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This paper reports on recent analysis of oil spill cost data assembled by the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPCF). Regression analyses of clean-up costs and total costs have been carried out, after taking care to convert to current prices and remove outliers. In the first place, the results of this analysis have been useful in the context of the ongoing discussion within the International Maritime Organization (IMO) on environmental risk evaluation criteria. Furthermore, these results can be useful in estimating the benefit of regulations that deal with the protection of marine environment and oil pollution prevention. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Northern Territory Government ; Water allocation plans are established under section 22B of the Water Act 1992, which states (in part) that water resource management in a water control district is to be in accordance with the water allocation plan declared in respect of the district. This Draft Oolloo Dolostone Aquifer Water Allocation Plan 2019-2029 applies to all groundwater within the Oolloo Dolostone Aquifer (ODA) and all surface water discharges derived from that aquifer. It provides the basis for decisions on the management of the ODA; that is it recommends allocation strategies and principles to protect the environmental and cultural values of the Daly and its tributaries, while optimising the beneficial uses of the ODA for sustainable development. The Plan's principal objectives are to: • protect the environmental and cultural values of the region, particularly focusing on groundwater base flows to the Daly River and other groundwater dependent ecosystems • protect existing consumptive beneficial uses of groundwater • enable development of the groundwater resource to realise its potential for use in the region • communicate plan objectives, management principles and resource status • establish a framework for learning and continuous improvement to maximise environmental, social and economic outcomes. The plan seeks to protect the unique Daly River system. Its environmental values include its diverse aquatic fauna with two nationally threatened elasmobranchs (sharks/rays/skates), nearly 100 recorded species of fish and eight of the nine species of freshwater turtle found in the NT. These rely on the unbroken dry season river flows which occur because of groundwater discharge from the ODA. Groundwater discharge occurs at distinct point source springs, broad seepage zones along the river banks and as concealed springs and seepage zones in the river bed. Maintaining these discharges and dry season flows by not extracting too much groundwater or surface water from the system is the key to their protection. ; Key Points -- Summary -- Recognition of Traditional Ownership -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Title -- 1.2 Plan area -- 1.3 Date of effect -- 1.4 Period of effect -- 1.5 Plan context -- 1.5.1 Regional landscape and land uses -- 1.5.2 Regional economy -- 1.6 Legislative Framework -- 1.6.1 Water Act 1992 -- 1.6.2 Water allocation plans -- 1.6.3 Northern Territory Water Allocation Planning Framework -- 1.6.4 Strategic Aboriginal Water Reserve -- 1.7 Plan development pathway -- 2 Purpose and objectives -- 2.1 Purpose -- 2.2 Objectives -- 2.3 Values of the ODA -- 2.4 Beneficial uses and water quality objectives -- 3 Water resources (availability and condition) -- 3.1 Climate and rainfall -- 3.1.1 Future Climate -- 3.2 Surface water resources -- 3.2.1 Surface water quality and river health -- 3.3 Groundwater resources -- 3.3.1 Groundwater management zones -- 3.3.2 Groundwater Quality -- 3.4 Surface water groundwater connectivity -- 3.5 Hydrologic modelling -- 3.5.1 Groundwater modelling results -- 3.5.2 River flow modelling results -- 3.6 Natural Water Balance -- 4 Water uses -- 4.1 Water use overview -- 4.2 Non-consumptive use -- 4.2.1 Environmental water values and requirements -- 4.2.2 Cultural water values and requirements -- 4.3 Consumptive water values and requirements -- 4.3.1 Current consumptive water entitlements -- 4.3.2 Exemptions from licensing -- 4.3.3 Licensed extraction -- 4.3.4 Current consumptive water use -- 4.3.5 Future consumptive requirements -- 5 Estimated sustainable yield (ESY) -- 5.1 Estimated sustainable yield for the Oolloo Dolostone Aquifer -- 5.2 Allocation of water to beneficial uses -- 5.2.1 Non-consumptive beneficial uses -- 5.2.2 Water for consumptive use -- 6 Water management framework -- 6.1 Overview of plan objectives, desired outcomes, management strategies and performance indicators -- 6.2 Water accounting period -- 6.3 Protection of environmental and cultural values -- 6.3.1 Local scale environmental water – groundwater discharge protection areas -- 6.3.2 Aboriginal cultural values -- 6.3.3 Monitoring triggers -- 6.4 Licensing and other relevant regulation, policy and procedures -- 6.4.1 Licences -- 6.4.2 Licence conditions -- 6.4.3 Licensed use from SWR allocations -- 6.4.4 Licence security levels and reliability -- 6.4.5 Annual announced allocations -- 6.4.6 Return of unused water -- 6.4.7 Bore work permits -- 6.4.8 Consideration of applications for water for non-priority consumptive beneficial uses -- 6.4.9 Water trading -- 6.4.10 Exemptions from the requirement to hold a licence -- 6.4.11 Other relevant policies -- 7 Risk identification and mitigation strategies -- 7.1 Risk and uncertainty -- 7.1.1 Climate variability and change -- 7.1.2 Land use change -- 7.1.3 Caveats or limitations on the underpinning science -- 7.1.4 Surface water extraction and other unaccounted for water use -- 7.2 Risk assignment -- 7.3 Mitigation strategies -- 8 Implementation, monitoring and review -- 8.1 Adaptive management framework -- 8.1.1 Plan review -- 8.1.2 Adaptive management framework - licensing -- 8.2 Implementation -- 8.3 Reporting -- 8.4 Evaluating achievement of plan objectives -- Schedule A: Declaration of the Oolloo Dolostone Aquifer Water Allocation Plan 2019-2029 -- Schedule B: Notional allocations to SWR rights holders -- Schedule C: Risk definition and classification -- Glossary -- Abbreviations -- References ; Made available by the Northern Territory Library via the Publications (Legal Deposit) Act 2004 (NT).

Weather is the term used to describe the atmospheric conditions (heat, wetness, wind, etc.) prevailing at any one place and time. Climate is the sum of the prevailing weather conditions of a given place over a period of time, typically summed over many decades. This paper seeks to provide strategic directions for mainstreaming support for climate change within the World Bank's broader program of assistance to Vietnam. It does so by reviewing the current understanding of climate change in Vietnam and likely impacts, outlining principles to guide the Bank's engagement in this field, and applying these principles across a range of sectors, taking into account both near- and longer-term considerations. The report identifies elements of the Bank's current and planned portfolio of projects and analytical work that are contributing or will contribute to improved knowledge, planning, and actions, and it points to additional areas where new or more work seems warranted. The report represents a first iteration of a strategy for supporting Vietnam in managing the challenges posed by climate change. As more experience is gathered and as our understanding of both the science and the economics of climate change impacts in Vietnam improves, this strategy will need to be revisited and refined. While the process of climate change is expected to be a long-term phenomenon-with predictions for considerable changes through the second half of the twenty-first century, the focus of this report is on decisions and priorities that should govern the Bank's assistance during this decade. Given an array of uncertainties, extending the developing assistance planning vision much beyond 2020 is not practical. This time frame also corresponds to the government of Vietnam's own planning horizon.

Adequate energy supply has become one of the vital components of human development and economic growth of nations. In fact, major components of the global economy such as transportation services, communications, industrial processes, and construction activities are dependent on adequate energy resources. Even mining and extraction of energy resources, including harnessing the forces of nature to produce energy, are dependent on accessibility of sufficient energy in the appropriate form at the desired location. Therefore, energy resource planning and management to provide appropriate energy in terms of both quantity and quality has become a priority at the global level. The increasing demand for energy due to growing population, higher living standards, and economic development magnifies the importance of reliable energy plans. In addition, the uneven distribution of traditional fossil fuel energy sources on the Earth and the resulting political and economic interactions are other sources of complexity within energy planning. The competition over fossil fuels that exists due to gradual depletion of such sources and the tremendous thirst of current global economic operations for these sources, as well as the sensitivity of fossil fuel supplies and prices to global conditions, all add to the complexity of effective energy planning. In addition to diversification of fossil fuel supply sources as a means of increasing national energy security, many governments are investing in non-fossil fuels, especially renewable energy sources, to combat the risks associated with adequate energy supply. Moreover, increasing the number of energy sources also adds further complication to energy planning. Global warming, resulting from concentration of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, influences energy infrastructure investments and operations management as a result of international treaty obligations and other regulations requiring that emissions be cut to sustainable levels. Burning fossil fuel, as one of the substantial driving factors of global warming and energy insecurity, is mostly impacted by such policies, pushing forward the implementation of renewable energy polices. Thus, modern energy portfolios comprise a mix of renewable energy sources and fossil fuels, with an increasing share of renewables over time. Many governments have been setting renewable energy targets that mandate increasing energy production from such sources over time. Reliance on renewable energy sources certainly helps with reduction of greenhouse gas emissions while improving national energy security. However, the growing implementation of renewable energy has some limitations. Such energy technologies are not always as cheap as fossil fuel sources, mostly due to immaturity of these energy sources in most locations as well as high prices of the materials and equipment to harness the forces of nature and transform them to usable energy. In addition, despite the fact that renewable energy sources are traditionally considered to be environmentally friendly, compared to fossil fuels, they sometimes require more natural resources such as water and land to operate and produce energy. Hence, the massive production of energy from these sources may lead to water shortage, land use change, increasing food prices, and insecurity of water supplies. In other words, the energy production from renewables might be a solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but it might become a source of other problems such as scarcity of natural resources.The fact that future energy mix will rely more on renewable sources is undeniable, mostly due to depletion of fossil fuel sources over time. However, the aforementioned limitations pose a challenge to general policies that encourage immediate substitution of fossil fuels with renewables to battle climate change. In fact, such limitations should be taken into account in developing reliable energy policies that seek adequate energy supply with minimal secondary effects. Traditional energy policies have been suggesting the expansion of least cost energy options, which were mostly fossil fuels. Such sources used to be considered riskless energy options with low volatility in the absence of competitive energy markets in which various energy technologies are competing over larger market shares. Evolution of renewable energy technologies, however, complicated energy planning due to emerging risks that emanated mostly from high price volatility. Hence, energy planning began to be seen as investment problems in which the costs of energy portfolio were minimized while attempting to manage associated price risks. So, energy policies continued to rely on risky fossil fuel options and small shares of renewables with the primary goal to reduce generation costs. With emerging symptoms of climate change and the resulting consequences, the new policies accounted for the costs of carbon emissions control in addition to other costs. Such policies also encouraged the increased use of renewable energy sources. Emissions control cost is not an appropriate measure of damages because these costs are substantially less than the economic damages resulting from emissions. In addition, the effects of such policies on natural resources such as water and land is not directly taken into account. However, sustainable energy policies should be able to capture such complexities, risks, and tradeoffs within energy planning. Therefore, there is a need for adequate supply of energy while addressing issues such as global warming, energy security, economy, and environmental impacts of energy production processes. The effort in this study is to develop an energy portfolio assessment model to address the aforementioned concerns.This research utilized energy performance data, gathered from extensive review of articles and governmental institution reports. The energy performance values, namely carbon footprint, water footprint, land footprint, and cost of energy production were carefully selected in order to have the same basis for comparison purposes. If needed, adjustment factors were applied. In addition, the Energy Information Administration (EIA) energy projection scenarios were selected as the basis for estimating the share of the energy sources over the years until 2035. Furthermore, the resource availability in different states within the U.S. was obtained from publicly available governmental institutions that provide such statistics. Specifically, the carbon emissions magnitudes (metric tons per capita) for different states were extracted from EIA databases, states' freshwater withdrawals (cubic meters per capita) were found from USGS databases, states' land availability values (square kilometers) were obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau, and economic resource availability (GDP per capita) for different states were acquired from the Bureau of Economic Analysis.In this study, first, the impacts of energy production processes on global freshwater resources are investigated based on different energy projection scenarios. Considering the need for investing on energy sources with minimum environmental impacts while securing maximum efficiency, a systems approach is adopted to quantify the resource use efficiency of energy sources under sustainability indicators. The sensitivity and robustness of the resource use efficiency scores are then investigated versus existing energy performance uncertainties and varying resource availability conditions. The resource use efficiency of the energy sources is then regionalized for different resource limitation conditions in states within the U.S. Finally, a sustainable energy planning framework is developed based on Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Post-Modern Portfolio Theory (PMPT) with consideration of the resource use efficiency measures and associated efficiency risks.In the energy-water nexus investigation, the energy sources are categorized into 10 major groups with distinct water footprint magnitudes and associated uncertainties. The global water footprint of energy production processes are then estimated for different EIA energy mix scenarios over the 2012-2035 period. The outcomes indicate that the water footprint of energy production increases by almost 50% depending on the scenario. In fact, growing energy production is not the only reason for increasing the energy related water footprint. Increasing the share of water intensive energy sources in the future energy mix is another driver of increasing global water footprint of energy in the future. The results of the energies' water footprint analysis demonstrate the need for a policy to reduce the water use of energy generation. Furthermore, the outcomes highlight the importance of considering the secondary impacts of energy production processes besides their carbon footprint and costs. The results also have policy implications for future energy investments in order to increase the water use efficiency of energy sources per unit of energy production, especially those with significant water footprint such as hydropower and biofuels.In the next step, substantial efforts have been dedicated to evaluating the efficiency of different energy sources from resource use perspective. For this purpose, a system of systems approach is adopted to measure the resource use efficiency of energy sources in the presence of trade-offs between independent yet interacting systems (climate, water, land, economy). Hence, a stochastic multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) framework is developed to compute the resource use efficiency scores for four sustainability assessment criteria, namely carbon footprint, water footprint, land footprint, and cost of energy production considering existing performance uncertainties. The energy sources' performances under aforementioned sustainability criteria are represented in ranges due to uncertainties that exist because of technological and regional variations. Such uncertainties are captured by the model based on Monte-Carlo selection of random values and are translated into stochastic resource use efficiency scores. As the notion of optimality is not unique, five MCDM methods are exploited in the model to counterbalance the bias toward definition of optimality. This analysis is performed under (")no resource limitation(") conditions to highlight the quality of different energy sources from a resource use perspective. The resource use efficiency is defined as a dimensionless number in scale of 0-100, with greater numbers representing a higher efficiency. The outcomes of this analysis indicate that despite increasing popularity, not all renewable energy sources are more resource use efficient than non-renewable sources. This is especially true for biofuels and different types of ethanol that demonstrate lower resource use efficiency scores compared to natural gas and nuclear energy. It is found that geothermal energy and biomass energy from miscanthus are the most and least resource use efficient energy alternatives based on the performance data available in the literature. The analysis also shows that none of the energy sources are strictly dominant or strictly dominated by other energy sources. Following the resource use efficiency analysis, sensitivity and robustness analyses are performed to determine the impacts of resource limitations and existing performance uncertainties on resource use efficiency, respectively. Sensitivity analysis indicates that geothermal energy and ethanol from sugarcane have the lowest and highest resource use efficiency sensitivity, respectively. Also, it is found that from a resource use perspective, concentrated solar power (CSP) and hydropower are respectively the most and least robust energy options with respect to the existing performance uncertainties in the literature.In addition to resource use efficiency analysis, sensitivity analysis and robustness analysis, of energy sources, this study also investigates the scheme of the energy production mix within a specific region with certain characteristics, resource limitations, and availabilities. In fact, different energy sources, especially renewables, vary in demand for natural resources (such as water and land), environmental impacts, geographic requirements, and type of infrastructure required for energy production. In fact, the efficiency of energy sources from a resource use perspective is dependent upon regional specifications, so the energy portfolio varies for different regions due to varying resource availability conditions. Hence, the resource use efficiency scores of different energy technologies are calculated based on the aforementioned sustainability criteria and regional resource availability and limitation conditions (emissions, water resources, land, and GDP) within different U.S. states, regardless of the feasibility of energy alternatives in each state. Sustainability measures are given varying weights based on the emissions cap, available economic resources, land, and water resources in each state, upon which the resource use efficiency of energy sources is calculated by utilizing the system of systems framework developed in the previous step. Efficiency scores are graphically illustrated on GIS-based maps for different states and different energy sources. The results indicate that for some states, fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas are as efficient as renewables like wind and solar energy technologies from resource use perspective. In other words, energy sources' resource use efficiency is significantly sensitive to available resources and limitations in a certain location.Moreover, energy portfolio development models have been created in order to determine the share of different energy sources of total energy production, in order to meet energy demand, maintain energy security, and address climate change with the least possible adverse impacts on the environment. In fact, the traditional (")least cost(") energy portfolios are outdated and should be replaced with (")most efficient(") ones that are not only cost-effective, but also environmentally friendly. Hence, the calculated resource use efficiency scores and associated statistical analysis outcomes for a range of renewable and nonrenewable energy sources are fed into a portfolio selection framework to choose the appropriate energy mixes associated with the risk attitudes of decision makers. For this purpose, Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Post-Modern Portfolio Theory (PMPT) are both employed to illustrate how different interpretations of (")risk of return(") yield different energy portfolios. The results indicate that 2012 energy mix and projected world's 2035 energy portfolio are not sustainable in terms of resource use efficiency and could be substituted with more reliable, more effective portfolios that address energy security and global warming with minimal environmental and economic impacts. ; 2013-12-01 ; Ph.D. ; Engineering and Computer Science, Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering ; Doctoral ; This record was generated from author submitted information.

I løbet af det seneste årti er man begyndt at erkende, at mikroplast (plastpartikler <5 mm) på globalt plan er allestedsnærværende i både hav- og ferskvandsmiljø. Som konsekvens af den lille størrelse kan mikroplast potentielt påvirke en lang række vandlevende organismer. Selvom antallet af studier omhandlende effekter af mikroplast er stærkt stigende, er forståelsen af processerne, hvormed organismer interagerer med mikroplast og de medfølgende indvirkninger på økosystemer, stadigvæk begrænset. Der er yderligere usikkerhed omkring mikroplastens kemiske sammensætning og dens potentielle rolle som vektor for kemikalier til organismer. På det seneste er der rejst opmærksomhed om den humane eksponering for mikroplast og mulige resulterende helbredseffekter – et emne hvor videnskaben stadig er i sin vorden. I den sammenhæng er målene med denne afhandling: 1) At vurdere og anvende kontrollerede laboratorieforsøg til at analysere optag og effekter af mikroplast i hvirvelløse dyr i både hav- og ferksvandsmiljøer. 2) At undersøge interaktioner mellem plastpartikler og hydrofobe organiske kemikalier. 3) At gennemgå den aktuelle debat og tilgængelige viden indenfor human mikroplasteksponering og mulige humane effekter af denne. De fleste undersøgelser af mikroplasts effekt på hvirvelløse dyr har været med fokus på effekter som følge af indtagelse. For at forstå og fortolke den slags effekter, er det vigtigt at kvantificere indtagelsen og udskillelsen af mikroplast, da disse processer er bestemmende for den overordnede eksponering. I denne afhandling påvises det, at fluorescerende partikler kan bruges til at kvantificere processerne, særligt når partiklerne er i størrelsesordenen af nanometer og få mikrometer. For en pålidelig kvantificering er det ofte nødvendigt at opløse dyrevæv. Baseret på anvendelse og udvikling af forskellige enzymatiske protokoller i denne afhandling, anbefales det at anvende enzymer til at opløse vævet. Enzymatisk opløsning og kvantificering af partikelfluorescens blev anvendt til at måle indtagelse og udskillelse af 100 nm og 2 µm partikler i vandloppen Daphnia magna og blåmuslingelarver (Mytilus edulis). For begge arter blev det påvist, at partikler med en størrelse svarende til dyrenes normale bytte blev optaget i en større grad end mindre partikler. Med hensyn til udskillelse fandtes flere artsspecifikke forskelle. Denne proces kan påvirkes markant af partikelstørrelsen og tilstedeværelsen af føde. Desuden kan partiklerne blive i organismen i længere tid end den tid, det normalt tager at passere gennem tarmsystemet. I både D. magna og larver af M. edulis havde de mindre partikler større negative effekter på dyrenes fysiologi. Kontrollerede laboratorieforsøg, som anvendt i denne afhandling, kan forbedre den mekanistiske forståelse af organisme-partikel interaktionen og derved højne pålideligheden og øge sammenligneligheden mellem studier. En detaljeret karakterisering af partiklerne og eksponeringen mangler dog ofte og dermed mangler også en tilstrækkelig forståelse af partiklernes egenskaber og skæbne i det givne forsøg. På grundlag af erfaringer gjort i forbindelse med nanomaterialer anbefales det, at man også analyserer mikroplastpartiklers størrelse, sammensætning, massefylde, overfladekemi og elektriske ladning såvel som undersøger for mulig partikelaggregering, dispersion og sedimentation. Samtidig er det vigtigt, at eksponeringssystemer har en højere grad af miljørealisme. Det kan opnås ved at bruge lavere partikelkoncentrationer, flere forskellige partikelformer (især fragmenter og fibre), flere forskellige plastpolymere, partikler med biofilm og inkludere kontroller med naturlige partikler såsom ler og silikat. Mikroplast kan ikke altid behandles som inerte partikler, for de kan indeholde mange forskellige kemikalier, som enten stammer fra plastproduktionen, eller er absorberet til plasten fra det omgivende miljø. I begge tilfælde kan kemikalierne transporteres og afgives, og på den måde kan mikroplast måske være en vektor for eksponering af vanddyr til hydrofobe organiske kemikalier. Derfor anbefales det på det kraftigste at inkludere undersøgelser af mikroplastpartiklernes potentielle kemiske toksicitet, når der udføres effektstudier af mikroplast. Som vist i denne afhandling, er sorption af hydrofobe organiske kemikalier til plast styret af diffusionsprocesser og kan optræde som absorption, adsorption eller en kombination af begge. Processen er afhængig af plastpartiklernes egenskaber, de hydrofobe kemikalier og det omgivende miljø. I naturlige matricer som havvand, opløst organisk kulstof og kolloider kan mikroplastens rolle som vektor muligvis være forsvindende lille (i særdeleshed på global skala). I denne afhandling understreges det dog, at rumlig variation på lokal skala samt eksponering af mikroplast-associerede kemikalier til organismer nødvendigvis må adresseres. I de sidste år har der været et øget fokus på human eksponering og de mulige resulterende helbredseffekter. Bekymringen blev primært vakt på grund af fund af plastpartikler i vanddyr, som bruges til mad, og andre fødevarer. Der er grund til at antage, at mikroplast kan have partikel- eller kemikalier-relateret toksicitet, men ingen studier har endnu undersøgt helbredseffekter relateret til indtagelsen af mikroplast. Mennesker er eksponeret til mikoplast og associerede kemikalier fra en række forskellige kilder og selvom forurenede fødevarer har fået mest opmærksomhed, argumenteres der i denne afhandling for, at den største eksponering kommer fra brug af plastmaterialer i hverdagen. På grund af mange usikkerheder og manglende viden er det ikke muligt endnu at konkludere i hvilken udstrækning mikoplast udgør en trussel for miljø og mennesker. Der er i dag en stærk folkestemning imod plastforurening i miljøet, som fremmer handlinger i samfund og lovgivning. Processen går hurtigere end konsensus i det videnskabelige miljø og dermed er der en risiko for, at fokus ikke er rettet mod mest pressende emner set fra et videnskabeligt synspunkt og der derved ikke bliver taget de mest effektive skridt for at begrænse plastforureningen i miljøet. ; Within the past decade, it has been widely recognised that microplastics (commonly referred to as plastic particles <5 mm) are ubiquitous in freshwater as well as in marine environments globally. Owing to their small size, microplastics can interact with and potentially affect a wide range of aquatic organisms. Although the number of studies on microplastic effects is quickly increasing, there is still limited understanding of the processes by which organisms interact with microplastics as well as impacts in natural ecosystems. Further uncertainties relate to the chemical nature of microplastics and their potential role as vectors for chemical pollutants to organisms. More recently, questions have been raised about human exposure to microplastics and potential health effects – a topic where science still is at the very start of providing answers. In this context, the aims of this thesis are: 1) To critically evaluate and use controlled laboratory experiments for analysing uptake and effects of microplastics in aquatic invertebrates. 2) To examine the interaction between plastic particles and hydrophobic organic chemicals. 3) To review the current debate and state of knowledge on microplastic exposure and potential effects on humans. Most effects of microplastics on aquatic invertebrates have been studied as a result of particle ingestion. In order to understand and interpret such effects, it is important to quantify ingestion and egestion of microplastics, as this determines the overall exposure that an organism is facing. In this thesis, it is shown that fluorescent particles can be used to quantify these processes. This is especially useful for particles in the nano- and small micrometre size range. To achieve a reliable quantification, it is often necessary to digest animal tissue. Enzymes are recommended for digestion, based on the use and development of different enzymatic protocols within this thesis. Enzymatic digestion and quantification of particle fluorescence were successfully applied to measure ingestion and egestion of 100 nm and 2 µm particles in the water flea Daphnia magna and larvae of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis. For both species, it was found that, on a mass basis, a higher amount of particles which are similar to the size of normal prey were ingested than smaller particles. Regarding particle egestion, more species-specific differences were observed in comparison to ingestion. It was found that egestion can strongly be influenced by particle size and the presence of food. Also, particles have the potential to remain in organisms for a time exceeding the normal gut passage time. Both for D. magna and larvae of M. edulis the smaller particles were found to cause more adverse effects on the animals' physiology. Controlled laboratory tests, as employed in this thesis, can be a useful tool to obtain a mechanistic understanding of organism-particle interactions and increase the reliability of and comparability between studies. It was, however, found that a detailed particle and exposure characterisation is often missing and thus particle behaviour and fate in laboratory exposure systems are not well understood. Drawing on experience and developments within the field of engineered nanomaterials, it is therefore recommended to include analyses of particle size, composition, density, surface chemistry and charge, as well as particle aggregation/agglomeration, dispersion and sedimentation. At the same time, it is important that exposure systems attain a higher degree of environmental realism. To achieve this, it is suggested to use lower particle concentrations, a variety of particle shapes (especially fragments and fibres), a variety of different plastic polymers, biofouled particles, and to include controls with natural particles, such as clay or silica. Moreover, microplastics cannot always be treated as inert particles since they may contain a multitude of different chemicals, either stemming from plastic production or having sorbed to the plastics in the environment. In both cases, chemicals have the potential to get transported and released, and in this way microplastics may act as vectors for hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOCs) to aquatic animals. It is therefore strongly recommended to include controls for potential chemical toxicity in microplastic effect studies. As reviewed in this thesis, sorption of HOCs to plastics is governed by diffusive mass transfer and occurs as either adsorption, absorption or a combination of both. The process strongly depends on the properties of the plastic particle, the chemical and the surrounding environment. In comparison to natural matrices, such as water, dissolved organic carbon and colloids, the role of plastics as a vector may be negligible on a global scale. However, in this thesis it is emphasised that spatial variation on a smaller scale as well as the exposure route of microplastic-associated chemicals to organisms are important to consider. In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on human exposure to and potential health effects of microplastics. This was mainly sparked by findings of plastic particles in aquatic species used for human consumption as well as other food products, and has evoked many concerns. While there is reason to assume that microplastics can exhibit particle- and/or chemical-related toxicity, no studies have investigated human health effects of consuming microplastics to date. Humans are exposed to plastic particles and associated chemicals by a variety of pathways. Even though contaminated food products have received most attention, in this thesis it is argued that the main exposure is most likely related to abrasion of particles from the use of plastic materials in everyday life. Because of many uncertainties and knowledge gaps, it is to date not possible to conclude to what degree microplastics are a threat to the environment and to humans. However, a strong public opinion against environmental plastic pollution has formed, which drives societal and legislative action. This is moving faster than consensus within the scientific community and thus entails the risk that not the most urgent issues are addressed or the most effective measures to reduce environmental plastic pollution are taken.

The international electromagnetic field (EMF) project of the World Health Organization (WHO) is a collaborative effort of the WHO teams for Environment, Climate Change and Health (ECCH) and Radiation and Health (ionizing and non-ionizing). The purpose of the effort is twofold. Firstly it seeks to create and house a database of legislation pertaining to EMF exposure. Secondly, it seeks to promote dialogue on the risks related to EMF exposure. The establishment of the EMF Project is motivated by the fact that EMF of a very broad range of frequencies represents one of the most common and fastest growing environmental influences on human health. EMF may have notable positive or negative effects on health, depending on the exposure context. EMF has been around since the birth of the universe, with light being its most familiar form. Electric and magnetic fields are part of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, which extends from static electric and magnetic fields, through radiofrequency, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation, to X-rays. Various Organs of State have reviewed the research endeavors of the NRF in this emerging field and found that the research is innovative and strongly aligned with South Africa's national interests. The EMF project is a multidisciplinary research endeavor integrating efforts from multiple sectors. Of particular import to South Africa is research into EMF exposure risks, EMF shielding modifications, and bio-adaptation mitigation options related to climate change. The EMF Project is endorsed by the Surgeon General, and the Nation's doctor is provided with the best available scientific information on how to improve health outcomes and reduce the risk of illness and injury. The mission of the EMF Project is to protect, promote, and advance the health of our Nation.

This paper presents the design a set of three simple and replicable behavioral interventions, which use stickers that can be added to water bills at low cost, and test their impact on water consumption in Belen, Costa Rica, using a randomized control trial. Two of the three interventions were found to decrease water consumption significantly in the months following the intervention. A descriptive social norm intervention using neighborhood comparisons reduces consumption by between 3.7 and 5.6 percent relative to a control group, while a plan-making intervention reduces consumption by between 3.4 and 5.5 percent. While the two interventions have similar results, they are effective on different subpopulations, with the plan-making intervention being most effective for low-consumption households, while the neighborhood comparison intervention is most effective for high-consumption households. The results demonstrate that behavioral interventions, which have hitherto utilized sophisticated software to deliver customized messages, can be effectively implemented by local governments in developing countries, where technology and resource constraints render the sorts of customized messaging that has typically been used to deliver them in developed countries unfeasible. The results further confirm that raising awareness about how much water an individual consumes, and comparing this consumption level with peers, can go a long way in helping change individuals' behavior regarding the use of a finite resource such as water.

The economic value of the Upper Tuul ecosystem in Mongolia reports on a study carried out under the auspices of the World Bank and the Government of Mongolia. The goal of the study was to improve understanding about the economic value of the Upper Tuul ecosystem for Ulaanbaatar's water supplies and how this might be affected by different land and resource management options in the future. The study also aims to develop and apply ecosystem valuation methods that can be used more widely in the country, to generate information about the contribution of the environment to the Mongolian economy, and to make the case for improved budget allocations for the conservation of the Upper Tuul. Integrating eco-hydrological and economic valuation techniques, the study traces through the biophysical effects and socioeconomic impacts of future land and resource degradation, and ecosystem conservation, in the upper watershed.

The Cambodia environment monitor 2008 is one of a series of environmental reports prepared for East Asian countries under an initiative sponsored by the World Bank. The objective of this series is to present a snapshot of environmental trends across a range of issues. The purpose of the monitor is to engage and inform interested stakeholders about key environmental changes in an easy to understand format accessible to a wide audience. This report identifies seven strategic priorities for the Royal government of Cambodia and its conservation partners. 1)articulate a clear and shared vision and re-commitment to conservation goals and objectives; 2)formalize a meaningful enabling legal and regulatory framework for management and protection of conservation areas; 3)formulate clear strategies for recognizing and improving community benefit sharing in conservation areas; 4) strengthen mechanisms for institutional coordination across the ministries; 5) adopt new approaches and paradigms for conservation areas management; 6) with donors, develop and secure sustainable sources of funding for conservation; and 7) reinforce the human resource capacity to implement and manage conservation areas.