Suchergebnisse

У статті робиться спроба показати особливості розвитку охорони здоров'я в Україні у першій половиі ХХ ст. Зазначено, що в Російській імперії створювалися численні комісії з питань охорони здоров'я, які ретельно вивчали медичну справу в країні, подавали грунтовні пропозиції щодо її реорганізації. Організації медичної допомоги в країні заважало підпорядкування органів і закладів охорони здоров'я різним відомствам. Перша світова війна стала справжнім випробуванням для медико­санітарної системи і тяжким тягарем лягла на Україну. Внаслідок воєнних невдач Росії до різних міст України був спрямований потік біженців і переселенців. Наводиться перелік негативних сторін охорони здоров'я дорадянського періоду. У період української державності створено одне з перших у світі Міністерство народного здоров'я і опікування, що свідчить про розуміння і визнання державою пріоритетності питань охорони здоров'я населення. У радянський довоєнний період вирішували питання організаційної побудови системи охорони здоров'я у нових соціально­економічних умовах, формування радянських органів управління, боротьби з епідеміями і голодом, пошуків нових організаційних форм надання медичної допомоги. У справі якісного поліпшення галузі охорони здоров'я, що розвивалася виправданим на той час екстенсивним шляхом, було зроблено чимало: закладено фундамент тієї системи медичної допомоги, яка витримала випробування в роки Великої Вітчизняної війни 1941–1945 рр. У роки Великої Вітчизняної війни голов­ними завданнями охорони здоров'я стали допомога пораненим і хворим військовослужбовцям, медичне обслуговування працівників тилу, охорона здоров'я дітей та широкі протиепідемічні заходи. ; У статті робиться спроба показати особливості розвитку охорони здоров'я в Україні у першій половиі ХХ ст. Зазначено, що в Російській імперії створювалися численні комісії з питань охорони здоров'я, які ретельно вивчали медичну справу в країні, подавали грунтовні пропозиції щодо її реорганізації. Організації медичної допомоги в країні заважало підпорядкування органів і закладів охорони здоров'я різним відомствам. Перша світова війна стала справжнім випробуванням для медико­санітарної системи і тяжким тягарем лягла на Україну. Внаслідок воєнних невдач Росії до різних міст України був спрямований потік біженців і переселенців. Наводиться перелік негативних сторін охорони здоров'я дорадянського періоду. У період української державності створено одне з перших у світі Міністерство народного здоров'я і опікування, що свідчить про розуміння і визнання державою пріоритетності питань охорони здоров'я населення. У радянський довоєнний період вирішували питання організаційної побудови системи охорони здоров'я у нових соціально­економічних умовах, формування радянських органів управління, боротьби з епідеміями і голодом, пошуків нових організаційних форм надання медичної допомоги. У справі якісного поліпшення галузі охорони здоров'я, що розвивалася виправданим на той час екстенсивним шляхом, було зроблено чимало: закладено фундамент тієї системи медичної допомоги, яка витримала випробування в роки Великої Вітчизняної війни 1941–1945 рр. У роки Великої Вітчизняної війни голов­ними завданнями охорони здоров'я стали допомога пораненим і хворим військовослужбовцям, медичне обслуговування працівників тилу, охорона здоров'я дітей та широкі протиепідемічні заходи. ; In the article an attempt to show the features of development of health protection in Ukraine in first половиі of ХХ of century. Is done it is Marked that in the Russian empire numerous commissions were created on questions a health protection, that carefully studied medical business in a country, gave sound suggestions in relation to her reorganization. Organization of medicare the submission of organs and establishments of health protection to the different departments interfered with in a country. The first world war became the real test for the медико­санітарної system and weight lay down on Ukraine. As a result of soldiery failures of Russia there was the directed stream of refugees and migrants to the different cities of Ukraine. The list of negative parties of health protection pre­soviet period over is brought. In a period the Ukrainian state system one of the first is created in the world Ministry of folk health and guardianship that testifies to understanding and confession of priority of questions of health protection population the state. In a soviet pre­war period decided the question of organizational construction of the system of health protection in new socio­economic terms, forming of soviet organs of management, fight against epidemics and hunger, searches of new organizational forms of grant of medicare. On business quality improvement of industry of health protection that developed the justified by then extensive way, it was done quite a bit: foundation of the that system of medical help, that passed muster in the years of Great Patriotic war 1941­1945, is stopped up. A help to the injured and sick servicemen, medical service of workers of rear, health protection children and wide antiepidemic events, became the main tasks of health protection in the years of Great Patriotic war. XX century is full of major geopolitical events, revolutionary, political and socio-economic changes. The scientific and technological revolution has also affected medicine to a large extent. Lively trade ties have called for the fight against the introduction of epidemic diseases and the development of sanitary quarantine measures of an international nature. In the first decades, many health ministries or departments have been established in many countries. Due to the health and demographic processes of the Russian Empire, despite the well-known progress in economic development and some improvement in the general state of public health, it still remained behind most of Western Europe. In the Russian Empire, numerous health commissions were set up that thoroughly studied the medical profession in the country, provided solid proposals for its reorganization. The decision to establish the Main Department of Public Health (1916), which lasted until the February Revolution (G. Rhine's appointment was directed by the head of the Department of Health of Kyiv university); the debate in the State Duma on medical aid and the critical situation in the health of the population; government decisions on the organization of health care bodies and institutions. Despite the activities of a unique zemstvo organization, as well as urban and factory medicine, the necessary socio-economic and political conditions for radical health improvement of the population, organization of the state-wide system of medical care were not created.

YÖK Tez No: 476647 ; Yüksek Lisans ; Bugün, Birleşmiş Milletlere üye 192 devletin 150'si denizlere ve okyanuslara kıyısı olan ülkelerdir ve dünya nüfusunun yaklaşık 'si ise su kenarlarının 200 km içerisinde bulunan alanlarda yaşamaktadır. Yani denizler, insanoğluna 300 nm çaplı bir yaşam alanı sunmaktadır. Denizlerin, özellikle 300 nm içi ve ayrıca dışı insanoğlunun yararına birçok fayda sağlar. Bu bakış açısının kökeni 15'inci yüzyıla, coğrafi keşifler çağına dayanır. 15'inci yüzyıldan sonra Portekiz, İspanya, Hollanda, Fransa, İngiltere, Almanya, Japonya, Sovyetler Birliği/Rusya ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri gibi ülkeler üstünlük kazanmak maksadıyla deniz ve denizcilik gücünü kurmaya çalışmıştır. Bu ülkeler denizcilik gücünü elde etmek için bazı kavramları kılavuz edinen bazı yollar izlemişlerdir. Bunun sonucu olarak, bu çalışmada denizcileşen devletlerin denizcileşmenin sonucunda zenginlik, güvenlik ile yenilikçi ve özgür düşünme yeteneğini elde ettikleri önerilmektedir. Bu ülkeler denizcilik gücünü elde ederken birçok farklı yol ve metot kullanmışlardır. Bu kapsamda denizcilik gücünün elementlerinin ve denizcileşme sürecinin tanımlanabilmesi için yeni bir model oluşturulmuştur. Denizcilik gücü elementleri ve denizcileşme modeli kurulurken iki ana yaklaşım kullanılmıştır. Bunlar "3 Katmanlı Yaklaşım" ve "Bütüncül" yaklaşımdır. 3 katmanlı yaklaşım üç ana katmanı ifade eder: Deniz yüzeyi, içi ve deniz yatağı. Buna ek olarak, bütüncül yaklaşım şunu ifade eder: Denizcileşme Modeli bir yap-boz gibi tanımlanmıştır ve eğer herhangi bir element eksikse, model kurulamaz. Model bütüncül olarak değerlendirilmelidir. Bu yüzden, denizcileşme deniz alanlarının tüm katmanları olan deniz yüzeyi, içi ve yatağını içerecek bir şekilde bütüncül bir yaklaşım ile adlandırılmıştır: "3 Katmanlı Bütüncül Denizcileşme Modeli". Ayrıca, 3 Katmanlı Bütüncül Denizcileşme Modeli tarihsel delillere, literatür taramasına ve bugünün politik dünyasına dayanarak denizcileşme sürecini üç ana çıktı ile sonuçlandırmaktadır: Milletlerin Zenginliği, Ülkelerin Güvenliği ve Yenilikçi ve Özgür Düşünme Yeteneği. Bu anlamda, çıkarımsal istatistik metotları "denizcilik gücüne ulaşan ve denizcileşme sürecini yaşatan milletler zenginlik, güvenlik ve yenilikçi ve özgür düşünme yeteneğini elde ederler" fikrini teyit etmek maksadıyla kullanılmıştır. Denizcilik Gücü-Refah ilişkisi; "Liner Denizcilik Bağlantısı" ve "Gayrisafi Milli Hâsıla" ilişkisi üzerinden; Denizcilik GücüÖzgür/Yenilikçi Düşünce ilişkisi "Liner Denizcilik Bağlantısı" ve "İnnovasyon Kapasitesi" üzerinden SPSS istatistik analiz programı vasıtasıyla incelenmiştir. Pearson Moment Korelasyon Katsayısı bir parametrik yöntem olarak ve Spearman Korelasyon Katsayısı değişkenler arasındaki ilişkiyi analiz etmek için kullanılmıştır. Regresyon analizinin sonuçları denizcilik gücü ve denizcileşme süreci çıktılarının arasındaki ilişkinin illiyet bağını göstermek için kullanılmıştır. Aradaki ilişkinin anlamlı olduğu bu testler ile görülmüştür. Sonuç olarak, 3 Katmanlı Bütüncül Denizcileşme Modeli ile "denizcilik gücünü elde eden ve denizcileşme sürecini devam ettiren milletler, denizcileşmenin ana sonuçları olan zenginlik, güvenlik ve yenilikçi ve özgür düşünme yeteneğini kazanır" fikri çıkarımsal istatistiksel metotlar ile teyit edilmiştir. ; Today, 150 of the 192 member states of United Nations (UN) are littoral states and about 50% of the world population lives around 200 km of the seaside and the exclusive economic zone reaches to 200 nm from the coast. Namely, the seas create a 300 NM living space to humankind. Seas, especially inside this 300 nm and also outside it, provide a good deal of benefits to humankind. This perspective roots base on to the 15th century to age of discovery. After 15th century, the countries such as Portugal, Spain, The Netherlands, France, United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, Soviet Union/Russia and The United States tried to obtain maritime power and sea power. These countries followed some ways by guiding some of the notions to get the maritime power. As a result of this, here in this study, it is suggested that these countries obtained wealth, security, and innovational and libertarian thinking ability by maritime power. While obtaining maritime power, these states followed different ways and methods. In this concept, a new model is developed in order to identify the maritime power elements and maritimization process. Two main approaches are used during establishing the maritime power elements and maritimization model: These are 3-Layer and Holistic approach. 3-Layer approach expresses three main layers: sea surface, subsurface and sea bed. Concurrently; holistic approach expresses that maritimization model is defined like a puzzle and if one of the elements misses, the model could not be established. The model should be evaluated holistically. Therefore, maritimization is deemed as a process to be planned and managed holistically including all parts of maritime area with all three layers of the phenomenon which are sea surface, subsurface and sea bed called: 3-Layer Holistic Maritimization Model. Besides, the 3-Layer Holistic Model concludes a maritimization process with three basic outputs: Wealth of Nations, Security of Country and Innovational and Libertarian Thinking Ability for nations thanks to historical evidences, literature review and today's policy. In this sense, Inferential Statistical Methods are used to verify the idea of that a nation which reaches maritime power and survive maritimization process, gains wealth, security and innovational and libertarian thinking ability. The relation between wealth and maritime power is examined by analyzing the GNI (Gross National Income) data -Atlas Method-. Liner Shipping Connectivity Index (LSCI) and the relationship between Capacity for Innovation (CI) and LSCI are also analyzed from the sight of Innovational and Libertarian Thinking Ability and Maritime Power relationship via SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) program. Pearson Moment Correlation Coefficient (as a parametric method) and Spearman Correlation Coefficient are used to analyze the relationship between the variables. Regression analysis results are displayed to show the causality relationship between the outcomes of the maritimization and maritime power. The results are found significant -reasonable-. In conclusion it is verified by inferential statistical methods that with the suggested 3-Layer Holistic Maritimization Model, a nation which reaches maritime power and survive its maritimization process, gains wealth, security and innovational and libertarian thinking ability as the maritimization's basic outcomes.

Статья посвящена проблеме закрепления основ формирования правовой системы в Испании после провозглашения Республики в 1931 г. Конституция 1931 г., принятая Учредительными кортесами, оформила национальный (внутригосударственный) характер правовой системы. Автор статьи отмечает, что для обозначения действующей правовой системы Испании учредитель использовал несколько терминов, не отождествляемых с понятием «испанское законодательство». Новеллой для испанского конституционализма стало положение о включении «всеобщих норм международного права» в правовую систему страны, в данном случае был заимствован пример Конституции Германской империи 1919 г. Конституанта не включила эти нормы в систему испанского законодательства. Элементами последней являлись: Конституция Республики, статуты автономных регионов, законы государства и законы регионов, указанные акты Президента и правительства. В систему законодательства также входили заключенные Испанией международные договоры, занимавшие в ней определенное место: учредитель закрепил их верховенство по отношению к законам. Второй важнейшей особенностью правовой системы, отмечаемой в статье, являлось ее соответствие характерным чертам государственного устройства республиканской Испании, охарактеризованной современниками как «государство региональной автономии» (Д. Ломбарди). Принятый Статут становился согласно Конституции «основным законом» автономного региона, закрепляющим его политико-административную организацию, признаваемым и охраняемым как «составная часть» правовой системы испанского государства. В статье отмечается, что в республиканской Испании предполагалось два вида основных, базовых законов, закрепляющих организацию публичной власти: Конституция для всей Испании и статуты для региональных автономий, при этом последние должны были соответствовать Конституции и органическим законам. Республиканское начало формирования правовой системы определяло, с одной стороны, непосредственное участие народа Испании в законотворческом процессе посредством народной законодательной инициативы и возможности принятия законов на референдуме, а также принятие Статута региона его избирательным корпусом. С другой стороны, оно характеризовалось участием в законотворчестве представительных органов: кортесов, президента, правительства. Тщательно разработанная, отвечающая международно-правовым реалиям внутригосударственным потребностям страны, Конституция 1931 г. оказала немалое влияние на последующую конституционную эволюцию Испании, получила широкую известность во многих странах мира. ; The article deals with the problem of establishment of legal system in Spain after the proclamation of the Republic in 1931. The Constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly enshrines the national (domestic) character of the legal system. The author of the article notes various terms used in the Constitution to refer to the actual legal system of Spain: derecho positivo (positive law), ordenamiento jurídico (law and order) and ordenacíon jurídica (law and order), which were not identified with the term «Spanish law» (legislación española). It was new for the Spanish constitutionalism to include general rules of international law into the national legal system; in this case the example of the Constitution of the German Empire in 1919 was adapted. The Constituent Assembly did not include these rules in the system of Spanish legislation. The Constitution of the Republic, statutes of the autonomous regions, laws of the state and the laws of the regions, the acts of the President and the acts of the government mentioned in the text, were considered to be elements of system of Spanish legislation. International treaties concluded by Spain were also among them. Because of the influence of the constitutional experience of Soviet Russia it was declared a renunciation of secret treaties. The procedure for their conclusion had the following stages: preparation and signing of an international treaty by the President of the Republic, the approval by the Cortes, ratification by the President and the registration in the League of Nations. International treaties concluded in accordance with the Constitution, occupied a particular place in the hierarchy of the system of legislation: the Constituent Assembly provided for their supremacy over the laws, adopted in accordance with the Fundamental Law (Constitution). The second important feature of Spanish legal system, noticed in the article, is its correspondence with the territory organization of the republican Spain. It was defined by contemporaries as «the state of regional autonomy» (J. Lombardi). The decision to establish the autonomous region was to make out by the Statute, adopted on the initiative of the municipal Councils by a referendum (for a positive decision was required not less than two-thirds of the votes in the region). However, in order to give a legal effect to the Statute it was necessary to be adopted as a law of the state by the Cortes (parliament). Statute, adopted according to the Constitution, was considered to be the «basic law» (ley básica) of the Autonomous Region, fixing its political-administrative organization, was recognized and protected as «an integral part» of the legal system of the Spain. It is pointed out in the article that there were two types of basic laws in the republican Spain that prescribed the organization of public authorities: the Constitution for the whole of Spain and statutes for autonomous regions. The latter must be correspondent with the Constitution and organic laws. Division of powers in the field of legislation and application of laws was made by using subjects of regulation as criterion. However, this activity could be carried out only in accordance with its Statute, which also had to provide for the legislative process. The author gives examples of the implementation of these provisions in Catalonia after the adoption of its Statute. Despite the marked tendency towards centralization the distribution of legislative powers between the state and its administrative units was an important innovation, which attracted the attention of contemporaries. Republican basis of the legal system is identified with the direct participation of the people in the law-making process by the people''s legislative initiative and the possibility to adopt laws by referendum, as well as to adopt Statutes of the regions by their electors. People`s participation was carried out also by representative bodies: the Cortes, president, government.

PubMed ID: 24186907 ; Background. Interleukin 12Rß1 (IL-12Rß1)-deficient patients are prone to clinical disease caused by mycobacteria, Salmonella, and other intramacrophagic pathogens, probably because of impaired interleukin 12-dependent interferon production. About 25% of patients also display mucocutaneous candidiasis, probably owing to impaired interleukin 23-dependent interleukin 17 immunity. The clinical features and outcome of candidiasis in these patients have not been described before, to our knowledge. We report here the clinical signs of candidiasis in 35 patients with IL-12Rß1 deficiency.Results. Most (n = 71) of the 76 episodes of candidiasis were mucocutaneous. Isolated oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) was the most common presentation (59 episodes, 34 patients) and was recurrent or persistent in 26 patients. Esophageal candidiasis (n = 7) was associated with proven OPC in 2 episodes, and cutaneous candidiasis (n = 2) with OPC in 1 patient, whereas isolated vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC; n = 3) was not. Five episodes of proven invasive candidiasis were documented in 4 patients; 1 of these episodes was community acquired in the absence of any other comorbid condition. The first episode of candidiasis occurred earlier in life (median age±standard deviation, 1.5 ± 7.87 years) than infections with environmental mycobacteria (4.29 ± 11.9 years), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (4 ± 3.12 years), or Salmonella species (4.58 ± 4.17 years) or other rare infections (3 ± 11.67 years). Candidiasis was the first documented infection in 19 of the 35 patients, despite the vaccination of 10 of these 19 patients with live bacille Calmette-Guérin.Conclusions. Patients who are deficient in IL-12Rß1 may have candidiasis, usually mucocutaneous, which is frequently recurrent or persistent. Candidiasis may be the first clinical manifestation in these patients. © The Author 2013. ; University of Chicago Tehran University of Medical Sciences and Health Services Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale Rockefeller University Ege Üniversitesi University College London Istanbul Üniversitesi City, University of London, City Comer Children's Hospital, University of Chicago Medicine St. Giles Foundation Université Paris Descartes Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad: PI10/01718, PI06/ 1031 National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences: 8UL1TR000043 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale Fundación Canaria de Investigación y Salud, FUNCIS Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, MICYT: 182817, 69992 European Social Fund, ESF Agence Nationale de la Recherche: GENCMCD 11-BSV3-005-01 Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria Rockefeller University ANR-10-LABX-62-IBEID National Center for Research Resources European Research Council European Regional Development Fund INREDCAN 05/06 ; 1Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, National Bone Marrow Transplantation Center, Tunis, 2Faculty of Medicine, University of Tunis El Manar, 3Laboratory of Cytoimmunology, Pasteur Institut of Tunis, and 4Department of Cardiology, Ariana Hospital, Tunis, Tunisia; 5Department of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, Ankara University School of Medicine, 6Immunology Division, Hacettepe University Children's Hospital, 7Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Dr Sami Ulus Maternity and Children's Health and Diseases Training and Research Center, and 8Department of Pediatric Immunology, Dr Sami Ulus Children's Health and Diseases Training and Research Center, Ankara, 9Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Clinical Immunology, Istanbul University and Istanbul Medical Faculty, 10Department of Pediatric Immunology, Ege University Faculty of Medicine, Izmir, and 11Department of Pediatric Immunology, Necmettin Erbakan University Meram Medical Faculty, Konya, Turkey; 12Department of Immunology, Gran Canaria Dr Negrín University Hospital, 13Department of Pediatrics and 14Department of Internal Medicine, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario Insular Materno Infantil, and 15Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; 16Unit of Biochemistry and 17Laboratory of Microbiology, National Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition Salvador Zubirán (INCMNSZ), and 18Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Laboratory of Pulmonary Physiology, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Mexico City; 19Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital, Maastricht, Netherlands; 20Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Immunology, Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge, and 21Department of Medicine, University College London, United Kingdom; 22Pediatric Department, Soroka Medical Center, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel; 23Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Comer Children's Hospital, University of Chicago Medicine, and 24Department of Pediatrics, University of Chicago Medical Center, Illinois; 25St Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, Rockefeller University, New York, New York; 26Department of Pediatrics, UFRJ–Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; 27Group of Primary Immunodeficiencies, University of Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia; 28Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran; 29Department of Pediatrics, Hospital Puerto Montt, Chile; 30Department of ?linical Immunology, Center for Pediatric Hematology, Oncology, Immunology, Moscow, Russia; 31Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, 32University Paris Descartes, Imagine Institute, 33Study Center for Primary Immunodeficiencies, Necker Hospital, AP-HP, and 34Pediatric Hematology-Immunology Unit, Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, AP-HP, Paris, France -- Financial support. This work was supported by Fondo de Investiga-ciones Sanitarias, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (grants PI06/ 1031 and PI10/01718), the European Regional Development Fund–European Social Fund (FEDER-FSE), Fundación Canaria de Investigación y Salud (Canarian government; INREDCAN 05/06), Foundation Caja Rural de Cana-rias-Chil y Naranjo (research prize 2004), Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (fellowship to E. H. R), INSERM, University Paris Descartes, Rockefeller University, National Center for Research Resources and the National Center for Advancing Sciences of the National Institutes of Health (grant 8UL1TR000043), Laboratoire d'Excellence "Integrative Biology of Emerging Infectious Diseases" (grant ANR-10-LABX-62-IBEID), the European Research Council, Agence Nationale de la Recherche (grant GENCMCD 11-BSV3-005-01), the St Giles Foundation, the Candidoser Association, and Consejo Nacio-nal de Ciencia y Tecnología de Mexico (grants 69992 and 182817). Potential conflicts of interest. All authors: No reported conflicts. --

Historię poszukiwań, badań i grnictwa węgla brunatnego na ziemiach polskich ujęto w okresy: sprzed 1860 r., lata 1861-1918, 1919-1939, 194-1944 i po 1945 r. Najbujniejsze okresy rozwoju przypadają na lata 1860-1918 oraz po 1945 r. Ten ostatni okres cechuje szeroki zakres badań geologicznych, w wyniku ktrych doszło do odkrycia wielu nowych złż węgIa brunatnego oraz znakomitego rozpoznania stratygrafii i geologii trzeciorzędu na Niżu Polskim. Nastąpił niespotykany dotąd rozwj grnictwa tej kopaliny, osiągając poziom wydobycia ponad 75 min t rocznie.OUTUNE OF THE HISTORY OF THE EXPLORATION, EXAMINATION AND MINING OF BROWN COAL IN POLAND AND THE PART TAKEN IN IT BY STATEGEOWGICAL INSTITUTEIn the history of exploration, examination and mining of brown coal in Poland it is possible to distinguish several periods: The period before the years 1860 is accepted as a date of the beginning of industrialization of the countries in the Western Europe, including Poland. The annals of the chroniclers from the years 1692-1693 give hints about brown coal in Żytawa Trough (the environs of present time Bogatynia -fire in the outcrop of coal), and from the years 1740-1780 about the exploitation of this mineral product in the vicinity of Zatoń near Turoszw and Krzelkw near Ząbkowice Sląskie in Lower Silesia. Some indications are existing, according to which brown coal was known in central Poland already in the XII-th century. The period of the years 1861-1918 when brown coal,being considered the significant natural resource, became the important mineral product, mainly in the western area. Several important mining districts fanned there, as for instance: the district of the area near Lubusz, Żary - Zielona Gra district, Zgorzelec district and in the lesser degree Opole district and in single cases in the vicinity of Orłowo in Olsztyn district, Sierakw in the district Poznań, Mogilno in the district Bydgoszcz, and others. It is estimated, that in Poland existed about 130 small, shallow, underground mines of brown coal. Their existence was preceded by the intensive geological surveying, what is shown by the scientific papers, published at that time. In the parts of Poland which Russia and Prussia took during the dismembering of that country, the development of the mining of brown coal was decidedly smaller because of more difficult conditions of the occurrence and discovery of deposits. The geological surveys were made in the regions of Zawiercie, Gry Świętokrzyskie Mts and in the south-eastern region. The period 1919-1939. The surveying and investigations of brown coal were beeing made in Poland and in the areas belonging then to the German III-rd Reich. The development of brown coal mining was different. In the western areas of Poland under the Prussian (Hitlerian) occupation the mining reached the value of 4-5 million tons in 1937; in Poland it was diminishing systematically from the initial value of 270 thousand tons to 10 thousand tons in the end of the period between wars. The cheap and far better black coal from Upper Silesia and Dąbrowa Basin was the strong competition for brown coal. The period 1940-1944 was relatively good for the development of the mining of brown coal in the terrains of Poland. In the western area the production of brown coal was at the former level. One great opencut mine in Turw and about 15 underground mines were active. In Poland Germans, adapting the results of the investigations of A. Sarjusz-Makowski, from the years between the wars, began the intensive surveying and geological examinations in the area of Konin, Uniejw, Tuchola and Wronki, where the opencut mine in Morzysław and the briquetting plant in Marantw were built. The project of the power plant near Konin (present-time power plant in Gosławice) was prepared, and further geological prospecting and surveying works were beeing made very intensively in the area of Niesłusz, Gosławice and, further to the north, near Pątnw, Jźwin and Kazimierz. The period after 1945. The quick revival of the mining of brown coal, together with the unusual increase of its productions, is actual till the present day. Over 30% of Polish electric energy is produced using the brown coal. After the World War II the industry of brown coal, devastated in the great degree, was taken over by the Polish government. The mobilisation of the mines took part in the years 1945-1950. The mine in Turw was taken over in 1947 ready for the exploitation. The beginning of the development of Konin Basin took part in the years 1953-1971; Turek Basin was built in the years 1964-1977. The exploitation of Bełchatw mine has begun in 1982. In the year 1960, the output of brown coal in Poland amounted to 9.3 million tons, while in 1965 -22.6 million tons, in 1980-36.8 million tons, and in 1990 -75.4 million tons. And the same time, the surveying and examination of brown coal deposits was developed on the scale not known before, mainly by State Geological Institute and some other institutions. Very many research works concerning the geology of brown coal and the geology of Tertiary on the Polish Lowland, and thousands of scientific papers, were elaborated and published. While formerly the capacity for the resources of brown coal has been estimated at 2-3 thousand million tons, present documented reserves are evaluated at about 36 thousand million tons, with the summary geological resources of about 230 thousand million tons. These resources exists in over 160 proved deposits and coal fields. They situate brown coal in the national balance of solid raw materials for the production of energy at the position of the very important, if not fully appreciated primary energy carrier. This unusual development of the geology and mining of brown coal in Poland after the World War II ensued as the result of the initiative of State Geological Institute together with the institution connected with coal industry.

Задача. Институциональные изменения действующего законодательства в сфере публичного права в современной государственно-правовой действительности наметили устойчивую тенденцию формирования организационных основ контрольной государственной власти. Финансовый контроль, являясь одной из ее организационно-правовых форм, требует дополнительного теоретического и практического изучения, в силу особой значимости фискальной функции для государства на любом историческом этапе его развития. Методология. Помимо общенаучных методов исследования в статье использованы и частноправовые методы. Например, формально-юридический метод применялся при анализе действующих нормативно-правовых актов. Метод толкования права способствовал выявлению пробелов и упущений в законодательстве о финансовом контроле, формированию предложений по его совершенствованию. Рассмотрение в статье статусов Счетной палаты РФ и Центрального банка имеют важное конституционно-правовое значение. Выводы. Финансовый контроль в современной России является важнейшей организационно-правовой формой государственной контрольной деятельности наряду с президентским контролем, парламентским контролем, административным надзором и др. Обособленность этой формы государственного контроля обусловлена спецификой системы ее субъектов и методов. Финансовый контроль носит специализированный внешний характер и представляет собой деятельность Счетной Палаты РФ, Центрального Банка РФ, с его территориальными подразделениями, а также специальных контрольно-счетных органов субъектов РФ по проверке соблюдения законности и целесообразности действий в области образования, распределения и использования государственных денежных фондов (финансовых ресурсов) в целях эффективного социально-экономического развития страны в целом и ее регионов. Возможность последующего использования результатов научной работы. Выводы автора статьи применимы в различных областях юридических знаний. Достигнутые результаты поспособствуют дальнейшему теоретическому обоснованию самостоятельности контрольной власти в Российской Федерации. Практическое значение. Ряд предложений, изложенных в статье, носят практический характер по внесению изменений в действующее законодательство федерального и регионального уровней. Предложены меры по оптимизации субъектов финансового контроля путем создания территориальных органов Счетной палаты РФ. Внесены предложения о необходимости законодательного закрепления статуса как субъекта финансового контроля за представительным органом субъекта РФ на примере Нижегородской области в Законе Нижегородской области от 09.03.2010 № 36-З «О государственном финансовом контроле в Нижегородской области». Оригинальность. Научная новизна представленной статьи заключается в том, что автор впервые в публичных отраслях юридической науки вводит понятие организационно-правовых форм государственного контроля. Специфика организационно-правовых форм государственного контроля обусловлена взаимосвязью двух критериев: специальных субъектов и специальных методов. В связи с этим финансовый контроль в статье рассматривается как одна из таких организационно-правовых форм. Предложена оригинальная теоретическая дефиниция финансового контроля. Проанализированы тенденции изменения финансовой контрольной деятельности государственных органов. Это может быть использовано другими исследователями на смежную тематику, а также может быть применимо законодателем в правотворческой деятельности. ; Task. Institutional changes of the current legislation in the sphere of public law in modern state and legal activity outlined a stable tendency of the formation of organizational foundations of control state power. Financial control as one of its organizational and legal forms requires additional theoretical and practical study because of particular significance of fiscal function for the state at any historical stage of its development. Methodology. Apart from general and scientific methods of research, private and legal methods are also used in the article. Formal and legal method was used while analyzing the existing normative acts. The method of the interpretation of law helped to identify the gaps and omissions in the legislation of financial control, the formation of the proposals for its improvement. The consideration of the statuses of the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation and the Central Bank in the article has important constitutional and legal significance. Summary. Financial control in modern Russia is the most important organizational and legal form of the state control activity along with the presidential control, parliamentary control, administrative supervision, etc. The isolation of this form of the state control is due to specificity of its subjects and methods. Financial control has specialized external nature and is the activity of the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Central Bank of the Russian Federation with its territorial subdivisions and also special control and accounting bodies of the Russian Federation subjects to control observance of legality and advisability of actions in the sphere of education, allocation and use of public funds for effective social and economic development of the country in general and its regions. Possibility of subsequent use of the scientific work findings. The author's findings are applicable in various areas of legal knowledge. The obtained results will promote further theoretical justification of control power independence in the Russian Federation. Practical significance. A number of proposals set out in the article are practical for amending the current legislation of the Federal and regional levels. The measures to optimize financial control subjects by creating territorial bodies of the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation have been submitted. The author has put forward the proposal for the necessity of legislative assignment of status as a financial control subject to a representative body of the Russian Federation subject on the example of Nizhny Novgorod region, in the law of Nizhny Novgorod region, 09.03.2010, № 36-L "About State Financial Control in Nizhny Novgorod Region." Originality. Scientific novelty of the article consists in the fact that for the first time the author introduces the concept of organizational and legal forms of the state control into public branches of legal science. Specificity of organizational and legal forms of state control depends on the relationship of two criteria: special subjects and special methods. In this connection, financial control is considered as one of such organizational and legal forms. Original theoretical definition of financial control has been proposed in the article. The tendencies of change in financial control activity of the state bodies have been analyzed. This can be used by other researchers of the related topics and by lawmakers in lawmaking activity

С принятием и вступлением в силу части 2 ГК РФ выяснилось, что глава 54 ГК РФ оставляет открытыми ряд вопросов, из которых одним из наиболее важных представляется вопрос о соотношении договора коммерческой концессии (франчайзинга) с близкими по юридической природе лицензионным договором, договором простого товарищества, договором комиссии и агентским договором, дистрибьютерским договором, инвестиционным договором. На страницах научных изданий продолжается активная полемика, которая касается также определения понятия, правовой природы и особенностей договора коммерческой концессии как института гражданского права. Отсутствие четкости в указанных критериях приводит к значительным сложностям в практическом применении действующего законодательства, что, в свою очередь, требует его совершенствования путем внесения изменений и дополнений. В представленной статье усматривается выбор автора в качестве конечной цели решения вопроса о соответствии существующего в настоящее время законодательного понятия коммерческой концессии действующей бизнес-модели договора франчайзинга. Для решения указанной цели автором используются методы статистического анализа, абстрагирования и сравнительного правоведения. В статье в результате исследования существующих теоретических подходов путём применения упомянутых методов анализа гражданско-правовых норм, регулирующих отношения сторон по договору коммерческой концессии и смежных с ним договоров, определены правовая природа и особенности договора коммерческой концессии как института гражданского права. Исследованы проблемы практики правоприменения. Как вывод, автором высказано мнение о том, что наличие признаков, свидетельствующих о самостоятельности договора коммерческой концессии, еще не доказывает того, что его необходимо рассматривать в качестве самостоятельного вида договора, выдвинут тезис об актуализации решения вопросов адекватного договорного оформления исключительных прав на результаты интеллектуальной деятельности и перехода к инновационному этапу развития экономики. Как результат, определены основные требования к совершенствованию правового регулирования отношений возникающих из договора коммерческой концессии. Новизна исследований автора, представленных в данной статье, видится в выдвижении оригинального конкретного предложения о принятии во внимание ряда принципов при формировании нового законодательства о франчайзинге, в виде специального закона, а именно: учета неразрывности условий договора коммерческой концессии, которым предусмотрено использование комплекса исключительных прав и организационных условий (продуктовые и организационные ноу-хау); достижения баланса частных и публичных интересов (интересов бизнеса, общества и государства); учета «лучших практик» регулирования франчайзинга за рубежом, как в развитых, так и развивающихся странах, для целей адаптации данного опыта в российской практике. Среди возможных социальных результатов учета законодателем при разработке и принятии нормативных правовых актов предложений, представленных автором настоящей статьи, видится значительное развитие отношений, оформляемым договором франчайзинга, распространение которых в РФ весьма востребовано, однако в настоящее время происходит слишком медленно. Сам анализ, полученные автором выводы и предложенные им подходы могут послужить почвой для дальнейшей научной дискуссии, а также стать частью российской правовой доктрины. ; With the adoption and entry into force of the Civil Code 2 revealed that Chapter 54 of Civil Code leaves open a number of issues, of which one of the most important is the question of the relationship of a commercial concession (franchise) with close to the legal nature of the license agreement, partnership agreement, contract and commission agency agreement, Distribution agreement, investment contract. On the pages of scientific publications continues active controversy, which also concerns the definition, the legal nature and characteristics of the commercial concession agreement as an institution of civil law. Lack of clarity in these criteria leads to considerable difficulties in the practical application of the current legislation, which, in turn, requires its improvement through changes and additions. In the article the author's choice is seen as the ultimate goal to address the issue of compliance with the existing legislation currently existing concept of franchise business model franchise agreement. To achieve the goal of the author used methods of statistical analysis, abstraction and Comparative Law. The article from the study of existing theoretical approaches by applying these methods of analysis of civil law governing the relationship of the parties under the contract of commercial concession and allied contracts, defined the legal nature and characteristics of the commercial concession agreement as an institution of civil law. The problems of enforcement practices. As a conclusion, the author suggested that there is an indication of the independence of the commercial concession agreement does not prove that it should be considered as a separate type of contract, have argued that an update addressing adequate contractual design exclusive rights to results of intellectual activity and transition to the innovative stage of economic development. As a result, the basic requirements for the improvement of the legal regulation of relations arising from the contract of commercial concession. The novelty of the author's research, presented in this article, is seen in the extension of the original concrete proposal for taking into account a number of principles in the formation of the new legislation on franchising, in the form of a special law, namely excluding the continuity conditions of the contract of commercial concession, which provides for the use of the system of exclusive rights and organizational conditions (food and organizational know-how) to achieve a balance private and public interests (interests of business, society and the state); accounting "best practices" regulation of franchising abroad, in both developed and developing countries for adaptation of this experiment Russian practice. Among the possible social impact accounting legislator in the development and adoption of normative legal acts of the proposals submitted by the author, seen significant development of relations to be signed by the franchise contract, the distribution of which is highly in demand in Russia, but now is too slow. Analysis itself, obtained by the author and the conclusions he proposed approaches can serve as a basis for further scientific discussion, and become part of the Russian legal doctrine.

Kritični materijali predstavljaju uglavnom metale koji imaju veliki značaj za budućnost privrede evropskih zemalja. Ove metale teško je zameniti nekim drugima. Zbog izuzetne primene raste potražnja za njima, a proizvodnja ne može da prati uvećanu potrošnju. Elementi "retke zemlje" pripadaju kritičnim metalima. Oni sadrže 17 hemijskih elemenata, koji su usled njihove mineraloške strukture slični u pogledu njihovih hemijskih i fizičkih karakteristika (najpoznatiji od njih su lantan i torijum, koji je radioaktivan). Metali retkih zemalja podeljeni su u grupe elemenata sa nižom atomskom masom i one elemente sa višom atomskom masom. "Teži" elementi pokazuju manje prisustvo u gornjim delovima Zemljine kore. U 2010. udeo proizvodnje u globalnoj svetskoj proizvodnji u Kini iznosio je 97%, što predstavlja jednu vrstu monopola. U različitim studijama mešaju se termini strategijski i kritični materijali. Strategijski materijali su bitni za vojnu industriju jedne zemlje (nikal), a kritični materijali za privredu zemalja u Evropi (platinski metali, retke zemlje, kobalt). Evropska komisija pripremila je strategiju razvoja u pogledu na kritične materijale za sledećih dvadeset godina.* ; Critical materials represent mostly metals having a big importance for the future of the economy in the European countries. It is very difficult to replace these critical metals by other metals. Because of their wide application, the demand for these metals is increased, but the production cannot follow their growing consumption. Rare earth elements (REE) belong to critical materials. They include 17 elements, very similar in terms of their chemical and physical properties due to their mineralogical structure (the best-known are lanthanum and thorium, which is radioactive). REE are divided into elements with a lower atomic mass and elements with a higher atomic mass. Heavier metals show a significantly lower presence in the upper earth crust. In 2010, the share of the REE production in China in the global production amounted to 97%, constituting a near-monopoly in the world market. In different studies, the term "Strategic" is often used instead "of "critical" materials. The materials for military application are called "Strategic" (nickel). In comparison to strategic metals, critical materials have a big importance for the national economies of European countries (platinum group of metals, rare earth elements, cobalt). The European Commission prepared a strategic development plan for critical materials in the next twenty years. The rare earth elements The rare earth elements include 15 elements (Z=57 through 71) and Yttrium (Z=39) and scandium. Because of their reactivity and similarity, the REEs were found to be difficult to obtain. Lanthanide elements with a low atomic number are generally more abundant in the earth crust than those with high atomic numbers. World demand for rare earth elements is estimated by Humphries (CRS Report for Congress) at 134.000 tons per year, with the global production of around 114.000 tons annually. Humphries has reported in 2010 that there is no rare earth mine production in the United States. The major uses for rare earth elements include applications in auto catalysts, petroleum refining, metal alloys, cell phones, portable DVDs, etc. Permanent magnets containing neodymium, gadolinium and dysprosium are used in numerous electrical components and generators for wind turbines. The primary defense application (underwater mine detection, satellite power and communication systems, radar systems, etc.) use new materials: Neodymium Iron Boron, Samarium Cobalt. REEs extraction from monazite is performed by dissolution in a hot concentrated base or acid solutions. After cooling, the hydroxides of REEs and thorium are recovered by filtration, and thorium is separated by dissolution and selective precipitation. Metallurgy of indium Indium belongs to the group of rare earth elements with a low melting point. Some addition of indium increases the strength, hardness and corrosion resistance of alloys. The most known producers are situated in Belgium, Canada, Russia, France and Japan. Indium is used as coating on metals applied in difficult operation conditions, and in semiconductor techniques for the production of diodes. It is formed as a semi-product after pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical treatment of sulphidic raw materials. Indium can be used with other valuable metals such as vanadium, thallium, gallium, germanium, and cadmium. The coating process based on Indium is performed by an electrolytic treatment on the surface. Metallurgy of yttrium Yttrium compounds found interesting application in many fields. In particular, yttrium is used in the manufacture of superconductors, in super alloys of nickel and cobalt, and solid oxide fuel cells. Yttrium oxide has a high melting point and is used in ceramics. The compounds of yttrium are also used as catalysts. The growing industrial application of the rare earth elements led to a growing interest in finding new technologies for their recoveries. The selective dissolution of yttrium from lanthanum is performed by ammonium carbonate leaching. Conclusion The EU Raw materials Initiative was decided to identify a list of critical raw materials at the EU level. The EU-report describes a selection of 41 minerals and metals. Then, 14 elements were chosen as critical materials fort the economy of the European countries in the next twenty years. The future use of REEs is expected to be increased in the European countries. About 90% of metal alloys are produced in China. The price of rare earth elements is reduced for the consumers in China in comparison to some companies in the USA and Europe. Therefore, the European countries and the USA have protested against this situation. The selective winning of rare earth elements is the most important aim in the processing of raw materials. The combination of pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical methods might be a new way of solving this problem in the European countries.

Udział polskich uczonych w międzynarodowych kongresach geologicznych datuje się od pierwszych sesji. Do 1913 r. polscy geologowie z 3 zaborw najliczniej uczestniczyli w VII Sesji w Petersburgu w 1897 r. (20 osb) oraz w IX Sesji w Wiedniu w 1903 r. (19 osb). Na przedkongresowej wycieczce w Pieniny i Tatry w dyskusji między V. Uhligiem a J. Lugeonem zdecydowanie utrwaliła się teoria o płaszczowinowej budowie systemu alpejsko-karpackiego.W okresie międzywojennym geologowie polscy brali udział we wszystkich sesjach. W XIV Sesji w Madrycie w 1926 r. naukę polską reprezentowało 19 osb, a jej przedstawiciel J. Morozewicz został wybrany członkiem rady kongresu.Po drugiej wojnie światowej od 1948 r. sesje odbywały się co 4 lata przy stałym udziale Polakw.Okazją przedstawienia 25-1etniego dorobku geologii polskiej była XXIII Sesja w Pradze (1968 r.).Geologowie polscy zgłosili 40 referatw, z tam przygotowali przewodniki dla wycieczek kongresowych po południowych regionach naszego kraju.W 100-letniej działalności międzynarodowych kongresw geologicznych w jego pracach uczestniczyło 236 polskich uczonych.PARTICIPATION OF POLISH RESEARCHERS IN THE INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CONGRESSESParticipation of Polish geologists in the International Geological Congress (IGC) sessions is discussed. Three major periods are differentiated. First of them (18781913) comprises sessions which have taken place in time when our researchers participated in these events as members of delegations of countries occupying Poland (Austro-Hungary, Germany and Russia), the second (19221938) the sessions from the period between the world Wars I and II, and the third the sessions since 1948 till the present.Participation of' Polish geologists in the sessions may be traced back almost to the beginning of history of the International Geological Congresses and it was initially proportional to the existing possibilities in country under occupation. Two sessions appeared most important for the development of international contacts of Polish geologists. One of these was the VIIth IGC Session in Petersburg in 1897, at which 20 out of 944 participants were Polish and A: Michalski acted as the Treasurer of the Organizing Committee. The other was the IXth Session in Wien in 1903. Its programme involved two pre-congress excursions in the part of Poland called at that time as Galicia: one, in the Tatra Mts and Pieniny Klippen Belt, has been conducted by V. Uhlig, Wien geologist and the author of classic, monograph on geological structure of these regions, and the other one, in the Podolia and Prut River valley by W. Szajnocha, the professor of the Jagiellonian University, Cracow. The discussion on the role of nappes in origin of the Tatra Mts, initiated by V. Uhlig, J. Lugeon and several other geologists including Polish ones, in the course of the former excursion, has continued at the sessions of the Congress to become significant event and gather remarkable impact on international geological circles. At the same time that excursion created an unique opportunity for large group of participants from several countries to meet the highest authorities of the Polska Akademia Umiejętności (Polish Academy of Knowledge), a body representing Polish scientific centers in Galicia and other occupied areas.The revival of the Polish state after the w.w. I made possible an organized and official participation of Polish delegations in the IGC sessions. J. Morozewicz, the director of the State Geological Institute, has been the first representative of the Polish government to take part along with a group of Polish geologists in the IGC session (XIIIth IGC Session, Brussels, 1922). Although scientific significance of the IGC sessions was well appreciated in the country, participation of our representatives in these events used to be rather small. The exceptions include the above mentioned Brussels session and the next one, XIVth IGC Session in Madrid (1926). In the latter, 19 Polish geologists have taken part and the Convenor of the Polish delegation, J. Morozewicz, has been appointed to the Council of the Congress. In the third stage (i.e. after the w.w. II), participation of Polish geologists in the sessions markedly increased. This was especially the case of the XXIIIrd IGC Session in Praha (1968), in which for the first time in history of the congresses the number of participants from our country was close to a hundred (93, i.e. 4.3% of all the participants). Polish geologists submitted 40 papers to almost all the sections and symposia and, together with the Czechoslovakian, were conducting several excursions in areas of the two countries. The session in Praha gave an opportunity to present achievements of Polish research centers, especially the Geological Institute, from the last 25 years.The achievements in international cooperation are fairly large. Nevertheless, it should be noted that Polish geologists appear less active than those from neighbouring countries as far as chairmanship of IGC sections and symposia is concerned. From more positive facts it is worth to mention organization of the VIIth Meeting of the Carpatho-Balcan Association, an IGC affiliate, in our country.About 270 geologists participated in that meeting and 260 papers were presented. Moreover, the Xth European Micropaleontological Colloquum has been organized in our country in 1969, within the frame of celebrating centenary of birth of J. Grzybowski, precursor of this method of studies. In that event there took part some dozens specialists from several European countries. Another important event was the colloquum on hydrochemistry of mineral waters, organized in 1979 by the National Committee of the International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH), in which took part 92 specialists from 12 countries and 45 papers were delivered.The contribution of Polish geologists is especially high in the Commission of the International Geological Map and in activities of its various subcommissions and working groups. In the last years, the intensification of activities of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) was accompanied by growing activity of Polish geologists in the Union, and we have two representatives in its chairmanship.

Po zakończeniu zimnej wojny wydawało się, że świat na trwałe wchodzi w okres stabilizacji, pokoju i współpracy. Szybko jednak okazało się, że świat narastającej globalizacji ma różne oblicza, także negatywne, co rzutuje na każdą sferę życia, także na bezpieczeństwo. Spadło co prawda zagrożenie wojną nuklearną, ale pojawiły się nowe zagrożenia oraz nasiliły te, które przedtem były przesłonięte rywalizacją Wschód - Zachód. Chodzi głównie o konflikty etniczno-religijne, kulturowe i cywilizacyjne, w tym rozlewające się konflikty wewnętrzne w państwach słabych i upadłych, proliferacja broni masowego rażenia, niebezpieczne ambicje państw dyktatorskich i autorytarnych. Ogromny wpływ na bezpieczeństwo międzynarodowe miały zamachy 11 września 2001. Zmieniły one percepcję zagrożeń dla bezpieczeństwa, a ogłoszona przez prezydenta Busha wojna z terroryzmem doprowadziła USA i prawie cały Zachód do zaangażowania w dwie wojny: w Iraku i Afganistanie. Sytuacja w Afganistanie i odpowiedzialność NATO za bezpieczeństwo tego kraju nadal budzi ogromne zaniepokojenie przywódców państw zachodnich, rzutuje na stan bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego. Dotyczy to szczególnie regionu Bliskiego i Środkowego Wschodu, gdzie coraz większą rolę odgrywa rywalizacja między Indiami, Pakistanem i Iranem. Rosnący niepokój budzą ambicje nuklearne Iranu, a także otwarte wyzwania, jakie kraj ten rzuca społeczności międzynarodowej, podobnie jak w innej części świata polityka Korei Północnej. Coraz większe ambicje w polityce międzynarodowej mają Chiny i dążąca do odzyskania mocarstwowej pozycji Rosja. Jednocześnie wbrew programom i zapowiedziom proces osiągania przez Unię Europejską pozycji gracza globalnego nie materializuje się. Postępuje proces odwrotny: komplikuje się sytuacja finansowa w strefie euro, a kryzys ten oddziałuje na całą Unię. Postrzegana jako oaza gospodarczej stabilizacji UE stała się w ostatnich latach źródłem dodatkowych perturbacji w gospodarce światowej. Zachodzące w niej procesy, takie jak gwałtowne wzrosty cen surowców, rozchwianie rynków finansowych, pogłębiające się dysproporcje między bogatymi i biednymi, rosnące obszary głodu, daleko idąca deregulacja i kryzysogenne praktyki inżynierii finansowej, problem światowego zadłużenia, stają się czynnikiem globalnej destabilizacji i zagrożeń także dla bezpieczeństwa. ; Twenty years after the end of the Cold War the world still undergoes the process of deep changes. The collapse of communism and disintegration of the Soviet Union put an end to a bipolar system and the new era begun in international politics. Many state controlled economies, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, became democratic and market oriented countries. Through over one decade the United States was recognized as a unique superpower. Rapidly spreading globalization has made countries strictly interdependent, especially in economy, but also mutual dependence in the field of security has substantially increased. It happened so because of new threats for security, like international terrorism, WMD proliferation, growing number of ethnic-cultural conflicts. There is no threat in the world of global nuclear war or big state to state aggression on a large scale, but new threats, especially terrorism and cyber-attacks , are becoming very probable. In the contemporary world, with all economic freedom, especially international production factors movement, there are good as well as weak points which make international economy and the economy of different countries very vulnerable to crises, as we could see in 2008-2009 period. It is so because of uncontrolled activity of so called non-state actors, as for instance international financial corporations. Also European integration, especially in the Euro-zone, because of the world financial crisis impact, rising public debt and imperfect euro-mechanisms, is in trouble. Under such conditions, economic security is becoming so crucial that together with many other aspects of security [terrorism, cyber-attacks, impact of climate changes] it forms a new picture of the world security - a new paradigm. The article addresses the major international and regional security problems, the position of the USA in more and more multi-polar system, rising ambitions and roles of China and Russia. The approach of the author to the presented problems is interdisciplinary. ; После окончания холодной войны казалось, что мир на долго входит в период стабилизации и сотрудничества. Однако вскоре оказалось, что мир растущей глобализации имеет разные стороны, в том числе также отрицательные, что отражается в каждой сфере жизни, в том числе и на безопасности. Хотя и уменьшилась угроза ядерной войны, однако появились новые угрозы и усилились те, которые раньше, в связи с противостоянием Восток - Запад, находились на втором плане. Прежде всего здесь идёт речь о этническо-религиозных, культурных и цивилизационных конфликтах, в том числе и разрастающихся внутренних конфликтах в слаборазвитых государствах, распространении оружия массового уничтожения, опасных амбициях диктаторских и авторитарных государств. Огромное влияние на международную безопасность оказали события 11 сентября 2001 г. Эти террористические акты изменили восприятие угроз безопасности, а провозглашенная президентом Бушем война с терроризмом вынудила США и почти весь Запад к ведению двух войн: в Ираке и Афганистане. Ситуация в Афганистане и ответственность НАТО за безопасность этой страны, по-прежнему вызывает огромное беспокойство лидеров западных государств, отражается на состоянии международной безопасности. Прежде всего это касается района Ближнего и Среднего Востока, в котором большую роль играет также соперничество между Индией, Пакистаном и Ираном. Растущее беспокойство вызывают ядерные планы Ирана, а также открытый вызов, который эта страна бросает международному сообществу. Такую же политику в другой части света проводит Северная Корея. Большие амбиции в международной политике имеет также Китай и стремящаяся восстановить позиции сверхдержавы Россия. На ряду с этим, вопреки принятым программам и заявлениям политиков, процесс становления Европейского Союза в роли мирового игрока остается только проектом. Более того, в связи с усложняющейся экономической ситуацией в еврозоне, в Евросоюзе сегодня имеют место противоположные процессы. ЕС, который рассматривался как экономической оазис хозяйственной стабилизации, в последние годы стал источником дополнительных проблем в мировой экономике. Происходящие в мировой экономике процессы, напр. быстрый рост цен на сырье, нестабильность финансовых рынков, углубляющиеся диспропорции между богатыми и бедными, проблемы голода, далеко идущая дерегуляция и кризисные практики финансовой инженерии, проблема мировой задолженности, становятся фактором мировой дестабилизации и несут угрозы безопасности.

Анисимов Е. В. отмечает высокий уровень книги Татьяны Таировой-Яковлевой (особенно разделов по истории собственно Украины). При этом он отметил, что проблема измены И. Мазепы может иметь более широкую трактовку, и с моральной точки зрения факт измены несомненен. Бесов А. Г. считает главной особенностью книги Татьяны Таировой-Яковлевой о гетмане Мазепе преобладание телеологии над историей. Постановка вопроса о «российско-украинских отношениях» в конце XVII начале XVIII в. как отношениях двух государств ему представляется ошибочной. Каменский А. Б. полагает, что это исследование является серьезной попыткой создания научной биографии И. Мазепы. В ряде случаев автору удалось убедительно опровергнуть некоторые из закрепившихся в историографии мифов. Появление книги, как можно надеяться, послужит стимулом для других исследователей, которым придется считаться с предложенной концепцией. Каревин А. С.: книга Т. Г. Таировой-Яковлевой содержит значительное количество ошибок, противоречий, необоснованных выводов. Эти недостатки не позволяют считать рассматриваемую книгу состоявшимся научным исследованием. Кочегаров К. А.: новое издание о Мазепе наряду с отдельными ценными наблюдениями и выводами содержит положения, с которыми нельзя согласиться. Говоря о книге в целом, стоит отметить, что общая концепция исследования грешит заметной идеализацией образа Мазепы и его политики. Кроме того, автор чрезмерно переоценивает значение Московских статей и роль гетмана в перевороте 1689 г., в значительной степени преувеличивает участие Мазепы в русской внешней политике, ошибочно принимает отдельные меры русского правительства по централизации военного управления за «административную реформу Гетманщины». Не доказанной представляется также заявленная активная роль гетмана в церковных преобразованиях Петра. Курукин И. В.: несмотря на приведенные автором данные об административной реформе 1707 г., остается непонятным, была ли реально ликвидирована украинская автономия. Остается спорным вопрос о степени поддержки Мазепы населением Украины и казацкой старшиной. Присоединенные к России силой прибалтийские провинции сумели сохранить на полтора столетия свою автономию но при этом немецкие дворяне верно той же империи служили. Разнородная же по происхождению украинская старшина, как будто, не смогла выработать «правил» корпоративного поведения и сословной солидарности. Плохий С. Миф Мазепы-предателя подвергся серьезному испытанию в горниле научной и творческой лаборатории Т. Г. Таировой-Яковлевой. Автор обсуждаемой здесь книги смогла показать более полно, чем кто-либо из ее предшественников, сложность личного, общественного и геополитического выбора, который пришлось делать Ивану Мазепе. Это, если можно так выразиться, наиболее «сбалансированная» книга о гетмане, которую мне приходилось читать. Чухлиб Т. В. Нарушение присяги монарху российского государства украинским гетманом было истолковано Иваном Мазепой и его правительством как акция против тирании Петра I. Поэтому гетман имел право отказаться от высокого покрвительства царя и искать для себя, как вассала, другого сюзерена. Этот вывод T. H. Таировой-Яковлевой представляется адекватными и раскрывает логику действий украинского лидера. ; Eugenij Anisimov notes the high level of research made by Tatiana Tairova-Yakovleva, in particular considering the pieces about Ukrainian history. He notes that the problem of treason by I. Mazepa can be interpreted more generally and the fact of treason undoubtly took place. Alexander Besov believes that the book about Hetman Mazepa by Tatiana Tairova-Yakovleva focuses rather on teleology than history. However, he fi nds the way of the author's interpretation of the «RussiaUkraine relations» in late 17th early 18th centuries quite mistakable. Alexander Kamenskii thinks that Tatiana Tairova's book is a serious attempt of constructing a scholar biography of Ivan Mazepa. In several cases she has managed to refute some myths in historiography. One may hope that the book will stimulate other historians to conduct further research. However, they will not be able to ignore Tairova's conception. A. S. Karevin considers that Tairova-Yakovleva's book is full of numerous mistakes, contradictions and baseless conclusions. The drawbacks make us not to regard the book as established scientifi c study. Kirill Kochegarov fi nds that Mrs. Tairova-Yakovleva's book combine several interesting observations with unacceptable and controversial points. In generally the very idea of the study seems to idealize the Mazepa personality as well as his policy. The author also overestimates the importance of the so-called Moscow clauses, grossly exaggerates Mazepa's participation in the Russian foreign affairs, and erroneously regards centralizing military administration measures of Russian government as large-scale administrative reform in Ukraine. Moreover, active role in Church reform of Peter the Great declared by Mrs. Tairova-Yakovleva Mazepa's has not been proved. Igor Kurukin: Despite the information on administrative reform of 1707 (s.322-330) given by the author, it isn't clear, was the Ukrainian autonomy liquidated or not. There is a disputable question on what extend was Mazepa supported by the Ukraine people as well as cossack «starshina». Provinces being attached to Russia Baltic were able to remain independent for one and a half centuries. Being different by birth Ukrainian elite did't manage to develop rules of corporate behavior and solidarity. Plokhii Serhii: The myth of Mazepa as betrayer have been solidly examined in Mrs. Tairova-Yakovleva's scientifi c and creative lab. The author has succeed in showing and more carefully than her predecessor the diffi culty of both personal and public, geopolitics, choice which Mazepa had to make. The book is, if it is a proper name, the most balanced judgment of the hetman I have ever read. Chukhlib Taras. The violation of oath to the Russian monarch by Ukrainian Hetmanstate was interpreted by Ivan Mazepa and his government as tyrannical action of Peter the Great. Therefore, the hetman received the right to refuse from «the high hand» of tsar and look for another suzerain to maintain his vassal autonomy. T. H. Tairova-Yakovleva fi nds this decision quite adequate and revealing us the logic of actions of the Ukrainian leader.

2008/2009 ; L'energia permea l'universo. Non esiste processo fisico, chimico o biologico che non necessiti di energia; la materia stessa è energia in forma condensata. Il genere umano, nel corso della storia, ha sperimentato una miriade di sistemi per estrarre, dalle diverse fonti, energia utile alla sua evoluzione socio-economica. Il lavoro sviluppato ambisce a fare chiarezza sul tema dell'energia quale insostituibile "leva" dello sviluppo economico-sociale di un sistema territoriale, analizzato, nel mutevole contesto attuale, nei molteplici aspetti connessi alla ricerca di fonti energetiche alternative a quelle fossili, nella prospettiva di uno sviluppo che, al di là della mera crescita economica, fondi su espliciti requisiti di sostenibilità. È universalmente riconosciuto, ormai, che il modello attuale di sviluppo del sistema energetico globale, basato sulle fonti convenzionali di energia, non è più sostenibile. Le riserve di combustibili fossili sono destinate, in un futuro più o meno remoto, a giungere a esaurimento; inoltre, sono scientificamente provati gli effetti nefasti sull'ambiente determinati dalla combustione di carbone, petrolio e derivati. Non è pensabile, tuttavia, che gli abitanti del pianeta rinuncino ai numerosi vantaggi, in termini di benessere e di sviluppo economico sociale, che derivano dall'avere a disposizione quantità crescenti di energia. L'energia è una risorsa economica e strategica. La politica energetica, tanto nei paesi produttori quanto in quelli consumatori, segue interessi economici così come valutazioni strategiche. Lo scenario energetico si è rivelato uno degli indicatori più efficaci delle dinamiche geopolitiche globali e il fenomeno della globalizzazione, anziché cancellare l'importanza della geografia, ne ha rafforzato il ruolo. Le aree più "energivore" del pianeta, costituite da complessi di paesi designati comunemente con l'aggettivo "sviluppati", quali ad esempio, gli Stati Uniti, l'Unione Europea o il Giappone, ma anche da paesi il cui sviluppo economico è in fase emergente, quali Cina e India, sono lontani dall'essere autosufficienti per ciò che attiene all'approvvigionamento di energia e, conseguentemente, non sono in grado di sostenere autonomamente le proprie economie ed elevati livelli del tenore di vita dei loro abitanti. I giacimenti energetici convenzionali, specie quelli di petrolio e gas naturale, sono concentrati in aree geografiche politicamente instabili, principalmente nel Medio Oriente e, in misura minore, in altre regioni critiche dell'Africa, dell'America Latina, in Russia e nell'area caspica; ma la stabilità politica dei paesi detentori di fonti energetiche è fondamentale per la fluidità dei flussi energetici e qualsiasi instabilità nell'offerta di energia genera, inevitabilmente, tensioni sul piano economico e sociale. È stato dimostrato che, quanto più elevato è il reddito di un paese o di una regione, tanto più alto è il consumo di energia all'interno dell'entità territoriale di riferimento e viceversa. Non si può ignorare, tuttavia, che esiste una parte considerevole degli abitanti del pianeta il cui accesso all'energia è insufficiente o, addirittura inesistente, ciò non è accettabile sotto il profilo della sostenibilità sociale; la disponibilità di energia, specialmente di quella elettrica, è fondamentale per spezzare il ciclo della povertà e rafforzare lo sviluppo e il benessere delle popolazioni. Una soluzione indicata da molti è l'emancipazione dall'utilizzo del petrolio e dalle altre fonti energetiche fossili, investendo risorse sia materiali che immateriali nello sviluppo di fonti sostenibili di energia, che attualmente, tuttavia, ricoprono una percentuale ancora troppo esigua della produzione energetica mondiale. Le ottime performance fatte registrare nell'ultimo periodo dalle rinnovabili fanno ben sperare, tuttavia, è impensabile raggiungere la rivoluzione energetica auspicata in tempi rapidi. Nel bilancio energetico globale le diverse fonti hanno dimensioni e pesi differenti, il loro utilizzo presenta, per ciascuna di esse, problemi peculiari legati ai costi, alla sicurezza, alla disponibilità e allo sviluppo di tecnologie di conversione efficienti e, soprattutto, esistono ordini di grandezza che non possono essere ignorati nel momento in cui si pensa alla sostituzione di una fonte con un'altra. La strategia da adottare per risolvere il problema energetico deve essere lungimirante, puntare al capovolgimento completo dell'attuale sistema energetico nel lungo periodo, secondo una visione globale, ma al contempo non ignorare le urgenze del breve periodo (che possono trovare un'adeguata soluzione nell'incremento dell'efficienza negli usi finali dell'energia e in un buon mix energetico) e la mutevolezza dei contesti locali. Trattare il tema dell'energia senza perdere di vista il territorio è indispensabile per la realizzazione di un modello di sviluppo energetico che rispetti le peculiarità e le vocazioni delle diverse entità territoriali coinvolte. È necessario, cioè, che il territorio non sia concepito come una base inerte su cui installare centrali per la produzione di energia, secondo logiche incentrate sulle caratteristiche fisiche e tecniche degli impianti e delle reti distributive, ma che si pensi a esso come a un "valore" da rispettare ed, eventualmente, da potenziare, con il quale interagire e da cui partire per implementare pianificazioni energetiche incisive. Per garantire un adeguato sviluppo delle tecnologie in grado di utilizzare le fonti rinnovabili di energia al fine di ridurre il contributo antropico ai cambiamenti climatici e, al contempo, assicurare un approvvigionamento energetico sicuro ed efficace, capace di sostenere livelli di crescita economico-sociale in ascesa, le politiche energetiche e i meccanismi di incentivazione che da esse scaturiscono sono da ritenersi strumenti chiave indispensabili. Inoltre, al fine di vincere la sfida geo-energetica in atto, la transizione dall'attuale "insostenibile" sistema di produzione e utilizzo dell'energia verso un sistema energetico pienamente sostenibile, è indispensabile dare il giusto peso alla ricerca scientifica e tecnologica e potenziare gli investimenti in ricerca e sviluppo su tutta le filiera energetica: fonti primarie, conversione e usi finali dell'energia. ; XXII Ciclo

Инвестиционный активизм способен генерировать повышенную доходность за счет влияния на менеджмент с целью принятия решений, увеличивающих стоимость компании. При этом активисты не платят премию за контроль, как в случае с прямыми инвестициями. Основные стратегии активистов включают в себя изменение структуры капитала, рекапитализацию, изменение стратегии компании и ее продажу. Целью активистов обычно становятся стабильные компании, в отношении которых присутствует ряд стратегических альтернатив для увеличения их стоимости. Существует множество подходов к активизму, начиная от дружелюбного общения с менеджментом и заканчивая судебными разбирательствами. Бурное развитие активизма в последние годы связано с рядом принятых законов в США и других странах, а также с развитием хедж-фондов и большей активностью институциональных инвесторов. Оценка активизма на данный момент неоднозначна, существуют аргументы как о пользе, так и о вреде активизма для общества. В России активизм пока не получил такого же распространения, как на развитых рынках. Финансовый кризис вынудит менеджмент внимательнее рассматривать предложения от акционеров. В этой среде привлекательность инвестиционного активизма, как стратегии по увеличению отдачи на вложенный капитал, будет расти. ; During the last 5 years activism investing, a way to increase shareholder return through influencing management's decisions and a notion previously associated with corporate raiders, has been rapidly gaining popularity. Recent activism campaigns have includes such household names as Heinz, McDonald's, Motorola, Time Warner, General Motors and Yahoo. While theoretically the management of public companies strives to nothing else, than maximization of shareholder's value, in practice that is sometimes not the case. Due to various reasons managers fail to address the best interests of all shareholders. When those failings become significant enough that they materially impact the value of the firm an opportunity for activism arises. Most of the times activists pursue generic goals that are easily understood by the market. These goals usually include changes in capital structure (recapitalization, buy-backs), changes in strategy (operational changes, refocusing strategy, preventing the sale of the company, acquisition of other companies), sale of the company (sale of the whole company or its parts), and improvement of corporate governance (abolishing take-over defences, getting rid of the current management/board, achieving greater transparency). Of course an activist can pursue more than one goal at a time. Companies, targeted by activists, usually exhibit similar characteristics: stable cash flows, high cash reserves/low leverage, lagging capitalization, readily available strategic opportunities and the company is well known by the market. Several factors have contributed to the increasing presence of activism investing. Firstly, the rise of hedge funds, which are more active in their approach than mutual funds. Secondly, certain changes in legislation have forced asset managers to vote their shares. Thirdly, pension funds have started taking a more active approach to their holdings. In US, Europe and even Japan activists are rapidly increasing in numbers. In US the number of activist hedge funds has increased at 28% CAGR during the 2001 2007 period. There is an opinion that today's activists are just glorified US raiders of the 80's. And while indeed some of today's activists, like Carl Icahn and Nelson Peltz, were well known in the past for their raiding activities, today's activists are characterized by some important distinctions. Firstly, they do not seek to gain control of the company, usually acquiring a 5 -15% stake as opposed to a controlling stake. Secondly, the holding period of modern activists is longer, 2 to 3 years. Thirdly, activists strive to increase the value of the company as opposed to greenmailing and other dubiously lawful tactics of the raiders. There are different approaches that activists use to implement their agenda, ranging from a friendly private conversation with the management to outright disruption of the corporate strategy and court battles. There is an ongoing debate about the net benefit of activism to the society. The proponents of activism argue that: (i) shareholders are the ultimate owners of the company and have every right to defend and express their interests, (ii) activists play an important role in identifying ineffective companies, bad management and opaque corporate governance, (iii) activists-investors receive gain only when the value of the company increases, this benefiting all shareholders. The opponents believe that: (i) activism forces the board of directors to focus on satisfying near-sighted shareholders instead of looking after the long-term value of the company, (ii) activism creates conflicts in the board of directors, leading to an atmosphere of hostility and lack of trust in the board and the company, (iii) activism has led to a decrease of investments in R&D, which will later result in lower economic growth. During the last two years both the number of activism campaigns and their success have significantly increased. A number of recent legislative initiatives in US should be able to further promote shareholder activism by giving shareholders more rights and facilitating a more open dialogue between investors and the management of the company. In Russia shareholder activism is still in its fledgling state. There are several reasons for that: Weak defence of rights of minority shareholders Smaller proportion of public companies Short history of the Russian stock market Concentrated ownership High share of government ownership in public companies, with the government being traditionally hostile towards activism. However, the ongoing financial crisis might force rethinking of the current economic and political paradigm, leading to a friendlier environment for activists. In conclusion, shareholder activism is capable of generating higher returns. The recent rapid rise in shareholder activism seems to be caused by changes in US legislation, higher activity of institutional investors and the proliferation of hedge funds. The current financial crisis will force the management of public companies to pay more attention to proposals from shareholders, making activism as an investment strategy more attractive.

This paper reviews the policy debate on development issues and examines the economic prospects for developing countries at the beginning of the twenty-first century. It is specifically concerned with the question of whether developing countries will be able to meet the employment and poverty reduction goals set by the World Summit for Social Development, held in Copenhagen in 1995. What policies at the national and international level will be most helpful in this respect? The introductory part of the paper notes that the Social Summit coincided with one of the worst financial crises up to that time in developing economies-Mexico's 'Tequila Crisis' in 1994 and 1995. It is suggested that, notwithstanding that crisis, the immediate economic prospects for developing countries in 1995 appeared much brighter than they do today in the wake of recent economic and financial crises in Asia, Latin America and Russia. The paper notes that, in contrast to the uneven economic performance of the economies of developing countries in the period since the Social Summit, the policy debate has in many ways taken a definite step forward. The main part of the paper provides a systematic investigation of the factors that determine whether or not developing countries will be able to eradicate poverty and achieve full employment with rising productivity and real wages. The paper looks specifically at the following aspects. First, it considers the economic record of developing countries and policy issues raised by this analysis. Second, it examines the complex interrelationships between economic growth, unemployment, poverty reduction and income inequality, both conceptually and empirically. This analysis gives attention to the notion of full employment, the relationship between technical change and unemployment, the economic significance of the information and communications technology revolution, and labour market theories of unemployment and inflation. Third, the paper looks at the changed historical conjuncture for economic development and for the development policy debate. The following themes and related analytical and policy questions are emphasized: Liberalization and globalization-Contrary to theoretical expectations, why has the actual experience of many developing countries with liberalization and globalization been negative rather than positive, i.e. why has it often resulted in crises rather than faster growth? Also, are these failures simply a matter of incorrect policies, or are there more fundamental flaws from the perspective of developing countries, with respect to the institutional arrangements of the world economy under liberalization and globalization? Washington Consensus-Has the Washington Consensus failed? What lessons should be learned from the implementation of that policy programme? Asian financial and economic crisis-A very important and influential thesis concerning the Asian crisis suggests that the failure of Asian countries during 1997-1999 can be ascribed mainly to the dirigiste and corporatist model of capitalism that many of these countries were following. The paper examines this thesis critically. A central policy implication of these analyses is that developing countries need to attain a trend increase in their growth rates, possibly to their pre-1980 long-term rates of about 6 per cent per year. This would enable them to achieve and maintain meaningful 'full employment' in the spirit of the Social Summit, with rising real wages and increasing standards of living. Although faster growth will help to reduce poverty, the latter is affected by other important variables as well-notably inflation, inequality of income and asset distribution, instability of economic growth and government fiscal policies. Women, in particular, are adversely affected by macro-economic instability. In the absence of adequate social security systems, the burden of women's paid as well as unpaid work increases during economic downturns. What is required, therefore, to meet the employment and poverty reduction goals of the Social Summit is not only fast growth, but also better quality growth. The last part of the paper highlights the shortcomings of the present institutional arrangement of liberalization and globalization. It indicates why and how these arrangements make it difficult for developing countries to achieve high rates of economic growth. Indeed, it is suggested that this regime is sub-optimal for both developing and developed countries. It is argued that, today, the main constraints on faster long-term economic growth in both developing and developed countries do not lie on the supply side but on the demand side. In principle, the world has the technological and intellectual capacity, as well as the human and material resources, to achieve the fast growth required to fulfil the aims of the Social Summit. The paper suggests that such growth will, however, only be realized in practice if the alternative strategy outlined is adopted. This involves the pursuit of faster growth of real world demand through co-ordinated expansion by industrialized countries and the introduction of special and differential treatment for developing countries in a number of key spheres. In brief, an essential argument of this paper is that, instead of the present organization of the world economy, a global Keynesian regime of managed world trade and controlled global capital movements is more likely to benefit both developed and developing countries. Together with genuine international co-operation as well as more harmonious relations between employers, employees and governments nationally, this would deliver both fast growth and high quality growth. Such growth would help bring full employment and rising wages in both groups of countries. In analytical terms, the paper stresses the significance of co-ordination failures on the demand side as the main obstacles to economic progress, rather than supply-side deficiencies. In order for the rate of growth of real world demand to be compatible with production possibilities on the supply side, new institutions are required to resolve the co-ordination problems on a sustained, long-term basis.

Book reviewed in this article:CLASS AND POLITICS: New South Wales, Victoria and the Early Commonwealth, 1890–1910. By John KickardLABOR AND THE CONSTITUTION 1972–1975 Essays and Commentaries on the Constitutional Controversies of the Whitlam Years in Australian Government. Edited by Gareth Evans (Melbourne: Heinemann, 1977).DESIGN FOR DIVERSITY: Library Services for Higher Education and Research in Australia. Edited by Harrison Bryan and Gordon GreenwoodLEGISLATIVE, EXECUTIVE AND JUDICIAL POWERS IN AUSTRALIA. By W. Ansteq Wynes.SOCIAL POLICY IN AUSTRALIA: Some Perspectives 1901–1975. Edited by Jill Roe (Sydney: Casseil Australia, 1976).OPPORTUNITY AND ATTAINMENT IN AUSTRALIA. By Leonard Broom and F. Lancaster Jones (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1976).AUSTRALIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS 1966–1970. Edited by Gordon Greenwood and Norman Harper (Melbourne: Cheshire, for Australian Institute of International Affairs 1974).THE GOVERNMENT OF VICTORIA. By Jean HolmesTHE GOVERNMENT OF TASMANIA. By W.A. TownsleyTHE GOVERNMENT OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. By D.H. JaenschPOLICE IN AUSTRALIA: Development, Functions and Procedures. Written and edited by Kerry L. Mike, assisted by Thomas A. WeberTHE AUSTRALIAN PRICES JUSTIFICATION TRIBUNAL. By J.P. Nieuwenhuysen and A.E. DalyGANDHI AND CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE: The Mahatma in Indian Politics 1928–34. By Judith M. BrownPANCHAYATI RAJ AND EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION. By Iqbal Narain, K.C. Pande and Mohan Lal Sharma (Jaipur: Aalekh Publishers, 1976)CHINA: THE IMPACT OF REVOLUTION: A Survey of Twentieth Century China. Edited by Colin MackerrasINSIDE MAO TSE‐TUNC THOUGHT: An Analytical Blueprint of His Actions. By Yeh Ch'ing, translated and edited by Stephen Pan, T.H. Tsuan and R. MortensenSINO‐SOVIET DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS, 1917–1926. By Sow‐Theng LeongJAPANESE FOREIGN POLICY, 1869–3942 Kasumigaseki to Miyakezaka. By Ian NishORIGINS OF THE WAR IN THE EAST: Britain, China and Japan 1937–39. By Aron ShaiINDONESIA. Second edition. By J. D. LeggeTHE LESSONS OF VIETNAM. Edited by W. Scott Thompson and Donaldson D. Frizzell (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1977).THE MYTH OF THE LAZY NATIVE A Study of the Image of the Malays, Filipinos and Javanese from the 16th to the 20th Century and its Function in the Ideology of Colonial Capitalism. By Syed Hussein AlatasINTELLECTUALS IN DEVELOPING SOCIETIES. By S. H. AlatasOCEANIA AND BEYOND Essays on the Pacific Since 1945. Edited by Frank P. KingTHE POLITICS OF CHANGE IN A ZAMBIAN COMMUNITY. By George C. BondECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN AMERICA: Historical Background and Contemporary Problems. Second Edition. By Celso FurtadoTHE HISTORIAN AS DIPLOMAT Charles Kingsley Webster and the United Nations 1939–1946. By P.A. Reynolds and E.J. HughesYOUTH, EMPIRE AND SOCIETY: British Youth Movements 1883–1940. By John SpringhallSYSTEMS OF STATES. By Martin Wight. Edited by Hedley BullEYE‐DEEP IN HELL: The Western Front 1914–18. By John EllisLORDSHIP AND FEUDALISM IN THE MIDDLE AGES. By Guy FourquinPLANNING, POLITICS AND PUBLIC POLICY: The British, French and Italian Experience. Edited by Jack Hayward and Michael WatsonMODERN SOCIAL POLITICS IN BRITAIN AND SWEDEN: From Relief to Income Maintenance. By Hugh HecloINTERVENTION IN THE MIXED ECONOMY: The Evolution of British Industrial Policy 1964–72. By Stephen Young and A.V. LoweTHE YUGOSLAV EXPERIMENT, 1948–1974. By Dennison Rusinow (London: C. Hurst & Company, for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1977).THE DE LORENZO GAMBIT The Italian Coup Manque of 1964. By Richard CollinTHE EMERGENCE OF POLITICAL CATHOLICISM IN ITALY: Partito Popolare 1919–1926. By John N. MolonySOCIAL THOUGHT IN TSARIST RUSSIA: The Quest for a General Science of Society, 1861–1917. By Alexander VucinichIRON AND STEEL IN THE GERMAN INFLATION 1916–1923. By Gerald D. Feldman (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1977).THE SPANISH ARMY AND CATALONIA: The 'Cu‐Cut! Incident' and the Law of Jurisdictions, 1905–1906. By Joaquin Rornero‐MauraDIE ZElT DER WELTKRIEGE: Handbuch der Deutschen Geschichte, Band 4. By Karl Dietrich Erdmann (Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag, 1976).PARLIAMENT, POLICY AND POLITICS IN THE REIGN OF WIILIAM III. by Henry Horwitz (Manchester: Manchester University Press. 1977).CHARLES STEWART PARNELL The Man and His Family. By R. F. FosterKING LABOUR: The British Working Class 1850–1914. By David KynastonESSAYS IN LABOUR HISTORY 1918–1939. Volume 3. Edited by Asa Briggs and John Saville (London: Croom Helm, 1977).THE POST OFFICE ENGINEERING UNION: The History of the Post Office Engineers, 1870–1970. By Frank Bealey (London: Bachman and Turner, 1976).MACAULAY AND THE WHIG TRADITION. By Joseph HamburgerTHE HOLLAND HOUSE DIARIES 1831–1840: The Diary of Henry Richard Vassall Fox, Third Lord Holland, with Extracts from the Diary of Dr. John Allen.THE FRENCH REVOLUTION: Extracts from The Times 1789–1794. Introduced and edited by Neal AschersonTHE FRENCH POPULAR FRONT: A Legislative Analysis. By Paul WarwickFRANCE 1870–1914 Politics and Society. By R.D. AndersonSTUDIES ON THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Edited by Neville MeaneyFROM NATIONALISM TO INTERNATIONALISM: U.S. Foreign Policy to 1914. By Akira IriyeTHE IMPERIAL YEARS The United States Since 1939. By Alonzo L. HambyMASS SOCIETY AND POLITICAL CONFLICT Toward a Reconstruction of Theory. By Sandor HalebskyCRIME AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SOCIETY. By Howard ZehrOLD AGE IN EUROPEAN SOCIETY: The Case of France. By Peter N. StearnsPOWER AND CONTROL: Social Structures and Their Transformation. Edited by Tom R. Burns and Walter BuckleyRULING CLASS, RULING CULTURE Studies of Conflict, Power and Hegemony in Australian Life. By R.W. ConnellJOHN STUART MILL, By R.J. HallidayMEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS: A Science of Social Behavior. By Stephen ColemanLANGUAGE AND POLITICS. Edited by William M. O'Barr and Jean F. O'BarrTHE SOCIOLOGY OF POWER. By Roderick MartinORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRANKFURT SCHOOL A Marxist Perspective. By Phil SlaterHOBBES AND AMERICA: Exploring the Constitutional Foundations. By Frank M. Coleman