, education, spirituality, apostolate, corporate practices, and so forth--you obviously have several avenues of approach open to you. And here I am simply articulating out loud your own experience. You can exhort the group as a whole, calling them to a closer attention to the oppor-tunities and demands of "action for justice." This can be done by letter or conference or personal address to select groups. Or you can single out par-ticular persons and/or communities for a strong world of affirmation and encouragement. These persons or communities may be the "Abrahamic minorities" in your midst (to use the phrase Dom Helder Camara used last year in speaking to the LCWR) who struggle for justice in a tentative, prob-ing way on the fringes of community; or they may simply be those quiet, long-suffering members who hunger and thirst after justice in less noticeable ways. The approach of affirming these religious not only strengthens them in their work but also educates others in your community. Or again, decisions you take which have social justice impact, and ex-planations for these decisions which you share with your community and with the wider public, can be effective works of evangelization. I think of several instances in recent years where superiors have announced the opening of some new apostolate or the closing of some traditional apostolate, and explained their reasons in ways which significantly advanced the cause of social justice. Finally, there is the symbolic action of the superior who publicly speaks out on an issue of social justice, or personally involves him-self in some particular justice struggle. Last year's statement on universal and unconditional amnesty endorsed by many CMSM members, and the pa,rticipation of CMSM members on the picket lines of the Coachella Valley in support of the farmworkers, are two instances which come to mind. A statement this year by the CMSM in support of the Equal Rights Amend-ment would be a powerful contribution to the social justice issue of women's rights in our society. The point I wish to make in citing these various models of leadership action by religious superiors is simply to indicate explicitly the many ways which are open to you. Superiors, Polarization, and Reconciliation My second point touches on something which sometimes follows when The American Religious, Evangelizer at Home / 1017 this leadership in social justice has been exercised, or when the community really does get involved in "action for justice." This is the issue of polariza-tion in religious communities and the task of the religious superior to be a reconciler. The coming celebration of the Holy Year will emphasize the theme of reconciliation; several months ago, Father Paul Boyle wrote to the CMSM membership a letter discussing this topic. In the context of our focus here on the social dimension of evangelization, I have frequently heard it said that issues ofsocial justice sometimes divide religious communities. We American religious are clearly not all Democrats or,Republicans, con-servatives or liberals, capitalists or socialists. While we may agree in the abstract on many social pr.inciples (but then sometimes we do not even do that!), we usually do not find general agreement or consensus on specific, concrete problems and/or their proposed solutions. What is the religious superior to do when faced with division or po-tentially serious polarization. Let me caution against reconciliation. I say that because I am wary of an,effort to reconcile, smooth over, create consen-sus, where serious issues of social justice are at stake. Usually such recon-ciliation results in the more progressive point--which is frequently, but not always, the point of social justice--being 10st in compromise. At least let me suggest that sometimes reconciliation does not mean that two points of view are reconciled to each other, but that one point of view is reconciled to the point of view of the gospel. The superior who "reconciles" members ° of his community to social justice is truly about the work of evangelization. By Way of Conclusion Let me conclude these reflections of the word, witness, and work aspects of the task of evangelization by referring back to a point which Father Walter Farrell made last year in his summary remarks on the closing day of your CMSM Assembly, which had as its theme "The Role of the Major Superior in Fostering the Faith Community." Some of you may recall that Father Farrell commented that when you asa group talked about prayer, even about God's direct action in prayer, you were quite at ease. But the moment that social issues and the social dimensions of Christianity were raised, you became nervous. Now I was not there to notice your nervous-ness, so I will leave the point to your own memory and reflection. What I do hope and pray for this year is that any nervousness we feel will npt keep us from exploring openly and with feeling the topics I have sketched here this morning, the social structural dimension of evangelization, and its impli-cations for formation, life style, and leadership. Rather I would hope our nervousness would only be that of the Apostle Paul, who on one occasion was led to say: "Woe is me if I do not preach the Gospel!" Just as I began my presentation this morning with that Synod statement which I have overused by quoting again and again, I would like to end by quoting a Scripture passage which I have also much overused. But it is a 1011~ / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 passage which is worth using again and again, especially in the context of the social task of evangelization we are discerning about today. It is from the fourth chapter of Luke: He came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and went into the synagogue on the sabbath day as he usually did. He stood up to read, and they handed him the scroll of the prophet Isaiah. Unrolling the scroll he found the place where it is written: The spirit of the Lord has been given to me, for he h~s annointed me. He has sent me to bring the good news to the poor, to proclaim liberty to captives and to the blind new sight, to set the downtrodden free, to proclaim the Lord's year of favor. He then rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the assistant and sat down. And all eyes in the synagogue were fixed on him. Then he began to speak to them, This text is being fulfilled today even as you listen. "This text is being fulfilled today even.as you listen." Really, that is the challenge of the "American Religious, Evangelizer at Home"--to strive mightly to assure that this text of good news for the poor, liberty for the captives, new sight for the blind, freedom for the oppressed, this text is indeed being fulfilled, yes, even today as we listen. A Christian Is a Poor Man Kevin O'Shea, C.Ss.R. Father Kevin O'Shea teaches theology at the Redemptorist College; Pennant Hills; Sydney, Australia. Poverty is the most difficult dimension of religious life at present. It is the point at which the tension is greatest between spirit and institution. Institu-tional poverty is reasonable, moderate, and tolerable; in fact, it is argued if it should rightly be called poverty. Charismatic poverty is anything but reasonable, is beyond moderation, and is nearly intolerable; it takes its spirit from a new reading of the Scriptures and calls poverty by its real name. In this sense, poverty is in all likelihood the greatest ferment in religious life at present. What a renewal of chastity and of obedience have not achieved, may well be done, in alarming proportion, by this renewal of poverty. Para-doxically, it is not among religious alone that the renewal is coming. It is coming from men of the Spirit who are taking the gospel to mean what it says. The position of the Gospels on poverty is strikingly clear. Christ's fol-lowers must leave all, and give it to the poor; they must leave the worl~l, and become poor. It is all or nothing. It is not measured and calculated action. It is a form of divine madness. It is the foolishness Of love. The New Testament suggests three main motivations for such poverty. Povert-y is a Messianic mystery; it is a kenotic reality; and it is an ecclesial communion. Poverty a Messianic Mystery A long Hebrew tradition pictured the Messiah (the Christ) as anointed by God to go among the poor, to be a man of the poor, to join the ranks of the poor, and to bring help and life to the poor. Jesus lived in the strength of this image; He shared the misery of the poor and did all He could to 1019 1020 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 lessen it, and He waited there in it with the poor for God to come, in His own day, and remove it. The poor were the people who had no resources of their own to assure them of a future and a hope. They were the dispossessed, the disappropriated, the displaced people of this world. They were literally the no-hopers, the have-nots, the forgotten people, the little people without a land. And it was to them that the Messiah came, and it was among them that he became one of them. Not because their misery was a good thing, but be-cause it was a good thing to be among them and to share it, remove it, wait in it patiently till God would take away all tears from their eyes. To His disciples who followed Him, the Messiah asked a Messianic life style: the mystery of their incorporation in the ranks of the poor. A Christian, like the Christ, is a poor man. Poverty a Kenotic Reality The New Testament speaks of a disease of the Christian heart called dipsychia. It is a split psychology, a sort of spiritual schizophrenia. The Christian wants to give himself totally to God, yet he feels an attraction to the things that are easy and immediately in front of him. He is torn two ways. He lacks unity and integration as a single person. There is only one cure for this trouble in the New Testament: it is kenosis, the self-emptying of the person to the very roots of his human existence of which Christ gave him the supreme example of His life and death on the cross. It is only in that utter nothingness of kenosis that integrity is possible. There is no other "fulfillment." But this kenosis is not an attitude, a spirit, and a mentality of mortification, as the Greeks might have thought. It is tangible and real: a man leaves all he has, and becomes poor, nothing, empty, dead in the things he has prized. He knows the nakedness of the poor man. It is not poverty of spirit. It is poverty. Poverty and Ecclesial Communion There is a principle in the New Testament that what one gives up to become poor is given over to the poor, so that they are enriched by it. Christ was rich in laying a rightful claim to Sonship of God. Rich though He was in this respect., He became poor for us and did not cling tenaciously to this right for Himself. Thus, through His poverty, we became rich in His very Sonship. In the Jerusalem community, the model and norm of radical following of Christ in the Church, no one kept his own things (ta idia)-- shall we say that no one "did his own thing"---but each one's own things became thereby the things of all (ta koinonia). It is poverty, then, in its genuine realism and in the self-emptying it implies, that constitutes com-munion and community. The Church is a community because it is a Church. of the poor. Its common life is not a sharing of advantages each retains so that one complements the other; it is a giving of one's all to all and for all, so that in the emptiness of all there can be a truly communed life. Christian Is a Poor Man / 1021 Emphases in New Testament Poverty In these three New Testament motiv.es of pove.rty, there is a strong emphasis on a// --- all is given, so that a poor man can be nothing and have nothing. There is no limit to the poverty that. might be embraced. There is no poor man excluded from the reach of the gospel. There is no poor man that the Christian will not help, no poor man that he will not join. Anawim (the poor) is a plural word; and it has no limits of poverty. There is an instinct for the most needy, the most abandoned, the poorest of all. In these motives, too, there is a new kind of consciousness inculcated in the Christian disciple. What he does, effectively, by external action, for the poor, is limited and, in the last count, not very effective; that does not matter: What matters is what happens to him, and to the poor, when he gets among them and joins them. It gives him a compassion, a self-forget-fulness, a tenderness, an ability to care that transfo~:ms him and communi-cates itself to the poor to whom he now belongs. In poverty, he has become an embodiment of love. He has begun to sense the reality of an incarnation. He has begun to learn to live as a "dropout" from the existence he might have clung to. He has gone to the castoffs from society, who will love him even if they know that he was not always one of them and is not so deeply rooted in misery as they ai-e. He has gone away from the comfortable and complacent, who have struck him of[ from their lists. He knows the lone-liness of the missionary among the anawim. In these motives, again, there is an undreamt of realism and a stark simplicity. This poverty is not a philosophical theory; one does not muse that every creature is poor, or that man is a conscious beggar for his given existence from God. Nor is this poverty simply the acceptance of whatever limitations (or "poverty") are in fact in one's life, which for the moment cannot be removed. Nor is it the poverty of someone who equips himself to help others, and then looks around for needy people to help, and has to be content with less than ideal types to begin. In this poverty, one does not work out first the a priori conditions of poverty and then see how to imple-' ment them. There are really poor people before our eyes, and it is their poverty we must share, with them that we must become one in a self-for-getting and serving compassion. The poor are always with us. They are there, and we respond to them in an instinct of love, not in a calculation of reason. The Gospel Poor Man The life style of the gospel poor man is then that of a worker among the battlers for existence, a struggler among the not-yet-assured, a sharer among the insufficiently endowed, humanly as well as spiritually. It is a simple life, frugal, hard-earned, frustrating, substandard, where one is not sure how one is to survive, where one lives with the poor on their terms, and on his own, where one lives well below the ordinary normal comfort one might have as the result of one's talents and energy. The gospel poor man 1022 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 gives his time and his self to the poor, and finds 'his place among them. He can say, "We poor." The inspiration for this way of life is Biblical. We could sum it up in slogan words that resonate anew today in the heart of the Church: words like Messiah, anawim, shalom, shaliah, diakonia, evangelion, eucharistia, the mercy of God. Messianism, Anawim, .Covenant, and Peace There is a real resurgence of Messianism in the Church today, Christians are realizing that they are not Christians unless they fall in love with Jesus as Messiah and adopt his Messianic life style. This means that they must fall in love with the poor of their own time, and adopt their life style, for love of Jesus and the gospel of.the poor. A resurrection theology, over two decades, has divested us of an exaggerated spiritualism' in.our spirituality. A poverty theology, stemming from a new Messiah theology, will divest us of a remain-ing complacency in which we would persuade ourselves, if not others, that we share in the sufferings of the Lord without sharing the lot of His little ones. The anawim are His little ones. Because they are the poor, they are the poor of God. God cannot help it--He must fill emptiness with Himself. He cannot make a covenant except with the poor. It is to those who have neither a future nor a hope that He comes to make flow upon them a river of peace, and to bind Himself to be in person their future and their hope. God laughs at those who would offer Him their goods and their love~ and, as it were, enter a two-way relationship with Him: He loves one way, giving His all to those who have nothing and are nothing. After all, He must have His own way of, as it were, joining the poor, too, musn't He? For, to them, He gives His all. This is wh~t the covenant means, and this is the shalom it brings. Shalom does not mean peace, at least, if peace means a comfortable inner feelin.g of security, and no hostilities without. When God loves the anawim, and sends His Christ to them, He does not--immediately, at least--take away their poverty. They are still the poor, these poor of God. His shalom is not an anaesthetic so that they do not feel it. But it is shalom, and it is a trust and a faith and a certainty that He has not chosen the thi.ngs that are, but the things that are not. It is a willingness to smile, even at death. For resurrec-tion is assured, since the eschaton belongs to the anawim. The simplicity of washing the feet of the poor and of serving them in their deepest human needs is itself a total life style, and those who have heard the Messianic call have no option but to live it. It is not easy to wash a poor man's feet. They are dirty, they smell, and he will probably not thank you, but kick you in the face.You probably won't succeed, but you will know that there is a kind of happiness words can never explain in keeping on .doing it. This is the diakonia of the gospel. A Chr~t~n Is a Poor Man / 1023 o Gospel means good news. To proclaim the gospel means to speak, but much more to be good news to men. Some of my American friends have an unkind expression about a difficult and unattractive, character: They say, "He's bad news." They also say of a genuine and real person, "He's good news." Jesus Himself was this kind of good news to the little ones, to the poor. When He began.His Galilean ministry, he read from the ,scroll of Deutero-Isaiah: "He has, sent me to be good news tothe anawim." When we work in his name, in our apostolate, are we, ourselves, good news to men, to poor men? And do we realize that there is no such thing as a direct apostolate to the rich and the well-established, there is only a mission of Jesus and His disciples to the poor? The others get in to the extent that they, too, leave all and become members of the anawim! , Eucharistia and Mercy Eucharistia--the giving of thanks, the celebrating of life, and saying now in Christ, for the past thanks, for the future yes~ Shall we ever know, the truth of that thanks for the past until we can bless the Providence that has made-us poor men? Shall we ever say a total yes to the future until we can face it without any resources as the pure gift of our Covenanted Resource, the God of the poor? It is only then that we shall know Him in the breaking of the bread of pilgrims, at the table of the poor, and discover in surprise that the Eueharist is the liturgy of the little ones. It is true. God has no love that is not mercy. Mercy is His response, in His heart, to misery. To be among the first clients of His mercy, we must be his anawim. A vocation" to His love is a vocation to our brother, the poor man. Recently, a student of mine at Fordham wrote these words as the conclusion of an assignment on the meaning of the apostolate: Are the people of the Word something sp~'cial, or is it only their words? Will their lives speak to us? The eye and ear ~vorld is all sewn up by the talented admen of Madison Avenue. What is left to us? The heart world. The world where flesh,, speaks to flesh, heart to heart. Do not speak religious themes to me. Speak the Word that is in your heart, your experience of life, enriched, made more than human, by the saving power in it that is believable because you believe it. I do want to be told, not by hearing you but by knowing you. Or is that an issue? I ask you if you understand, and your answer is your life. The Recovery of Messianic Man This poverty of Messianic man we are beginning to see again in our time. It is the challenge of our conscience, this cry of the poor. We can no longer vaguely know that half the world is starving for food, and more than half of it for love, and write off .the situation as bad luck, or permitted by providence, and promise to pray for it and count our own blessings. That is not the Christian life; indeed, it is not human life. The new global village is one parish. Every man is my neighbor, and it is a sin to regard a man as a 1024 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 stranger. The Church is beginning to challenge the reasonable moderation and balanced calculation of its stance, before the secular reality of poverty in the world. Some would even speak of the end of a "Constantinian era" and the beginning of a new Mcssianic epoch where the Spirit shall anoint us and send us to the poor. If this is true, it is but a beginning. We have yet a long way to go. When we try to relatc this thinking with the established or recently adopted norms of institutional poverty among religious, the lines do not even meet. Juridic poverty had a place in the history of religious life," but it is not the same as evangelical poverty. Many, of course, in the name of realism, will remind us 'that just as we once spoke of "tending to perfection," an ideal we never reached, so here we must feel obliged only to tend to this perfection of poverty and Messianic life, not to reach it immediately. Yes, but the acid test of the new Christian conscience is that it cannot use this theological formula as an excuse from real and significantly new action. Formulated obligation cannot measure up to a charismatic spirit. Our conscience is telling us that we are suffering from compassion fatigue, that we have enjoyed the protection of our callousness, that we must now .make a new option to be compassionate rather than honorable. Our skin must stretch around the globe, so that if any man hurts, we hurt with him, and do some-thing about it. The Cry of the Poor Pope Paul has taken up this point in his apostolic exhortation to religious (ll tempio massimo, July 2, 1971). "Our contemporaries," he says, "question you with particular insistence about poverty." "You hear rising up, more pressing than ever, the cry of the poor." "Was .it not to respond to their appeal as God's privileged ones that Christ came, even going as far as to identify Himself with them?" It is a "pressing call for a conver-sion of minds and attitudes, especially for you who follow Christ more closely in this earthly condition of self-emptying." It calls for "a conversion of hearts, it is a call to love." What, in practice, will the cry of the poor demand of religious? First, "It must bar you from any compromise with any form of social injustice." Secondly, "It obliges you to awaken consciences to the drama of human misery." Thirdly, "It leads some of you to join the poor in their situation." Fourthly, "It calls many institutes to rededicate some of their works to the poor." Fifthly, "It enjoins on you a use of goods limited to the requirements of your work." Sixthly, "It is necessary that in your daily lives you give external proof of poverty." A Christian is a Poor Man / 1025 Seventhly, "It is not normal to allow yourself everything offered to you." Eighthly, "Earn your own living and help the poor by your work." Ninthly, "You cannot purely and simply conform to your surroundings." Tenthly, "Do not be excessively preoccupied with appearing to be poor." All this is said in conformity with the patterns of obedience and specific apostolate in a given institute. It is a call from the needs of the times and the demands of the gospel. It is a vocation to discover Christ as a poor man. Renewal and Poverly Much energy has gone into the renewal of religious community. Some-times one gets the impression that they are trying to be beautiful resident communities of loving relationships which might then, as an overflow, have something to contribute to the poor. This is heresy. The Church has no mandate to be a resident, domesticated Church. It is essentially missionary, a pilgrim, servant Church of the poor. It is only by living its vocation to poverty among the poor that it can discover the kind of community life Christ intended for it. Likewise, much work has gone into the renewal of authority and obedience in religious life. It will not fully succeed until authority becomes an initiation of new life among the poor, and obedience is a heeding of the cry of the poor. Again, much has been done to make religious life more human, more relational, more interpersonal, more affec-tive. But the tenderness and the gentleness and the caring concern that we so desire, we must learn from our involvement with the poor. It is but an-other work for the meekness of the anawim. Of the poor, it has been said, "Only he who sees the invisible accom-plishes the impossible."~Of the gospel poor man who goes to the poor, we might likewise say, "Only he who loves the unlovable is good news to the little ones." A Penance Service Bonaventure Hinwood, O.F.M. Father Bonaventure Hinwood is a faculty member of The Seminary; 191 Main Street; Waterkloof; Pretoria, South Africa. His penance service given below was originally composed for teaching sisters to be used during Lent 1974. mo 4. 5. B. 6. 7. 1026 Introduction HYMN OPENING PRAYER P(riest): Heavenly Father, who does not wish the death of a sinner but rather that he should turn from his wickedness and live, we beg You to turn the light of Your truth upon our lives and bring us to true repentance in this time of mercy. Make your Holy Spirit active within us this evening to lead us to see our lives as they are in Your sight, and to sensitize our hearts so that we may give a true response of love and sorrow to Your call. This we ask through Jesus Christ, our Mediator with You and the cause of our joy. C(ongregation): Amen. SCRIPTURE READING: John 3:16-21. SERMON HYMN First Sel]-con]rontation SCRIPTURE READING: Matthew 16:24-7. P. My sisters, the most precious thing in the whole world for most of us is ourselves. This is demonstrated by the fact that we will frequently use or abandon almost every other person or thing in order to realiz,e our own image of our self-fulfillment, to achieve our own plans and A Penance Service / 1027 projects, to satisfy our needs and desires. Jesus, however, has come to free us from our self-centeredness. He has come to give us a share in His own capacity to devote and to give oneself wholeheartedly to bringing about God's kingdom, and to love Him and those for whom He died. This can only be done by an unstinting gift of ourselves to Him. Do we really desire to make this gift, and are we really intent upon trying to make this self-offering more complete? A(ssistan0 1: Jesus' great commandment tells us that we should love the Lord our God with our whole heart, our whole soul, our whole mind, and our whole strength, and our fellow men as ourselves. This is a fulltime job. Yet a lot of our valuable time and energy gets wasted irt useless tension, frustration, and self-pity. Why is this? Am I really prepared to let go of my own will, or am I too attached to my own wants, my own plans, my own projects, my own way of doing things, my own rhythm of life? A. 2: Am I truly open to viewpoints other than my own, or is my own way of looking at things always my supreme criterion in life? Do I really try to understand the contrary opinions of others, or am I too busy thinking of ways to defend my own viewpoint even to listen to what others are saying? Am I too confident in my own judg-ment to consult with others or seek their advice? Have I failed to respect other people's greater learning or experience? How often have these attitudes of mine been the cause of misunderstanding with others or tensions in the community? A. 1: Do I try to lighten the burden of those charged with regulating the affairs of the Church, the community, and the school by ready cooperation and obedience, or am I destructively critical and stub-born? Do I accept that they are honestly trying to do theirbest for the common good and for me, or am I suspicious and negative in my attitude towards them? Do I seek first the kingdom of God and the common good, o.r is my own convenience primary? SILENCE FOR REFLECTION PI~AYER FOR FORGIVENESS P. Jesus who instructed us that "If anyone wants to be a follower of mine, let him renounce himself and take up his cross and follow me" (Mt 16:24): . Have mercy on me a sinner. P. Jesus who calls us to "Shoulder my yoke and learn from Me, for I am gentle and humble of heart, and you will find rest for your souls (Mt 11:29-30): 12. Have mercy on me a sinner. 1028 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 11. 12. P. Jesus who warned that "Anyone who exalts himself will be humbled, and anyone who humbles himself will be exalted" (Mt 23: 12): 12. Have mercy on me a sinner. P. Jesus who said by the well of Jacob, "My food is to do the will of the one who sent Me and to complete his work" (Jn 4:34): C. Have mercy on me a sinner. P. Jesus who prayed in Gethsemani, "My Father, if this cup cannot pass by without my drinking it, your will be done" (Mt 26:42) : ¯ . Have mercy on me a sinner. P. Jesus who, although You were the Son of God, "learnt to obey through suffering" (Heb 5:8) : 12. Have mercy on me a sinner. P. Jesus who, having been made perfect, has become for all who obey You the source of eternal salvation (Heb 5:9): C. Have mercy on me a sinner. P. Jesus who has taught us that a man can have no greater love than to lay down his life for his friends (Jn 15:13): 12. Have mercy on me a sinner. Second Self-con]rontation SCRIPTURE READING: John 15:5, 8-12. P. My sisters, the tone of our own lives gives a tone to the environ-ment in which we live, the mental and emotional atmosphere which we create in our own personalities affects the social atmosphere in which those around us have to live. If we, therefore, are negative, cynical, disgruntled, and grumpy people we pollute the atmosphere of those around us with unpleasantness, tension, gloom, and sadness. If, however, we are positive, creative, contented, and cheerful, then we provide for others an atmosphere of brightness and warmth, of enthusiasm, lightness, harmony, and joy. Does our love for others extend as far as building up Christ's joy in ourselves for their sake? -A. 2: It is only in freedom that we can be truly joyful, and Christ has come to set us free from the inordinate and selfish attachment to people, places, activities, and things, which is the cause of much of our sadness. Do I cherish that freedom which a positive and profound living out of my religious vows brings, or are they for me merely nega-tive restraints which produce frustration and discontent? Am I a ful-filled and joyful person because I love in the freedom of my religious vocation, or have I become selfish and finicky? A. 1: In the theme song for the film Brother Son and Sister Moon, Francis complains that he seldom sees and hears the wonders of God's A Penance Service / 1029 13. creatures because he is too "preoccupied with selfish miseries." Am I so busy with my own emotions, particularly negative reactions of suspicion, wounded pride, self-defense, and criticalness that I am un-able to see the beauty, goodness, and virtue of the people and things around me? Am I so busy manipulating and condemning God's creatures, that I do not have time to thank Him and rejoice in them? A. 2: St. Francis said once to a mournful looking brother that the only reason for being sad was because one was in mortal sin, and the only cure for that was to go to confession. Do I really appreciate what an ecstatic thing it is to have been saved by Jesus Christ, to have been made in Him a child of the Father and an heir of God's Kingdom? Am I so busy rejoicing with Mary at the great things God has done for me, that I do not have time to get downhearted and miserable about the other things that may not go the way I want them to? SILENCE FOR REFLECTION PRAYER FOR FORGIVENESS P. Jesus Christ who has told us the good news we read in the passage from St. John so that You may share your joy with us to the full (Jn 17:13): 12. Forgive me my preoccupation with selfish miseries and my lack of joy. P. Jesus, when the wise men heard the prophecy of your birth in Bethlehem and saw the guiding star they rejoiced exceedingly with great joy (Mt 2:10): 12. Forgive me my preoccupation with selfish miseries and my lack of joy. P. Jesus, when You told Zacchaeus that You would stay in his house that day, Zacchaeus welcomed You with joy (Lk 19:6): 12. Forgive me my preoccupation with selfish miseries and my lack of joy. P. At the angel's message about your resurrection, Lord, the women with great joy ran to tell the disciples (Mt 28:8): 12. Forgive me my preoccupation with selfish miseries and my lack of joy. P. Lord who told us that the person who finds the treasure of the kingdom of heaven, in his joy goes and sells all he has to buy it (Mt 13:44): . Forgive me my preoccupation with selfish ~miseries and my lack of joy. Time for Personal Examination and Confession Conclusion 1030 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 15. 16. 17. PENANCES (one penance to be chosen by each penitent) a. Make the Stations of the Cross, meditating on the obedience, meek-ness, and humility of Jesus. b. Spend ten minutes thinking of the good points of a superior, fellow religious, or pupil of whom you are often negatively critical, and praying for her. c. Walk around or sit in the garden for ten minutes listening to the birds and insects, and looking at the trees and flowers, clouds or stars, and thank God for His goodness and rejoice in the wonder of His creation. OUR FATHER (recited by all together) P. May almighty God have mercy on you, forgive you your sins, and bring you to everlasting life. C. Amen: P. May the almighty and merciful Lord grant you pardon, absolution, and forgiveness of your sins. 12. Amen. DISMISSAL P. May the. Lord renew you with His energy and joy. May He ac-company you on your way with His presence and make all your works fruitful. May He strengthen you against all that is evil and give you the courage to serve those nearest to you and all men wherever they may be. And may the blessing of God almighty, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit be with you and remain with you always. 12. Amen. 18. HYMN The Formation of Contemplatives in Action Ladislas Orsy, S.J. Ladislas Orsy, S.J., who has written often on the theology of religious life, is a mem-ber of the Department of Canon Law; The Catholic University of America; Washing-ton, D. C. 20017. Contemplatives in action are the salt of the earth; as a gracious gift from God, they have a tang, and they are able to bring some goodness into every-thing they touch. Quite a good description of religious life! No wonder many communities intent on the ideal of being the salt of the earth raise the question: How do we form contemplatives in action? We take their query, but, to make it more manageable, we break it up into three questions. First, who is a contemplative in action? Second, how does one develop into such a person? Third, what structured program can help the development? That is, our reflections revolve around three topics: the person, the process, and the program. While the focus of our attention is on the person, the resulting description will exhibit a somewhat static picture. It cannot be in any other way. But the movement that gives us con-templatives in action must he somehow caught; therefore, the pilgrim's progress must be delineated, as it were,'in its natural state. Then comes the problem of the environment, how external structures contribute to a process that is so deeply internal and personal. Since everybody knows how far-reaching these three questions are and how difficult it is to find any final answer, we are in the happy position of having to respond to only limited expectations. The reflections of a man may be no more than a drop into the ocean, but, for that man, it is certainly pleasant to contemplate the vast dimensions of the ocean even if he cannot add much to it. 1031 1032 / Review for Religious. l/olume 33, .1974/5 The dimensions of the question of the formation of contemplatives in action are indeed vast, and the real answer will not be given by any writer, but existentially by communities who do something about it. After all, for-mation is a practical issue. PART I: TIlE PERSON The beginning of any search should be an inquiry. We have already broken up the big fundamental issue into three more particular ones, and now we focus on the first: Who is a contemplative in action? Two qualities must be present in the person: the capacity to contemplate and the ability to act. Moreover, the two should be blended together; this is what the issue implies. Hence, to put our search on the right paths, there should be an even more particularized sequence of questions. Let us ask therefore: Who is a contemplative person? Who is a person of action? And finally, to see how the two blend together, let us see who is an integrated person. Who Is a Contemplative Person? The term "contemplative" can be used in different senses. At times, it means a hermit, a recluse, or a religious with strict enclosure: then it focuses on the external situation in which a person is found, such as solitude and separation from the world. At times, the term means a person bent on in-tellectual reflection: then it focuses on the internal disposition of a writer, of an artist, of anyone who is of reflective type. The Christian Contemplative In Christian tradition, the word includes a sacred dimension: a con-templative person is the one who experiences in his innermost being a tran-scendent and sacred power that draws him to Christ. All the words in this general description° connote a mystery. To be contemplative, then, is to experience in the depths of our being the intrusion of a power that moves us to a direction that is beyond our horizons. This experience does not enter-tain the senses; they can remain thirsty and hungry. Nor does it satisfy the intelligence; it can remain frustrated and empty. But the experience brings a meaning to our humanity even if not every part of it can appreciate its values. The content of the experience is hard to describe; it is not concep-tual; it is the perception of an internal movement that does not necessarily bring new knowledge nor leave a specific impression on our being. Rather, we become aware of an energy that is given to us from a source that is more powerful than ourselves. It comes from a world that is beyond our ordinary capacity to see or to reach. It comes from a transcendental source. This power that wells up in our being is apprehended as sacred. It is concerned with our ultimate destination. It comes from God; it carries us to God. The discovery of this energy may remind us of the precious pearl of a great value; the merchant who finds it sells all to buy it (see Matt 13:45-6). The Formation o] Contemplatives in Action / 1033 The analogy is partially right. The gift is more precious than any pearl, and to sell all to have it makes good sense. Yet the same gift is not an object to be stored and exposed for admiration; rather we become aware of a current that takes hold of us, of a movement that reaches us at the depth of our being. Other Descriptions oI a Contemplative This description leads to another formulation of the definition of a con-templative person. He is the one who is ordinarily aware of the presence and power of the Lord in him and who follows the direction of the move-ment imprinted in him. This definition is more personal; it names the source of the power--it is the Lord. All is put into the context of a person-to-person relationship. The energy is transcendental and sacred because it originates in the one who moves all living things. The experience of the power is an obscure aware-ness of the Lord reminiscent somewhat of the experience of the Apostles fishing on the Sea of Tiberias at the breaking of the dawn and noticing a stranger on the shore. Attracted by His unusual presence, surprised by the power of His voice, gradually they became aware that it was the Lord. The intrusion of the Lord in our life is a gift that does not create a state of romantic happiness; rather, it helps us to realize the complexity of our nature. We can be happy at some depths and yet suffer acutely from thirst and hunger. We can be resigned at one level and yet mourn the loss of a loved person at another level. We can be anchored through hope and yet tossed around by the uncertainties of this world that may amount even to persecution. The gift of contemplation and the discovery of it could be described in many other ways. All would be analogical and incomplete. We could speak about a small light that attracts from a great distance but does not alleviate the darkness and the loneliness of the night. We could speak about a rising inner security that holds a person firm while he is subject to present and future shocks from a world that changes around him. The term "contemplative" may not be the best to describe a person so blessed, since traditionally it implies an intellectual vision and does not con-vey the idea of participation in a movement. The distinction between the two--vision and movement--may be flimsy especially at greater depths. Nonetheless, the term has been sanctioned by tradition; hence it would be difficult to break away from it. Besides, there is no adequate term to cover the reality we described. Through this awareness of God's presence and power, a person trans-cends himself, is carried beyond himself. He enters a new universe that is marked by God's immensity and His infinity. The old conceptual horizons with their precise circumscriptions disappear, and new desires get hold of the heart. The actions of such a person will spring from a new source. 1034 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 Becoming a Contemplative Person We attempted an answer to the question: Who is a contemplative per.- son? To understand him further, let us raise the question: How does some-one become a contemplative person? Clearly, there is no other way of becoming a contemplative person than by discovering internally the Lord's power. The gift is independent of us, but the process of discovery is somewhat within our capacity. This search for the elusive gift that is present enough to attract us and absent enough to require a long journey has been frequently described in Christian tradition as a descent into greater depths or as an ascent to greater heights or as a steady progress into ever more intimate dwellings of God in our being. All these allegories are meaningful; all converge into saying that there is a process that ought to be a progress toward a closer relation-ship with the Lord. Usually we speak of the pilgrim's progress, of man's journey to God; correct speech would require us to speak of God's progress in overwhelming man with His grace and power. The initiative is really His at every stage. Yet we can resist His approaches or subtly divert our attention from them. Hence, pragmatically, it serves a purpose to speak of our own journey to God. Perhaps to reconcile the exigencies of the primacy of grace and of our own need to be alert to God, we can use a modern alle-gory and speak about a process of liberation that man must go through to be transformed into an image of God. The principal agent in this process is the Lord, but we are real, active agents as well, if not to the extent of giving freedom to ourselves, at least to the point of removing obstacles before the helping hand of God. Need for Progression in Depth We take up the traditional allegory in a different way: to become a con-templative person means to enter into life with increasing intensity. There is a need for progress in depth. Man indeed is a complex being endowed with an awareness of life at different levels: on the level of what his senses can perceive and communicate, on the level of what his mind can penetrate and understand, and on the level that has no limitations because it opens up into the infinite universe discovered through faith. We all live and move on all these levels; in the awareness of our being, they intermingle, they form a unity. Nonetheless, a person's development can be arrested on the level of a world communicated to him through his senses, without much understanding, without the light of faith. A person can find satisfaction on the level of hu-man intelligence, a worthy and dignified life it would be, yet without the hope that springs from faith. Finally, a person can reach the depths that faith brings and let all his life be invaded by the light and strength that origi-nates in the Lord who revealed Himself through the contingencies of human history. The Formation o] Contemplatives in Action / 1035 Libration from the Communications of the Senses The life of a person can revolve around the content of those communi-cations that he receives from his senses, and the expansion of his personality into the fascinating world of creative intelligence or into the limitless world of faith can be impeded. Such a person is underdeveloped. Without know-ing it, he is a captive of those steady impacts that he receives from the out-side world; his being relishes them, or at least is attached to them, at times to the point that any desire to go deeper is weakened to the point of ex-tinction. Our particular culture favors such an attitude. Much of the press, radio, television, cinema thrives on the passive receptivity of the public; the media rarely stimulate creative activity; still less do they send their readers, lis-teners, o~ viewers into an advefiture of faith. When someone is immersed in that world, the impression clouds his mind and cancels out the natural dynamism of a desire for better things. If this is so, there is a need for an internal war of liberation. To begin with, the person must become conscious of his mutilated state; he must admit that his growth has been arrested, and that he is deprived of a fully human and Christian life. Obviously enough, we are speaking more of a principal trend than of an absolute univocal state. There will always be some intelligent activity in every person, some movements of faith in every Christian, but the question is which of these many trends prevails. '°~AI great deal of our traditional asceticism was meant to liberate the pers.o~ from the captivity that communications from the senses can induce. Thus far it was good; it went wrong when it assumed that mortification alone can achieve liberation. It is also necessary to show the person broader vistas of intelligence and' faith that attract. No one will ever exchange some-thing for nothing, but show him a better value that pulls his being and-he will be ready to sacrifice many things. Many novitiates failed in the past because they taught asceticism without opening up new horizons. As soon as the novitiate was over, the imposed practices collapsed, and there was no realization of new frontiers that opened up into a new world. Liberation from the overbearing communications that come through our senses is necessary, but it can be achieved only by the steady pull of higher values consistently present in our consciousness. Liberation from the Limitations of Intelligence A person's life can focus mainly on the fascinating world of his creative intelligence. This is progress in depth; it means more humanity, it means greater likeness to God's image. Yet it has limitations: it does not know the immense world opened up by faith, or, when that world is presented, it can impede the person from entering into the dizzy unknown that he cannot measure or explain. The world of human intelligence can offer much human satisfaction. We feel at home there, the problems are of our own size, and 1036 / Review Sot Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 the objects of our desires are attainable. It is all a comfortable and also a comforting world, but, because there is a longing in man for the infinite, a reassuringly human world can become a prison; man can enclose himself in a universe proportionate to his mind. A process of liberation may be necessary precisely to enter a new universe opened up by faith, perhaps by the experience of the presence and power of the Lord in our innermost being. Much of the traditional literature that spoke about the mortification of judgment intended to speak about the freeing of the mind for the impact of faith, about opening up our being for God's own horizons. It was right as far as it did not suggest an empty exercise but rather showed .the greatness of God and the harm6ny of His plan which makes worthwhile an exchange that leads to the loss of our thoughts and desires. The New World o] Faith To live on the level of faith is to live in a new universe with God in its center, known as He revealed Himself through Jesus Christ. In Him, all things and events receive a meaning--our own life included. The limitations of our humanity imposed by the senses and by our intelligence are broken up; there is an infinite openness in every direction. The transition into the world of faith is a radical ch.ange. Once again, it brings out the complexity of our natui'e. While the deepest and the best in us relishes the expansion of our horizons into infinity, while'~we experience a new security in our Maker, our mind misses the clarit.y, of human equations, and our senses long for the security of a more familiar world. Paradoxically the universe of God that brings peace to our restless he~-t unsettles our intelligence and our senses. For those who live by faith, the awareness of a deep security is compatible with the experience of insecurity in their human-ity. To comprehend this seemingly contradictory situation is the clue to the acceptance of it. Many recoil from entering the universe of faith because they cannot handle this complex situation in themselves, and they do not realize that the resulting tension is the ordinary lot of a pilgrim who is entering into an unknown land. No writer has ever better described this paradoxical state than St. John of the Cross: To enjoy all enjoy nothing; To possess all, possess nothing; To be all; be nothing; To know all, know nothing. To reach what you do not enjoy go where there is no enjoyment; The Formation oj Contemplatives in Action / 1037 To learn what you do not know, tread the path of ignorance; To obtain what you do not possess, walk without possessions; To be what you are not, leave behind all that you are. (The Ascent o] Mount Carmel, Book 1, Chapter 13) Our translation is not literal. Its intent is more to bring out the stark simplicity of the Spanish text than to render exactly each word. Once we understand the complexity of our nature, those sharp contrasts painted by the saint become meaningful. At one level our being can embrace all and be satisfied, while on another level it is thoroughly frustrated and empty. In the depths of our heart we can know of the presence of a mystery and accept its demands, while our mind and senses cry out for some nourishment more proportionate to their desires. The Paradoxes of a Li[e in Faith No one should be surprised if a person entering the universe of faith and experiencing its dimensions and demands on his being becomes upset and appears disoriented. He has a fine balancing job to do, and it cannot be learned in one day. Moreover, he may discover new depths every day, and like all humans he may become dizzy and scared. He must reconcile securi-ty with insecurity, satisfaction with hunger, a most intense personal relation-ship with a human loneliness. He experiences courage and fear, the ex-pansion of his own personality and the loss of friends who do not under-stand. But as the balancing work progresses, he begins to be himself in a fuller sense of the word than he has known before. Almost certainly, he be-comes both a witness who attracts and a sign that is contradicted. He finds his journey both lonely and exhilarating. Strangely enough, as he progresses into the unknown land of faith, his humanity opens up and his intelligence becomes more creative than ever and his senses partake somehow in celebrating new discoveries. Such a person is anything but dull; he is the salt of the earth--with a tang. Summing It Up To sum it all up: a human perso.n can live on different levels. His life may revolve around the impacts that his senses communicate, or his life be an expression of the creativity of human intelligence, or his life may be the sharing of God's life and of His universe in faith. To speak about levels, of course, is to use a metaphor to express somehow the complexity of our nature, about which there can be no doubt. These levels blend into each other, and a thoughtful person graced by God should progress from the more external to the more .internal, from human desires to divine in-vitations. There is a dynamism in our being that attempts to bring it con-tinuously to greater depths. 1038 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 The right question about the formation of contemplatives can be formu-lated now; it is: How can a person be helped to progress into the universe of faith; how can his attention be directed to the unknown land that God's revelation opens up, and how can he be attracted into desiring an adven-ture? In particular, the question should be put: How can a person be helped during the specific crisis of transition from the world of human measures into the unmeasurable universe of God? To this question, we shall return when we speak of the process and pro-gram of formation. Before doing so, we must reflect on action that springs from contemplation. Who Is a Person of Action? A contemplative person is the one who experiences the Lord's presence and power in his innermost being, a close interpersonal relationship. Is it a closed relationship as well? Or, is it open so as to" inspire action? At any rate, who is a person of action? Two Misconceptions To clear our mind for a fruitful inquiry, let us exorcise it from two mis-conceptions. One conceives human action as something added to a person from the outside in much the same way as an external object can be pegged onto a tree. Such an aberration, of course, does not make any sense. Human action proceeds from the depths of a person, as the fruit is produced from the inner potentials of a tree. As there is an organic, sequential unity between the tree and the fruit, so there is a dynamic and harmonious unity between the inner riches of a man and his actions. They cannot be considered separately, even if mentally we draw a distinction between cause and effect. Another mistake is to think that actions to be significant ought to be s.pectacular. °They must initiate a new movement, or they must make a dra-matic impact on thousands. Not so! Significant action can evolve around humbler objects, as the actions of a Christian mother who takes care of her family, or the actions of a monk who with sudden inspiration or enduring patience creates a new melody to praise the Lord. By action, we mean all kinds of creative activity that somehow enriches this universe. Action Is an Enrichment o[ the Universe Now that these understandings are out of the way, we can return to our question: Who is a person of action? He is the one who brings fruit that can be seen by his fellow men and enriches them. The quality of the action depends on the potentials of the person who produces it; and the state of his mind, of his heart will be projected into his actions. An action is first born when our intelligence discovers a possibility for enriching this universe. It ought to be a real possibility in the sense that The Formation o] Contemplatives in Action / 1039 the action once taken will blend into a broader plan that is already un-folding outside us. Therefore, no one can be sensibly active unless he can direct his attention to all relevant facts around him, unless he can grasp an intelligent pattern behind them; moreover, he must have strength and energy to transform a possibility into reality. Action is indeed an act of creation. Through it, man somehow tran-scends himself, produces something new, similar to his internal x;ision and desire. When active, man becomes more like God, his creator; after all, he was made to the image of God. Not only is there nothing wrong with action; there would be something missing in a man who is not active--the image of God our creator would not be complete. It follows also that due to the complexity of our nature our actions may originate at different levels; the quality of action will reflect the quality of its source. Levels o] Action An action may originate in what is communicated through the senses without the benefit of intelligent reflection and judgment and without the enlightening influence of faith. It can be a mere emotional response, or it can be a way of doing what the others are doing; in such a case, a man operates in a poor way. What is best in his humanity does not participate in the action. The external act is. marked by its shallow origin; it does not create "a new harmony in the world, it merely add's to the universal noise. At best, the.person beats the drum with the others. An action may proceed from intelligent insight and reasonable judg-ment. Such action is certainly worthy of man, although it may not reflect the wisdom of God that is scandal to the Jews and sheer stupidity to the pagans. Some fields of human activity requir~ this type of action, such as going back and forth in space. After all, the laws of space are proportionate to our intelligence, and consequently, a proper field for reasonable opera-tions. But such action is not enough to build the reign of Christ. The deepest source of action in a Christian is in his contemplation, in his awareness of the Lord's presence and power. When action comes from such depths, it must pass through the screening of critical intelligence; it must also reflect the humanity of our senses: nonetheless, it is born from grace. It comes from God, it builds the kingdom. The Liberation o[ Action As in the case of contemplation, there is a problem of transition into the universe of faith to which Christian actions ultimately must ~be adjusted. Since it does not provoke an immediate reaction on the level of the senses, since it does not prompt ~n immediate intelligent response, our action itself can appear as a journey into the vast immensity of the unknown; all the problems of the paradox we described for contemplation are manifest in 1040 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/5 this field too. Also, the process of liberation must take place in a similar way. Our action must proceed from an increasingly deeper source. A Christian person of action, then, is the one who received God's grace in his whole being and in whom grace brought fruit for the enrichment of the world around him. There is integrity in such a person because his beliefs are followed by good deeds, and those deeds do not spring from an emotional reaction, not even from mere human reasoning, but from a depth which is scrutinized by the Spirit of God. Such a person has a unity in his being; he is whole, he is made of one piece; in his acts of creative action, he mani-fests the image of the Creator. All the elements are together now to answer the question: Who is an integrated person? Who Is an Integrated Person? An integrated Christian person is the one who has developed his poten-tials fully, and thus he became whole. He lives his life with all the intensity his resources allow. He experiences God's presence and power in his inner-most being, and he builds the kingdom of God through external action. In a small scale, he revives something of the mystery of the Incarnation. He is in this world, and he is attentive to all that happens around him. He brings his intelligence to bear on all facts and events. Through his in-sights, he penetrates deeper than the apparent truth. He is liberated enough to see new possibilities, and, once he has decided on a course of action, he is
